Graduate Texts inMathematics Otto Forster Lectures on Riemann Surfaces 6 SpringerOtto Forster Bruce Gilligan (Translator) ‘Westilische Wilhelms-Universitit Department of Mathematics Mathematisches Institut University of Regina 1D-4400 MOnster/Westfulen Regina, Sask. Federal Republic of Germany ‘Canada S45 042 Editorial Board P. R. Halmos FW. Gebring ‘Managing Ealtor Department of Department of Mathematics University of Michigan Indiana University ‘Ann Arbor, MI 48109 Bloomington, IN 47401 USA USA C.C. Moore Department of Mathematics University of California Berkeley, CA 94720 USA AMS Subject Classification (1980): 30-01, 30 FXX Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Forster, Otto, 1937 Lectures on Riemann surfaces. (Graduate texts in mathematics: 81) ‘Translation of: Riemannsche Flichen, Bibliography: p. Tneludes indexes. 1. Riemann surfaces. 1. Title. IU. Series. QA333.F6713SIs.223 81.9054 ISBN 0-387-50617-7 ‘AACR Title of the Original German Falition: Riemannsche Flichen, Heidelberger ‘Taschenbiicher 184, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1977 © 1981 by Springer-Verlag New York Inc. All rights reserved. No part ofthis book may be translated or reproduced in any form without written permission from Springer-Verlag, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10010, USA. Printed in the United States of America. 987654321 ISBN 0-387-90617-7 Springer-Verlag New York Heidelberg Berlin ISBN 3-540-90617-7 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New YorkContents Preface Chapter 1 Covering Spaces, si. 2 8 4. &. 6. gy. & 9. gio. su. ‘The Definition of Riemann Surfaces Flementary Properties of Holomorphic Mappings Homotopy of Curves. The Fundamental Group Branched and Unbranched Coverings ‘The Universal Covering and Covering Transformations Sheaves Analytic Continuation Algebraic Functions Differential Forms ‘The Integration of Differential Forms Linear Differential Equations Chapter 2 Compact Riemann Surfaces giz. 93 gia as. s16. gi. gis. Cohomology Groups Dolbeaul’s Lemma ‘A Finiteness Theorem ‘The Exact Cohomology Sequence ‘The Riemann-Roch Theorem ‘The Serre Duality Theorem Functions and Differential Forms with Prescribed incipal Parts 96 104 109 118. 132 146$19, Harmonic Differential Forms §20. Abel's Theorem §21, The Jacobi Inversion Problem Chapter 3 Non-compact Riemann Surfaces 322. The Dirichlet Boundary Value Problem 923. Countable Topology 824. Weyl’s Lemma §25. The Runge Approximation Theorem §26 The Theorems of Mittag-Leffer and Weierstrass §27. ‘The Riemann Mapping Theorem §28 Functions with Prescribed Summands of Automorphy §29. Line and Vector Bundles §30. ‘The Triviality of Vector Bundles $31. ‘The Riemann-Hilbert Problem Appendix A. Partitions of Unity B_ Topological Vector Spaces References ‘Symbol Index Author and Subject Index Contents 153 159 166 237 237 238 243 247 249Preface This book grew out of lectures on Riemann surfaces which the author gave at the universities of Munich, Regensburg and Minster. Its aim is 10 give an introduction to this rich and beautiful subject, while presenting methods from the theory of complex manifolds which, in the special case of one complex variable, turn out to be particularly elementary and transparent. The book is divided into three chapters. In the first chapter we consider Riemann surfaces as covering spaces and develop a few basics from topology which are needed for this. Then we construct the Riemann surfaces which arise via analytic continuation of function germs. In particular this includes the Riemann surfaces of algebraic functions. As well we look more closely at analytic functions which display a special multi-valued behavior. Examples Of this are the primitives of holomorphic I-forms and the solutions of linear differential equations. ‘The second chapter is devoted to compact Riemann surfaces. The main classical results, like the Riemann-Roch Theorem, Abel's Theorem and the Jacobi inversion problem, are presented. Sheaf cohomology is an important technical tool. But only the first cohomology groups are used and these are comparatively easy to handle. The main theorems are all derived, following Serre, from the finite dimensionality of the first cohomology group with coefficients in the sheaf of holomorphic functions. And the proof of t based on the fact that one can locally solve inhomogeneous Cauchy- Riemann equations and on Schwarz’ Lemma. In the third chapter we prove the Riemann Mapping Theorem for simply connected Riemann surfaces (or Uniformization Theorem) as well as the main theorems of Behnke-Stein for non-compact Riemann surfaces, ie, the Runge Approximation Theorem and the Theorems of Mittag-Leffler and Weierstrass. This is done using Perron’s solution of the Dirichlet problemviii Preface and Malgrange’s method of proof, based on Weyl’s Lemma, of the Runge Approximation Theorem. In this chapter we also complete the discussion of Stein’s Theorem, begun in Chapter 1, concerning the existence of holomor- phic functions with prescribed summands of automorphy and present R@hr!'s solution of the Riemann-Hilbert problem on non-compact Riemann surfaces. We have tried to keep the prerequisites to a bare minimum and to develop the necessary tools as we go along, However the reader is assumed to be familiar with what would generally be covered in one semester courses ‘on one complex variable, on general topology and on algebra. Besides these basics, a few facts from differential topology and functional analysis have been used in Chapters 2 and 3 and these are gathered together in the appendix. Lebesgue integration is not needed, as only holomorphic or difler- entiable functions (resp. differential forms) are integrated. We have also avoided using, without proof, any theorems on the topology of surfaces. ‘The material presented corresponds roughly to three semesters of lec- tures. However, Chapters 2 and 3 presuppose only parts of the preceding chapters. Thus, after §§1, 6 and 9 (the definitions of Riemann surfaces, sheaves and differential forms) the reader could go directly to Chapter 2. ‘And from here, only §§12-14 are needed in Chapter 3 10 be able to handle the main theorems on non-compact Riemann surfaces. ‘The English edition includes exercises which have been added at the end of every section and some additional paragraphs in §§8, 17 and 29. As well, the terminology concerning coverings has been changed. Thanks are due to the many attentive readers of the German edition who helped to eliminate several errors; in particular to G. Elencwajg, who also proposed some of the exercises. Last but not least we would like to thank the translator, B. Gilligan, for his dedicated efforts. Minster 0. FORSTER, May, 1981CHAPTER 1 Covering Spaces Riemann surfaces originated in complex analysis as a means of dealing with the problem of multi-valued functions. Such multi-valued functions occur because the analytic continuation of a given holomorphic function element along different paths leads in general to different branches of that function. It was the idea of Riemann to replace the domain of the function with a many sheeted covering of the complex plane. If the covering is constructed so that it has as many points lying over any given point in the plane as there are function elements at that point, then on this “ covering surface” the analytic function becomes single-valued. Now, forgetting the fact that these surfaces are “spread out” over the complex plane (or the Riemann sphere), we get the notion of an abstract Riemann surface and these may be considered as the natural domain of definition of analytic functions in one complex variable, We begin this chapter by discussing the general notion of a Riemann surface. Next we consider covering spaces, both from the topological and analytic points of view. Finally, the theory of covering spaces is applied to the problem of analytic continuation, to the construction of Riemann sur- faces of algebraic functions, to the integration of differential forms and to finding the solutions of linear differential equations. §1. The Definition of Riemann Surfaces In this section we define Riemann surfaces, holomorphic and meromorphic functions on them and also holomorphic maps between Riemann surfaces Riemann surfaces are two-dimensional manifolds together with an addi tional structure which we are about to define. As is well known, an 12 1 Covering Spaces n-dimensional manifold is a Hausdorff topological space X such that every point a © X has an open neighborhood which is homeomorphic to an open subset of fe 1,1. Definition. Let X be a two-dimensional manifold. A complex chart on X is a homeomorphism : U- V of an open subset Uc X onto an open subset V < C. Two complex charts 9: Uj» V;, i= 1, 2are said to be holo- ‘morphically compatible if the map 92° 9112 O01 0 U2) > g(r 0 U2) is biholomorphic (see Fig. 1). A complex atlas on X {ort Ur V,, Fe I} ofcharts which are holomorphically compatible and which cover X, ie User Two complex atlases 9 and 9’ on X are called analytically equivalent i every chart of 2 is holomorphically compatible with every chart of 2’ 1.2. Remarks (a) If: U-> Visa complex chart, U; is open in U and ¥, = g(U;), then 9|U,— M, isa chart which is holomorphically compatible with g: UV. (b) Since the composition of biholomorphic mappings is again biholo- morphic, one easily sees that the notion of analytic equivalence of complex atlases is an equivalence relation. 