Frontiers in Social Movement Theory Edited by Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller YALE. UNIVERSITY PRESS New Han and Londons2_ Ma Manefeerte Ion Harney Cg, Sil Bhai oh Enctowment, Hl Enum 9013 ‘warzeel Donna 192. "Mobaeng Enotes: Oroning he Wome Penagen “ton Salt Reni 12 ce S437. wher, Nancy. ander Tyr 1980 "Sdal Movement Cure and dey “rn, Can a nein cont” Pet roel athe ering fhe Aer sodaon. ‘einer, Vara 188 "Bond he oes on ve Market Esabithing x The: ‘eucand Epil Apa Seen Form 8 4610-54 The Social Psychology of Collective Action William A Gamson Soca prychology bashing among dent of sca movements is over cd is day and with god reason. Movement partipane sav social pychology wed to isarage their motives and thir good sere. Isome hands it seemed naive and eduction, diverting atenton fom dering teuctrlconatons of confit and ppreion Many Amer? an soil seni, reacting especialy co that prt ofthe calctive be havior tradition flowing from Casave Le Bon and other ansidemvcratic ‘hear of the nineteenth and early tert centri, seemed tad 1p reject the ene socal prjehoogkal projet. One weit, for exams, ‘alle the collective behavior wasn "ullying” and a"arightacke™ forthe uy of social prose! Inthe United Stats the 1970s nete the decade of organizational theory and ultarian economic modes inthe ty of socal movement Prob Jems of ideology and the emergence of shared bel of injustice were item short shift “Ideas and bebe that have a revelations penal Se usually present an are aaiaefor oy poset lederstip Set ‘ments of opposition, f being wronged, are alo Frequent presets inthe lower orders and cas be eal Linked withthe more eabarate elogies and word siews," wrote Oberchal (1978, 185-34) Simanly, MeCarthy and Zald argued that «focus os dicate is misplced since thee “am inde Dai Crt, Jat Caan, Han Hero, Walia Hoe Be ‘nero Sharr kate Mere ay Magy Cae Ra Tel Senne Goedel eas ‘Sr atn (109,130), the i nf wih gpd 18witian A. Games acl Pachalagy of cvs tion always enough “eo supply the grat rots support for 8 movements” and revances and discontent may be dened, created, nd manipulted by ie entrepreneurs and organizations (197, 1215) But at scl movement theory continued to encounter the movements of te 1970s and 1080s, social paychology emerged agin with ch Wgor ‘hat ichas now become major ont By the mid 80, Klandermans| as asserting that “resource meblntion theory went to fat in nearly hardening the scl paycholoiea nai of oil movements” (1984, 385-80, and Cohen was asking "Hasn't the erisque of the collet Be havior wadion thrown out the by with the bahwatr by excluding ‘he analysis of values, norms, ievoge, projects, clue, and identi in ‘other than instrumental rs? (1985, 6). ‘This dss of social psychology waslarel ted othe emerging re sure mobilization approach nthe Usted Sates. New social movement {aeoriss in Europe had no need wo erie the long departed ghos of ‘Le Bon and his, Thee dale was ot wih eat socal payeholgs cal mane rocity and ole beaor theo bt with vero i of Marist theory eho soil psychology was pieiive and urdesloped [Nord heorisof thir world bration ovement need o eae roms any social ppeological rights “The resurgent soil psychology has jeisoned the old bagyage of ie ‘only and scl pathology. Even tbe American collective behavior ‘tation hat been cleaned of the we that oil oerent re the de scrucive outburst of “people ging erny together (Martin 1820). Inthe “emergent norm” approach of Turner and Kilian (1987), the proces by ich mobilization for collective eon acu becomes the ental prob lem: The authors repuie the Wen ha ouch acon or emotional or teratonal than insittonalize forms Emotion and resson re not re cables, they argue. Toatlerpto dvd the actions ond n "ronal vers ‘emotonal or iraona spe isto deny te complexiy ‘ot human beer" (14) None ofthis seal pychology denies the importance of drgaization, social beation, andthe caleulaton of cows and benefits by movement scors But there ean increasing recon tat an exchive fos or such components eves some ofthe most ctl and ial queions Unanswered As Ferre and Miler wie, "Coat and benef play 3 role in generating movement support, but the randlton of abjerive sia relsbonthipe nto subjectively experienced group interes i nee ‘in bulling moverents sin pala acvity general (1985, 39, Many ofthe major question aninating catemporsy work on tit movements ate intrinsically social ppchologl Caen (1985) bas ge sted thre central problemader—colletive ent, solidarity, and coms Seiouness—to which we can add Foureh tht erorcuts all of them ricromebiizaton, This chapter il sem t som, for each of these ‘opis is oot ina more geaerc soc pyehlogal erature tat ot Jocaed on soca movements, howtheideashave mane themseles in recent soca movement wots, ni the untied question a nor pzls tat need our tention OF course, thee ino ne soil pychologcl adion but several. Tn dressing questions on sell movement, both paychslogia and soi. logical wads hae someting w aya dere: pois and we eed syarene of both. My own vadison isan iterdscplnary eae that ‘eacerned wih the interacson beween diferent level of analy Tht ‘andvon begins wit che ditincsona among personality, soil and eal ‘ara systems: social pejchologia!queone ae hse involving the mesh becree ef and soci ach ofthe central problematcr—coletie identi, oidary, cour sciounes, and mitosotiizaton concerns this she practi the process are shoroughly interwoven, but he dine ie sel alti aly. Collective denny concerns the mea betwen the individ an «altura ystems. More specify, he question show inves sense of ‘who they are Becomes engaged witha defiton shared by cparicipants {nome effort at sol change—that i, with wh "we ae, Solidarity, as defined hee, concer the mesh betwee individual and social nyse. More specially, the queton Hs how individuals develop sed mainsin loyaly and commnienent to calling acors—that ‘r0ups or organizations who ata eariers of tcl movements, Con ‘siounest aio inves ames between odvidualand cultural evel, The ‘qewion heres how the meaning tht indivi give a Sei ation becomes shared definition iomsying calle acton, Mcromoiliation examines the meroevents that operate in Knking individual and sococutaral