Unit 1 Habitual behaviour in the present A The present simple is used for habitual actions or permanent situations in the present. 1 go for a run twice a week. She lives near the park. B Frequency adverbs are used to indicate how often an action occurs. They are usually placed: 1 before the main verb, Labways go to bed before midnight 2 after the verb to be or an auxiliary verb. She is very often lae jor work They have rarely boon scot together 3 Usually, normally, frequents, somesines, (werviguite) often and occastonatly can also be placed at the beginning of the senience or clause. Occasionally we go out to the cinema, but usually we stay in and watels a DVD. NB alvays, rarely, seldom, hardly ev be used in the same way and never cannot 4 Sometimes and auiteinot very often can be placed at the tend of the sentence or clause, Farin vets have 10 do some pretty unpleasant things sometimes. I dont go to the emema very often. 5 Adverb phrases such as now and again, from time to rime, twice a week and every day are placed at the beginning or end of a clause or sentence, but not between the subject and the see Paul ai work every day and from etme wo time we Ihave lune together. Alternatives 1 The present continuous + always is used to talk about things which occur frequently and which the speaker finds annoying. He’s always complaining about something! 2 Adiectives can be used as an alternative to rarely normally and (101) usually. 175 rareMnormali(eajestal for hive 10 eat nica. 3 Tend (0 + infinitive is used to make general statements about the habitual actions and situations of groups ol people or individuals. British people tend to drink: tea rather thaw coffee Hend not (o get up very early on Sundays. 4 Will + infinitive is used to talk about habitual behaviour. Frequeney adverbs can also be added. She'll sometimes spend the whole day reading 10 like someone 10 do something is used to suggest that the way a person has behaved 1s not typical of them character, in surprised Graham didn't send me a card. Its not like him to forget my birthday. (He doesn't usually forget it) Habitual behaviour in the past A ‘The past simple is used for regular actions or habitual behaviour in the past, often with a frequency adver’ hardly ever went awvay on holiday when Tas sonny B Used to + infinitive is used to refer to past habits and situations which no Tonger oveu oF exist nov Frequency adverbs can be used for emphasis and are placed before used 10. We used to have a cat, but he died last year Lalways used to walk 0 work until I boughs a car Note the negative and question forms: I didn’t use to like cheese. Where did vou use to live? NB use fo cannot express present habitual behaviour usualy (not use 10} play terms twice a week C Would + infinitive is used to refer to past habits. but not past situations. Frequency adverbs are placed alter would, Habit My fater would ofen read tome when I wes a Situation: f used to (not would) have a bicvele. Stative verbs such as have (possession), be, lve, ike, believe, think (= have an opinion), understand and know are nol used with would to refer to the past. Be used to/get used to + noun or gerund Be used 10 + noun/gerund means ‘to be accustomed to’ She's a nurse so she's used to seeing sick people. nd means ‘become accustomed (0'- T want to leave Athens; I can't get used to the heat. Unit 2 Indirect ways of asking questions Arica ue yeent is Cail tne sal wont a more indirect way. Indirect questions can sound more polite diam direct ones. Could you tell me what time it is? Would you mind telling me where he works? We'd like to know when you first started singing. ‘When asking indirect questions the same word order is used as when we make statements. The auxiliary verbs, do, does and did. are omitted. If or whether is used if there is no question word such as where, what, why, wher, who and love Could you tell us iffwhether you are married? Ger used t0 + nouniger Gerunds and infi ives AA The gorund is used in the following cas 1 as the subjectiobjecticomplement of a clause or sentence: Subject: Reading in the car makes me feel sick. Object: / find shopping for clothes really bor Complement: My favourite sport is swintming. 2 afier prepositions Tir woe very goudd ae mucins this 3 aller certain verbs Peter suggested going jor a picnic D> The Laflatcive with ety used: 1 to express purpose nt learning English to help me get a better job 209Grammar reference 2 after many adjectives, ex. delighted, disappointed, easy, happy, important, lucky, necessary, normal, possible, surprised 1 was sneprived to hear she had failed the exam 3 after certain verbs He offared to give hor lif, but she decided to walk: C The infinitive without fais used: 1 afier modal verbs. Yow ean look ati, but yon musta’ touche it 2 after help, let, make, would rather, had beter Vd better go To is optional ifan infinitive is used after help. Classical music helps me (to) relax. D Gerunds and infinitives after verbs Verb + gerund: Hove you finished cleaning your row? is late. I'd rather stay here, though ‘The following verbs, like finish, are normally followed by the verund: certain verbs expressing likes and dislikes: adore, detest, dislike, enjoy, dont mind, cant stand bother verbs: admit, avoid, can't help, consider, deloy, deny, fee like, forsive, imagine, involve, keep, ‘mind, miss, postpone, put of, practise, prevent rere resist i 2 Verb + infinitive with 10: He promised not to tell anyone what she had said. The following verbs, like promrize, are normally followed by the infinitive with to: ean) afford, agree, appear, aranse, ask, attempr, choose, decide, deserve, expect, fail hesitate hop, learn, mariage, ofier, prepare, pretend, refuse, sem. b With these verbs, a direct object is needed: aulvise allow, enable, encourage, force, invite, order persuade, econmmend, remind, teach, well, warn My iob enables me £0 use my laricuae skis © The infinitive with 40 is also used alter: would like, would love, would hate, would prefer. 3 Verb + gerund or infinitive with to: € like, love, hate and prefer are usually followed by the yerund. However, the iufinitive with 09 is also possible with little, if any, difference in meaning. Hove going/to go for long walks in the hills. The infinitive with 0 1s common after hate for specific situations, and after fike when it means be itt the habit of T hate 10 interrupt, but we really must be gotns. Hike to have a shower when I get home from work b begin, start, continue and intend can be followed by the gerund or infinitive with no change in meaning. She fell over and started eryingito ery. € fort, remember, go on, mean, need, stop and try can be followed by the gerund or the infinitive with fo, but with a change in meaning. ‘© remember + gerund = recall a previous action I remember coming here when I was young. forget + gerund is not often used to talk about an action you do not recall. Instead, not remember is used. 1 don't remember seeing in at the part reinemberjforget + infinitive = (not) remember what you have to do 210 We must remember ta feed the oat bufire wo yn Don’ forget to phone me if you need any help. ‘© goon + gerund = continue with the same activity ‘Some footballers go on playing professionally sit, they're nearly 40. gv ott + infinitive = change to a different activity Afier a successful career as a football player, Sohan Cruyff went on to become a respected manager. involve ‘© mean + gerunk Dieting usually means giving up things you enjoy. mean + infinitive = intend I meant to phone she electrician but I forgot © need + gerund = (passive meaning) This house needs painting. (~ noeds to be painted) need + infinitive = (active meaning) T need to