1.3. Definition. By a complex structure on a two-dimensional manifold X we mean an equivalence class of analytically equivalent atlases on X. ‘Thus a complex structure on X can be given by the choice of a complex atlas. Every complex structure ¥ on X contains a unique maximal atlas &*. 1FQ is an arbitrary atlas in ¥, then W* consists of all complex charts on X which are holomorphically compatible with every chart of Yt.1 The Definition of Riemann Surfaces 3 14, Definition. A Riemarm surface is a pair (X, Z), where X is a connected id and is a complex structure on X. writes X instead of (X,) whenever itis clear which complex, structure E is meant. Sometimes one also writes (X, Wl) where W is a re- presentative of 2. Convention. If X is a Riemann surface, then by a chart on X we always ‘mean a complex chart belonging to the maximal atlas of the complex struc- ture on X. Remark. Locally a Riemann surface X is nothing but an open set in the complex plane. For, if g: U + V c € isa chart on X, then maps the open set Uc X bijectively onto V. However, any given point of X is contained in many different charts and no one of these is distinguished from the others. For this reason we may only carry over to Riemann surfaces those notions from complex analysis in the plane which remain invariant under biholo- morphic mappings, ic. those notions which do not depend on the choice of a particular chart 1.5. Examples of Riemann Surfaces (2) The Complex Plane C. Its complex structure is defined by the atlas whose only chart is the identity map € + C. (b) Domains. Suppose X is a Riemann surface and Y < X is a domain, ie, a connected open subset. Then ¥ has a natural complex structure which ‘makes it a Riemann surface. Namely, one takes as its atlas all those complex charts g: UV on X, where U c Y. In particular, every domain Yc Cisa Riemann surface. (6) The Riemann sphere ®', Let B' =C U {oo}, where co isa symbol not contained in C. Introduce the following topology on P!. The open sets are the usual open sets Uc C together with sets of the form VU {oo}, where V © Cis the complement of a compact set K < C. With this topology Pisa compact Hausdorff topological space, homeomorphic to the 2-sphere S?, Set U, = Plo} =€ Up =P} = + u (ooh |, 2, as follows. ¢y is the identity map and _|Ve forzec* PV fore =o Clearly these maps are homeomorphisms and thus P! is a two-dimensional manifold, Since U, and U are connected and have non-empty intersection, P* is also connected.4 1 Covering Spaces The complex structure on P* is now defined by the atlas consisting of the charts 2 U;+€, i= 1, 2. We must show that the two charts are holo- morphically compatible. But g,(U, 0 U3) =2(U; 0 U;)=C* and O20 GFCFOC% M/s, is biholomorphic. Remark. The notation P! comes ftom the fact that one may consider P* as the 1-dimensional projective space over the field of complex numbers. (4) Tori. Suppose «». 02 € € are linearly independent over F. Define Pe Ze + Zeng = {roy + mo;!n, me Z}. ris called the lattice spanned by «, and 2 (Fig. 2). Two complex numbers 2,7 €C are called equivalent mod I’ if z — 7 ¢ I. The set of all equivalence classes is denoted by C/T. Let : € + C/P be the canonical projection, ie. the map which associates to each point z € C its equivalence class mod Tr. Figure 2 Introduce the following topology (the quotient topology) on C/T. A subset U c C/T is open precisely if = "(U) < C is open. With this topology C/T is a Hausdorff topological space and the quotient map x: + C/T is continuous. Since C is connected, C/T" is also connected. As well C/T is compact, for it is covered by the image under x of the compact parallelogram P (Heo, + boa: A, 1 € (0, 1} ‘The map ris open, ie, the image ofevery open set V & C is open. To see this fone has to show that 7 =n" '(x(V)) is open. But P= Urn Since every set « + V is open, so is P.1 The Definition of Riemane Surtaces 5 The complex structure on C/I” is defined in the following way. Let Vic bbe an open set such that no two points in V are equivalent under I. Then Us=x(V) is open and x|V + U isa homeomorphism. Its inverse @: is a complex chart on C/T. Let 2 be the set ofall charts obtained in this fashion. We have to show that any two charts ¢,: Uy-» Vj, = 1, 2, belong- ing to %1 are holomorphically compatible. Consider the map Wor © git: (Ur 0 U2) @(U1 0 Ua) For every 2€gi(U17 U2) one has x(¥(2))= 1 (2) = x(2) and thus (2) —zeT. Since I is discrete and y is continuous, this implies that Wz) — zisconstant on every connected component of g,(U, - Uz). Thus y is holomorphic. Similarly y~' is also holomorphic. Now let C/T have the complex structure defined by the complex atlas 2 Remark, Let $! = {z © €: |2| =1) be the unit circle. The map which associates to the point of C/T represented by 20 + 102, (2, 1. B), the point (2% e251 x 51, is a homeomorphism of C/T onto the torus S* x S*. 1.6. Definition. Let X be a Riemann surface and ¥ c X an open subset. A function f: Y > € is called holomorphic, iffor every chart y: U + V on X the function Few YU on Ye is holomorphic in the usual sense on the open set y(U - Y)e C. The set of all functions holomorphic on ¥ will be denoted by €(Y)- 1.7. Remarks (a) The sum and product of holomorphic functions are again holomor- phic. Also constant functions are holomorphic. Thus €(Y) is a C-algebra. (b) Of course the condition in the definition does not have to be verified for all charts in a maximal atlas on X, just for any family of charts covering Y. Then it is automatically fulfilled for all other charts. (6) Every chart yz U > V on X is, in particular, a complex-valued fune- tion on U. Trivially it is holomorphic. One also calls ya local coordinate or a uniformizing parameter and (U, \/) 8 coordinate neighborhood of any point “In this context one generally uses the letter z instead of y. 18. Theorem (Riemann’s Removable Singularities Theorem), Let U be an open subset of a Riemann surface and let ae U. Suppose the function ‘Fe C(U\{a}) is bounded in some neighborhood of a. Then f can be extended uniquely to a function Fe (U).6 1 Covering Spaces ‘This follows directly from Riemann’s Removable Singularities Theorem in the complex plane, We now define holomorphic mappings between Riemann surfaces. 19. Definition. Suppose X and Y are Riemann surfaces. A continuous map- ping f: X + Y is called holomorphic, if for every pair of charts y,: Uy > ¥, on X and Yj: U; > V; on ¥ with f(U,) © U;. the mapping Ya SeWil Ko Ve is holomorphic in the usual sense, ‘A mapping f: X -+ ¥ is called biholomorphic if it is bijective and both f:X +Y and f-": ¥+X are holomorphic. Two Riemann surfaces X and ¥ are called isomorphic if there exists a biholomorphic mapping f: X > Y. 1.10, Remarks (a) In the special case Y=C, holomorphic mappings f: XC are clearly the same as holomorphic function: (b) IX, ¥ and Z are Riemann surfaces and f: X + ¥ and g: ¥->Z are holomorphic mappings, then the composition go f:X—>Z is also holomorphic. (©) A continuous mapping f: X > ¥ between two Riemann surfaces is holomorphic precisely if for every open set Vc ¥ and every holomorphic function y © €(V), the “ pull-back” function y « f:f~1(V)-+ C is contained in O(f-'(V)). This follows directly from the definitions and the remarks (1.72) and (1:10.b). In this way @ holomorphic mapping f: X + ¥ induces a mapping POW), PW=0 £ One can easily check thatf*is a ring homomorphism. fg: Y-» Zis another holomorphic mapping, W is open in Z, V==g" (W) and U=f~(V), then, (g« f)*: 0(W) + ©(U) is the composition of the mappings g*: C(W) > G(V) and f*: 6(V)-> 6(U) ie, (9 of)? =f* « a%. 1.11. Theorem (Identity Theorem). Suppose X and ¥ are Riemann surfaces and fy, fa: X + ¥ are to holomorphic mappings which coincide on a set AX having a limit point ac X. Then fy and f, are identically equal. Proor. Let G be the set of all points x © X having an open neighborhood W such that fi] = f,| 1. By definition G is open. We claim that G is also closed. For, suppose b is a boundary point of G. Then fy(b) = f(b) since fy and f, are continuous. Choose charis gy: U—+ Von X and yj: U’+ V' on ¥ with be U and f((U) U". We may also assume that U is connected. The mappings ohegVoVce1 The Definition of Riemann Surfaces 7 are holomorphic. Since U A G # @, the Identity Theorem for holomorpl functions on domains in © implies g, and gp are identically equal. Thus fy|U =a] U. Hence b € G and thus G is closed, Now since X is connected either G = @ or G = X. But the first case is excluded since a e G (using the Identity Theorem in the plane again). Hence f, and f; coincide on all of X. Qo 1.12, Definition. Let X be a Riemann surface and ¥ be an open subset of X. By a meromorphic funetion on ¥ we mean a holomorphic function f: ¥’ + C, where ¥"c Y is an open subset, such that the following hold: (i) Y\Y' contains only isolated points. (ii) For every point p € Y\¥" one has Him fo] = The points of Y\¥" are called the poles of f. The set of all meromorpl functions on Y is denoted by #¢(¥). 