leven the operation fiery, sla and consciousness proceses. I i social paycholgi in its aempt 10 understand the scat interacon and group proces iva in ale Much ofthe social moremene wrk dicted below iby thane who bane 0 dicpnaytdentcaton with sacl poyeogy, Dut this relevant ‘omy argument. The questions not the anaers, ate socal prycholgiea, sd one sas ok i many aiferentdaeiptine a radon tourer stand how inva nd cl proenes mesh,6am A. Gamtgn ‘COUECTVE DeNTITY Social prhologss have almays emphasized the centrality of socal relationship ad socal lation inthe development of persceal deni. Indeed, inthe ol pathological radon Inthe study of soca movements, Wentty theory provided the crucial ink between soil 38 {em breakdown spd calective acon. Its expresied oat clearly in such ask as Fromm scp frm Fedo (194), Tn cruder hands, sich a Hoffer The Fra tine (1951), veces were ten in general as providing asubaate for sped ident “The frastated flow a leder,” Hofer wets, less ecru of thet ith that ‘he seading them :oa promised land than brass ofthe immediate fel. Ingthat be beading thera vay rom ther aranted eles Surrender leaders at mean oan end it 2 ulllmen” (116). Cleansed ofits assumptions about a spoiled or ersatz deny, there isa ‘cena insight hat remains, Partkipation incl movernentsfrequensiy involves an enlargment of personal entity fr prcpants and fers ful Siiment and realation fel Purteipaion in the ci rghts movement, women’s movement, and New Let, for example, was frequent 4 ane formative experience, central othe sel denon of many patispans in ther hte lives. ‘Work inthe American rerource mobilization radon hasbeen slow to recognize and adress anus of personal and eallectve ent. But the ‘Oppose hasbeen ue for European writer who emphasiae te cenality ‘tent iss in such “pew” social movements as the exronmental Sosnucea, and peace movement Their central mesage oy 3 par [Phrase away from the Hoffer quotation above: “Partkipation ina social ovement ent calyx enn oan ee but» filmes” or my purpons bere, Meluc (1080) the best exemplar of those ering ia this wadion. He wo only has a especialy ich dscusion of Hetty sues bat ao i most explicit in his socal peal rien: lation. He describes his arguments a dliertly cog "serious pith between collesive social and poitea! proces andthe subjective personal experienes of every life" Furthermore, Melucis argues re the mast sucesul in combining element of what Cohen 1985 calls "denty-oremted” and "sae -orened” paradigns ‘Melis gets thatthe consrction of collective wen the mone ‘cencal ask of "new" socal movements, This ca negtaed proces in or godine ofthe aw sil movement Henne, se ec Coben (08) ao¢ Madera and Tao 98), ich the ve" inoled in calleave action it borate and gives mean ing. New social movement theories emphasise the tellennty of these ‘movement-—that ig ther tendency to ak themes explicit gueions shout “who we are" They agus that, since the parcipants doo define ‘hemseve in terms of thei common scl leon fn a las rele _100p, the question i stn peblemate, Some nascent movement groups wl fo produc any calcein ‘ty that engages heparan self-definition, but oer ace ute me cessful. “This ongoing proces of eonstrucion of a seme af We ct succeed for various reaons” Melucdwrite“orinatanes, Bese of ‘eect leadership, workable organizational fru or song eserves oF ‘expresite action. Burien ao fla which ae cllective ein di regraes (198,218) Melus central pon: iso simply the rate one tata strong sense ‘of collective ens insrumental tothe sce of colecive seen bat ‘hati i a gal in its own right requiring ws to vthik the concept of sees: He argues again" “astramenta dimension of acon” becaae i teats" ‘expres oF esd the selfrefiecve invests ofthe movement (1989, 73-74. ‘The creation ofan ongoing cole ident tha maintains te loyalty ‘nd commitment of partcipuntiea cura acievernen: in own igh "egaales of is contibuuon the achievement of poll and pan atonal goa “The “we” tha thete movements constr: i avers! But ot ee ‘evsriy“poieal” because they “hallnge the ogc of complex sens on cura grounds... Linking perional change with extemal ation, Collective action functions asa ne medium hc iluminates the eae tnd arbitrary clernents of the dominant code ts wll an publcacs new sernates"(Meluec 1989, 28 and 6), ‘Nothing in his argument denies hatsecal movement ators mak sts ‘egicjudgmens bated on their expectations aout cons and Dene Te iti, rather, that any sate pacadgm necessarily presuppose 2 theory of deny. Assen abode scl deny are pi, fd ‘iualuaitarian models such as Ons (195), the tence of a ale ‘ive ideauy isastamed. This sumption ignores such of what we kno ‘out the socal defsition of deny and pact on indi pre ference atractures. When people bind thei fate to the fate of + group, ‘hey fel personaly threatened when the group ie hretened, Sole nd colecine dent operate t Ur the incon between iva and group interes, underminiag the premises on which such viarian models operate2_witne A Gans Bu een in more sophinicated rational aioe model that posulate a ‘olin ate making trae judgments of cst and bene zou cok lective aon, he extence of an eels collecsve entity asumed [As Nelics bere, “Only if inaividalacoracaa recognize thet coher {ence and continty a+ anes wl they be abe owt ir ova Sript of | ‘cial elit and compare expectations apd outcomes” Expectations are ‘ech consacted and outcomes canbe evalintedony by acs "whoare ‘pate of defining themsetes ad the eld of their ation. The process of consrcting, maintaining, and altering elective Wenty provides the bas for actor o shape their expectations nd eaelate the cos and benef ther action” (1989, 32 and 8). Blind Spots in New Social Movement Theory Having granted the elpolnes of thi paadign in highlight. ing important ees of meshing personal nd olen erin, let me tara os ovn blind spot, crsalied inthe term ne ca memeni ‘The erm is cbjeinabl o several fundamen grounds. rt i prvlges one patil lbeitnereing,subceofsoial mone- meats hat happen 1 be predominant white, mda css, and loated In Westen Europe and North America There movement ae ell ort stodying. But when they become a reed extegory of analsi—enew ‘ori movements “many ofthe mom