get some new shoe. «© stop + gerund = no longer do something ve stopped smoking: its too expensive. stop + infinitive = interrupt one activity in order to do another Let's stop to buy some sweets on the way home. ‘© ry + gerund ~ experiment in order to see what will happen Try resting for a while: you might feel better then. tay + infinitive = attempt to do something Alan tried to stop the thief as he ran away. Unit 3 Comparisons A Forms 41 Regular one-syllable adjectives a add er and -est to the adjective. Adjective Comparative Superlative cheap. cheaper the cheapest Other examples: clean, dark, light, short, tal, slow badd rand -sf to adjpotives ending in late later the latest Other examples: lange, loose, safe, strange, wise © double the consonant of adjectives ending in a short vowel and a consonant, and add -er and -esi ahi dines the thinnest Other examples: far, sad, wer, red, big, hot, fit 2 Rewular adjectives with more than one syllable: use more and nrost (or less and least) in front of the adjective. sink more sincere the most Other examples: boring, carefud, moder, comfortable b change -y to i and add er and ~st to adjectives ending in» after a consonant happy happier the happiest Other examples: ditty, friendly, funny, noisy, silly, iy © aimited number of two-syilable adjectives can form the comps nd superlative in wo was. stupid stupider the stupidest more stupid the most stupid Other example: fever, common, fiery, genie, narrow, pleasant, polite, quiet, simple3 Adverbs: wee more and most in front of most adverbs. quietly the most quietly b A limited number of adverbs have comparative and superlative forms with or (or 1) and ex! (or st). fast faster the fastest Other examples: hard, late, long, soon 4 Irregular forms Some adjectives and adverbs have irregular comparative land superlative forms. more quietly pode hotter the best bad/badly worse the worst, far furtherifarther the furthest? farthest Buse 1 Comparatives and superlatives: To talk about people or things that are different in some ‘way wwe use: ia Biinpianativn Rico af adjactivalatcte w chars I think listening Is more difficult than reading For small differences, use a bit, a litle, slightly. You need to work @ Httle harder For big differences, use ruc, (quite) « lot, fa, sugnifcant My new car's much faster than my ol one. b superlative forms of adjectives/adverbs. ‘Mhat’s the nicest thing you've said t0 me all day. ‘To emphasize the difference between one person or thing from all the others, use hy far or easily. This is by far dhe best huvk lve ever veut Use ir before a noun when specifving the group. Steven's the naughtiest hoy in the elass. les el dhe lease Less and least are the opposites of more and most. Rughy is less popular than football here. That’ my least favourite track on the albuon. Like more and most, they can be used as adverbs, ‘You should cat less and exercise more. Use fess/least with uncountable nouns, and fewer’ fewest with plural countable nouns, Use more/most ‘with all nouns. 1 eatine less chocolate end fewer sweets. and drinking more water. ie For people or things that are the same in some way, wwe use ds + adjectiveladverb + as. She as intelligent as hor sister Use almost, nearly, just t qualify the comparisons. Ie almost as hot ioday as it was yesterday. b Serta replsthe Bvt ax ferme 1s not so difficult as 1 shout it would be ‘To describe small differences, use not quite. Hes not quite so impatient ax his brother a litle more patient than his brother) ‘To describe big differences, use not near. Her now film isn’t nearty as bad as her last one ( Her new film is much better than her last one.) © Use as much with uncountable nouns, and as many with countable nouns. Grammar reference T haven't got as many chips as Sally: It not as much fin without Joe here d The same + noun + as My mum's the same age as my dad. 3 The + comparative, the + comparative: Use this structure for changes which occur together; the second Is often the result of the Tlrst The more money I have, the faster I spend it 4 lideinol{not) a tot of(not) much difference between: There isn't much difference betwveen my job and yours {= My job is similar to yours.) Articles A The definite article (de) is most commonly used: 1 when there is only one of something, either in existence or in a particular context Td like to speak to the manager, please. 2 when something is mentioned again. ‘ve ad three novels and two plays by Cammus.” ‘What did you think of the plays?” 3 when both listener and speaker know what is being: referred to. Huvry up! The film starts i 10 minutes. 4 sion tathings abu a specific aspect vt pac ut something, where the noun is followed by of We studving the history of architecture Hand in your books at the ond of the larson. 5 w speak generally about ceriain groups of singular countable nouns. Inventions: The mobile phone is thought to pose « serious threat to health. b Animal species: The whale ix tll hunted By coterie such as Japan. 6 with adjectives referring to general classes of people, e.g the hnmneloss. the hlind. sho deaf. the rich, she poo. the old, the young, the French, the Spanish. Nor enough is being done to help the homeless. 7 with superlatives. Who is the greatest footballer in the world? © witht musical fuser win 1 love to learn to play the piano, 9 with types of transport which have a fixed timetable. St! we ges the bus or wake a cant? 10 with some countries, e.2. the USA, the UK. 11 with oceans, mountain ranges, deserts, rivers ete, 6. the Atlantic, the Pyrenees, the Sahara, the Thames: 12 with some geographical areas, We'e going to the mountains rather than the coast. B The indefinite article (alan) is most commonly used: when a singular countable noun is mentioned for the hnrst ume. A man wont into a bar with a fish 2 when referring to any one of several things. 4s quaet im here, Shall 1 put a record on? 3 when talking aan 9 persian’ jo My fasher is a nuclear scientist. 4 with some numbers, e.g. a heendred and one Dalmatians, a thousand people, a milion pounds. 5 when it means per in some expressions, e.g, twice a day, 50 psiloc ass bony, £80 a month. 211Grammar reference C No 1 when ref cle ic used (0 nouns in a general sense. Plural countable nouns: Do you think computers will replace teachers? b Abstract nouns: We sang songs of fove and peace. © Other «incountable nouns: Alan won't eat cheese or meat. 2 with most streets, towns, cities and countries: Twwent (0 Bond Street when | was in London, 2 when a town's name ia used with a building, e.g, Lettore Airport, Oxford University. 4 in many common expressions, e.g. 10 go home, 10 go 10 workischootuntversty/prison/hosptial’ churchihed, to go 01 holiday, to he at homehvork! school/university, 10 be tt hosptialchurctibediprison, 10 g0 by carfbusleoach/trainiplane, to have breakfast/ lunchidinner (but have a meal), at night (but in the morningfafternoontevening). Unit 4 Past tenses A the pasts 1 completed acti J went 10 the cinema last night. 2 completed actions and situations which happened over a specific period of time. 1 lived aia worked in Gerrans for dre sours. 3 habitual actions or behaviour in the past. We played football in the street when I was a child 4 a series of consecutive events in the past He kissed he, said goodbye and closed the door ple is used to refir to: is which happened at a specific time. sea refer to 1 temporary activities or situations in progress al a particular moment in the past ‘Tins time last week we were sitting on the beach 2 a past activity or situation which was already in gress whit anther action ocatsed (the activity uation in progress may or may not continue). Twas reading to my son when the lights went out. 3 activities or situations occurring at the same time. Ann was eutting the grass while I was cooking. 