Commission of the European Communities earch Properties and service performance Survey of steel piling performance in marine environments J. MORLEY, D.W. BRUCE British Steel Corporation 33, Grosvenor Place GB - London SW1X 7JG Contract No 7210-KB/804 (14.1977 — 31.12.1980) FINAL REPORT Directorate-General Science, Research and Development 1983 EUR 8492 enR597 811 7210.«B/804 SURVEY OF STEEL PILING PERFORMANCE IN MARINE ENVIRONMENTS British Steel Corporation BCSC Agreement No. 7210.KB/804 Sunmary Report ‘he report describes the results from in-situ and related laboratory researches designed to investigate the corrosion performance of waterfront steel piled Structures. ‘The work formed the BSC contribution to a collaborative ECSC funded esearch programme in which the other participant was the Metaalinstituut TNO in Apeldoorn. ‘The objectives of the research were to obtain corrosion performance data on steel piled structures as a basis for improved structural design and customer advisory Services and also to show where improvements were needed in steel quality or pro- tective systems. In-situ corrosion investigations wore carried out in harbours, mostly in the United Kingdom, but algo in Cyprus and the United Arab Emirates, where detailed ultrasonic thickness surveys were made on stecl piled installations from the sea-bed to the uppermost levels of the structures. Marine environmental data were obtained and General observations were made, Samples of steel, corrosion products and sea-water were collected for laboratory examination and analysis. ‘he results obtained were used to prepare corrosion rate frequency distributions as being the most convenient way to present all the corrosion data for each site invostigatea and for the various marine exposure zones. Drawings, photographs and tables were also used to illustrate some typical or special featute of the obser- vations. Tt was found that irrespective of the harbour location, there was a Characteristic distribution of corrosion throughout the various marine exposure Zones and that corrosion was confined mostly to the seaward side of the piling. There was no evidence for significant bacterial corrosion. pata analysis presented problems in satisfying the research, structural engineering and marketing implications of the research. These problems were resolved by adopting 958 maximum probable corrosion rates, and on the basis of these, the marine corrosion performance of steel piles in the three geographical areas of the United Kingdon, Cyprus and the United Arab Emirates, was measured to be as follows. For completeness, average corrosion rate values are aiso given in parentheses. Abrasion damage was a complicating factor at some site investigations at the low water zone. caaguapn cen, Marine Corrosion Rate: mm/year a Splash | intertidal | Low water | temersion | Below sea- Zone Zone Zone zone Bod Level United Kingdom 0.18 0.11 0.18* 0.14 0.05, (0.09) (0.04) (0:09) (0.05) (0.02) cyprus 0.21 o.11 0.16 oO. - (0.10) (0.08) (0103) 1 (0.05) United Arab Emirates | 0.22 0.14 0.13 0.12 = (o.14) (0:07) (0.07) (0.08) *Abrasion damage may locally increase steel thickness loss rates to 0.4lmm/ycar.FRSS7 811 7210.KB/804 With a single exception, there was no evidence that paint coatings had performed effectively and this is’ thought to be due to a combination of the very great practical problems of cost-effective maintenance painting or waterfront structures, the high risk of mechanical damage, the aggressive nature of the environment and the possibility that most of the structures examined would not have had the benefit of modern paint formulations and surface preparation techniques. The report discusses the structural engineering and marketing implications of the researches. It concludes that although the measured corrosion rates were generally greater than was previously supposed, the use of steel piling for waterfront structures is an economic and long lasting solution provided that attention is given at the design stage to the combined effects of structural loadings and the distri- bution of corrosion throughout the various marine exposure zones: anPRSO7 811 7210.KB/804 SURVEY OF STEEL PILING PERFORMANCE IN MARINE ENVIRONMENTS British Steel Corporation ECSC Agreement No. 7210.KB/804 Final Technical Report 1. INTRODUCTION British Steel Corporation is a manufacturer and supplier of steel piling products for both the home and export markets. In recent years, steel users and specifiers have placed an increasing reliance upon the Corporation's technical resources for guidance on the structural applications of piling with the corrosion and protection aspects becoming an important part of the majority of technical enquiries. Despite the extensive studies of piling corrosion made in, for example, America ‘1/?) and Scandanaviats) no comparable work has been undertaken in the United Kingéon and in places abroad where UK civil engineering expertise is involved in the design and construction of harbour installations. In addition, replaconent markets or the fotential for new markets, were factors which enphagised the need for reliable forrosion performance data if these markets were to be maintained or developed against compet ition feom ‘concrete. In an attempt to satisfy these technical and marketing requirements, corrosion surveys on stecl piled waterfront structures were undertaken as opportunities arose. These showed that the amount and distribution of corrosion differed from previously held views thus confirming the need for more detailed corrosion investigations covering a Wide range of sites. It proved to be difficult, however, to sustain the necessary effort in the absence of a coordinated and properly funded research progranme. A collaborative research programme funded by the ECSC was, therefore, undertaken with the Metaalinstituut TNO, Apeldoorn, as the other participant. This final report describes the results From the agréed BSC contribution to the researches in which steel pile corrosion was investigated in the United Kingdom, Cyprus and the United Arab ghnirates. 