portant socal ovens ofthe [ss tmo deader ae veered in, Ina won ager than Western Europe and Nord America one might notice such “new” social moe ments a Solidarity in Plan, the movement sine the sparthaid reine In South Acs, the communsad de ae movement in Latin Americ, and ‘he nada inte Middle Eas for starr do alain tha the meshing of personal and collective entity isan ‘es important for these movement than forthe wb preyed by new social movement theorist On the contrary, accepe a3 Fundamental ‘nse fr ll movements, pst and preset n Wester industri oun (ries and eewhere: But asthe cone changes, so does the status of such ims collective ident is especially problematic because participants ‘donot dene themclesin terms of tee scl loabioninadasso titi _roup. Ieseems resonable to suppose that tbe prolem of meshing ind ‘ial and cllertve ent wil ake a dierent form in diferent types of movemens Changing language from “new sca movement to “comtemporary” social movements, 5 Cohen (1985) docs, i early Inadequate in ove ‘coming the ethnocentriam of pevleging« particle type. I eceny is ‘he rdevant criterion, te Eastern Europea and died word movenents refered to above are every bi at contemporary asthe Greens in West Germany. Raifyingnewnes aa category of anaes divers atention frm the ‘ellecive ieny proces involved in pat movements and ls what tay be instructive connie Simolaneouy ft obecsres importa i ferences in the collective ident probes of movements that are only sapere similar. In hissy of ro, an sms ac group, Cam {om shows the asiticieney of lampingtogeter movement “any be ‘ne of a shared cultural and ides foes... [deny assertions in {nro point up boundaries, using the fear ofthe abeoral spin the Iearft" (198, 864, The speaic operations ivaled ay be shared by ‘movements that ae subject stigmatation and, bene, are ina sma pasion "shock" Bu these operations may be impproprne and irele- ‘encfor other, equal culturally oriented moremens Hence, theexegory of "aewnes” ca serie a substue for a concrete analyse of how a lective identi processes operate in movement facing ule diferent ets of pobiems, Expanding the Strategic Paradigm ‘Can such sons abou the centrality of entity proces be incorporated in srategially oriented paradigms such a exurce mobil ‘ation? Cobea hiss not. “One canto simly ads emsideration of ol rent. We donot, however gre that acl Feri wat replaced Dy ‘eltaral haven for women wo ave withdraw from the bale (Som, Stansell, Thompson 1985; Vance 1994; chat 1989), Rater, ead {hac radial Femi gate way ane eye of Fern activi stained by lesbian feminist commanitin Thee communis sociale members Imo a colesive oppositional conusousnes tat channel woe it & varity of actions geared toward personal social, and polical change “Although ao research hasbeen ndermaen to document the extent of lesbian commutes acratthe non, exiting work bas Tacsed on 2 numberof diferesoele (og. Barnharts( 1978 ethnography of or land, Weil's [1979 dy of San Franco, Krieger (1988) ethnography ‘ofa midwestern community, Locka’ (1988) description of south ‘em communi), Whice (1980) descebes the major tend acting centers ‘ofthe gy and lesbian movement as Boson, Washington San Francie, and New York, Although our anal exploratory and bated on only Seventeen communities, cu data nugget hat developments nthe sor ies are reflected throughout United Snes in urban ae well {in aller communes with major colleges and universes. ‘COUECTIVE ENTITY: BOUNDARES, “CONSCIOUSNESS AND NEGOTIATION ‘The study of entity in cology hasbeen approached 2 the individual and system level well in both srcrral ad more> namic soc construcionis terme (Weigel 198), New soil oe ‘ment thei, nparsularPizzoroo (1878), Bogs(1986),Meluei 1985, 198), Offe (195), and Toursne (1085), take the polities of persona transformation a one of their ental thereicl poets, which ‘why these approadey are sometines refered to 8 “ie rented paradigms (Cohen 1985), Sommimes labeled postnodersis, new social Inoverentperspecines ae soil coseuconst paradigms (Epstein 1800). From hin andpoin callie polit aor do nex defacto by sire of individuals sharing acannon structural eto: they areo__TavorandWaicier created inthe ours of toil movementactiy, To understand any pli ‘dud idersicy communi, t's neesary to analy the socal and pail Straggle that rated the dent. Iiaome ways the mos apparen fete ofthe ne! anements bas been a vii of power as operating at liferenc level 0 chat collective selbcansformationisislfa mor strategy of poll change. Reviewing ‘ork in the new oc movement tradion suggest thre element ofc lective ent. Fist, individuals ee shemsles a par a group when some shared character becomes salient andi defined as important. For Tourane (185) and Meluc (1989), this ens of ve is evidence of ‘increasingly fragmented and purl Soil ety tat i pare a Fest of the new movements A crucial chaaceric ofthe movements (ofthe seventies eighties ha ren the advent few group under standings slFcoceptions, ways of chishing and cll eategori. [a ‘Toarines model, an awareness of how the group interests confi vt the interests of ts adversaries, the adoption of xitealpctre of the cule ab woe and the recopitio ofthe rod takes ofthe on ic chat diferente contersprary movements rom clasical oes Ths the second component of eal denis what Cohen (1988) terms “consciousness Constent wih the von ofthe moveme's themes, Mel define movement's “cognitive famenore” broadly include not only political consoumnest and relsonsl networks bat goals means ahd envionment of seon” (1989, 38). Finally, for new soi ‘orement thers the concep of coleive dent ips crest oppo: on tothe dorian order. luc! hod that cial owesents bil “robmerged nctwork” of pltical cute hat ae interwoven wth eer aye an prone nee expreions of deny that chalenge dominant representations (1989, 3) In essence a Pasar (1978) suggest, he purposeful and expresive dsdosure to others fone bjecine ecg, estes and experiences —or soci Meniy—for the purpee gaining ecogaion and infiunee is alec actin, (ur framework draws from feminist theoretical approaches inthe y= boicinteracionst raion Gerson and Pei 1995 Margolis 1985; Wes tnd Zimmerman 1987; Chafe 1088) Thee formulations