4 the backround events in a narrative Tewas snowing heavily and a cold wind was blowing. ‘My brother and 1 were reading in fron of the fire. Suadenty there was a knock ar the door D The past con The past perfect is used to: 1 chow that a past action arsitnation arcurved hefnre ‘another past action or situation When I saw Tim, he had just passed his driving test. 2. We tse the continuous form to emphasize the duration of the first past action or situation. She had been waiting for over two hours when he Phoned 10 say he couldn come. D Time linkers 1 The past perfect is often used with time linkers e.g. afier, before, by the time, as soon as, once, when, until Teouldn't go out until I had done my homework, 212 2 The past simple can he sel if he oer of evens He sold his house before he lft she country. Or if the second event occurred as a result of the fir When 1 realized what tine it was, fran outside. 3 Afienafterwards After is used to show the order of two or more events in the same sentence. After he'd cleaned the house, he were shopping 1 go at the beginning Afterwards means after shat and or the end of a clause. We had lunch and afterwards we went for a walk. They played tennis and had a coffee afterwards. NB afer would not be correct in these two sentences. 4 Avastin the end/at the end AL last suggests that something good happet long periad af time ar mare than ane attempt Tve passed the First exam at last! 1 failed twice before! Jy the oad has a similar meaning and may alse suggest there have been one or more changes or problems. The resull may be good or bad after a The car broke down sovvral Fins on the way but we got shore in the end. NB eventually can also be used in this senten At the c1d means at the point when something Finishes, Hand in your books at the end of the lesson. 5 When/aswhile These can all be used with the past continuous to introduce an action which was already in progress when nother ection eomurred, Ashvhenhwhile 1 was running, {saw a rabbit 6 Duringlinfor ‘These are all used as prepositions when referring to ‘and ave followed by'a noun, During and iit are used to say when something happened. 1 rained a tot ducringfin the might. For is used to say how long something took or lasted We went to Spain for two weeks during the summer. So and such ¢ intensifiers are used to give emphasis. ed before: adjectives and adverbs without nouns. Tine $0 tired. 11 have to go to be b much, many, litle, few: You should eat so much, fan. 1 didn' expect theve to be so. many people at the 2. Sucit is used with or without an adjective belore: singular countable nouns (the indefinite article a/an tsalso needed, Feant stand him, He such an idiot. 1d never heard such a wonderful voice befor uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns (tl article is not needed). T haven't eaten such good food for along time Our neighbours are suck friendly people. 3 So and such can both be used with a that clause to talk shout the mecilte ar canceqionces 11 was such a boring place that we decided to leave. 11 was raining 20 hard we had to st the earUnit 5 Obligation and neces A Musi/Susrt + infinitive without t0 1. Mast is used: nposed by the speaker: The speaker uses must to express hisher authority, You must be here by 8am, (manager to employee) b to give strong adviee 115 a great film, You really must go and see i. © tell amend hat io semana I must remember to phone Roger d jin signs and notices indicating rules and laws. Competition entries muat be oubmitted by email 2 atust not or must is used 2-10 alk about something that is not permitted. Passengers must not smoke on the airraft. You mustn't drive without your seatbelt on in Britain. b to give strong advice You musta’ work to0 hard. You! make yourself i 3 Past form Must docs not have a past form, Had to is therefore used We had to write a formal email in the exam. 4 Question form Must ie poceible in quectione Forms Must you wear tat horrible dress? although have fis more common What do we have to de for homework? B Have ro/Dont have to Have to is used to roler to strong obliga ‘another person rather than by the speake T have to be at work by 8 o'clock. The boss will get angry IF ht fate. femployee to a friend) Don't have to expresses a lack of obligation. Tim glad I don't have to wear a suit. ItS s0 hot today. C Need toldon't need to/needn't [Need t0 i9 wood to expr Can we go to the baker's next, I need to get some bread. Dost need to/needirt express a lack of necessity. We don’t ood tolncede't leave vet Ith only 2 o'etock. imposed by D ShouldéShouldnt + infinitive without fo Should and shouldn’ are used to express obligation or re advice. Ought to can also be used with the same meaning as should. You ough tofshould see « doctor about your backache If yon ena diet you shouldn't drink bere E Be supposed to/Had better Be supposed to is used to talk about what should be dong becomes cfs rule nrbenseren tf fe repented! Come on, it 10 o'clock. You're supposed to be in bed! Had better + infinitive without 10 often implies a warning of possible negative consequences if the advice or precaution is not taken. The negative is had better not We'd better not eat it — it might be poisonous. You'd better wear a hat. don't want you to get @ cold, Grammar reference ‘To express permission It fs possible to use can, may (more formal) or be allowed to. In the negative these express lack of permission, or prohibition. You cart have a drink bur you can't have any crisps, We aren't allowed to wear framers io school Conia perm: Iu.my last job we hud flexitime, so we could arrive more or less when wwe wanted 10. Could is not used when referring to a particular situation, in the past. Only wasAvere allowed to is possible Twas allowed to stay up late last night nd waver allowed to are possible for general on in the past Let and make Both these verbs are followed by the infinitive without fo. Let is used to express permission My dad doeswi/wont let me wateh that programme. Let is not normally used in the passive. Be allowed to is used instead Twasn't allowed to go to the party on my own. take 18 used to express obligation. The teacher made her do some extra homework: In the passive, make is followed by the infinitive with £0. He was made to pay for the window he had broken. Noun phrases A Noun + noun can be used: 1 ina large number of commonly accepted compound nouns. The two nouns together describe a single idea. Some compound nouns are usually written as two words: a post office «hand towel Others are written as one word: a postman a handbag a mousetrap 2 for containers. a tea cup 3 for things that occur or appear regularly, ve evenings flight the weekend edisione the January sales water bottle an ice bucket B Noun + of + noun can be used 1 where ny commonly avecpted euinpuund ut ext the time of the year a lack of money 2 with words like top, bottom, side, edge, back, front, beginning, middle and end to indicate a part of something. the bottom of the stairs the jront of te book Sometimes ather types af nen pl with these words: the sound of laughter the back of art envelope e are alen possible de waters edge dre muuuniuinside the seu Datum 3 for containers and their contents. ecupoftea a box of tissues a buckes of water ( Noun + 95" + noun can be used 1 chon talking abont possession hy a persan or animal Lara’ pen the womans house my dox’s basket 2 for things that occur or appear at a speeifie time: ost right next eek match edition Tuesdlo’ storm 213Grammar reference 3 tw show duration, an hour’ delay five minutes’ rest ‘Compound adjectives