2 OBJECTIVES AND BENEFITS OF ‘THE RESEARCH ‘The objectives of the research were to obtain and correlate corrosion performance data on in-situ piling with well documented marine applications and environments. ‘The benefits will be technically comprehensive and commercially valuable corrosion data for North European, Middle East and Mediterranean harbours and similar install~ ations. These will provide a better than existing basis for engineering design, customer services and indicate where improvements are needed either in the corrosion properties of steel or of protective systems. 3. SITE LOCATIONS corrosion surveys were carried out in the three geographical areas of the United Kingdom (Figure 1), Cyprus (Figure 2) and the United Arab Emirates (Figure 3). The list of sites investigated is as follows,FRS97 812 7210.KB/804 Site No. Wame_and Location Description Age-Years la Lerwick 60°o9'N, 1°09'W Harbour 25 ib Graven 60°27'N, 1915'W Pier 37 2 Aberdeen 57°08'N, 2°05" Harbour 47 3 Dundee 56°28'N, 2°57 Docks 16-27 4 Govan 55°55'N, 4°31 Shipyard 26 5 carradale —$5°35'N, 5°29"w Harbour 23 6 Campbeltown 55°25'N, 5°36'W Harbour 38 7 Larne 5a°52'N, S48H Harbour 6-36 8 Belfast 54°36'N, S°59tW Harbour 25-29 9 Skinningrove 54°35'N, 0°59'W getty 20 10 ‘Tranmere 53°24'N, 3°02"W oil getty u Milford Haven 51242'N, 5903'W Pilot Jetty 1 Milford Haven 51°42'N, 4°56°W Quay 24 2 Swansea s1°37'N, 3°57'W Docks 20-23 3 Southampton 50°57'N, 1926 'W Docks -18 (Paphos 34245!w, 32923, Rotaining walls 22 ia (Linassol 34°40'N, 33°03"E Harbours (a) Old 23 (Cinassol 3 ry (b) New io (arnaca 3a°satn, 33°39°E marina to e (oubas 2s2an, s5°18'e Retaining Walls 15-21 (Mina Sage 25°54'N, 56°00" Rock Loading Jetty 1s 4 SITE INVESTIGATION WORK At all sites, the pattern of work was similar. ation of the structures from which steel piles considered to be representative of the ‘his involved a preliminary examin~ Gorroded condition of the structure, were selected for detailed corrosion studies from sea-bed level through into the marine atmospheric zone extracted piling enabled underground corrosion rates to be estimated. 4.1 Corrosion Investigations Corrosion investigations were based upon estimates of steel thickness losses and the lage of the structure. Objections to this simple approach will be considered in the discussion section of the report. Essentially, the site investigation thickness at regular intervals (0.5 metres) along the test of the concrete cope to sea-bed level. with distance along the pile, closer Sampling intervals were chosen. 4.2.1 Residual Steel Thickness Measurements In a few cases, ‘The locations Gf the various marine exposure zones are shown schematically in Figure 4. mn work consisted of meacuring the steel residual pile from the underside Where corrosion appeared to change rapidly Residual steel thickness measurements were made using direct reading ultrasonic thickness meters. In some cases, it was possible to cut samples from the piling and thereby confirm the ultrasonic thickness readings using micrometers. need te drill holes through piling to obtain steel sampies for chemical analyses, provided additional confirmation of the ultrasonic thickness readings. In the interests of ensuring that a good acoustic contact was made between tie Ultrasonic measuring probe and the steel surface, all rust and marine fouling was chipped from the steel surface over an area measuring approximately 100nm diameter, taking care not to damage the underlying steel surface. ‘The exposed steel was then carefully machine ground to a smooth and locally flat surface parallel to the Griginal surface in such a way that all but the very deepest corrosion pits wereR597 811 7210.KB/604 ground out of the steel surface. This technigue inevitably led to some additional loss of thickness before measurements were made, but providing that the deepest corrosion pits were not completely removed, the view was taken that the steel thickness remaining would be a sensible compromise between the requirements of scientific research and the practicalities of structural engineering. 4.1.2 Sampling Of Sea-Water, Corrosion Products And Steel At a number of sites, samples of sea-water were taken at both low water and high water tides for later laboratory analyses. In-situ measurements of water temper~ ature were made at 211 sites, but measurements of water oxygen contents were confined to the UK sites where conditions were more favourable. Samples of rust were removed from the various marine exposure zones at some sites. ‘These were chemically analysed and the phases present identified by x-ray diffraction analysis techniques. At a limited number of cites, permission was given to remove small samples of steel piling for chemical analyses and these showed that corrosion was confined mostly to the seaward face of the piling. 5 RESULTS Unlike an earlier technical report on these researches, which dealt exclusively with the corrosion results fron UX porta and harbours and which used steel residual thickness profiles to illustrate the results(4), thie roport is ossontially statistical in its presentation of results and data analyses although residual thickness profiles, line drawings and photographs are used to illustrate sone typical or noteworthy feature of the corrosion obsevations- 5.1 Corrosion Results For the individual UK ports and harbours, the corrosion results are given as the corrosion rate versus frequency distributions in Figures 5 to 19. Figure 20 gives the available corrosion data from below sea-bed level. Residual thickness profiles are shown in Figures 21 and 22. Photographic illustrations of typical examples of waterfront structure corrosion are given in Figures 23 to 29. Residual thickness profiles for corroded steel piling in Cyprus are shown in Figures 30 to 39 and corrosion rate versus frequency distributions are given in Figure 40. Photographic illustrations are given in Figures 41 to 44. Corrosion results for the United Arab Emiratos (UAE) are given as residual thickness profiles in Pigures 45 to 49. Figure 50 contains the corrosion rate versus frequency distributions. Photographic illustrations of corroded piling are shown in Figures 51 to 56. ‘Table 1 presents a summary of all the corrosion data for each of the sites investigated. 