diler from Scrucural and other socal pycologcal approaches tht tend to rely fender ata role category otra of inv ead, they view gen fer hierarchy 8 constantly created through daplay and intracons gor raed by gender-normative behavior dat comes tobe peresved sal and normal. Gerson and Peis (185) ofer 2 model for understanding dw gender inequality reproduced ad mnained through soli on. Although they recone the soil change potential ofthe ede, they donot adres this aspect systray. uL_Lesbian Fain Mabienion Building on their wor, we propose three fair tanya! oot for undersanding the contraction of coleive deny in soc movement “The concept of Bunda refers to the socal pachological, ad pl ‘al ructre tha nabs diferencs betwen alleging grows dominant groups. Coucousar const of the imcepreuve ammeworhs ‘hat emerge out of acallenging groupsstruggl o define and rz ite interens Negotinencontpanes the symbols and everyday actions uber date groups wet rest and renrucre exiting ystems of domination. \Weotter this scheme a way of analyzing the cation of colt iden. yas an ongoing proces ial social moverentsuggling to overture exting systems of domination. Boundaries Boundaties mark the social trite of group relations by highlighting erences between acvstand the nebo cern the co tested social world Of course itis sual the dominant group that eres social, poiiea, economic and ula boundaries to accent the it ferences bere el and minority popalaons Paradoxically, Hower, for groups organising to pursue collective ens he proces of asertng “ho we are” fen ine tnd of revere aration ofthe character ins arb ro icy the ages sce Boundary marker are, for, central othe formation of clive dency Bena they proee heightened avarenes of a groupscommnonaliesand frame interaction ‘between members ofthe ingroup andthe our group. Tor any subordinate group the construction af postive en requires {otha itr rom he vlan strcurs Othe dominant oppee sive soy and he creation of tev slfatirming valves and wrctres Newer approaches othe say of ethic meblinton deine etic not In esentalit erm bein retin 0 scaly and politically constricted boundaries ha iferentat etic populaon (Bart 1962; Olak 198) ‘This is a usta way of underwanding the commonalities that develop mong member of any social ecognized group or aegory organized round a sbared character. 1 uadersores the extent ta wich i ferenition and devaluation ia fundamental procs inal hierarchical ‘wert ad has wo advantages over ater approaches Retin 198). Fim, the once of boundarer tide the reienbon of akcrpive and ber dilferentining characteris tht are the bs or dominance oy tems Reskin 1888; second, eransends the astamption of group sme es implied by singleacor eration sates boca allows ut (© analye the impact of mliple stems of dominatin bated on race, ses, latency, age, sexual, and othe ators Mori 1940. These iinet hierarchies wot only produce diferentation within subordinateU2_Tavor and Whit groups bu afet the permeabiliy of houndaris beween the subordinate ‘nd doniant groups (Callin 1989; Moris 1990; Zinn 1860). ‘Boundary markers can vary from geographical, racial, and religious characteris to more yoically contracted eiferences sch a8 sa insstutons and caltral sates. Our analy focutes on 0 (yet OF boundary strategies adopted by lesbian feminists asa means of countering tale domination: the creatonof separate instaios and the deveop- meat ofa dint women’ clare guided by "female ales. “Alternate instatons were originaly conceived by radical Femi ‘oth as islands of ressance againse pura and as means w gain power by improving wome’s ves and enhancing their resources (Tay. Toe 1980a; Echols 189) Belang in the cat 197s, radia emis ‘esalished separate bah centers, ape css centers, tered women's shelters, bokitore, publishing and record companies newspapers credit ‘eons and poetry and wring groupe. Through the 1980s, fein oe tutions proliferated wo include recovery group, bases gis, marl ars groups, restaurants soe projets spualiy groups arts eons, sand group for women of color, Jesh Feminists, diabed wormen lesbian Inothers and older women, Some lean feminist group mere not en- trey autonomous bt functioned a separate unis oF caucuses exiting ‘onganiations, achat women’ centers and women's die progras “Ar the mus womnea’smotement rcededin the 1405, the iberat branch sbandoned protest and unruly tei in for of aeons geared toward {alsingacees inthe pia arena Rupp and Taylor 1986; Mueller 187; Echols 1985). An elaborate network of feminist councrinsiutons re rained, however, and icreaingy were driven by the commitment of Iesbian fern This i not to say ha they were te abe preserve of ee Dans Rather, cour view that what i enrbed generally a womens ‘ature’ to empha ealblty oll worsen be becee a predom ‘ant esha ein eure, 'A numberof national evens ink lol lebian femin commnites inching the anowal five-day Michigan Womyn's a Festival tended by four haurand to ten town women the Naonal Women’s Write Conference, and the National Women’ Studies Asociaton Conference. Im adi, lca and regional events and coaferences on the 2s, erature, and, in dhe academic proesions, feminist sues pelea through the 1980s, National rewspaper such x Off Otr Bat, national magazines such as Ou, publsing companies sich 5 Nad, Perse- phone, and Kishen Tale Women of Color press, and varity four als and newsleers continue to abliiae Feminist ideas and actvies. 