1.13, Remarks (a) Let (U, 2) be a coordinate neighborhood of a pole p of f with z(p) = 0. ‘Then f may be expanded in a Laurent series fa Dez in a neighborhood of p. (b) .@(Y) has the natural structure of a C-algebra. First of all the sum and the product of two meromorphic functions fg € .(¥) are holomorphic functions at those points where both f and g are holomorphic. Then one holomorphically extends, using Riemann's Removable Singularities Theorem, f + g (resp. fg) across any singularities which are removable, 1.14, Example. Suppose n> 1 and let Fe)=2 424 +G, Gee be a polynomial. Then F defines a holomorphic mapping F: C -»€. [fone thinks of € as a subset of P!, then lim,-+.[F(2)| = 00. Thus Fe (P"). We now interpret meromorphic functions as holomorphic mappings into the Riemann sphere. LAS. Theorem. Suppose X is a Riemann surface and f .(X). For each pole of , define flp)'= 00. Then f: X -» P' is a holomorphic mapping. Conversely, iff: X + P* isa holomorphic mapping, then fis either identically equal to 00 or else f~"(co) consists of isolated points and f: X\f~"(00) -+ C isa meromorphic function on X.8 1 Covering Spaces From now on we will identify a meromorphic function fe .#(X) with the corresponding holomorphic mapping f: X —~ P', PROOF (a) Let fe #(X) and let P be the set of poles of f: Then f induces a mapping f: X +P" which is clearly continuous. Suppose g: U-+ V and :U'> V are charts on X and P" resp. with f(U) < U’. We have to show ore feg i VaV is holomorphic. Since fis holomorphic on X\P, it follows that gis holomor- phic on V\(P). Hence by Riemann’s Removable Singularities Theorem, g is holomorphic on all of V. (b) The converse follows from the Identity Theorem (1.11). o 41.16. Remark, From (1.11) and (1.15) it follows that the Identity Theorem also holds for meromorphic functions on a Riemann surface. Thus any funetion f € .#(X) which is not identically zero has only isolated zeros. This implies that .(X) isa field. Exercises (61) LL. (@) One polut compactifcation of 8". For n > 1 let co be a symbol not belonging, to FY. Introduce the following topology on the set X= R" U (ce). A set U CX is open, by definition, if one of the following two conditions is satisfied (i) 2 € U and U is open in "with respect to the usual topology on ® (ii) co€ U and K = X\U is compact in R with respect to the usual topology on FY. Show that X is « compact Hausdorff topological space. (0) Stereographic projection. Consider the unit n-sphere Safle kere RM Ee aa tp and the stereographie projection 2:5" RL foo} given by am) fxr #1 olen, vena = , it xe Show that ¢ is a homeomorphism of S" onto X 1.2. Suppose (: ‘) © GLQ,e}.1 The Definition of Riemann Surfaces 9 Show that the linear fractional transformation a+b I" ord Which is holomorphic on {2 ¢ C:cz + d #0}, can be extended to a meromorphic function on P* (also denoted by). Show that f: P" -+ P' is biholomorphic,ie.f is an automorphism of P 13, Identify * with the unit sphere in 2 using the stereographic projection a: 8840 Ufo} =e defined in Ex, 1.1. Let O(3) be the group of orthogonal 3 x 3-matrices having. determinant 1, ie, S0(3) = {4 € GL, B): AYA =I, det 4 = Ih. For every 4 © $O(3), show that the map oA ot Plpt is biholomorphic. Un: Use the fact tat every matrix Ae SO(3) may be writen at «product anh 010 a-(\¢1) 100 orehe s matts eh om Bo @ +) with Be SOQ) 14, Let P= Ze + £0, and P= Za} + Zo be two lattices in C. Show that TT" if and only if there exists @ mattix A € SLQ, €)-=(4 ¢ GLO, ©}: nr ee) 15. (a) Let F, F< € be two lattices. Suppose a e C* such that af < I, Show that the map © +€, zr-saz induces a holomerphie map oracr, which is biholomorphie if and only if a = T°. (©) Show that every torus X = C/T is isomorphic to a torus of the form XQ) Ole +2) where + €€ sisi Imfe) > 0. (©) Suppose (: 4) S102, €) and ims) > 0. Let ath weet Show thatthe tori X(e) and X(e) are isomorphic.10 1 Covering Spaces §2. Elementary Properties of Holomorphic Mappings In this section we note some of the elementary topological properties of holomorphic mappings between Riemann surfaces. Using these we show that one can easily derive some of the famous theorems of complex analysis, eg. Liouville’s Theorem and the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. 2.1. Theorem (Local Behavior of Holomorphic Mappings). Suppose X and Y are Riemann surfaces and f: Xr ¥ isa non-constant holomorphic mapping. Suppose a e X and b=f{a}. Then there exists an integer k > 1 and charts 9: UV on X and y: U' > V" on ¥ with the following properties: (i) ae U,e(a)=0; be U ylb)=0. (i) AUyeU, (ii) The map FW -f o's V-» Vis given by Fz)=2 forall ze V. Proor. First we note that there exist charts g):U,—>¥; on X and ¥: U' Von ¥ such that properties (i) and (ii) are satisfied if one replaces (U, @) by (Uy, 1). Now it follows from the Identity Theorem that the funetion Rew efe gi ec is non-constant, Since (0) =0, there is a k> 1 such that fi(e) = gle) where g is a holomorphic function on V, with g(0) 4 0. Hence there exists a neighborhood of © and a holomorphic function fron this neighborhood such that I = g. The correspondence z++ 2h(2) defines a biholomorphic mapping a: Vp» V of an open neighborhood V; < V, of zero onto an open neighbor: hood V of zero. Let U= 9; (V3). Now replace the chart py: U; + ¥ by the chart g: U-+V where g=ao@,. Then by construction the mapping Fopefeg™ satisfies Fe)= 2 = a Yo 22, Remark. The number k in Theorem (2.1) can be characterized in the following way. For every neighborhood Us of a there exist neighborhoods Uc U, ofaand Wofb = fla) such that the set{~"()) 0 U contains exactly k elements for every point ye W, yb. One calls k the multiplicity with which the mapping ftakes the value b at the point a or one just says that has multiplicity k at the point a. 23. Example, Let fle) = + ¢)~1 +--+ + ¢ be a polynomial of degree k Then f can be considered as 2 holomorphic mapping f: + P* where f\eo) = 00 (eh. §1). Using a chart about co, one can easily check that oo is taken with multiplicity k.2 Flementary Properties of Holomorphic Mappings uN 2A, Corollary. Let X and Y be Riemann surfaces and let f:X > ¥ be a non-constant holomorphic mapping. Then fts open, Le. the image of ever y open set under fis open. PROOF. It follows directly rom Theorem (21) that if U isa neighborhood of a point a € X then f(U) is neighborhood of the point f(a) This implies fis open, o 25, Corollary. Let X and ¥ be Riemann surfaces and let f: X + ¥ be an injective holomorphic mapping. Then f is a biholomorphie mapping of X onto AX) Proor. Since fis injective, in the local description of f given by Theorem (2.1), one always has k= 1. Hence the inverse mapping f-!: 1X) X is holomorphic. o 26. Corollary (Maximum Principle). Suppose X is a Riemann surface and f X + is a non-constant holomorphic function. Then the absolute value of f does not attain its maximum. Proor. Suppose that there were a point a € X such that R= [S(@)| = supll fl: xe X). Then AX) cK={2e: [2] € is constant. Proor. By Riemann’s Removable Singularities Theorem (2.8) fcan be analy tically continued to holomorphic mapping f: P? -» C. By Corollary (28) f is constant. oa 2.11. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. Ler n> 1 and let f= 2 bee tbe, be a polynomial with coefficients c, € C. Then there exists at least one point ae C such that fla) = 0. Poot. The polynomial f may be considered as a holomorphic mapping f:P!-+P¥, where f(co) = co. By Theorem (2.7) this mapping is surjective and thus 0-€(C) o 2.12. Doubly Periodic Functions. Suppose «1, «02 € € are linearly indepen- dent over R and '=Ze, + Zerg is the lattice spanned by them. A me morphic function f: C -» P" is called doubly periodic with respect to I if fle)=fle-+0)> for e Clearly, for this to hold it sulfces that f(z) = fle + «,) = fle +03) forevery ze. Let x:C+C/f be the canonical map. Then the doubly periodic function f induces a function F: C/T" such that f= F - x. It follows irectly from the definition of the complex structure on C/P that F is 2 meromorphic function on C/T. Conversely, for any meromorphic function F:C/P +P, the composition f= F o x: C+ P is a meromorphic function which is doubly periodic with respect to P. Thus the meromorphic functions ‘on the torus C/I” ate in one-to-one correspondence with the meromorphic functions on €, doubly periodic with respect to I. Hence from Theorem (2.7) we have: ry ze Cand wT.3 Homotopy of Curves. The Fundamental Group B 213. Theorem. Every doubly periodic holomorphic function fs C—+C is constant, Every non-constant doubly periodic meromorphic function: C+ P* attains every value ce P', Exanctsts (§2) 2A. Let PEC be a lattice. The Weierstrass (function with respect to Tis defined by et=4 «Ele pa} (a) Prove that 8; isa doubly periodic meromorphic function with respect to which has poles at the points of F. (Hint: First consider the derivative | (b) Let /c.