5.2 Analyses Of Sea-Water, Rusts and Steel Chemical and other data on sea-water are given in Table 2. The results from chemical and x-ray diffraction analyses of rusts and other surface deposits from the steel piles, are given in Tables 3 and 4 respectively. Table 5 gives chemical analyses of steels used in UK ports and harbours. 6 biscussi0w Before discussing the results obtained From the in-situ corrosion investigations, it is important Eo examine in some detail a number of practical difficulties inherent in this type of work. ‘The first difficulty relates to estimating the original thicknesses of the steel piles examined. At the time the piles were rolled, the only guide to their probable thicknesses would be their nominal "as-rolled" values apart from quality Control measurements which are now no longer available. These nominal "as-rolled" thicknesses are also subject to variations from permitted and unavoidable rollingPRSOT 811 7210.KB/804 tolerances which in the UK, amount to +4.08 and -2.5$ on theoretical section mass. Care is taken during manufacture, to ensure close dimensional tolerances in for example, cluteh centres and clearances so that any mass tolerances usually appear as variations in pile thickness. In practice, piles are rolled very close to their Specified nominal thickness although it occasionally happens that when some piles are measured after several years' service, they are seen to have been either under- rolled or over-rolled on nominal thickness. Tn all the work carried out in this research, estimates of tho original steel thickness were made as far as possible where corrosion was evidently minimal, for example, where steel was deeply embedded in conerete or driven into undisturbed soils or harbour beds. Where the piles remained locally protected by rennants of paint systems or where any paint system had been carefully maintained and had afforded protection to the underlying steel, then other estimates of the original steel thickness could be obtained for compar~ ison with the nominal “as-rolled” thickness. ‘The second difficulty relates to making reliable residual thickness measurenents on corroded steelwork, Some asgurance is needed that reliable measurements can be nade from the accessible face of a waterfront structure, usually from the seaward side. The uncertainty lies in the assumption that the inaccessible landward side of the piling may also be corroded and that access for measurement from one side only, will give erroneous residual thickness readings. Experiments were therefore carried out on marine corroded steelwork using a combination of micrometer and ultrasonic thickness measurements. Tt vas found that providing the accessible face of the steel was cleaned free from rust, marine fouling and finally ground smooth and flat in the test area, reliable ultragonic residual thicknoss measurements could be made Any corrosion pitting on the reverse side of the steel was apparently taken into account by an averaging process of the pulse reflection times from the corrosion pitting troughs and crests, The ultrasonic technique was found to give slightly lower residial thickness readings than vere obtained from the use of flat anviligd micrometers which can measure only the peak-to-peak values of residual thickness"), ‘The third difficulty relates to the treatment of the residual thickness data which often show considerable scatter mostly from measurements of localised and often deep pitting corrosion especially in splash zone and low-water zone areas. In Section 4.1, it was stated that objections might be raised to estimating steel corrosion rates from thickness loss measurements and the age of the structure. ‘hese objections might refer to uncertainties over the original thickness of the steel and the "effective age" of the structure if paint coatings had at some time been used to control corrosion. The problems and uncertainties concerning original and final steel thicknesses have now been discussed and solutions to minimise these uncertainties proposed and implemented into the site investigation techniques. Further assurance 1s provided by testing only those structures with long service lives, often in excess of 20 years, during which any steel thickness losses from corrosion will be great compared with uncertainties over the steel original thick~ ness values. Similarly, paint lives were short compared with structure ages so that errors in estimating the "effective" structure life were also small and defined to be the number of years elapsed since degradation of the paint system. Such information was often available from the site engineering and maintenance records. 