13__Lesbin Femi Medias Insti dhroughout the 18805 as acoconservatism was winning pelicl ne inellectual vrs, sian feminists ral to build weld apart {rom male demiaton, ‘The second boundary tht entral ein feminine ‘reton of symbole stem dt aflrs the cular’ dealzaton of be female and, au chaleage to themiogyey ofthe dominant society lies the male Perhaps the stengent trend running through he tapes of lesbian feminist culture tebe that women ante and modes ore lang ifr fundamentally fom men’. or thote who old thi pon, ‘the of tats generally percsved a female are galanin, cllesi Jim, an ec of eae, a reapet or knowledge derived from experience, ‘pacifism, and cooperation. In contrat, male characterise ae thought ‘0 incude an emp on hierarchy, oppresive individual, an ethic ofindvidal ight, abstraction, enc, and cmspetion. Thee gender boundaries are conse by formal body of feminist scholarship ie, Rich 1976, 1980; Chodorow 197; Cligan 192; Rabin 1964 Coline 1980) 1 well sin popular weings se, eg. Walker 1974; Daly 1978, 1084; Cavin 1985; ork 19; Joon 1987) Johnson, fr example, characterizes the giferences betneen women and men a ised on the fontrat between "masculine ie-hatig values and "women ie oving falere (1987, 226, ‘Our interview suggesthat the bai that heres Fundamental fer ‘ences between women aden wey held by cid ati, One lesbian feminist exphine thet "weve been aarti two cles ‘he male culture andthe Female culture, And lucky weve been able to reserve the waysof nrg by bing in the aterm cole” Because womens andar are deemed superior, isnot surpriing| ‘hat mer, incu older male children ar often ext fom con nity events and busines etablahmest At the Michigan Wor Msc Tesval for example, male children ober the age of thee are nt per ‘nites in the eval area, but must stay ataseperate camp, Reversing the ‘eommon cura practice of eetersng to ale women agi ot ‘unusual foresbian feministtorelerto men, ineaing gay men, "oye Maintaining an opposes detiy depends upon creatog a wer par from th dominant ore. The bounties tha redrawn around ‘group are nt enirlyaatter of choice, The proces of reshaping oe collective worl, howeter, ales the ivesiare of meaning that pore beyond te objet condons ot af which a group i created, Seen in ‘his way, its easy wo understand bow idenity pli promotes akin of | calural endogamy that, paradoxically, rec boundaries win the cha lenging group, dvdingiton the basso ace clas, ae, religion chy,devo and Whither and ke factors, When asked w dein the lesbian feminist community ‘ne paricipan highligh tis proces by sting that “if hare ch 2 ‘hing asa edowerld dha there ar just any divers of communi ‘isin hat worlds there ae i the Heteroworld™ Consciousness Boundases ete persons a2 members ofa group, but iit roup conciousness hat imparts lager sgicance ox eae We ts the concept of contcousnss to reer ote interpret frameworks thac emerge fom a group struggle dene and reaine member® com on interests in opposition tothe dominant order. Although oclogies ‘nave fcuted primarily on dass conscouaness, Mora (1890) argues tat ‘he ere lal oie mre usa case emphases that all systems of human domination ceate opposing interes capable of gener ing opposisonal concours. Whatever he ere, the portant pnt 1s hat collective actors mast abut heir dsontent vo uel tural or spueic causes rater than t personal Falings oe individ deviance (eres and Miler 1985; Tourine 1985), ‘Our notion of conciousness bus on the ies of cage Ueration| (scdazs 1082), ames Snow etal 1988, copie framework (Mehicc 1980), and collecive carscousnest (Mule 1087), We see the deelop- meat of consciousness as an ongeing proces in which groupe rere ae emacs their subjecie experienes thir opportunities, nd det shared interes. Consciousness i imparted through formal body of ‘wings, speeches, and docomens. More important, when a overeat is succenfal at ereating 2 collective deny, interpretive orenasont are icewoven wid he fare of everyday life. Contaoummen nt aly provides socially andpotncaly marginalized groups with an understand Ing of cer ructrl potion bot esabites New expectations regarding ‘ocsimentspproprite o thir eategory. OF cure, groups ca nie around a colctve consciousness tha support the vate quo. Thy ‘aly when a group develops an coun that challenges dominant under andings that we can we the erm peso cmcounes (Moris 199), Coaeporar lean feminist consciousness ot monoihe Bu smaispring ste view that heteroseruiy i an inauton of pati ‘alcool and that aban relationship are a mean of subering ale omintion. The eelationship betwee femiiea and enim swell summarized bythe eas slogan “Temi ithe tear ad lebanon thepracte”ensoned by aunber of erinformantArgving thax Ista heroscssm areinertreaby intertwine, lebin feminine ‘arly 1070s characeraed lesan ate age ofall women condensed ‘US_Leshan famines Mabilnatlen tothe point of explosion” Radieaesbins 1973, 40) and Held that women tho chose lesbianism arethe vanguard the wemensmovenent (Bisby fl, 1978; Myron and Bunch 1975; Daly 1878, 1984; Frye 183; Hoag. [and 198) The cai raonale for hs poston, fequcby reprinted in ewsleers and the lesbian pblations i T-Grace Mknton analogy "Can yu imaginea Frenchman servngin the French army rom aye to Stat, then twotng ome’ to Germany for upper overnight” (1974, I}. Despite th cannon thre running through sian feminist conaciout es that sexual relationships berween women ae to be undersood ‘reference tothe poll uructre of mal supremacy and ale doa ‘on, there are to tine ran of though abou sla deny, One pion holds hat lesbianism noc an sential or bologalcharaceri+ ‘Scbutissoilyeansruted In 2 ecent als of se story of lesbian palicl consioumes, Phelan (1986) argues that lebian fei cone ‘louse emerged an as been driven ya rejeton ofthe Uber view ‘hat sexuality sa private of individual mater. A casi expotiion ofthe social constructions psn an be foundin ich’ "Compulor Hetero: sexuality and Lesbian Exisence (180), whieh defines lian density ‘otax sexual but as poll, Rich invodues te concep ofthe “esti ontinsum to include ll women who are woman-identied and who re st patriarchy. By loatig ebiansm quately within the new scholarship fom the Feral worl, Rich Uke othe si eonarconin agen that sexual ia mater of choke. 