#(C) be a doubly periodic funetion with respect to T whieh has its poles at the points of T and which has the following Laurent expansion about the origin e@=-2y 4 Ste) = Fea’, whore c-2= Nes = C0 =0. Prove that f= 22, Suppose X is a Riemann surface and f: X —+€ is a non-constant holomorphic funetion. Show that Re(/) does not attain its maximum 23, Suppose f: C+ € is a holomorphic function, whose real part is bounded from above. Then fis constant. 24. Suppose f= ¥ + ¥ is a non-constant holomorphic map and PE O(Y) EX, FO)= 0 oF Show that (* is a ring monomorphism. P,_are points on the compact Riemann surface X and Pe}. Suppose 25. Suppose Pi» XX EXC is & non-constant holomorphic funtion. Show that the image of f comes arbi- trary close to every ¢ €€. §3. Homotopy of Curves. The Fundamental Group In this section we present some of the topological results connected with the notion of homotopy of curves. By a curve in a topological space X we mean a continuous mapping u: TX, where F=[0, 1] ¢ R is the unit interval. The point a*=u(0) is14 1 Covering Spaces called the initial point and —u(1) the end point of u. One also says that u is a curve from a to b or that the curve u joins a to b. Let us recall that a topological space X is called arcwise connected or pathwise connected if any two points a, b ¢ X can be joined by a curve. An arcwise connected space is also connected, ie., there does not exist a decom- position X = U, U Uz where U, and U; are non-empty disjoint open sets. A topological space is called locally arcwise connected if every point has a neighborhood basis of arewise connected sets. In particular this is always the case for manifolds. A connected, locally arcwise connected space X is (lobally) arewise connected. For one can easily show that the set of all points x © X which can be joined with a given point a ¢ X isboth open and closed. 1. Definition. Suppose X is topological space and a, b e X. Two curves, 21—+X from a to b are called homotopic, denoted u ~ t, if there exists a continuous mapping 4: 1 x > X with the following properties: (i) A(t, 0) = ue) for every te f, A(t. 1) = a(t) for every te I, (iil) A@, s)= a and A(1, 8) = b for every € 1 Remark, Ione sets u(t) = A(t 5), then every u, is a curve from ato band ug = 1, ty =v. The family of curves (Uo <1 is Said to be a deformation of the curve w into the curve v or a homotopy from u to 1, cf. Fig. 3 Figure 3 3.2. Theorem. Suppose X is a topological space and a. b € X. Then the notion of homotopy is an equivalence relation on the set of all curves from a to b. Proor. Reflexitivity and symmetry are clear. As to the transitivity, suppose u,v, w: 1» X are three curves from a to b with w~ v and v ~ w, We must43 Homotopy of Curves. The Fundamental Group 15 show that u~w, By assumption there exist continuous mappings 4, B: 1 x I-+X such that for every t, s€ I the following hold: At, 0) = u(t), Alt, 1) = B60) = 0(0), BU 1) = (0, A(0, s) = BO, 8) = a, A(L, 8) = B(L, s) =. Define C: 1 x 1+ X by te gunlMe2) — rOssch 9) 1B 25-1) forbes. ‘Then C is continuous and is a homotopy from 1 to w Qa 33. Lemma, Suppose u: I->X is a curve in the topological space X and 9:1 -+1 is a continuous mapping such that @(0)=0 and @(1) = 1. Then the curves w and w « @ are homotopic. Proor. Define A: I x I+ X by A(t, 3) =u((1 — 8) + elt). Then A is continuous and Ale O) = ul, AULA) = (ue MO) AO. s)= uO) ACL, s) = u(1) for every t, s€ f. Thus u and u » g are homotopic. o 34, Definition. Suppose a, b and c are three points in a topological space X. u: T-+X isa curve from a to b and v: I+ X is a curve from b to ¢. (i) The product curve w+ v: [+X from a to ¢ is defined by fu(2e) for OS 4, 2-1) ford sts (ii) The inverse curte uw: I +X from a to bis defined by (uy w(t)=u(l =) for every re I. The product curve 1 v first traces the points ofthe curve w and then those of the curve v but at twice the speed. The inverse curve u~ passes along the same points as u but in the opposite direction. One can easily check that if,,u: [> X are homotopic curves from a to band v,, 0: I+ X are homotopic curves from b to ¢, then uy * By ~ Up and uy ~ 3.16 1 Covering Spaces 3, Definition. Suppose X is a topological space and a ¢ X. By the constant curve at a is meant the constant mapping ug: I+ X, ie. u(t) = a for every tel. 26. Theorem. Suppose X is « topological space and a, b, ¢ € X. Suppose u,v. ws I+ X are curves in X such that uO)=a u(l)=b= 10), (I)=e=wO), w(t) Further let up be the constant curte at a, tg the constant curve at b, Then the {following homotopies exist: (i) tou ~u~ ue t, (ii) ww ~ 0, ii) (uv) -w~u (vow) PRoor (i) By the definition of the product of curves cov _ fuol2t)=ul0) for OX from a to b are homotopic. PROOF. Let to (resp. tp) be the constant curve at a (tesp. b). Now m(X, 6) =0 implies v -u~ ve and thus v-(0” -u)~ 0° tp. But o- (0 -u)~ (v0) > uo u~ wand v- v9 ~ v by Theorem 3.6) ie,u~e. 3.12. Examples (a) A subset X c fis called star-shaped with respect to a point a e X if for every point x € X the straight line segment Aa + (I~ 4)x,0< = lis contained in X. Every star-shaped subset X c Ris simply connected. For suppose u: I+ X is 2 closed curve with initial and end point a (with a as above). Then ALIX 1X, Alt. s)=sa+ (1 shuld) is a homotopy from u to the point curve at a. Thus ,(X, a) = 0. In particu- lar, the complex plane C and every disk in C are simply connected. As well C\R, and C\R.. are simply connected, where R,, (resp. R.) denotes the positive (resp. negative) real axis, (b) The Riemann sphere P* is also simply connected. One can see this as follows. Let U, =B!\{co} and U,*=P'\0}. Since U, and Uz are homeo- morphic to C, they are simply connected. Now suppose w: +P! is any closed curve starting and ending at 0, Since [is compact and w is continuous, one can find finitely many, not necessarily closed, curves uy, Uaq41! 1 + P! with the following properties: () The product, beet a tage is, up to @ parameter transformation, equal to the curve u and thus is homotopic to u. (Gi) The curves tay, y. k= 0, .... mie entirely in Uy, and the curves ta., 1, ....1, lie entirely in U,. The initial and end points of the s1, are different from oo, Now by Theorem (3.11) one can find curves 3, homoto- pic t0 uz, lying entirely in U; \(co}. Then Ue alg yo ag Hane is homotopic to vand thus to u as well and lies in U,. Since x (U,) = 0, 0'is null homotopic. Thus u is null homotopic too. Suppose X is a topological space and u,v: 1+ X are two in X, which do not necessarily have the same initial point.3 Homotopy of Curves. The Fundamental Group 1» Then the curves u and v are called free homotopic as closed curves, if there exists « continuous mapping A: I x I» X with the following properties: () AG O)=u(t)— forevery ref, (i) Ale 1)= 0) forevery ref, (iii) A@, s) = AQ, s) for every se 1. Remark. If one sets u(t) = Alt, 3), then each u, is closed curve in X and ug = ty = ts The family of curves u,,0 < $< 1, gives deformation of the curve 1 into the curve u. Let w(t)= A(0, 1), 0< t-< 1. Then w is a curve which joins a =u(0) = u(1) to b= 0(0) = r(1). Note that for exch s the point 1w(s) is the initial and end point of the curve u,. It is easy to see (ct. Fig. 4) that u is homotopic, while keeping the initial and end point a fixed, to the curve wp: w". 3.14. Theorem. A pathwise connected topological space X is simply connected if and only if any two closed curves in X are free homotopic as closed curves. The proof is simple and is lft to the reader. 3.15. Functorial Behavior. Suppose f: X — Y is a continuous mapping be- tween the topological spaces X and ¥. If u: 1+ X is a curve in X, then fou: I> Yisacurvein Y.Iwu: 1+ X are homotopic, then fc ufc u’ are also homotopic. Hence finduces « mapping Fai m4(X, a) > (Ys fla)) of the fundamental groups. This mapping is « group homomorphism, since fe(u:v)=(feu): (feo) Ig: ¥-»Z is another continuous mapping, then (9 °S)y = de ° Se EXERCISES (§3) 3.L. (a) Suppose X is a manifold and Uy, Uz X are two open, connected and simply connected subsets such that U; 6 U2 is connected, Show that X is simply connected. (b) Using (2) show that 5* for n 2 2 is simply connected. 3.2. Suppose X and Y ure arewise connected topological spaces. Prove (XY) m(X) x mC).20 1 Covering Spaces 43. Let (Xa) and (¥,b) be topological spaces with base points a ¢ X andb ¢ ¥. Let fa: X'-» ¥ be two continuous maps with fla) = g(a) = b. Then f and gare called homotopic if there exists a continuous map FX x (0, 1]>¥ such that F(x, 0) = ffx) and F(x, 1) = g(x) for every x © X and Fla, t) =b for every r€ (0, 1]. Consider the induced maps Pas daz 1X, a) 0 1(¥, Bh Show that f, = ge if and g are homotopic. §4. Branched and Unbranched Coverings Nor-constant holomorphic maps between Riemann surfices are covering maps, possibly having branch points. For this reason we now gather together the most important ideas and results from the theory of covering spaces. 4.1. Definition. Suppose X and ¥ ate topological spaces and p: YX isa continuous map. For x X, the set p~!