6.1 Site Corrosion Surveys ‘The site corrosion work involved the acquisition of quantitative corrosion data and general observations of relevance. Figures 1 to 3 show the site locations in the UK, Cyprus and the UAE respectively. Around Water: 6.1.1 The Marine Enviro: nt Struct: Pigure 4 shows schematically the location of the various marine exposure zones found on waterfront eeructures. Within a few metres of vertical zoning, the environtient in which steel is used varies from below the sea-bed level through a totally water immersed zone into the intertidal and splash zones and finally, the marine atmospheric zone. These zones are bounded by the tide levels and each is Subject to characteristic marine fouling by plants and animals. The tidal range in the UK varied from 2.5 to 8.5 metres, that in Cyprus by 0.4 metres and in the UAE by about 1.5 metres.PREO7 B11 7210.KB/804 The splash zone is located above the mean high water level and its extent above mean high water will depend upon mean wave height and the prevailing wind speed and direction together with the wash from shipping movements. The latter in busy ports fand harbours, can cause frequent and appreciable wave action. ‘There is no marine fouling on and above the splash zone and steel is therefore exposed to the full effects of wind and waves. ‘he intertidal zone may be regarded as situated between the mean high and mean Low water levels, In practice, the complex nature of tides, especially in the UK, where appreciable differences exist in the levels of neap and’ spring tides, makes the true boundaries of the intertidal zone difficult to locate. Unlike the splash zone, the intertidal zone is covered with marine plants and animals which require a stable attachment platform. Filamentous green seaweeds are found together with dense Coverings of barnacles. Towards the low water limit of the intertidal zone, some mussels may occur together with anemones and sea-squirts. The presence of marine fouling in the intertidal zone affords appreciable protection to the underlying steel as the latter is exposed twice daily to wind and wave action between tides. Thus the intertidal zone has some of the environmental characteristics of the splash zone Se the sea-water level varies. It also possesses full immersion zone characteristics for several hours during each day. In some enclosed ports and harbours, slight and unavoidable ofl pollution was found to inhibit marine growths. ‘The low water zone is an important feature of the UK sites investigated and lies Approximately between the levels of low neap and low spring tides. It is rarely fully exposed because of the appreciable differences in neap and spring tide levels. In this zone, characteristic marine plants and animals are found although in some ports and harbours, these have been removed by the abrasive action of fendering Systens and moored vessels, more so on the outward facing pans of sheet piled Structures. “This loss of fouling and attendant abrasive action is thought to be an important aspect of low water zone corrosion. In the UAE, very dense layers of coral-like growths were often found at the low water level. ‘he fully immersed zone is self-explanatory and it lies at all levels from approximately mean low water level to the sea-bed. Its upper boundary is variable where appreciable differences exist in the neap and spring tide levels and where dense Mattes of seaweeds attached to the piles are often found. At lower levels, and especially in clear waters, as occur for example in the Shetland Islands and the hrabian Gulf, prolific growths of marine plants and animals could be seen down to sea-bed level. ‘The sea-bed and levels below are frequently sand and silt doposits overlying the natural soil or rock strata for the area. The piles are driven into the harbour bed to a depth depending upon the structural engineering requirements of the piled installation, 6.1.2 Quantitative Corrosion Measurements ‘he measured residual thicknesses of the steel piles together with their ages, were used to calculate linear annual corrosion rates. Frequency groupings were prepared with corrosion rate intervals of 0.0lmm from which corrosion rate versus frequency distribution diagrams were prepared. In this way, all the quantitative corrosion data could be presented as a series of diagrams for the splash, intertidal, low water and immersion zones. Corrosion data for below the sea bed exposures were prepared in a similar manner, aYthough the data were not as numerous as those for Ehe other marine exposure zones and they relate to piles extracted from the harbour beds at Larne and Campbeltown in the UK. ‘The corrosion rate frequency distributions clearly show the variation in corrosion between the various marine exposure zones and the variability of corrosion within a particular zone. Some data tend towards infrequent but very high corrosion rates . tending to give the frequency distributions a positive skewness. These higher corrosion rates arise mostly from the measurement of deeply pitted areas or specially selected areas showing appreciable steel thickness losses ‘The interpretation of the data contained in the frequency distributions will depend upon whether the emphasia is on corrosion research or engineering applications. In the former case, the use of the mean or average results might be justified, but for engineering applications, some corrosion rate value appreciably ia excess Sf the meanR597 811 7210.KB/804 6.1.3.5 Corrosion Below Harbour Bed Level In the UK At Larne in Northern Ireland, piles had been extracted as pact of the harbour reconstruction works and at Campbeltown, a broken mooring dolphin had been extracted as being hazardous to shipping. The piling thus extracted enabled measurements to be made of the corrosion below harbour bed level. ‘These were the only cases of underground corrosion studies made in these researches. The extracted piles, once cleaned free from compacted harbour bed muds, silts and stones, were found to be only very superficially corroded, the worst coreosion danage being isolated corrosion pits. Millscale from the hot rolling process was found intact on sone areas of the exizacted piles. these obsejvations gre entirely consistent with other BSC researches and researches elsewhere (®v10/{1/13). gary little corrosion was found on the total landward side of all extracted piles. The corrosion data in Figure 20 show that underground corrosion rates tend towards very low values with a mean of 0,02mm/year. The higher P, value of 0.0Smm/year | includes measurements of isolated corrosion pits of no sthuctural significance. 