Polymer backbone
In polymer science, the polymer
chain or simply backbone of a IUPAC definition
polymer is the main chain of a Main chain or Backbone
polymer. Polymers are often That linear chain to which all other chains, long or short or both,
classified according to the elements may be regarded as being pendant.
in the main chains. The character of
the backbone, i.e. its flexibility, Note: Where two or more chains
determines the properties of the could equally be considered to be the main chain, that one is
polymer (such as the glass transition selected which leads to the simplest representation of the
temperature). For example, in molecule.[1]
polysiloxanes (silicone), the
backbone chain is very flexible, which results in a very low glass transition temperature of −123 °C
(−189 °F; 150 K).[2] The polymers with rigid backbones are prone to crystallization (e.g. polythiophenes)
in thin films and in solution. Crystallization in its turn affects the optical properties of the polymers, its
optical band gap and electronic levels.[3]
Contents
Organic polymers
Inorganic polymers
Biopolymers
Proteins and peptides
Carbohydrates
Nucleic Acids
References
See also
Organic polymers
Common synthetic polymers have
main chains composed of carbon,
i.e. C-C-C-C.... Examples include
polyolefins such as polyethylene
((CH2 CH2 )n ) and many
Formation of polystyrene, a polymer with an organic backbone. substituted derivative
((CH2 CH(R))n ) such as
polystyrene (R = C6 H5 ),
polypropylene (R = CH3 ), and acrylates (R = CO2 R').
Other major classes of organic polymers are polyesters and polyamides. They have respectively -C(O)-O-
and -C(O)-NH- groups in their backbones in addition to chains of carbon. Major commercial products are
polyethyleneterephthalate ("PET"), ((C6 H4 CO2 C2 H4 OC(O))n ) and nylon-6 ((NH(CH2 )5 C(O))n ).
Inorganic polymers
Siloxanes are a premier example of an inorganic polymer, even
though they have extensive organic substituents. Their backbond
is composed of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms, i.e. Si-O-Si-
O... The silicon atoms bear two substituents, usually methyl as in
the case of polydimethylsiloxane. Some uncommon but
illustrative inorganic polymers include polythiazyl ((SN)x) with Polydimethylsiloxane is classified as
alternating S and N atoms, and polyphosphates ((PO3 −)n ). an "inorganic polymer", because the
backbone lacks carbon.
Biopolymers
Major families of biopolymers are polysaccharides (carbohydrates), peptides, and polynucleotides. Many
variants of each are known.[4]
Proteins and peptides
Proteins are characterized by amide linkages (-N(H)-C(O)-) formed by the condensation of amino acids.
The sequence of the amino acids in the polypeptide backbone is known as the primary structure of the
protein. Like almost all polymers, protein fold and twist, forming into the secondary structure, which is
rigidified by hydrogen bonding between the carbonyl oxygens and amide hydrogens in the backbone, i.e.
C=O---HN. Further interactions between residues of the individual amino acids form the protein's tertiary
structure. For this reason, the primary structure of the amino acids in the polypeptide backbone is the map
of the final structure of a protein, and it therefore indicates its biological function.[5][4] Spatial positions of
backbone atoms can be reconstructed from the positions of alpha carbons using computational tools for the
backbone reconstruction.[6]
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates arise by condensation of monosaccharides such as glucose. The polymers can be classified
into oligosaccharides (up to 10 residues) and polysaccharides (up to about 50,000 residues). The backbone
chain is characterized by an ether bond between individual monosaccharides. This bond is called the
glycosidic linkage.[7] These backbone chains can be unbranched (containing one linear chain) or branched
(containing multiple chains). The glycosidic linkages are designated as alpha or beta depending on the
relative stereochemistry of the anomeric (or most oxidized) carbon. In a Fischer Projection, if the glycosidic
linkage is on the same side or face as carbon 6 of a common biological saccharide, the carbohydrate is
designated as beta and if the linkage is on the opposite side it is designated as alpha. In a traditional "chair
structure" projection, if the linkage is on the same plane (equatorial or axial) as carbon 6 it is designated as
beta and on the opposite plane it is designated as alpha. This is exemplified in sucrose (table sugar) which
contains a linkage that is alpha to glucose and beta to fructose. Generally, carbohydrates which our bodies
break down are alpha-linked (example: glycogen) and those which have structural function are beta-linked
(example: cellulose).[4][8]
Nucleic Acids
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the
main examples of polynucleotides. They arise by condensation of
nucleotides. Their backbones form by the condensation of a
hydroxy group on a ribose with the phosphate group on another
ribose. This linkage is called a phosphodiester bond. The
condensation is catalyzed by enzymes called polymerases. DNA
and RNA can be millions of nucleotides long thus allowing for the
genetic diversity of life. The bases project from the pentose-
phosphate polymer backbone and are hydrogen bonded in pairs to
their complementary partners (A with T and G with C). This
creates a double helix with pentose phosphate backbones on either
side, thus forming a secondary structure.[9][4][10]
A simplified example of
References condensation showing the alpha and
beta classification. Glucose and
1. IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. fructose form sucrose. The
(the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version:
synthesis of glycogen in the body is
(2006–) "main chain (backbone) of a polymer ([Link] driven by the enzyme glycogen
[Link]/[Link])". synthase which uses a uridine
doi:10.1351/goldbook.M03694 ([Link]
diphosphate (UDP) leaving group.