(x) is called the fiber of p over x. If yep” (x), then one says that the point y lies over x. If p: Y->X and @:Z+X ate continuous maps, then a map fi ¥—Z is called fiber- preserving if p = qf. This means that any point y € Y, lying over the point xe X, is mapped to a point which also lies over x. A subset A of a topological space is called discrete ifevery point a € A has a neighborhood V such that V A= {a}. A mapping p: Y X, between topological spaces X and Y, is said to be discrete if the fiber p~ '(x) of every point x € X isa diserete subset of ¥. 42. Theorem. Suppose X and Y are Riemann surfaces and p: ¥ >X is a non-constant holomorphic map. Then p is open and diserete. Proor. By (2.4) the map p is open. Ifthe fiber of some point a € X were not discrete, then, by the Identity Theorem (1.11), p would be identically equal to a. a Ifp: ¥ + X isa non-constant holomorphic map, then we will say that Y is 1a domain over X. ‘A holomorphic (resp. meromorphic) function f: ¥ + € (resp.f: Y +P?) may also be considered as multi-valued holomorphic (meromorphic) func- tion on X. Ix X and p™'(x) = (yy: J € J}, then the /y;) je J, are the different values of this multi-valued funetion at the point x. Of course it might turn out that p~"(x) is a single point or is empty.4 Branched and Unbranched Coverings a As an example, suppose ¥ = C, X = C* and p = exp: C+ C*. Then the identity mapping id: C+ € corresponds to the multi-valued logarithm on C*, For, the set exp” 'b), where b © C%, consists of exactly the various values of the logarithm of b. The following diagram illustrates this. e—tie ce 43. Definition. Suppose X and Y ure Riemann surfaces and p: X -» ¥ is « non-constant holomorphic map. A point y€ ¥ is called a branch point or ramification point of p, if there is no neighborhood V of y such that p| V is injective. The map p is called an unbranched holomorphic map if it has no branch points. 44, Theorem. Suppose X and ¥ are Riemann surfaces. A non-constant holo- morphic map p: ¥ > X has no branch points if and only if pis a local homeo morphism, ie, every point y © ¥ has an open neighborhood V which is mapped hhomeomorphically by p onto an open set U in X. PRoor. Suppose p: ¥ + X hasno branch points and y € Yisarbitrary. Since ¥ is not a branch point, there exists an open neighborhood V of y stich that PIV is injective. Since p is continuous and open, p maps the s-t V homeo- morphically onto the open set U= p(V) Conversely, assume p: ¥-+X is local homeomorphism. Then for any ye Y there exists an open neighborhood V of y which is mapped homeo- ‘morphically by p onto an open set in X. In particular, p|V is injective and y is not a branch point of p. o 45. Examples (a) Suppose k isa natural number 22 and let py: € + € be the mapping, defined by p,(z)'=2. Then 0 € € isa branch point of p; and the mapping r|C*>C is unbranched. (b) Suppose p: ¥ +X is a non-constant holomorphic map, y€ Y and x'= p(y). Then y isa branch point of p precisely ifthe mapping p takes the value x at the point y with multiplicity > 2, ef. 2.2), By Theorem (2.1) the local behavior of p near y is just the same as the local behavior of the mapping p, in example (a) near the origin, (¢) The mapping exp: C -+C* is an unbranched holomorphic map. For exp is injective on every subset Vc C which does not contain two points differing by an integral multiple of 2ni. (a) Suppose Ic C is a lattice and x:€ -+ C/P is the canonical qui mapping, ef (1.5). Then m is unbranched.2 1 Covering Spaces 46. Theorem. Suppose X is a Riemann surface, Y is a Hausdorf topological space and p: ¥-+ X is «local homeomorphism. Then there is unique complex structure on ¥ such that pis holomorphic Remark. By (2.5) it follows that p is even locally biholomorphic: PROOF. Suppose g1: Uy > Vc € is # chart of the complex structure of X stich that there exists an open subset Uc Y with p|U— U, # homeo- morphism. Then =, © p: U> Vis 2 complex chart on ¥. Let 2 be the set of all complex charts on Y obtained in this way. It is easy to see that the charts of 2 cover ¥ and are holomorphicelly compatible with one another. Now let ¥ have the complex structure defined by 2. Then the projection p i locally biholomorphie and so, in particular, is 2 holomorphic mapping. Uniqueness may be proved as follows. Suppose 2" is another complex atlas on Y such that the mapping p: (¥, W’) +X is holomorphic and thus locally biholomorphic. Then the identity mapping (¥, 2) > (¥, W) is locally biholomorphic and thus is a biholomorphic mapping, Hence Wand W’ define the same complex structure, a 47. The Lifting of Mappings. Suppose X, Yand Z are topological spacesand p:¥+X and fi Z+X are continuous maps. Then by a lifting of f with respect to pis meant a continuous mapping g: Z -> Y such that f= p « g, ie. the following diagram commutes. z—+x 48. Theorem (Uniqueness of Lifting). Suppose X and ¥ are Hausdorff spaces and p: ¥ + X is a local homeomorphism. Suppose Z is a connected topological space and f: ZX isa continuous mapping. If g,. 2: Z—> ¥ are two liftings of fand 9, (20) = gaze) for some point z € Z then gy = ga. Proor. Let T={2 © Z: g4(2)=ga(2)}. The set T is closed, since it is the preimage of the diagonal Ac Y x Y under the mapping (91, @2):Z > ¥ x ¥. We claim that T is also open. Let 2 € Tand let gy(2) = ga(2)=1y. Since p is a local homeomorphism, there exists neighborhood V of y which is mapped by p homeomorphically onto a neighborhood U of p(y) = f(z) Since g, and g, are both continuous, there is a neighborhood W of z with {(V) < V. Now ket g: UV be the inverse of p| V+ U and note that g is ‘continuous. Because p » g; = f,one has g;|W = @ » (f |W) fori = 1, 2 Thus g;|W = 92|W and Wc T. Hence T is open. Since Z is connected and Tis non-empty, T= Z and thus g = a4 Branched and Unbranched Coverings B 49. Theorem. Suppose X, ¥ and Z are Riemann surfaces, p: ¥-» X is an unbranched holomorphic map and f:Z +X is any holomorphic map. Then every lifting g: Z + ¥ of fis holomorphic. PRoor. Suppose ¢ € Z isan arbitrary point and let b9(c) and a= p(b) ~ fc). There exist open neighborhoods V ofb and U of asuch that p|V > U is biholomorphie. Suppose g: U > V is the inverse map. Since g is continuous, there is an open neighborhood W’ of c such that q(W) & V. But f= pg implies g] W = 9 » (f |W) and thus g is holomorphic at the point c.—O] Consequence. Suppose X, Y and Z are Riemann surfaces and p: ¥ +X and q: ZX are unbranched holomorphic maps. Then every continuous fiber-preserving map f: ¥ > Z is holomorphic. For fis a lifting of p with respect to q. Lifting of Curves. Suppose X and Y are Hausdorff spaces and p: YX is a local homeomorphism. We are particularly interested in the lifting of curves u: (0, 1]-> X. By Theorem (48) a lifting f: (0, 1]-+ ¥ of u ifit exists at all, is uniquely determined once the lifting of the initial point is specified. In the following we again tet 1=[0, 1] 4,10. Theorem (Lifting of Homotopic Curves). Suppose X and ¥ are Haus- dorff spaces and p: ¥ -»X is a local homeomorphism. Suppose a, b € X and Ge Y is a point such that p(@) = a. Further suppose a continuous mapping A: x 1+ X is given such that A(0,s) = a.and A(I,s) = b for every s € 1. Set ult) = A 5). Ifevery curve u, can be lifted to a curve i, with initial point &, then tig and ii have the same end point and are homotopic. Proor, Define a mapping A: I x I+ ¥ by A(, s)=4,(0). Claim (a) There exists e9 > 0 such that A is continuous on [0 éol * I. Proof. There are neighborhoods V of @ and U of a such that p| VU isa homeomorphism. Let g: U-+ V be the inverse map. Since A(0 x 1) = {a} and A is continuous, there exists e >0 such that A((0, ¢9] x f) < U. Be- cause of the uniqueness of the lifting of curves, one has 4i,|00, ec] = 9 © uO, ee) for every s eK. Thus 4 = yA on [0] x Land thisimplies 4 is continuous on [0, ef I. Claim (b) The mapping 4 is continuous on all of I x Proof. Suppose to the contrary that there isa point (/g,a) € Ix Lat which A {is not continuous. Let be the infinum of all those r such that A is not continuous at (t, 0). By (a) t > fo. Let x= A(x, o) and y= Afr, 0) = f(c).24 1 Covering Spaces ‘There are neighborhoods V of y and U of x such that p] V+ U isa homeo- morphism. Let ¢: U + V be the inverse. Since A is continuous, there exists £>0 such that A(Z,(x) x I0)) © U, where 16) = {te Fe |e] 0, 8 <«, such that Ali s) = iif) eV for every se I,(0). Because of the uniqueness of liftings it now follows that for every s € J,(0) H[L(6) = 9 » lL) Thus A = @ © Aon L,(2) x [4(o). But this contradicts the definition of (r, 0) Thus A is continuous on I x I. Since A= po A and A({1} x 1) = {b} it follows that A((1} x 1) < pb). Since p~"(b) is diserete and {1} x 1 is connected, A({1} x 1) consists of a single point. This implies that the curves ig and fj have the same end point and, by means of A, they are homotopic. o Covering Maps. We would now like to give a condition which will ensure that the lifting of curves is always possible. 