6.1.3.6 Examples Of typical UK Waterfront structure Corrosion Figures 21 and 22 are typical residual thickness profiles of two waterfront etructures at Larne and Southampton. They illustrate the variation in corrosion as a function of the marine exposure zone and also highlight the low water zone corrosion on the outpans of the piles. The low level of underground corrosion is well illus:rated in Figure 21 for the Continental Quay in Larne Harbour. Berth No. 6 in Southampton Docks is well sheltered and this results in a comparatively low splash zone corrosion rate (Figure 22). The complete set of residual thickness profiles for all UK ports and harbou:s has appeared in a previous Technical Report (4) , Figures 23 and 24 show examples of marine tidal zoning and heavy splash zone rusting at Carradale and Lerwick respectively. Examples of splash and intertidal zone corrosion are given in Figures 25 and 26 for Campbeltown and Southampton respectively. Low water zone corrosion is illustrated in Figures 27 and 28 at Larne Harbour and Southampton Docks. In particular, Figure 28 shows the presence of heavy marine fouling on the inward facing pans whereas the adjacent outward facing pans show per- forations and only superficial levels of mainly seaweed fouling associated vith orange-red rusting. Finally, examples of intertidal zone and low water zone marine fouling are given in Figure 29. 6.1.4 Stoel Piling Corrosion In Cyprus The ports of Paphos, Limassol and Larnaca were chosen for the corrosion investigations (Figure 2). Previous Technical Reports contained no corrosion data for Cyprus and, therefore, residual thickness profiles for all the piles examined are given in | Figures 30 to 39. Corrosion rate frequency distributions are given in Figure 40 ‘The similarities betwoon the appearance of corroded piling in Cyprus and in the UK, were remarkable and many of the UK general observations apply equally to Cyprus. ‘The major difference between Cyprus and the UK was in the tidal range differences. Those in Cyprus varied by only 0.4 metres compared with 2.5 to 8.5 metres in the UK, and there is, therefore, only a small intertidal zone in Cyprus and it is difficult to distinguish between this and the splash zone. 6.1.4.1 Splash Zone Corrosion In Cyprus ‘The piling at Paphos and in the Old Harbour at Limassol were the only examples of splash zone exposures because elsewhere, the splash zone was embedded In concrete. Figures 30 to 32 (Paphos) and Figures 33 to 36 (Limassol Old Harbour) show the characteristic splash zone corrosion peak. Figure 40 shows that the distribution of splash zone corrosion rates is towards higher values than in the UK (Figure 19) Table 1 shows that the mean value is 0.10nm/yoar with a P, value of O.2inm/year. Splash-zone corrosion is, therefore, about 17% higher thai in the UK on P, value comparisons but very similar on the basis of mean corrosion rate values.R597 812 7210.KB/804 6.1.4.2 Intertidal Zone Corrosion In Cyprus Measurements were made in the narrow zone marked by the upper and lower tide levels, gave a mean corrosion rate of 0.04mm/year and a P, value of O.llmm/year (Table 1 and Figure 40). These values are identical with thosé for the UK. 6.1.4.3 Low Water Zone Corrosion In Cyprus Because of the limited tidal range in Cyprus, the alnost constant water level was considered a possible source of “water-line" corrosion attack on the piles. Measure— ments made just below water level showed only a weak low water zone corrosion effect Compared with conditions in the UK. Thie effect can be seen in Figure 30 (Paphos) and in Figures 33 to 35 (Limassol Old Harbour) where an underwater corrosion peak is evident just below mean water level. Elsewhere in Cyprus, the use of concrete copings to well below mean water level at Larnaca, or the use of cathodic protection {n association with protective coatings (Limassol New Harbour) prevented any observable low water corrosion effects. Table 1 and Figure 40 show that the mean low water corrosion rate is 0.09mm/year with a P, value of 0,16mm/year. 6.1.4.4 Immersion Zone Corrosion In Cyprus As in the UK, marine fouling could be seen on the immersion zone to sea-bed level and this was readily removed showing a lightly corroded underlying steel surface. Examination of Figures 30 to 39 (with the exception of Figure 37 which is a special case to be discussed) generally show a much reduced corrosion than elsewhere on the structure. i Table 1 and Pigure 40 give a mean immersion zone corrosion rate of 0.0Smm/year and a P, value of 0.11nn/year. Figure 37 was obtained on piling used in the new harbour at Limassol which was | completed about 10 years ago. The immersion zone was coated with a coal tar pitch epoxy paint and an impressed current cathodic protection was installed. Enquiries Showed that the protective system was regularly maintained under contract. It is clear from Pigure 37 that the system is completely effective, although whether it is i Gost effective or necessary will be discussed in a later section of the report. 