can sometimes be used to express the same ideas, [See Unit 14] Unit 6 Relative clauses Relative clauses give information about something or someone in the main clause. A Defining relative clauses Defining relative clauses contain information which is essential for our understanding of the whole sentence. The nian who normally comes to clean our windows is on holiday this month, There's only one clock that works property in this flat! A widow is a woman whose husband has died. In each case. the relative clause identifies which person or thing is being talked about Features of defining relative clauses ‘= Nv commas aie required cither at the beginning or the end of the relative clause. two weeks" holiday # That can be used instead of who for people and which fur things, particularly in spoken English For people For things Subject: wholthat whichithat Object wholthathvhom® —— whichithat Possessi whose whose ‘whom is more formal than who ‘© The relative pronoun can be omitted if it is the object vf the verb ist the relative clause. nn enjoying the book (whichithat) you lent me. ‘© The relative pronoun cannot be omitted if itis the subject of the verb in the relative clause. Thar’ the shop assistant whofthat served me the last time Tame here. B Non-lefining relative clauses Non-defining relative clauses contain infarmation which is not essential or our understanding of the sentence. We can identify which person or thing is being talked about without the information in the relative clause. Their new house, which has five bedrooms and a games room, is much larger than their previous one. Ar the party she spoke to Mr Peterson. whose father owned the company she worked for. Features of non-defining relative clauses © Commas are required both atthe beginning and the end of the relative clause (except when the end of the relative clause is also the end of the sentence). ‘© Thar cannot be used in place of who or which: For people _For things Subject: who which Object: whohvhont which Possessive: whose whose ‘* Relative pronouns cannot be omitted from non. defining relative clauses. Her maths teacher, wholwhams ovorvene in the clas adored, announced that he was leaving the school. 214 written English, ‘© Which can be used in non-defining relative clauses to + to the whole of the main clause. No one phoned him on his birthday, which made Iino rather depressed. Relative clauses and prepusitions Prepositions usually come at the end of defining and non defining relative claucor. In defining relative clauses the relative pronoun is usually omitted. Tie wows 1 grew up ine hus Crary u ht since Pe In non-defining relative clauses the relative pronoun is never omitted, Keith Rolf, who 1 used to work wath, wes in Faris now 2. In more formal English, prepositions often come below ite relative pronoun whvin for people and which for things Un which case the pronoun cannot be omit), We shall be visiting the room in which Turner pasted suine of his greatest works. The head waiter, fo whom we addressed our complaint, was not particnlarly helpful D Relative adverbs: were, when and wy Where, wher and why can be used in relative clauses aller nouns which refer toa place (where), a time (when) or a reason (why. 1. Where has the meaning ‘in/at which’. Defining: Thev've booked « week in the campsite where we stayed last year: Non-defining: She’ in Soushlands Hospital, where you were born, 2. When has the meaning ‘on/in which’ and can be omited or replaced by har in defining relative clauses. Defining: Do you member the day (whenithat) we went to Rhyl and it snowed. Non-detining:. We're going on holiday in September where mies! people are back at work 3 Why has the meaning for which’ and can be omitted or replaced by shar in defining relative clauses Defining: The reason (why/that) lm phoning isto «ask you for Tina's address Causative passive with have and get 1 ‘The structure have/get + object + past participle to indicate that the action 1s done for the subject by someone else and not by the subject. The subject causes the action to he done ‘Compare the following: T repainted the windows. Thad the windows repainted. did it mysell) someone did it for me) Ger can be used instead of have in this structure. Ibis slightly more informal. Where did you get your photos developed? All tenses of have and ger are possible. We've just had our washing machine repatred. J'm getting my hair done tomorrow 2. The same stenctime can also be used for events (usually unpleasant) which are outside of the speaker’ control John had his car stolen last week.Unit 7 The present perfect The present perfect links past events and situations with the present. A The present perfect is used 1 to ge news ot revent past events which have some relevance to the present isa has had «accident: she’ tn hospital but she’ OK. 2 to describe something that started in he pasts continues 10 the present, We have lived inthe same house ever since we got 3 to describe events which occurred at some time between the past and the preaont, Exactly when they happened is not known or not important. ve been to Poland three or four tames, 4 (0 talk about something which occurred in the past. ina time period which includes the present. Fuuly’s buyfrteral Ins plowed leer see cones this morning ~ and it not evew 11 o°clock! 5 alter the expression ivthisithat is the first/secondithird, ete tine, This is the first time Pve seen this programme. B Time expressions 1 The present perfect i commonly used with ever, never, just, recent, so fr, stil, yet and already when relorring They haven booked their holiday yet. Te had thie cups of cofee so far this morning. 2 Por in used with periods of time to show how long something has laste. Tre own Ete Jor awventy years Since is used with points i time to show when something started Poe aa sis wu sive 1964 The present perf confines cam be used 1 to emphasize the duration of a situation or activity. 11% been snowing all day 2 to suggest thot a situation oF setivily ie temporary My mum’ not well, so Fve been looking afer her 3 to suggest a situation or activity is incomplete Ive boon jeaintings the honee — thatle wy ite ina snes 4 to Focus on the repetition of a situation or acti He's been getting into trouble at school « fot recent D The present perfect simple and continuous 1 Both simple and continuous forms of the present perfect can be used (o talk about the effects in the present of a past event, Your new shoes are ruined! You've been playing football fie ter, haven? you? (ans activity) Leartt do any sport for a few weeks; I've broken my arm. (a single action) 2 The continuows forny is not sel fave talk abort the number of d ise been completed or the sumiber of Hl 1 boon dons, She’ been eating chocolate bisenits She's eaten six chocolate biscuits € Stative verbs such as have (to possessiown), thin (10 have an opinion), be, like, believe, understand and know fare not normally sacd in the continuous form, Grammar reference We've known each other for a long time, 7 We've been knowing each other for a long tine. X Exprossing preferences A Prefer 1 Prefer + gerund + 10 + gerund is usually used to talk. albéut sirveral profersecer 1 prefer playing basketball 10 watching it. 2 Would prefer + infinitive with to + rather shan + infinitive without fo is normally used to talk about preferences an 1a specilie occasion. 