4,11. Defmition, Suppose X and Y are topological spaces. A mapping 1p: ¥-+X is called a covering map if the following holds. Every point x ¢ X has an open neighborhood U such that its preimage p#(U) can be represented as HW)= Ui where the Vj, j € J, are disjoint open subsets of ¥, and all the mappings p|¥j-» U are homeomorphisms. In particular, p isa local homeomorphism. (@) Let D= fee: |2 the complex plane and let p: D-+€ be the canonical injection. Then p isa local homeomorphism, but not a covering map. For, no point a € € with |a| = I hasa neighborhood U with the property required in the definition, (b) Let k be a natural number >2 and let PECt-+C% ze4 Branched and Unbeanched Coverings 25 Then py is a covering map. For, suppose a ¢ C* is arbitrary and choose be C* with py(b) =a. Since p, is a Jocal homeomorphism, there are open neighborhoods % of band U ofa such that py| Yo ~ U isa homeomorphism. Then PMU) = VOw UVM, where « is @ kth primitive root of unity, say « = exp(2ni/k). It is clear that the sts H=O'%, J=0,...,k— 1, are pairwise disjoint and each | Vj, U is a homeomorphism. (¢) The mapping exp: C + C* is a covering map. Proor. Suppose ae C* and b € C withexp(b) = a.Sinceexp isa local homeo- morphism, there exist open neighborhoods % of b and U of a such that exp] -* U is» homeomorphism. Then exp"(U) = Ke, where ¥,=2nin + Ky Clearly the ¥, are pairwise disjoint and each map exp|¥, homeomorphism. Visa (2) Suppose F< € is a latice and n:€ + C/T is the canonical quotient mapping. In the same way as in example (¢) one can show that x is a covering map. 4.13. Definition. A continuous map p: ¥ > X is said to have the cure lifting property if the following condition holds. For every curve u: [0, 1] » X and every point yy € Y with p(yo) = «(0) there exists a lifting a: [0, 1] + Y of w such that f(0) = yo. 4.14. Theorem. Every covering map p: Y +X of topological spaces X and Y hhas the curve lifting property. Proor. Suppose u:[0, 1] + X isa curve and yo € ¥ with p(y) = u(0)- Because Of the compactness of [0, 1] there exists a partition OK cst and open sets Upc X, k . 1, with the following properties (i) ullte- 1 4) < Urey i) PW) = sen Mar where the Ky © ¥ are open sets such that p|Viy + Uy are homeomorphisms, ‘Now we shall prove by induction on k = 0, I, ..., » the existence ofa lifting 4i|[0, 4] +X with (0) = yo. For k =0 this is trivial. So suppose k > 1 and Gl[0, %-y]+X is already constructed and let f(t,1)=1y,). Since POx1)=M(-s)€ Ux, there exists je J, stich that ype Ky. Let%6 1 Covering Spaces 9: Us Vy be the inverse of the homeomorphism p| Vy» Us. Then if we set Gl [h—1 Gl 9 ° Ulli-1 Ml we obtain a continuous extension of the lifting 4 to the interval [0, 4]. 415. Remark. Suppose X and ¥ are Hausdorff spaces, p: ¥ + X is a cover- ing map and Xo € X, yo € Y are points with p(jo) = Xo. Then by (4.14) and (48) for every curve u: [0, 1] +X with u(0) = xo there exists exactly one lifting i: [0, 1] + ¥ such that (0) = yo. When the curve u is closed, the lifting @ need not be closed. An example of this is the following. Let X=Y=Ct Pete cre2, and xq = Yo = 1. Define the curve u: [0, 1]-+ €* by u(t) = e**. Then u has initial and end point 1 and is thus closed. But 1(t) =e defines a lifting (0, 1] +C* of w with respect to p which has initial point 1 and end point 1 However from Theorem (4.10) it follows that every lifting of a closed null-homotopic curve is again closed and null-homotopic. 4.16. Theorem. Suppose X and Y are Hausdorff spaces with X pathwise con- nected and p: ¥ + X is a covering map. Then for any two points xo, x, € X the sets p~"(xq) and p~ (xy) have the same cardinality. In particular, if ¥ is non-empty, then p is surjective. The cardinality of p~'(x) for x€ X is called the number of sheets of the covering and may be either finite or infinite. Pxoor. Construct & mapping 9: p”'(xe) > p*(x,) in the following way. Choose a curve u: [0, 1] X joining xg to x,. Ify € p~ (x9) isan arbitrary point, then there exists precisely on¢ lifting @: [0, 1]-» ¥ of w such that ii(0) = y. Set g{y)*=ai(1) € p~*(x,). The uniqueness of liftings then implies that the mapping just constructed is bijective. o Remark. In general the bijective mapping constructed in the proof depends on the choice of the curve u. Thus in general there is no well-defined way fo enumerate globally the “ sheets” of a covering. 4.17. Theorem, Suppose X and ¥ are Hausdorff spaces and p: Y-+ X is a covering map. Further, suppose Z is a simply connected, pathwise connected tand locally pathwise connected topological space and f: Z -» X isa continuous mapping. Then for every choice of points z € Z and yg € ¥ with flzo) = (Yo) there exists precisely one lifting f: Z—+ ¥ such that flzo) = Yo4 Branched and Unbranched Coverings 2 Remark. In the following proof the only properties of the mapping p that are used are that it is a local homeomorphism and has the curve lifting property. PRoor. Define the mapping /: Z— Y in the following way. Suppose z € Zis an arbitrary point and u: + Z is a curve from 2 to 2. Then v= fewisa curve in X with initial point (zo) and end point f(z). Let @: 1+ Y be the unique lifting of v which has initial point yo. Then set flz)'=i{1}. This definition is independent of the choice of curve w from z9 to z. For, suppose 1, is another curve from zg to 2, Then 1 ishomotopic tou. Thus o, =f» ty and ¢ =f ware also homotopic. By Theorem (4.10) the liftings é of o, and # of with (0) = £0) = yp have the same end point. Hence f(z) is well defined. Also by construction f= pf. All that remains to be proved is that the mapping: Z > Yis continuous. Let € Z. y= f(z) and suppose Visa neighborhood of y. We must show that there exists a neighborhood W of z such that /{W)< V. Since p is a local homeomorphism, we may assume, possibly by shrinking V, that there is a neighborhood U of p(y) = flz) such that p|] V-> U isa homeomorphism, Let g: U~>V be its inverse. Since f is continuous and Z is locally pathwise connected, there exists a pathwise connected neighborhood WV of z such that AW) Now we claim that f(W) < V. To see this suppose that the curves u, vand fare defined as above, Let 2’ © W’be an arbitrary point and let u’ be a curve from z to 2 which lies entirely in W. Then the curve o =f u’ liesentirely in Uand f= c v isa lifting of with initial point y. Hence the product b+ if isa lifting of v- ¢ =f (uw) with initial point yg. Thus Ae) = 6 MI) = He v. Qo 4.18. Example (The Logarithm of a Function). Suppose X isa simply con- nected Riemann surface and f: X + C* isa nowhere vanishing holomorphic function on X. We would like to find the logarithm of f ie, find x holo- ‘morphic function F: XC such that exp(F) =f: But this just means that F is lifting of f with respect to the covering exp: C -» C*, is Cc L xc It xo € X and ¢ € C is any solution of the equation e* = f(x), then by Theorem (4.17) there exists a lilting F:X + € of the required kind with F (%o) = ¢. By Theorem (49), F is holomorphic. Also any other solution of the problem differs from F by an additive constant 2rin, n € 228 1 Covering Spaces [As a special case suppose X is a simply connected domain in C* and J: X-+C* is the canonical injection, ie. j(z) = z. Then every lifting of j with respect to exp is nothing more than a branch of the function log on X. Analogously one can construct various roots of a nowhere vanishing holo- morphic function f: X +€* on any simply connected Riemann surface X. To do this one uses the covering in Example (4.12.b) 4.19, Theorem. Suppose X is a manifold, Y tsa Hausdorff space and p: YX is a local homeomorphism with the curve lifting property. Then p is a covering map. PROOF. Suppose xy € X is an arbitrary point and y), je J,are the preimages of xp with respect to p. Take U to be an open neighborhood of xe which is homeomorphic to a ball and let f: U -» X be the canonical injection. From the remark in Theorem (4.17) t follows that for every j € J there isa lifting fi U-+Y of f such that (x)= yj. Let Vj=F(U). Now one can easily convince oneself that rW)= Wis that the V; are pairwise disjoint open sets and that every mapping p| Vj» U is a homeomorphism. a 420. Proper Mappings. Recall that a locally compact topological space is & Hausdorff space such that every point has # compact neighborhood. A continuous mapping f: X — ¥ between two locally compact spaces is called proper if the preimage of every compact set is compact. For example this is always so if X is compact. A proper mapping is closed, ie. the image of every closed set is closed. This follows from the fact that in a locally compact space a subset is closed precisely if its intersection with every compact set is compact, 4.21. Lemma. Suppose X and ¥ are locally compact spaces and p: ¥ +X isa proper, discrete map. Then the following hold: (2) For every point x © X the set p~'(x) is finite (b) If x © X and Vis « neighborhood of p~"(x), then there exists a neigh- borhood U of x with pW) V. PROOF (a) This follows from the fact that p~(x) is « compact discrete subset of 2 (b) We may assume that V is open and thus Y\V is closed. Then D(Y\F) =" is also closed and x ¢ A, Thus U = X\A is an open neighbor- hood of x such that p-1(U).< V. a4 Branched and Unbranched Coverings 2» 422. Theorem, Suppose X and ¥ are locally compact spaces and p: ¥-+ X is 4 proper local homeomorphism. Then p is a covering map. PRooF. Suppose xe X is arbitrary and let p~'(x) = {yr ---» Yah where yi #; for 1#)j, Since p is 2 local homeomorphism, for every j= 1, .... 