6.1.4.5 Typical Examples Of Waterfront Structure Corrosion In Cyprus Pigures 41 to 44 show typical examples of corroded piling. Figure 41 shows the thickness of piling in Limassol Old Harbour being measured ultrasonically. The areas of steol cleaned for this purpose can be seen both above and below the water level. In this area of the harbour, slight oil pollution has inhibited marine growths. Pigure 42 illustrates the clarity of the sea-water at Paphos and the prolific marine fouling in the immersion zone. The narrow intortidal zone can be seen as a darker band partly below and partly above the water level. Figure 43 is a view of the rubblebank at the entrance to the Old Harbour, Limassol. The splash zone is Clearly visible and part of the narrow intertidal zone is shown at the line of barnacle fouling. Figure 44 is a close view of the corroded splash zone on the rubblebank shown in | Pigure 43, The photograph shows areas of steel prepared for residual thickness measurements. Note the marine fouling on the piling which is in contrast to the pile shown in Figure 4) 6 5 Steel Piling Corrosion In The United Arab Emirates ‘The corrosion investigations were centred around Dubai Creek which is a broad sea inlet running through the city of Dubai and where piled retaining walls have been built along the greater length of both banks of the Creek. The exposures vary from the very severe where the Creek joins the Arabian Gulf at Shindagah to the moderately sheltered regions around the Al Haktum Bridge about Skm from the entrance to the Creek.FRs97 811 7210.KB/804 Corrosion investigations were also carried out at a rock loading jetty at mina Saqr. until recently, this jetty was very exposed to the Arabian Gulf. Figure 3 shows the location of these sites. The preliminary investigations of the piled retaining walls in the middle stretches of Dubai Creek were surprisipg in that despite the high ambient temperatures of 44°c and water temperatures of 32°C, the general appearance of the piling was not Gissimilar to that in the UK and Cyprus. ‘The splash zone was free of fouling and barnacles grew in profusion to the mean high water level together with the usual Filamentous green seaveeds. At low water level, the fouling was extremely thick and below low water and into the immersion zone, corals could be seen growing on the piling, especially in partly shaded installations. As the mouth of the Creek was approached, splash zone corrosion was found t> be very severe and was worst at Shindagah. Remnants of paint coatings were also found. Otherwise the intertidal zones and the inmersion zone appeared to he heavily en- crusted with fouling but not especially more corroded than piling examined in the UK or Cyprus. At Mina Sage, the piling rose about 1.8 metres above mean high water level and an appreciable marine atmospheric zone extended above the splash zone which was found to be perforated at sone places all at about the same level above the water Line. ‘The intertidal zone appeared normal and not dissimilar to those scen elsewhere As with Cyprus, no corroeion data for the United Arab Emirates have appeared in previous Technical Reports and, therefore, residual thickness profiles are given in Figures 45 to 49 for all the piles examined. Corrosion rate frequency distributions are given in Pigure 50. 6.1.5.1 Splash Zone Corrosion In The United Arab Emirates Examination of the residual thickness profiles in Figures 45 to 49 show the characteristic splash zone corrosion peak just above the mean high water level. Table 1 and Figure 50 shows that the mean splash zone corrosion rate was 0.14mn/year with a P) value of 0.22mn/year. This is about 22% higher than the UK splash zone | corrosioh rate. ‘he view might be taken that a splash zone corrosion rate of 0.22mm/year for the hot and humid environment o£ the Arabian Gulf, is probably too low. It was noticed however, that exposure of the piling to strong sunlight produced very high stool temperatures and any wetting from wave action was almost "flash-dricd". This observation, together with the very thick rusts observed on some splash zone areas, suggests that a limiting splash zone corrosion rate could be established albeit at @ higher level than that observed elsewhere. | 6.1.5.2 Intertidal Zone Corrosion In The United Arab Emirates Removal of intertidal zone fouling showed the underlying steel to be only moderately corroded with brand marks visible on some piles. Examination of the residual thickness profiles shown in Figures 45 to 49, and the data given in Table 1 and Figure 50, show, that as with steel piling examined in the UK and Cyprus, the inter- tidal zoné is characterised by a reduction in corrosion rate compared with she splash zone. The mean intertidal zone corrosion was found to be 0.OTmn/year with a P. value (see Table 1) of 0.14mm/year which is similar to the values for the UF ahd cyprus. 6.1.5.3 Low Water Zone Corrosion In The United Arab Buirates Despite the heavy fouling noted at the low water zone, corrosion was found to fallow similar trends to piling studied elsewhere. Figures 45 and 46 showing the residual thickness profiles for the Custom wharf piles in Dubai, show the characteristic corrosion peak at or near the low water level. Other piling, (Figures 47 to 49) show no clear evidence of an increased low water corrosion rate. Table 1 and Figure 50 show that the mean low water zone corrosion rate was 0.07mm/ year with a P) value of 0.13nn/year qoFRSO7 811 7210..KB/804 6.1.5.4 In sion Zone Corrosion In The United Arab Bnirates ‘The residual thickness profiles of Figures 45 to 49 all show a characteristic reduction in corrosion rate in the immersion zone. It was reported by the diver that the underwater fouling was readily removed from the steel piling revealing generally smooth steel surfaces on which brand marks were clearly visible. Table 1 and Pigure 50 show that the immersion zone mean corrosion rate was 0.08mn/ year and that the P, value was 0.12mm/year. Thus the immersion zone corrosion rate Was found to be clokely similar to those for the UK and Cyprus. 5.1.5.5 Typical Waterfront Structure Corrosion In The UAE Figures 51 to 56 show examples of steel pile corrosion in the United Arab Emirates. Pigure 51 is a general view of the very exposed shindagah groyne showing severe splash zone corrosion. Low water and immersion zone fouling is clearly visible The groyne is at the mouth of Dubai Creek. | Pigure 52 1s a closer view of the Shindagah groyne splash zone on which remants | of a hot tar enamel paint can be seen. ‘The paint 1s overlying rusts 10mm thick. Figure 53 is a general view of the Palace Wharf in Dubai Creek showing a much reduced splash zone corrosion compared with that on the Shindagah groyne. Note the very thick marine fouling at the low water line. | | Figure. 