1d prefer to wath to scdusol wetay ractoer dau go by bu B Would (ruck) rather would rather + infinitive without to + thaw + infinitive witht leas the Sanne nneauing as would prefer 10 Td rather not talk about it at the moment. Td mach rather do nothing all day than go to school Unit 8 The future 1 Will « infinitive without 10 can be used to talk about: hopes, expectations and predictions. These can be introduced by verbs such as believe, expect, hope and ‘dunk. Adverbs such as definitely, (almost) certainly and probably may also be used; they come after will and before won't United N probably ‘Where’ Anne? expect shel be here soon. She definitely won't pass her exams; she's too las bb decisions made at the moment of speaking, including offers WeUt babysit jor you if you want 10 go out acts; events which the speaker knows or believes are certain to happen. ‘Sap ATL Bae oo 2. Be going + infinitive with Zo can be used to talk about personal intentions and plans forrmulated before the moment of speaking: I'm going to stay in tonight aud read my book. ‘The inlinitive 20 go can be omitted. Do yeu know where you're going (ta 0) on holiday yer} tha loogue axain thie year bb predtetions, as an atternative wo wih don't think Fmt going to dof't do very well in the If there is evidence now that something happen, we usually use going to, ‘stand back the huang’ gomng to collapse! sertain to 3. Modal verbs express degrees of possibi about a intenuions. when talking Fmasimight go swinnming tomorrow (nevsibility) b predictions. 11 mayfmight/could well rain romorrow. (probability) If. Ioave naw se chonld be Ievowe hy si (probability) We may nodinight not lave tine tu see everyting in the rnaseun, (possibilty) 4 The present continuous can be used to talk about future amangements which have already been mad, usually ‘vith other people er organizations. 215Grammar reference Sue and Alan are getting married in June. We're having lunch out tomorrow. ve booked a table. 5 The present simple can be uscd: to talk about timetabled or scheduled events. The fib starts at 9.15, just afer the news. What time does your bus leave? b to refer to the future after time linkers such as when, before, after, untll, by the the, as soom as. Give me a call as soon as you arrive. ‘The present perfect can also be used in this way. You cari go out until you've tidied your room. 6 The future continuous, will + be + -ing, is used to talk about actions or events which will be in progress at a eertain time in the future This time tomorrow Ft be flying over France. 7 The future perfect simple, will + have + past participle, is used to talk about actions and events that will be completed by a certain tine in the future. Ry the end of today well have driven over 500k. 8 The future perfect continuous, will + have + been + ~ing, is used to talk about actions and events which continue toa certain time in the future, On 21 May IU have been living here for exactly 10 years: 9 Re about to « infinitiveshe on the point of + gerund can be used to talk about the immediate future. Can I phone you back? I'm just about to have lurch. The police are said to be on the point of solving the 10 Be (un}lihely + infinitive with ao expresses probability. They've got a map with them so they're unlikely (not likely) t0 get lost. (= they probably won't get lost) 11. Shall tive + infinitive without to is used to ask for ‘suggestions, advice and instructions. Where shall we go tomorrow night? Shall I phone Les? What shall I say? 12. A number of other verbs can be used to talk about future hopes, plans, intentions and expectations. We hopelexpect (o win tomorrow. Are yau planing te galan gning aut tonight? We're thinking of moving abroad. Unit 9 Modal verbs for speculation and deduction A certaimty If we are fairy certain about something, must, cart and couldn't can be used to express this. 1 For present situations the modal verbs must, can’t and couldn't are followed by the infinitive without to. haven’ slept for two days." You must be exhausted!” Tear hear singing, so we ean't be far from the stadium. ‘The continuous infinitive can also be used. Why is he wearing his uniform? He couldn't be going to school ~ it Saturday today 2 For past situations we use the same modal verbs + lave + past participle (the perlect infinitive without fo) Tan’ find my book. I must have lefe it at school This essay is poor You can't have spent lang an it ‘The continuous form can also be used The road's wot it must have boon raining. 216 NB nnustn’t isnot neemally ised wh deductions about ps B Possibility Af we are not certain about something but think tis possible, we use may’ (not), might (not) or could (but nit Pond wot) 1 For present sttuations thes by the infinitive without fo, also possible ‘Eads uot answering my emails." ‘He might be on hollas” He could be telling the truth, but its hard to believe. ida verb + ae without 10). The n making or past situations. yoda verbs are followed ‘continuous infiniti ri 2 ror past situations we use the sa + past participle (the perfect infiit continuous form is also possible. T think we ray tuave taken the wrong rowd. This doesnt look familiar Sean looked sad. He might not have been feeling well NB It is not possible to use cam when speculating about present or past situations. Question tags A Form Question tags are formed using either a modal verb, an auxiliary verb or the verb to be + subject pronoun. A negative tag is normally used with a positive statement, tinal a punitive lag with a negative statement 1 If the verb to be appears in the statement, iis repeated in the question tag, He isn't married, ts he? Tim fate again, aren't 1? (not amn't P) 2 tran ausiary verb or a modal verb appears in the statement, itis repeated in the question tag. You've been to Warsaw before, haven't you? You'd rather stay in tonight, wouldn't you? 3 IF the verb in the statement is a full verb (i.e. there is no modal verb or auxiliary verb), an appropriate form of the auxiliary verb do is required in the question lag. You bought it last year, didn't you? 4 Will you? and ean vou? are used with imperatives. Wouild you? and could you? are mare formal alternatives, Open the window, willlcanhwouldicould you? Will you? is used after a negative imperative. Don't forget to write. will you? “appears in the statement, the question tag shall used. Let's go home, shall we? 6 If the statement contains negative words such as nothing or nobody, the question tag is positive. Nothing frightens you, docs it? NB The pronoun they is used with nobodyno one, sumelaabvoormeune al everstenbeveryort Nobody was watching, were they? B Use We can use question tags to ask a real question if we are unsure if the statement is true or not. In this ease we say the question tng with rising intonation a) Tve met you before, haven't 12 ind intonation We can leo use quest to agree with a statement. In this case we say the question tag with falling intonation, on tags when we expect samenne She car's sing very well, can she?Contrast linkers 1 Bur vontvasis two ideas in the same sentence. The weather was bad but she enjoyed she trip. In informal writing, bus is offen used at the beginning of the sentence. John's yor she flu. But the rest of us are fine. 2 Although and though (informal) are also used to ‘contrast ideas in the same sentence. They can go at the beginning of the sentence or in the middle. Although the weather was bad, she enjoved the trip. 1 iked the book, although I wouldn't recommend it Even used before though emphasizes the contrast, Me still wears his ring, even though he's divorced. 3 However contrasts ideas in two different sentences. It fen goes at the beginning of the second sentence and is followed by a comma, The hotel was expensive. However, the others were full so she ad t0 book it Ikcan also go in the middle ofa sentence or at the end. Tim hated York. Me did not, however, want to move. Anay often tells les, She would never steal, however. 