2Fgoldbook.M03694)
2. "Polymers" ([Link]
25/[Link]
[Link]). Archived from the original ([Link]
[Link]/chem112/materials/[Link]) on 2015-
10-02. Retrieved 2015-09-17.
3. Brabec, C.J.; Winder, C.; Scharber, M.C; Sarıçiftçi, S.N.;
Hummelen, J.C.; Svensson, M.; Andersson, M.R. (2001).
"Influence of disorder on the photoinduced excitations in
phenyl substituted polythiophenes" ([Link]
s/files/6636890/[Link]) (PDF).
Journal of Chemical Physics. 115 (15): 7235.
Bibcode:2001JChPh.115.7235B ([Link]
[Link]/abs/2001JChPh.115.7235B).
doi:10.1063/1.1404984 ([Link]
04984).
4. Voet, Donald; Voet, Judith G.; Pratt, Charlotte W. (2016).
Fundamentals of Biochemistry: Life at the Molecular Condensation of adenine and
Level ([Link] guanine forming a phosphodiester
BAJ) (5th ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-91840-1.V bond, the triphosphorylated ribose of
5. Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L (2002). "3.2 Primary the incoming nucleotide is attacked
Structure: Amino Acids Are Linked by Peptide Bonds to by the 3' hydroxyl of the polymer,
Form Polypeptide Chains" ([Link] releasing pyrophosphate.
books/NBK22364/). Biochemistry ([Link]
[Link]/books/NBK21154/) (5th ed.). W.H. Freeman.
ISBN 0-7167-3051-0. NBK22364.
6. Badaczewska-Dawid, Aleksandra E.; Kolinski, Andrzej;
Kmiecik, Sebastian (2020). "Computational
reconstruction of atomistic protein structures from
coarse-grained models" ([Link]
mc/articles/PMC6961067). Computational and Structural
Biotechnology Journal. 18: 162–176.
doi:10.1016/[Link].2019.12.007 ([Link]
[Link].2019.12.007). ISSN 2001-0370 ([Link]
[Link]/issn/2001-0370). PMC 6961067 ([Link]
[Link]/pmc/articles/PMC6961067).
PMID 31969975 ([Link]
975).
7. Buschiazzo, Alejandro (2004). "Crystal structure of
glycogen synthase: homologous enzymes catalyze
glycogen synthesis and degradation" ([Link]
[Link]/pmc/articles/PMC514502). The EMBO
Journal. 23 (16): 3196–3205.
doi:10.1038/[Link].7600324 ([Link]
[Link].7600324). PMC 514502 ([Link]
[Link]/pmc/articles/PMC514502). PMID 15272305 (h
ttps://[Link]/15272305).
8. Bertozzi CR, Rabuka D (2009). "Structural Basis of
Glycan Diversity" ([Link]
BK1955/). In Varki A, Cummings RD, Esko JD, et al.
(eds.). Essentials of Glycobiology ([Link]
[Link]/books/NBK1908/) (2nd ed.). Cold Spring Harbor
Laboratory Press. ISBN 9780879697709.
PMID 20301274 ([Link]
274).
9. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. (2002). "DNA
Replication Mechanisms" ([Link]
books/NBK26850/). Molecular Biology of the Cell (http
s://[Link]/books/NBK21054/) (4th ed.).
Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1. NBK26850.
10. Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, et al. (2000). "4.1,
Structure of Nucleic Acids" ([Link]
v/books/NBK21514/). Molecular Cell Biology ([Link]
[Link]/books/NBK21475/) (4th ed.). W.H.
Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-3136-3. NBK21514.
See also
Pendant group
Peptide
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