54, shows the. aplioh, #84 maeine wusckphebit vona corcosion on steel. piles | Forming the rock ieading jetty at Mina Sage’ The holes in the corroded splash zone seen tke tlesriy vieitle 22 if the reduction of corrosion in the marine s¢noapheri¢ zone. his photograph should be compared with Figure 49 which gives the residual thickness profile for this jetty. Pigures 55 and 56 are underwater views of the marine fouling on piled structures in Dubai Creck. The good condition of the underlying steel is clearly visible where the fouling has been removed to make residual thickness measurements 6.2 Environmental Effects On Corrosion Yable 2 gives tidal ranges, physical and chemical data on the waters from all sites investigated with the exception of Tranmere for which only the tidal range is given The Table enables these data to be compared with the average corrasion rates for steel. | ‘he significance of the sulphate determinations, is that sulphate, or other sulphur | conpounds in the sea-water, may be the source of similar compounds in the rust layers rather than arising’ from anaerobic sulphate reducing bacterial corrosion activity. Bacterial corrosion will be discussed in Section 6.4. obvious relationships between then and the measured corrosion rates except for a positive temperature effect on splash zono corrosion, clearly evident in the United hrab Emirates but much less 0 between the UK and Cyprus. Irrespective of the tidal range, the tides must cycle twice daily. Ports witha high tidal range will therefore cycle water at a faster vertical rate than those ports with low tidal ranges. ‘The only effect of tidal range is to determine the vertical extent of the harine exposure zones and, therefore, the distribution but not the amount of Corrosion. Enviranmental factors such as temperature, salinity, conductivity and oxygen content, may be important in establishing the initial corrosion rate of steel, but as rusting develops and fouling becomes established, their offect must diminish. ‘his is because the immediate environment of the steel becomes no longer sea-water, and corrosion rates will then depend upon the effectiveness of the layers of rust ‘nd fouling attached to the steel in inhibiting the corrosion process. Support for this view cones from the remarkably sigilar intertidal and immersion zone corrosion rates over a range of latitude from 25°" to 6O°N. It appears that whatever the initial rates of corrosion might be as a function of latitude and, therefore, of climate, an equilibrium is eventually established hetween the dissolution rate of steel and the marine environment. Despite the effort involved in acquiring these environmental data, there are no uFRE97 811 7210. KB/804 copper-bearing and copper-free steels in the same quay wall. After 26 years! | exposure at Belfast, only marginal and not commercially or structurally useful differences in corrosion behaviour were found for the copper-bearing steels. For these reasons, the results are sensitive from a marketing viewpoint which hitherto has stressed only immersion zone corrosion rates and claimed benefits for copper additions to steel. Until the marketing implications can be fully assessed, there is the risk that thé technical aspects of the work could be misunderstood and markets for steel damaged. ‘The authors feel, however, that the researches have merely confirmed what many port and harbour engineers have long since suspected about the performance of steel piles, When, during the site investigations, explanations for corrosion damage were Given, fears allayed about bacterial corrosién, and the importance stressed about | Rechanical causes of steel thickness losses, there was no suggestion that future markets for steel might be damaged. In many cases, there was a positive response to the findings and in sone cases, orders for new steel piles are known to have come fron ports and harbours which featured in the researches. It is possible, there- fore, that fears of an adverse market reaction are unfounded. 8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ‘Thirteen ports in the UK and others in Cyprus and the United Arab Bmirates were selected for in-situ corrosion investigations on steel piled waterfront structures. on the basis of ultrasonic residual thickness measurements and the known age of the structures, the splash and low water zones were found to be equally the most | corroded in UK waters. Low water zone thickness losses in the UK were increased by Floating fendering systeme which caused abrasion damage where these rubbed against piles. In Cyprus and the UAE, the splash zones were the most corroded. Intertidal Zone and inmersion zone corrosion rates were similar everyshere with a moderate increase in corrosion from the higher ambient temperatures in the UAB. Data analyses were directed at satisfying the research, marketing and engineering uses of the research. The following results were obtained treating the UK, Cyprus and the UAE as three separate geographical areas. : 1 Geographical toring Corrosion fates na/yeas ; eee Splash | Intertidal | Low Water | Immersion | Below Sea i one fone Zone tone | Bed Level 1 UK 0.18 O.1L 0.18* 0.14 0.05 i (oL08)**|—(O208) (0108) (0205) (0.02) cyprus on | Or O.16 oan = (0:10) | _ (0:04) (9:09) (0:08) | vag 0.22 | o.l4 0.13, 0.12 - | eth | won | won | ion * Abrasion damage may locally increase steel thickness losses to 0.41mm/year- ** wean values shown in parentheses. An interesting and important observation was that corrosion losses were almost wholly on the seaward side, the landward or infilled side being only superficially corroded. No obvious relationship was found between site