4 Nevertheless is a more formal alternative to however: Ir was snowing. Nevertheless, the game went abead. 8 Tn spite of and dante si lots Fellaweed by aiporsand ‘noun. They can g0 al the beginning of a sentence or in the middle We enjoved the meal in spite of the poor service, Despite feeling 1erible, she still went 0 sork Af the subject of the gerund is diferent to the subject of the main verb, a noun, an object pronoun or possessive adjective is added. [See Unit 13 for more on this use of the gerund.} She paid for she meal despite mefmy telling her not to. “The words she fact sat are added before a verb clause, Chloe invited Steve 10 her part despite the fact that he hhad treated her so baal 6 Whereas, while and yi tsvo things, people ors ke likes heavy metal whereashwhile [prefer rap. Unit 10 ist (formal) are used to contrast tations in the same sentence. Too and enough A Too means ‘more than is necessary or desirable Bite + oh % This jumpers too big. Don't work too hard 2 Tee mucl/Too many (+ noun) Joan's oat this, Theres too mtstcl salt in is tivetad ‘There are too many people here. Let's go somewhere else 1 feel terrible! I've eaten too much. 3 Toe + advorbladjective (+ for + object) «is Its too cold to play termis today. He spoke too quickly for me to understand him. ive with ta Enough means ‘as much as is necessary’. Adiective/Adverb + enoweh Are you warm enough or shall I turn the heating on? You havent done your homework carefully enough. Enough (+ noun) Weill have to stand because there areu't enough chairs iL buy sone more bread, We haven’ got enough. Grammar reference 3. Enough (+ for + object) + inlinitive with 10 ‘The floor is elean enough for yan ta sit on. T haven't go! enough time to see you today The passive A Form The verb co be + pak participle Goods worth £750 million are stolen from shops each year Present continuous: A nay #8 being questioned in connection with the robbery. Photos of the suspects ave been put up around the town. He was taken away in a police van. The burglar didor's realice he was boing filmed. ‘hvo people tad been mugged there on the previous day. All football supporters will be coarched at the nirpart He is hoping to be released from prison next week Lcanttrentember being hit on the head, He should be sentenced io life tee Present simple: Present perfect: Past simple: Past continuous Past perfect Future simple: Infinitive: Gerund: Modal verbs: B use ‘The passive is used to focus attention on the person or thing affected hy the action. rather than on the agent (ihe ‘doer’ of the action). If we are interested in the agent, we se the preposition by” Sue and Mark were brought up by their grandparents. When we talk about the instrument used! by the agent to do the action, we use the preposition witle He was hit on the head with a vase ‘The agent is not usually included: 4 whet ie fy Cleat fivin dae content why thre agent is Colin was arrested for dangerous driving. (by the police) 2 when we don't know the agentithe agent is unimportant My car was stolen yesterday afiernoon. This castle was builtin the Middle Ages 3 in official notices to avoid using you. Food may not be consumed on te premtises 4 when the agent is people in seneral Texas is known as The Lone Star State € Passive of reporting The infinitive can be used alter the passive of reporting verbs to talk about widely held beliefs or opinions, Examples of reporting verbs are believe, conaiden expos sow, say and think ‘The President is expected to arrive at ¥.30 am. ‘The wan is bellowed ta he carrying a weapon The perfect infinitive (ave + past participle) is used to refer ts tie past. Fifteen people are known to have died in the accident. Unit 11 So, neither and nor A use To indicate that we have the same feelings, behaviour or abilities as others, we can use so (povitive slatements), and neither or nor (n 217Grammar reference B Foren Soineither/nor + (modal) auxiliary verb or the verb to be * subject noun or pronoun “The rules for deciding which ver is used after 305 neither or nor are the same as those Tor question tags Unit 91. The verb is always positive. The clause with so, neither ov nor can appear in the same sentence as the main clause of it can be said by a different speaker: She can't play @ musical instrument and neither can I ‘TM phowe his tonight." So will “My mum isn't working tomorrow: tour te those of othe subject + (modal auxiliary He doesitt eat meat but Ido, ‘Were allowed t0 wear jeans to school” "We aren’? ‘Neither is mine.” nt from behaviour oF abilities are diff ‘we use the following structure: verb or the verb to be. Conditionals Conditional sentences contain @ conditional clause ced by words such as if, as long as and unless) and lau I the conditional comes first, a comma usually separates i from the main clause (as in this sentence). A.comma is not needed if the conditional clause comes after the main clause (as in this sentence). A Zero conditional if + present simple, present simple We use the zero conditional to tal which are always true. 1 has the same meaning as. when, whenever or every time in such senten My eyes start 10 hut if spend too long on the computer: about situations I you mix blue and yellow, you get green. B rust conditional if + present simple, will + infinitive wi wit 10 We use the first conditional to talk about possible situations and their likely results in the Luture, She'll be very happy if you phone her: Ii can be used for warnings. promises and threats. Fl send you to bed if you don't behave yourself. If you pass your deiving test. Fl take you out for a meal. future forms and imperatives are possible in the Were going to the cinema if my dad gots home i time. If you see Alan, give him my regards, ‘Modal verbs can also be used in the main clause, May, might aiid could express possibility or uncertainty about the outcome. Should expresses probability. If finish my homework early, might watch the film I} you post 1 today, t should get there by Friday. € Second conditional if + past simple, would + inf e the second conditional to talk about imaginary, ‘or impossible situations in the present or ve without fo If Tknew the answer to number six, Fwould tell you. IT had wings, 1d fly south in winter Note the difference between these two sentences: First conditional: If they give me a pay rise, Yl buy a new car: (feel there isa real possibility that they will give me a pay rise.) 218 D Third conditional Unit 12 Countable and uncountable nouns A Countable nouns are nouns which B Lnconntable nouns Second conditinnal Uf they gave me a pay rise, Pad buy a new car. (Lee is less likely that they will give me a pay rise.) The sccond conditional ean also be used to give advice If Twere vou, I'd complain to the manager. Doth wus and were are possible in the conditional clause afler the subject pronouns feishert. Was is more common in spoken English. Ihe wore a litle taller, he'd bo a execllent goatkeopor Might and could can be used in the main clause 10 express possibility or uncertainty about the outcome, {Af you worked « bic harder, you might have mure succes if + past perfect. would/might/could have + past participle ‘We use the third conditional to talk about imaginary situations in the past and to speculate about their elles ‘on past events or situations. If we hadn't taken a map, we would have got lost. (But we took a map, So We didnt get lost.) Mixed conditional if + past perfect, would’might/oould « infinitive w Mixed conditionals are a combination of a second and a third conditional. They can express an imaginary past event and a passihie ar probable present resi rst ta If you'd listened 10 my advice, you mighihwould not be in this situation now. Alternative words for if As long as, provided (shat), providing (that) and on couulition (What) can be uscd in place of to emphasize the condition, TiLend you £10 as long as you give it back tomorrow. Well rake the boat out provided the sea tsn't 100 rough. an be counted, one plate two cats five choirs wnat be counted. They are not tused with the indefinite article (a/an), they do not have a plural and they are used with a singular verb form, Can you get some bread? A lot of damage was done to the building The following nouns are usually uncountable: accommodation, adviee, damage, English, furniture, graffiti, health, homework, information, knowledge, luggage, news, progress, research, spaghetti, travel, weather, work This spaghetti isn't cooked properls. The news is very depressing today. ‘Some nouns are both countable and uncountable. Many words for food and drink can be used both countably and uncountably. T've made a chocolate cake. (C) Could I have some more cake? (U) Would you like another coffee? (C) (= cup of coffee) 1 don like coffee. (U) A wort! used comntahly may have a very different ‘meaning from its uncountable version. Tid like a double room for one night. (C) (= hotel room) There's no more'room on this bus. (U) (= space)D Making uncountable nouns countable 1 Some uncountable nouns have countable equivalents with similar meanings Mere ts macht Work 1 ths town. (U) There aren’ many jobs in this town. (C) My job involves a lot of business travel. (U) Thave 10 make a fot of business traps. (C) 2 Some other uncountable nouns ean be made countable by using piece(s) of or item(s) of Let me give you a piece of advice. Tron items of news caneht my attention. 3 Certain other expressions are used with words for food ‘and drink: @ plate of spaghetti, a pinch of salt, a loaf of bread, a slice of cakeltoast, a spoonful of sugar, a bar of Baitang eden E Words used with nouns 1 Words used with countable nouns: aan, few, a few, many, a large number of each, every, sever 2 Words used with uncountable nouns: lie, a lle, imaolt, a prea deal of, a large amount of 3. Words used sith countable and uncountable nouns: some, any, 10, a lo of, lots of ail, plenty of, mast. 4 Latte and few “These wn work have move negative meanings. They mean ‘net muichimany” ar ‘not as much/many as desired ‘orexpected” Sue has made little progress since the beginning of term. There were very few people atthe concer. 5 A linde and a few ‘These have more positive meanings. They mean ‘some’ ‘or ‘more than expected’ Tve nranaged to save a little money to buy Al a present. The still gor a few eggs — enough to make an omelet 6 Plemy of This means‘a lot of or ‘more than enoueh’ Don't hurry — we've got plenty of time. Direct and reported speech When reporting what someone has said or written, we can use either direct speech or reported speech, When we use direct speech we report the exact words which someone has used ‘Tm staying here tomorrow; said Heather. When we use reported speech, changes may have to Pie marie tn wer fences, prnnniine snd certain wnnde indicating place and time. Feather suid she was staying there the next day: 2B Reporting statamante 1 The following changes are usually made to verbs. In each case the verb ‘moves bac’ One Lets, Reported cpeach Past simple He said he worked in an office. Direct epscch os Present simple + ‘work in an office, he said. Present continuous + Past continuous we aren? goug away ‘She satd they werent frotdiay,” she said. going away ov holiday. Present perfect, + Past perfect He said he'd known her fora long time, + Fast perlect continuous, ‘Tve known her for a long time," he said. Present perlect continuous, 3 B Reporting verbs for staten 1 ellis used with a direct obj 2 “He been playng ienmis, she said. Past simple 4 Past continuous ‘We were trying te rly rim,” she said. No changes are made a Pr Grammar reference She said he'd been playing tenis, Past perfe He sai hel scons Nigel te town. Past perfect continuous She ead thes boon unying to help him. sltie Niel ts han bs at the verb tense: if the verb in the direct speech is in the past perfect “He had never spoken about it before, she said. She said he had never spoken about it before. if the direct speech contains one of the following modal verbs: would, might, could, should, ought to. You should go to the doctor's,’ satd. He said I should go to the doctor’. if the statement being reported is still true, The te change is optional "ike fish,’ she said. She said she lkeslked fish if the reporting verb is in the present “1s 40? in Athens at the moment” Jeremy to mother on the phone) Jerenty says it 40° in Athens at the moment, (Jeremy's mother to her husband) fonouns in direct speech may have to change when we 1 reported speech, ‘Til see you soon,’ said Pete: Peter said he would see me soon. ‘The following changes may als ‘words indicating place and time, need to be made to Direct speech > Reported speech sow + then today that day this morning + that morning tomorrow the nesUfollowing day next week + the nexvfollowing week yesterday + the day before, the previous day = two days before/eartier last week + the week before, the previous week in hone + there come + 2 This, that, these and those may change to the. Dheat buh you ter nae is reully borin Ie said He said the book I had lent him was realty boring. . He told me (that) he was getting married Se Sh yy and explain are used without a direct object we said (that) she was ill, (not She said me ..) ‘Thay can, howovor, bo used with an indiraet abject Te plained to then (that) Ti left my passport at home (not / explained then...) Soi a sme reporting verbs can be used with an i verb + object noun/pronoun + infinitive advise, ask, encourage, invite, order, persuade, recommend, remise, tell, warn ‘Don't forget to phone Jim," he told her: ce Te Ba hae 219Grammar reference B verb + in oer, promise, refuse, threaten ‘TW help you mend the ear if you lke.’ He offered to help me mend the car. 4. The following patterns ean be used after both recommend and suggest: He recommendedsuggested (that) 1 (should) eat less She recommendedi/suggested joining a youth club. ‘The infinitive with so can only be used after recommend. He suggested me to go to the chemist’. X € Reporting questions When we report questions we make the same changes to verb tenses, pronouns and words indicating place and time as we do when we report statements. The followin changes are also made: ive with 10 Auxillary verbs do, des aml did ‘are omilted, ‘Auxillary verbs: ‘The word order is the same as that uf Statement Question marks are not used. Word order: Punctuation: ‘What do you want to do? he asked me. He asked me what 1 wanted to do. ‘Where have you been?’ she asked him. Shee ushedlhirn where he hal been Ye If there is no question word (wha, were, who, ete) the question, we Use Por whether ‘Does she know Joe?" ‘He asked iwheher se knew Joe. D Ask and rll Each of tho reported 9 1 Ask a Requests (ask + object + mfinitve with (0) No questions: c verbs can be used in (wo different ways in ‘Can you help me, please?” He asked me to help him. b Ouestions ‘Can you ride a horse? She asked me if I could ride a horse. 2 well 2 Commands (lll + object + infinitive with ro) ‘Put your coat on." ‘She told hin to put his cout on. b Statements ‘Lean find my coat.” Ho told her (hat) he couldn’ find his coat Unit 13 Hypothetical situations A Wich and ifomty Wish or if only can express how we would like things be dillerent if we had the power to change them. 1 Present states We use wisivif only + past simple to express wishes. about present states. Stative verbs such as be, have, Inow and understand are used Lwish Lwashvere taller, Mfonly 1 kasew how to play the guitar 220 2 Prevent actions We use wish/if only + would when we want something happen or someone to do something. Active verbs (vers doseribing actions) are used 1 wish you would turn your musie down. 1 only this wind would stop blowing Wisi onty + would 18 used 1f we want to express invitation at other peoples’ actions or behaviour 1 wish you won stop tapping sour foot Wishif only + past simple cours habitually. 