1 i sot sexual experience but an emotional an pola! orienta tion toward women tat dees one seb, then 38 he song by Alix Dobkin pusit, “any woman cn be lesbian” Labia Femi comm ies in fac contain wemen who are rented toward women emtonaly and plieally but at seal. These women are sometimes refered st “pola dyes” or “heradyte(Cnuen 199%; Smee, unpublished), and community members think of them ar women who "haven come out Jet Some women who have a both male ad feral lovers resi being Jabeled bisexual and cling toa labia deny. Fr example, wellknown Singer nd sngorier Holly Near explain: “Tam oo lowly linked othe poll perspecine of estan feminin. iis part of my worldview, Sy pasion for women and central in my objection to mile doa (00), Tae sgsifcane of esian deny or ein att ie ‘el summarized bythe name of fein suppor group a major un. ‘erty, Lesbians Who Jus: Happen Be Dating Poiiealy- Corre Men, “The second strand of lias Frit ough sm 0 bring ex back Inco the definition of tebianir Treacot 1975 Califia 1982; Ferguson 1082; Zita 198; Hotibagh and Morag 185; Robin 1966; Nee 1987,16__tavlorané whi Penelope 1090). Cricising the text olen ein, Feo og ‘ges tha, in contemporary women’s communis, women’ sexuality 1s Sstumed o be more spt tha sera and considerably levee to their lives than sexy men (1984, 60). Pung more bly ‘domauochinm advocate Pt Califa charceraes contemporary Iban feminism a “andsex using the term "vanilla feminisn”2 dismiss what she charges isa traditionally feminine pasive aide toward sex (1980), “These "prosex” or “ex ral” writer edo vw veal le 8 rater of choice and more as an eventalcharacerisic. So, 10, do some lesbian separa, who fave ite ee in common withthe ex ada “Arguing apna sol conaranionim, Penelope (10%) places lesbian lam squarely in the sexual arena. She points tothe hitorical presence ‘of wonien who loved other women sewly and eon prior the rinesenth-centary invention ofthe term lian and emphases that cu ‘ently there are a variety of way that women come to call themes lesbian. In our interviews wich lean aii was ot neon fr women who embrace eens notions engage in biographical recon: ‘truco, enterpreingallof thr pelsian experiences as evidence of Jean seri "The emphasis on sexuality calls tention tothe unknown aumbers of ‘women engaged in samesex bekaor who do noc designate themselves lesbian andthe ences of women who deny a lesbian bu ave not adopted lesbian femini ideology and. praise. These ince eins ‘win organize their sci lie around ay bars (Nesde 1987), women who ‘emai inthe dost, pretending to be heteretvaal but having seul ‘lune wth other women snd women who mtry fen al bane ‘lanai wth wemen onthe ie, Desrtng the varlouses of the Contemporary lesbian experince and the muliple mays Women come (0 Cal hemeles lesbian, one of our interviewees cused “pe [plitally corral dykes,” “heterodjhes” “aybeline dykes” Yarth crunchy ie ans” “iar dykes” "phys el dykes” “profesional dykes." and “ly dyes” For large numberof women, lating lesbianism in tbe feminist arena reciudes forming meaningful pital lances wih gry we. Tn part. {his seca ies of seal freedom that many feiss ave viewed as expoting women including pornogeapy, sexual contact between the {young and old, and consensual sadomasoehiem, bare been cert the predominanly sale gay iberatin movernent (Adam 1987), Adam, how ‘ver, sugges tht, despite some config nteret, the later pare of ‘the 1880s saw growing coaicions becwees lesbian feminists and gay ber sionist surrounding the issue of as. Our data confirm this hypothesis Lesbian emis Mobis ‘Yer iis perhaps not colacidental tht tative when lesbian feminie ernie seve increasing a rabilition contests for the larger le lian and gay movement, ean avis cexeribe a reargence of lin separaam. Calls for more women only ace” pervade py ad lesan neweters by heen ofthe 18805 (Japeng 190) "Ths, our analyse sggent tht sn important element of lesbian fei srtconacouinen isthe eatin of ania fein, A umber of recente tad, though admiteay teed on mal spl, contin at the majority of women who openy embrace a lesbian ie interpret lesbian within the fxmework of racial feminist ideology (iainger 1887; Devo 1989; Phelan 1985), Remon lesan behavior from the de- ‘an nial ealm and placing iin the somewhat more acceptable f- ‘ast aren establishes lesbian idenity 2 ising from gy ident. Yee an Increasingly wel segment of labia feminss endorses a more esentia- is or what Steven Epstein (1987 terms "edified soil anerucons” explanation oflsbiaism. They have undoubedy been infvenced bythe denty politi of the Uber! branch ofthe gay Ueration movement that tat in recent year, advocated hat eal leat mater of choice and ‘more a matter of biology ad ery scalzaton. Highlighting the sigucance of «dominated groups own explanation oft postion for political ation, King (1067) une the term ently ‘sevute 1 dtnguish de range of group sndertanings that emerge among oppressed groups to rake sense of themselves and thee star "ion. Our fnings confirm thatthe self understandings at onl inf nce mobilization ponies and directions but determine the types of individual and oleive acto groups perv to challenge dominant a- rangement In the next sectinn, we examine lesbian fri race, phasing thats comprehensible oly because it presupposes the exten of theory fli ey, Negotiation Viewing collective enc asthe res oF repeatedly activated shared definitions ew socal movement thers do, mks i if alte distinguish beoween "doing" and “beng” or becween social more- ‘ment organiations and their strategies. Alchogh recen oc movement rages tend to emphasize prirly the poli and sructral sina of ‘alleging group, personal rnslormaon and exprenine an hi been central to most owements (Morris 1964; Fanaa 1988; MeNall 1066. The insistence that he consructon and exprenion of x collective isons polit, rte polcinion fee ela dally fe aeverbe- les the core of whats “aew” about he new socal ovement (Beeisesa_Tlerand vai 1082; Melucs 1988; Kauinan 199 Ths, ne propotea framework that, recognies ht ienity cn be a findamental aco plies work. ‘Marga (1085) sugges the concep of aegttion drawn from the symbrlicinterainat raion, rs way of aalsing the proces by which ‘ocial movements work o change symbalie meanings. Most interactions between dominans and opposing groupe enforce estas defintons Individual diferentiated onthe bt of devalued charac ae con tinwously eespoaded ain ways that perpetuate the dnsrantaged ats (Reakin 1988) West and Zimmerman (987) we the term ssfitoy “plays oemphasce, for example, that gender inequality x embeded fand reproduced in even the mast rowine interacons, Sar analytes ‘might be undertakes with regard o cate, ehniciy, sexual, and other source of sraifcacon, From 3 social movenent apo the concept of megotiatons point to the myriad of way that act work Test negative sci definitions and demand that ethers ale an rest oppo- sional groups teeny (Coffman 1989). “Theanaiyss of social movement regoations fore usta recogite tha, 1 not socilogialy hem in ely, “doing” and “beng” overlay (Wet tnd Zimerman 1987), Yet we need wy to diigui altel be ‘een the polis ofthe public sphere, or world wansformation directed Prmarily st dhe radisonal plc! arena ofthe tate, and the ple of identi, or selzanaformaton sired pinay atthe individual. We ‘ink dat the concep of egosions calls enon eo foros of pola ths embeded in everyday lle that are dnc from hoe generally Sealed at tac and nrstepes in the Iterator on socal mows, ‘Bullding on Marga’ (1985) work on gender Ment we suggest oo _ypes of negation central wo the consrution of plied ellcive ents Fis, groups negodate new way of hiking and acting in gre ‘aie etngs wth oer members of the calc a wells in publ st tings before alarger audience. Send idenuiynegotatons canbe apt involving open and diet atemps to fee de yroup from dominant rep resenatons,o inp, consiting of what Margot terms 3 “condensed ‘symbol or display" that undermines che matas quo (1985, 840) 10 this ‘ction, we identify action that lesbian feminist communis ngage into ‘renegotiate the meaning of "wor" Opposition > male domination and ‘the sce devaluation of women directed both the rule of ly ie find athe ints hat perpetuate them, Tn many respects, the phrase "ihe pertona i poi” coined by radi ‘al feminist Carol Hanh and elaborated in Kate Mile Semel Pb (2960) thehalinark of eae! feminim (Ecole 198, tafoeced by ‘the ci tightsand New Lett movement, feminists began in the te 19604 > _hesbin minis Mba 1 form consciouneasasing groups designed to reaterpret verona exe periences in poical terms, Analing vital eer aspect of ndivdual fd socal experience at male-dominated, the groups encouraged pric ants tochallnge prevailing representations af women in every sphere af Iie asa means of transforming the instiutons that produced an dsemi- ‘ated them (Castell 197), The policetion of everyday fe extended beyond the bck power na feminist moveneatsino other movement of ‘he 1950, In contemporary iebin feminit comune the valerian ‘of personal experience cotinues to have profound impact. Coowaity members see lesbianism asa srtegy for Femi oct ‘change that represent what one repondent describes at van emp +80 top doing what you were ught—hating womes.” Other women ‘Speakof the importance ofleaningo “value women, becoming "woman ‘zuered" and “vag momen energy” Being womat-centered ix viewed 1 challenging convenonal expectations that worsen een themselves ‘rehelosealy and socly toward men, cmspete with other women for ‘male tention, and devalue other women. To makes more complete reak wich patriarchal denies and way of i, sme women exchange thet rnale-gven surnames fr womsn-centred oes suchas “Sarah” oF “Blackworyn” Loving and valuing women becoes a means eit 3 culture that has and bells women voting Alice Walker's (1974) coacep of “womans one blk woman tht we interviewed explained, "Ny lesbians has eothing v0 do with men. Te not sbout not choosing men, butabout chosing women” ‘AL the group lee lesbian feminins stracare organizations olny (Roxbachi vie 1879) and atempe io eiminateNerechy, abe deck ‘Sons by consensus, and fren coins only ith groups tha sre nt 38 ‘ne activist i, "giving energy tothe ptviazehy” Demands for octal change ek to repace exiting ogainatonal forms and ales with ones similar to those implemented in che community (Brenes 1982). A worker ata women's esi tated the imporance of community zur at | model for socal change by commenting to women a theyll the eth ‘il, “You've seen the way the real worl ean be, rid now fs up ayo 0 so outdhere and change ie” Because atrationally feminine appearance, demeanor, scone, nd syle of personal relatonsare though be among the maining of ‘women's oppression lesbian feast communes have adopted ferent standards of gender behavior. For example on ofthe rons of ferinis hasbeen t rcoatiate the cxpeiene of victimization. Thus, women ho ave been bared or raped or have experienced ince and other Forms of bute are ermed“urvvoretoredefne te experiences re120_taloe and Whit ‘szance wo male violence: New recrlsto dhe community ae eocaied through participating in a varie of organizations women’ tweety programs, bartered womens sheers, areal ar group, inet survivor roupethar provide not only seep bt aos means for women to Fenegodate a lesbian Feminist ident. The very same of one sich orgs ization ia New Yor City, dentzy House ilstratine Lesbian mothers ‘organize support group called "tomazonian™ or "Sykes with hes ‘ephasie tht mserhood is crc leat of contertaton "Take Back the Night” marches agunat olenee,procboce demonstrations, patch ion n spontaneous prot, and feminit mote, these, an dramatic Presentations are other examples of publc areas for negotting new undards of gender behavior "Essen to contemporary lesbian Feri deny isa disnction be: ‘veen the lesbian who isa saunch feminist ati and te leba who ‘snot of the vanguard Thus, commitment the pols of direct ston latngushes members ofthe lesbian fei communi frm the larger population of lesbians. One paripant illustrates te importance of his itincion, ating that women who sa thi they ae lian sd maybe Inie seein reatonahipe ith women, but dn ave the fein pl ‘is compose a eateory who “could ave bee inthe community, but "they've opted ou." Women een choote partes based pial coe tment, otng that “sleeping witha woman who snot Feminist ue ocan' work forme; there 20 much polial confi." The tendency 0 ‘hoot life partners and form ther close personal eaonships based on shared paitcalastumprion i ot, however unique to lesbian Femi but as been repore in reltion to other ovement 8 wel (Ropp and ‘Tylor 987; McAdam 1965) Instore, negetstingnew gender defiions collective ident ‘nadon of femininity 2 rity, pasty, and preoccoption widheigeingstandardsof beauty. many women wear let Ing hat enables freedom of movement, adopt short or ample ics, alk with selfasured strides, ad choose nto shave their legs oF swear beavy makeup. Devor (1983 ers this mode of se-presenation “gender blending” arguing that ic represents an expe rejectin of the ‘orm offemininky and, by exesion, of women’s