environmental factors and the measured corrosion rates except for heavier splash zone rusting in exposed sites and marked tidal effects on the distribution but not the amount of corrosion. Bacterial corrosion was probably implicated at most sites, but there was no evidence For significant corrosion damage arising from this. With the single exception of protected piling exposed underwater in the new port at Limassol, there was little evidence that paint coatings had performed effectively and this is’attributed to a combination of the very great practical problens of cost effective maintenance painting on waterfront structures, the aggressive a7FRSS7 811 7210.KB/804 environment and the possibility that most of the structures examined would not have had the benefit from modern paint formulations and surface preparation techniques. Two cathodically protected structures were examined and these had performed very well, although the need and economics were questioned. ‘The engineering implications of the research were discussed with particular emphasis on the importance of considering the distribution of both stresses and corrosion when designing in steel. Fendering systems were considered both from the Gamage they cause and their potential to limit damage given changes in design philosophy. Quality paints for protecting steel were briefly discussed and some fostings given at 1980 prices. The alternatives of designing with a corrosion loss Sllowance were considered using either thicker steel where possible, or the use of high yield steel at mild steel stresses. ‘he major marketing implications of the work Lie in the uncertainties of customer reactions to the higher than previously quoted corrosion rates and the doubtful Sdvantages of copper additions to steel piling. There is also the concern that the echnical content of these researches may be misunderstood without the supporting background experience acquired during the conduct of the researches and which was So vital to their interpretation. Tt is recommended that until the marketing implications are fully assessed, publication of this report is carefully restricted and if possible, British Steel Corporation is afforded the courtesy of influencing either its distribution or of its revision into a document suitable for general release. It is also recommended that a survey be carried out to determine designer attitudes towards the service lives expected from waterfront structures and what new technologies in port and ship handling techniques are likely to affect structure lives. ‘The results of such a survey would indicate whether or not existing grades of steel and methods of protection are adequate, or whether new grades of marine Structural steels are needed with improved corrosion performance. Any new steels would need to be cast effective both to the user and the steelmaker and particular Bttention would centre on strength, ductility and weldability in addition to improved corrosion resistance. REFERENCES 1. Laverne L Watkins “CORROSION AND PROTECTION OF STEEL PILING IN SEA-WATER" ‘echnical Memorandun No. 27, May 1569 U.S Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Bhgineering Research Centre, Washington DC & Escalante et al "CORROSION AND PROTECTION OF STEEL PILES IN A NATURAL SEAWATER ENVIRONMENT" U.S Department of Commerce: National Bureau of Standards Monograph 158 H Arup et al Various Reports Danish Corrosion Centro Marine Laboratory, kyndby, Dennark J Morley “SURVEY OF STEEL PILING PERFORMANCE IN MARINE ENVIRONMENTS Technical Report No. 4 CSC Agreement No. 7210.KB/804 BSC Ref: 59-4 (STF) 801 J Morley “DHE USE OF MICROMBTERS AND AN ULTRASONIC THICKNESS METER ON CORRODED STEELWORK British Steel Corporation Technica: Report No. T/CS/906/2/77/C 6. H Arup Private Communication 187210-KB/804 FR597 811 ‘SHORIVSTISIANT NOTSORWOD NUIS=NE_WOI Stak NI SHLI~ JSG JO NOTGWOOT 1s ‘ ay fo wasoarn @ ae vas NYaNWEuaEIOaN eoeuzey snuaao 30R597 811 7210. KB/804 Mina Sagr Ney GULF OF OMAN . UNITED ARAB # EMIRATES hase, FIG. 3 IN THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES LOCATION OF TES? sr FOR IN-SITU CORROSION INVESTIGATIONS aL| FRS97 811 MEAN HIGH WATER LEVEL MEAN LOW WATER LEVEL 7210.KB/804 L CONCRETE CAP ° DISTANCE FROM UNDERSIDE OF CONCRETE CAP (METRES) PILE TYPE: FRODENGHRN 3 d a Ace: 19 YEARS : 8 q \ CREEK BED LEVEL mrrrpprmpme\ err ob BS | ret 78 3 wo RESIDUAL ORIGINAL Tirceness —‘THneNOnSs (mm) 11-7 wre 45 CUSTOMS WHARF_NO. 1 = pupa CREER. J 69 TED ARAB EMIRATESFRS97 811 7210.B/204 L concrete caP fo wean nrcH os waten Deve aac L —o— onan enw Low d WATER LEVEL oer bh \ prstavce enol Conenare ene / (METRES) | 3 goo ft PILE YDB; LARSSEN 26 | AGE: 15 YEARS \ Q 5 | i 6 b 6 | é sp CREEK BED LEVEL epg bprpoale oH os 8 sn nesipox, ——gara¥at Binckness —‘TAICRNESS tan) Dian Pio 46 CUSTOMS WHARP_NO. 2 = pUBAL CREEK, UNITED ARAB ENIRATES 707210.KB/804 FRSQ7 811 E CONCRETE CAP fo wens arc vate ever § AL PILE 1 Los —o— Fue 2 ¥ coo Pm 3 MEAN LOW ft 2. Moe ta prseance prow BILE CA d nines) df. PIE TYPE: LARSSEN WOW 2 “aReEvulttou DomeMo) act: 21 veans 3 eREEK Bo LEVEL. wemmmlgen — 7 a5 nesioune Tidaeés — onronat ty? Sums oun ic 47 2 prs sanken) TRAINING WALL NO. ([DUBAT CREEK, UNITED ARAB EMIRATES mnaut R597 7210.KB/804 BACKFILL ace INPAN o-. ouTPAN DISTANCE FROM POP OF PILE (METRES) MEAN HIGH WATER LEVEL MEAN LOW / RATER LEVEL, nnn PILE TYPE: IARSSEN NO. BED DEPTH 7OIPII IIIT AGE: 21 YEARS Soo 7 6 7 8 9 10 ni wD RESIDUAL THICKNESS (nm) ORIGINAL ‘THICKNESS 140mm FIG 48 SHINDAGAH _GROYNE DUBAI CREEK, UNITED ARAB EMIRATES nR597 811 MEAN HIGH WATER LEVEL MEAN LOW WATER LEVEL LARSSEN 20 (HUTTENUNTON DORTMUND) AGE: 13 YEARS PILE TYPE: A 7210.KB/804 CONCRETE CAP a--g--- INPAN 1 —o— ourpan 2 DISTANCE FROM UNDERSIDE OF CONCRETE CAP 3 (MEPRES) 4 5 6 7 ne ee ou a a RESIDUAL ‘THICKNESS (um) 45 6 Fic 49 ORIGINAL ‘THICKNESS 7.0mm ROCK LOADING JETTY. EMIRATES srw 13