2 there exists an open neighborhood HY of yj and an open neighborhood U of x, such that p| 1j+ U; is a homeomorphism. We may assume that the are pairwise disjoint, Now WU =: U Wis neighborhood of p~ (x). Thus by (4.21) there exists an open neighborhood Uc Uy 0 -*: 6 U,of x with p (UCM, Us U WK. Ifwe ket Wj Wyn p-'(U), then the V; are di joint open sets with rw and all the mappings p|¥j-> Aur uty n are homeomorphisms.) 4.23. Proper Holomorphic Mappings. Suppose X and Y are Riemann sur- faces and f: X -+ ¥ is a proper, non-constant, holomorphic mapping. It fol- lows from Theorem (2.1) that the set A of branch points of fis closed and discrete. Since fis proper, B=/(A) is also closed and discrete. One calls B the set of critical values of f Let ¥'= Y\B and X/=X\f-\(B) < X\A. Then f |X’ ¥” is a proper unbranched holomorphic covering and by (4.22), (4.16) and (42L.a) it has = well-defined finite number of sheets mn. This means that every value ¢ € ¥'is taken exactly 1 times. In order to be able to extend this statement to the critical values b € B as well, we have to consider the multiplicities. For x € X denote by o(f, x) the multiplicity, in the sense of (2.2), with which f takes the values f(x) at the point x. Then we will say that ftakes the value ¢ € ¥, counting multiplicities, m times on X, if m= ofr) 4.24, Theorem. Suppose X and ¥ are Riemann surfaces and fi X + ¥ is a proper non-constant holomorphic map. Then there exists a natural number n such that f takes every value ¢ © ¥, counting multiplicities, n times. PROOF. Using the same notation as in (4.23) et m be the number of sheets of the unbranched covering f|X'-+ ¥. Suppose b ¢ B is a critical value, Po) = {X4, vey op ad ky = off x4). By (2.1) and (2.2) there exist disjoint neighborhoods U, of x; and V; of b such that for every c € V;\{b} the set P(e) 6 U; consists of exactly k, points (j = I, ..., 7). By Lemma (4.21.b) we can find a neighborhood WoW nak of b such that pV) U, UU U,. Then for every point ce Vm ¥" we have that 1p M(6) consists of ky +" +h, points, On the other hand, for ¢ € ¥" the cardinality of p~ Yc) is equal 10 n. Thus n= ky +" +k; a30 1 Covering Spaces Remark. A proper non-constant holomorphic map will be called an n- sheeted holomorphic covering map, where n is the integer found in the previous Theorem. Note that holomorphic covering maps are allowed to have branch points. Ifwe wish to emphasize that there are none, then we will specifically say that the map is unbranched. If we speak of a topological covering map or if there is no complex structure, then we mean a covering map in the sense of (4.11). 428, Corollary. On any compact Riemann surface X every non-constant meromorphic function f: X -»P! has as many zeros as poles, where each is counted according to multiplicities. PRooF. The mapping f: X -» P' is proper. a 4.26, Corollary. Any polynomial of nth degree fe)=2 + a2-' +--+ a, 6 CL] has, counting multiplicities, exactly n zero. Ror. By (23) we may consider fas a holomorphic mapping f: P! + P! which, counting multiplicities takes the value co exactly n times. a Exrcisis (§4) AL Lot X=c\Et, 7 \(n)2) + ke, ke 2}. Show that sin: YX is a topological covering map. Consider the following eurves in X. (0, 1] +, af) es [0, I> X, = 1 + em Let wy: [0,1] -+ ¥ be the iting of u~ v with wy(0) = 0 and wp: (0, 1] + ¥ be the Tiling of vw with w,(0) = 0. Show that w(t) = 2 w(l) = 28, Conclude that 1y(X) isnot abeian 42. Let X and ¥ be arewise connected Hausdorff topological spaces and fi ¥ +X be a covering map. Show that the induced map fe mY) m(X) is injective5 The Universal Covering and Covering Transformations 31 43, Let X and ¥ be Hausdorff spaces and p: ¥ + X be a covering map. Let Z be a ‘connected, locally arcwise connected topological space and f: Z > X a contin- uous map. Let c€ Z, a'=fle) and b ¢ ¥ such that p(p) = a. Prove that there exists a lifting f: Z-+ Y of f with fle) =b ifand only iff, m(Z, €) < pe m(¥. b) 44, (a) Show that tan: C-+P! is local homeomorphism. (©) Show that tan(C) = Pi} and tn: C+ PI is a covering map. (6) Let X= Cit: Fe B |t| > 1}. Show that for every ke Z there exists a unique holomorphic funtion aretan,: XC with fan arctan, = idy and arctan,(0) = k (ihe kth branch of arctan). 45, Determine the ramification points of the map fee sen3(e+3) §5. The Universal Covering and Covering Transformations ‘Amongst all the covering spaces of a manifold X, there is one which deserves to be called the “largest,” namely, the universal covering. All other covering spaces can be obtained from this one as quotients, and what happens to the universal covering when it is acted on by the group of “covering trans- formations” is closely related to the fundamental group of X. An investiga- tion of these ideas is the focus of attention in this section. 5. Definition. Suppose X and Y are connected topological spaces and p: +X isa covering map. p: ¥ + X is called the universal covering of X if it satisfies the following universal property. For every covering map q: Z > X, with Z connected, and every choice of points yp € ¥, zo € Z with vo) = Glo) there exists exactly one continuous fiber-preserving mapping FLY Z such that fo) = 20 A connected topological space X has up to isomorphism at most one universal covering, For, with the above notation, suppose q: Z + X isalso a universal covering, Then there exists 2 fiber-preserving continuous mapping2 1 Covering Spaces Z-+¥ such that g(co) The compositions g of: ¥+Y and fogZ»2 me continuous fiber preserving mappings such that 9 © Mla) = Yo and f o(co) = Zo. Because of the universality condition there can exist only one continuous fiber-preserving mapping in each case which satisfies these conditions. Thus g « f= idy and fo q = id. Hence f: ¥ + Zis a fiber-preserving homeomorphism. 5.2, Theorem, Suppose X and ¥ are connected manifolds, ¥ is simply con- nected and p: Y +X Is a covering map. Then p is the universal covering of X. PROOF. This follows directly from the definition and Theorem (4.17). 5.3. Theorem. Suppose X is a connected manifold. Then there exists a con- nected, simply connected manifold X and a covering map p: X -» X. By Theorem (5.2) X— X is the universal covering of X. PROOF. Pick # point x» ¢ X. For x ¢ X kt r(xo, x) denote the set of homotopy classes of curves having initial point xq and end point x. Let Rex((ya)ixeX, we n(xo, x) Define the mapping p: 8X by p(x, a) = x. We will now define 2 topology on & so that becomes a connected, simply connected Hausdorff manifold and p: 8 + X is covering map. Suppose (x, «) €X and Uc X is an open, connected, simply connected neighborhood of x. Define a subset [U, o] = 2 as follows: [U, a] consists of all points (y, )¢ X such that ye U and f= cl(u v), where u is a curve from xo to x such that «= cl(u) and v is curve from x to y which Ties completely in U. (Since U is simply connected, fis independent of the choice of the curve 1.) Now let & be the system of all such sets [U, a]. Claim (a) is the basis for a topology on X. Proof (i) Clearly every point of X lies in at least one [U, c} (ii) Suppose (2, 7) € [U, ¢] & [V, f] Then z € Ur V and there exists an open, connected and simply connected neighborhood We Un V of 2 ‘Then, as one can easily check, eT 1c [U, a] 9 [VBL From (i) and (ii) the claim follows. Claim (b) ‘The mapping p: X +X is a local homeomorphism and in particular is continuous. This follows from the fact that for every [U, a] ¢ 8 the mapping p|[U, «] > U is a homeomorphism. Claim (c) & is Hausdortt5 The Universal Covering and Covering Transformations 33 It suffices to show that any two points (x, 2), (x, 6) © X, where a + B, have disjoint neighborhoods. Suppose U & X is an open, connected, simply con- nected neighborhood of x. Then [U, a] [U, f] =. Otherwise there would be an element (y, 7) in the intersection. Suppose w is a curve in U from x to y and «=cl(u), f= cl(o), Then by definition 7 = cl(u w) cel{e = w). Thus el(u) = el(0). But this contradicts the assumption that « # f. Claim (a) X is connected and p: 8 +X has the curve lifting property and thus by (4.19) is a covering map. Suppose u: [0, 1] > X is a eurve with initial point xp. For s€[0, 1] let 1: [0, 1]-» X be the curve defined by u(0)=u(st), (The curve u, runs along the points of the curve u correspond ig 10 parameter values t [0, s}.) Further suppose vis a closed curve with initial and end point x9. Then the mapping (0, +X, (ult ee a) is continuous and is a lifting ofu with (0) ~ (xo. l(t). This follows ditectly from the definition of the topology on X. Finally, suppose w: [0, 1] + X isa curve with arbitrary initial point x, ~w(0), 2 € (xo, x1) and vis a curve from xo tox, with l(c) = a. Then itis easy to see that the lifting of u'=v - w with 4(0) = (xo, 6), where «is the homotopy class of the constant curve at Xo, gives rise to a lifting of w with #0) = (x1, a). Claim (e) 8 is simply connected. Let w:[0, 1] + & bea closed curve with initial and end point (xo, ¢). Then usp o wis a closed curve in X with u(0) = xo. Now let: [0, 1] + X be the lifting of u, which exists by claim (d), where vis chosen to be the constant curve at xo. Because of the uniqueness of