subjugason. By reves Ing reigning cukural sandard of eminity, beauty, and eapecbiliy, lesbian feminists strike 2 ow ais female obeifeaton How central this to lerbian fermin deniy iatrated by 8 lesbian uppor gro ata mor university withthe name Wornen in Comfortable Shoes. Because appearance and demeanor are ho ili means of exprest- Ingonesopposdon, community members presentation of selfs subjecto| dase Scrutiny o, 0 use the vernal ofthe atts thee, moni 12L__hasbas alae Mobitnaion toced by the *pe police” Women who des in serevypical “Teminine™ ‘ways are often crtned and adm to fling “policy incorrect” As toe respondent commented, "Te always ad lot of gui cling shou, ‘why don ust bucke down an put on some beans 20d clip ay hit short ae not wear rakeupand go aggresive throug be wor” Some (of our interviewees reports rear o gendered fashion in contemporary lesbian communities, Women whe iden a sex radcl in parila, ave adoptedatlesof rear tadionalytocatd wih the "extra, OF promt, such as miki owt os, and fishnet stockings, some- times combined with mor radonaly mascalne slesin whatiskaown ra ender fuck” yl of dressing. Suggesting that "the ost profound fd potential the mot radial poles come dretiy ove of our wa identity” (Combahee River Callecve 1982), Afcan-Armerian eins itt the tendeny of many white labia feminist dictate a pli based on hegemonic curl nandarde. Some women who areideniibiy butch ae resin studded leather doting and punk apd neon hares ‘ole das based modaton for thir demeanor, and Afican- America, ‘Asian-American, and Latina leans embrace dilereat clr ae Sort, the changes i appearance and behavior women undergo a they ‘ame out cannot be fll understood 3 nviualy owen bataze often ‘he ultimatum of Went communities (Krieger 1982) ‘ie have presented three dimension for analysing oleive Hen in social movemens the concept of boundaries, consioumess, and ego- tion. Although we have rested each fit wer independent, in reality the tines interact. Using these Factor analy letan frit Were try sugges nee elements that shape the scl contraction of ein feminism, Fs, sian ferns communities raw boundaries tat are femaleness and separate them from 3 larger weld perceived a we ‘Second o undermine the dominant view of lesbian as perversion ke ban Fernie deny seman tae polite exalt Flay, by ‘defining lesbians atthe vanguard ofthe women movement, sian fer nate valorize personal experience, mich, paradoncly, further reife the ‘boundaries between lesbians and roniesbane and ert the inpresin thatthe diterences beween women and mea and besween ibis and heterosexual eine are esti, ‘CONCLUSION In this chapter, we argue that ian ein concouaness is rooted ina social movement camry wih de to but dngeihable {toe both he gy liberation andthe liberal feminist movenenss. Inlet,swe are suggesting tht withthe teorpon ofthe eral feminist agenda Inu tse iberal msistreac, de legaey of radical fei cones in "he lesbian Fminit ommmty It cu toimagin an argument tat would he more contrverl in feminist cil forieconfrn the premise that at leat inthe contemporary context, leans and fein are Intetvind, This leads to he quation pod ins reent speech by fer ‘is philosopher Mariya Frye (1960), "Do you have tobe esi tobe {emin” Misour view that lesbian commntes are 3 yp fod mane ‘ment abeyance structure that abot hiphiy commited femints whose ‘cal plies have grown increasingly marginal sine the mass women's ‘movement has receded (Ter and Whitier 192). However insulated, they function osuiain he Feri challenge na les receptive politcal imate (Taylor 1968. Our findings are contenerial in another respect. By alin attention tothe cently of feminism foe lesbian scts, our sy patna picture ofthe teuuanes othe cain between gay en 2 lehinns ase gr gay and lesbian movement Drawing fom new data ad recent scholarship on lesbian commni- iy, we te this ant illsate te sigaeance of aleve deny for ‘mabiration and to presents framework for anazng identity process in socal movement: Adaping Gerson aod Pee (1685) franeworh, we deny at factor that outrbute othe formation of elective deny (U}the creation of boundaries that inate and direst category of persons from the dominant sciey (2) the development of conscious (hae preumer the exience of socllyeonatted vera that scm or a grouphstucural poion and) the valoration of roup ental ‘diferences” dough the plication of everyday Ue. “The concep of collective went i ssocte primary wih the social movement ofthe 1970sand 1980+ cau of hi dine ural p= pearance. tisourhypshess however, that collective identity sa signi ‘ant variable in al social movements, even among he s-cld traditional hineceath-cntury movements. Thas, we fae our approach brdly 10 apply 1 oppaiaoul denies based on das, race, ethic, gender, soul, nd other persistent socal cearages. Ceraaly any theory de- ved from a sngle casei open oer. But recent research in the ‘evource mbilizaen tradon point othe impact hat changes on ‘cosines ave on ableton (Ken 1984; Downey 1985; Male 18: MeAdam 1988), “There its growing realization among scholars of wal menements hat ‘he theoredeal pendulum bemween class aod contemporary approaches ‘0 social meverens has swung 00 far. Social pejcbolopeal ors hat rere ental ealeeve behavior theory (lamer 1948; Smcer 1962: pian Panini Moblaton Kilian 1964; Tuner and Kilian 1972) hive become the theoretical in spot of reoarce mobilization theory Ignoring the grievances or ins ‘ees chat maize potest movements as, 1 Klandermans (1986) ug. ‘2 suipped aol movements ft plc aigacace Incomes (othe aructural and organizadonal emphases of resource mabilation theory, new socal movement theory tendo the sca pyehoogiel and ‘ala discontent that propels movements, Bu it provides litle under standing of iow theinjuatices that are atthe bart st movements are ‘canslated int the everyday ves cllecvesciors. Our analysing that the sd of elective entity, because it highlight he role of teen: Ing and ideology nthe oblation and malnenane of collective acon, ‘San important hey to understanding ts proces, REFERENCES ‘am, Baty D187 The Re f jo Laon Men Baon: Tyne ‘tion, TH-Grace 19 Aman by. Non Yr! 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