1 wish you didi (or would) smoke so much 3 Present ability Wishif only + would is used for events which are outside of our control. Consequently, we do not normally say‘ ‘wish T would..." Instead, we use wish T could 10 indicate our inability to change thi 1 wish I could remember where I put my keys 4 Wishes for the future Wislvif only + would ore be used to express wishes for the future. This use of wish suggests that the jon will probably not happe wish [could go on holiday with you tn stummer.(L know that I can't go with you.) If there is ove possibility thatthe action will happen, swe tse hope. Thope I can go on holiday with you in summer. (I dont know if ean or not) 5 Past situations We use wislif only + past perfect to express wishes and regrets about the past Twish U hadnt left school when I was 16 Lhe following structures can also be used to express wishes and regrets about the past. Third and mixed conditionals sce Unit 11] If Thadn's been so tired. this wouldn't have happened. bb should have + past participle We should have got the train. This trajfic'’s terrible. B Would rather We tse would rather * past simple when we want someone else 10 do something inthe present oF Ture sn also be used if the action Tad rather you went to get some bread now. He said he'd rather we didn't arrive too early tomorrow. If the subject of would rather and the Following verb is the same, we ustally use the infinitive without ‘0. Weil rather sit in the varden than go to the beach. C irstime We use it (high/about) time + past simple whi want sen w happen ur be dune sw. I that the action should have been done already, Wis time you went to bed. You've got school tomorrow. 11S high time you stopped talking and did some work. plies Prepositions and gerunds 1 Verbs which come immediately alter prepositions must be in the gerund form, He was fined for parking on a yellow line If the subject of the gerund is different to the subject of the main verb, we add a noun, object pronoun or posseasive adjective We're not happy about James riding a motorbike. They nsisied on mefmy showing them the plows.2 These noun + preposition combinations are commonly followed by gerunds: (be nolltte) point i, (have) difficulty in, (bethave a good! soit aleld slasteas of Ueetnd feces ef There’ no point in inviting her; she won't come. Is there any chance of you playing tennis later? BD conideaee audibare manbereP pred ye ‘containing prepositions, such as ger out of, get over, give up, look forward fo, put off, pat up with, take to. He gave up phoning her and took to texting her poems, 4 These linking words and expressions can also be used ae prepositions and followed bya garnd offen, apart from, as a result of, as well as, before, besides, despite, in addition to, in spite of, instead of Apart from tasting great, it also very good for you. She opened He winklow; despite me asking her not 10. Unit 14 Compound adjectives Compound adjectives consist of two or more words joined bya hyphen A Many compound adjectives include a participle 1 Past participles can be combined with: conditional, toe lined 296 homemade, a © adjectives, e.g, open-mouthed, French-born sg. well-paid, brightly-coloured, fully-grown ip story, a broken-dows car © adver a aril, ty. sot 2. Present participles can be combined with # nouns, eg. German-speaking, time-saving # adjectives, eg. good-looking, sweet-smelling # adverbs, eg. hard-working, fast-moving, longlasting B Many other compound adjectives do not include a gpl fterdly, fil tone, high-speed, dang, twentieth-oeetury, word famous, oo Tai ipa hls, etfs, op tha ge C When a noun is used with a number to form a compound adjective, the singular form of the noun is tise. ten-kilomesre wale a site reper ils pound note, a thnee-hour journey, a five-yearold child Expressing purpose There are several different ways of expressing purpose {sawing why people do things) 1 Infinitive with so rewriting a ean yo for dee hovel presen Ue sen The negative infinitive, not to da something, cannot be used to express purpose, 2 In ordor 101) 10.» inbiisivo Slee wore dark glasses in order not to be recognized. 3 So as (not) to + infinitive Wo cot off early 20 ae to avoid the toffic. 4 $0 tha) + clause Future meaning: so (hat) + eanhwillpresent simple Let's move to the fron 50 we ean see better il rake an wimbrelia so that I don'thvon't get wet b Past meaning: so (rat) + couldivoutd Ho shut the door 80 that no one would disturb hin. 5 incase + clause we do something to prepare for a possible situation or pmblem we use jar ease 4 present simple/past simple 6 Expre: Grammar reference Future meaning: in case + present simple Here are some crisps in case you get Inaigry later on bb Past meaning: in case + past simple He made « copy in case he lost the original. Iccase si Note the difference in meaning between fn ease and if ‘Tiltake my umbrella if it rains. (= Vl take my umbrella onl if iis raining when [leave the house.) 11 rake sy umbrella incase it reins (~ 1 take it as 0 precaution, even if tant raning when I eave the house.) 1g abi A Can and be able 10 Can and be able to are both used to express ability. However: ear only hag present tense (ean) and past tense (could) forms. another form of the verb is reqiived, hv able fa is used Present: She canis able to speak Prench Past: ‘She could/was able to read when she was nvo. Infinitive: Ti like 10 be able t0 ski Present perfect: He never been able to save money. Will future: Present ability ‘We use cart of be able 10 10 talk about present alli able t0 1s more formal than eax. Shell be able to buy a car soon. ean run faster than you. He is able to apoak without roving his lip ‘The negative form of can is can't or canmot. To form the negative of be able 10, not 1s used before able. You can also use be unable to Teannot understand wihy she married him. We regret we ure snubs able a uacept crete cur, Be capable of + gerund can also be used to express, ability. It means to have the ability, capacity or potential to do something. This team is capable of winning the championship. ‘The negative form be incapable of + gerund can be used, or not can be placed before capable She is incapablesisn’t capable of looking after herself. ast ability When we talk about general ability in the past, both could and washvere able to are possible. My grandfather coud play the trenepet rind he ws 90, Asa child ( was riever able to beat my father at chess Be capable of can also be used in the past. Joe wasi't capable of making toast without burning i. When we talk about ability to do something on one ‘occasion in the past, could is not possible. Instead, was! ‘were able fo, managed to + infinitive or succeeded in + gerund have to be used. T managed tolwas abla to spoale to Frank last night. Firefighters succeeded in controlting the flames. However, could can be used for ability on one occasion shen iL is used with verbs of the senses: see, smell, hear; feel, sense, faste. Thucw my wife bd arrived; Feoudd smell her perfiane. ‘When we talk about inability to do something on one ‘occasion in the past, couldn’, werentiwasitt able to, wast were wable to, didn't manage to and didi sueceed in ave all possible, Teonld' de the homework; i was too diffieul didn't manage toAvasn' able to repair the fridge. 221