liftings, d= w. Thus (1) = (Xo, el(u)) = (Xo, £) and hence 1 is null-homotopic. By Theorem (4.10) w is also null-homotopic and thus X is simply connected, This completes the proof of Theorem (5.3) o Remark. In particular, one can construet the universal covering of any Riemann surface and by (4.6) this universal covering is, in a natural way, a Riemann surface as well. 5A, Definition. Suppose X and Y are topological spaces and p: YX isa covering map. By 2 covering transformation or deck transformation of this covering we mean a fiber-preserving homeomorphism f: ¥ -+ ¥. With opera- tion the composition of mappings, the set of all covering transformation of p: YX forms a group which we denote by Deck(¥/X). If there is any chance of confusion, then we will write Deck(Y X) instead of Dek(¥/X}) 55, Definition. Suppose X and Y are connected Hausdorff spaces and p: ¥-+X isa covering map. The covering is called Galois (the terms normal and regular are also in common usage) if for every pair of points Yo, Yy © ¥34 1 Covering Spaces with p(vo) = pO) there exists a covering transformation f: ¥—+ ¥ such that Ae) = Remark. By Theorem (48) there exists at most one covering trans- formation f: ¥ + ¥ with flyo) = yy, for fis # lifting of p: ¥ > X. Example. The mapping p:C* + C4, 2124, isa covering map. It is Galois since for any 2,, 2, €C* with p(2,) ~ p(22). One has 2» = oz, where o isa Ath root of unity and the mapping 2+--z is a covering transformation. There is a connection between Galois coverings and Galois field exten- sions, ef. (8.12) 5.6. Theorem. Suppose X is a connected manifold and p: 8 + X is its univer- sal covering. Then pis Galois and Deck(X/X)is isomorphic to the fundamental group 7,(X). PRoor (8) Suppose yo, y;€X with plo) = pli). By the definition of the universal covering there exists a continuous fiber-preserving mapping Jf: -» X with flyq) = y1- We have to show that fis homeomorphism. This ‘can be seen us follows, As above there exists a continuous fiber-preserving mapping g: ¥ + X with g(y,) = yo. But then gandg fare continuous fiber-preserving mappings of X into itself such that f° g(y,) = yy and @ Xo) = Yo- Again from the definition of the universal covering it follows that fg and ef are both the identity map of X. Thus f is a homeo- morphism and hence a covering transformation. This shows the covering RX is Galois. (b) Suppose xy € X and yy € X is a point with p(yp) = xy. Define a mapping : Deck(8/X) > 24(X, Xo) as follows: Suppose ¢ € Deck(X/X) and v isa curve in X with initial point Yq and end point o(yo). (The homotopy class of v is uniquely determined Since X is simply connected.) The curve p © vin X has initial and end point Xo. Let (0) be the homotopy class of p « v i) © is group homomorphism. Suppose @, « € Deck(X/X) and v (resp. isa curve in X with initial point yo and end point o(yo) (resp. t(yo))- Then @ow is a curve with initial point o(yo) and end point az(y,). Also Pe (oo w)=pow. The product curve t: (0 « w) has initial point yy and end point or(yo). Thus Ofer) = Alp « (v- (c » w)) = allp © rep « (o » »)) Alps velip ») = O(0}(0). (ii) © is injective.5 The Universal Covering and Covering Transformations 35 Suppose o ¢ Deck(2/X) and v is a curve in & from yp to a{yo). Assume ©(c) =, ie, p © v is null-homotopic. Since ris a lifting of p © , it follows from (4.10) that the end point o(yq) of vis the same as the initial point yo This implies « = id. (ii) © is surjective. ‘Suppose «te ,(X, xq) and wis a curve representing a Let vbe # lifting of w to X with initial point yp and suppose the end point of v is yy. Then there exists « € Deck(X/X) such that o(yo) = yi. From the definition of © one has ®(c) = o. This completes the proof. a 527. Examples (a) exp: C+ C* is the universal covering of C%, since C is simply con- nected. For n €Z let t,: C+ be translation by 2nin. Then exp(t,(2)) = exp(z + 2nin) =exp(z) for every zeC and thus t, is x covering transformation. If ¢ is any covering transformation, then_exp(o(0)) = exp(0) = 1 and thus there exists n € Z such that 0(0) = 2nin, Since £,(0) = nin as well, o = t4. Thus Deck(€ 22 © fr: n€ Zh Since the last group is isomorphic to Z, m(C*)=2. (b) Let H= (2. C: Re(e) <0} be the left half plane and Di eeC:0< |z| X isa cover- ing map and p: XX is the universal covering. Let f: X -+ ¥ be a continous Jfiber-preserting mapping, which by the definition of the universal cocering exists. Then f is a covering map and there exists a subgroup G < Deck(X/X) ‘such that two points x, x’ € X are mapped onto the same point by f precisely if they are equivalent modulo G. Moreover G = r,(¥). PRoo®. First we will show that fis local homeomorphism. Suppose x © X, p(x) ="s and ffx) =. Since p is a local homeomorphism, there exist open neighborhoods W%, of x and Uy of s, stich that p| WU, is a homeo- morphism. Since q is a covering map, there exists an open connected neigh- borhood U of s contained in U, and pairwise disjoint open sets %,i€ I, such that q~1(U) =) Vand q| Vj U is homeomorphism for every i 1 Let V be the particular ¥; containing the point y Then yesW)cq-\(U) and since s(W) is connected, it follows that JW) = V. Since p|W + U and q|V + U are homeomorphisms, f |W Vis ‘also a homeomorphism. Thus f is # local homeomorphism. In order to prove that fis a covering map, consider a curve v in ¥ with initial point yo and a point xo € X with f(x) = yo. We have to show that the curve v can be lifted to X with initial point xp. Since p: X > X isa covering map the curve q © v in X may be lifted to a curve w in X with initial point xo Then the curves fc u and vin Y are both liftings of the curve q © vand have the same initial point yo. Thus they coincide, But this means that w is the desired lifting of v. Thus fis a covering map by Theorem (4.19) Let G = Deck(X/Y), This is a subgroup of Deck(/X). Since 2 is simply connected, f: -> Y is the universal covering of ¥ and s0 is Galois. Hence G= n,(¥) and f(x) = fw’) precisely if there exists © G such that a(x) = x. This completes the proof of Theorem (5.9). o We will now use Theorem (5.9) to determine all the covering spaces of the punctured unit disk D* = {z€C:0< |2| <1} 5:10. Theorem. Suppose X is a Riemann surface and f:X > D* is an un branched holomorphic covering map. Then one of the following holds:5 The Universal Covering and Covering Transformations 37 (i) If the covering has an infinite number of sheets, then there exists a biholomorphic mapping : X +H of X onto the left half plane such that diagram (1) is commutative. xX—2oH \Z 0 oe (ii) If the covering is k-sheeted (k < 00) then there exists « biholomorphic mapping @: X > D* such that diagram (2)is commutative, where p,: D* > D* is the mapping 2+-+2* X —*+ p* \/- a ‘Thus every covering map of D* is either isomorphic to the covering given by the logarithm or else by the kth root PRooF morphic mapping W: H -» X such that ex the corresponding subgroup. (166 consists only of the identity, then y: HX is a biholomorphic map. Then the mapping g: X -+ H, which we are looking for, is the inverse ‘mapping of W. (i) Now Since exp: H > D* is the universal covering, there exists a holo- FW. Let G & Deck(H/D*) be Deck(H/D*) = {r,:n © Z}, where 1: H+ H denotes the translation 2-2 + 2nin. Thus for every sub- group Gc Deck(H/D*) which is not the identity, there exists a natural number k 1 s0 that G= ftqine Z} Let g: H+ D* be the covering map defined by (2) = exp(z/k). Then o(z) (2) precisely if z and 7 are equivalent modulo G. Hence there exists bijective mapping g: X + D* such that the diagram /\ x2. pe is commutative. Since y and g are locally biholomorphic, @ is biholo- morphic. It is now easy to check that diagram (2) is commutative and the Theorem is proved. o38 1 Covering Spaces S.I1. Theorem. Suppose X is a Riemann surface, D is the unit disk and J: X -»D isa proper non-constant holomorphic map which is unbranched over D* = D\(0}. Then there exists a natural number k > 1 and a bikolomorphic ‘mapping : X + D such that the diagram \A 0 is commutative, where p,(2) =z! Proor. Let X*=f-4D*). Then f|X*—> D* is an unbranched proper holomorphic covering map. By the previous Theorem there is a commuta- tive diagram for some biholomorphic mapping g: X*—+ D*. We claim that f~"(0) con- sists of only one point. To the contrary suppose f—"(0) consists of 1 points by, «--5 b, where n> 2. Then there exist disjoint open neighborhoods ¥ of by and a disk D(r) = {ze C: |z| ‘5 The Universal Covering and Covering Travsformations 39 52 Let X be a connected munifold and p: X +X be its universal covering Let Gc Deck(R/X) be a subgroup, Y==R/G be the quotient of & by the equi- valence relation defined in 58 and q: Y-> X be the map induced by p. Show that is « covering map which is Galois if and only if G is « normal subgroup of Deck(/X). In the latter case Deck(¥/X) = Dock(/XY/6. 53, Determine the covering transformations of tan: PN, —1} (cf. Ex. 4.4). 5A, Let Py P&C be latices and poror ‘a non-constant holomorphie map with f(0) = 0. Show that there exists a unique * such that a” < [and the following diagram is commutative ir +c or—— or where F(z) =az and » and n’ are the canonical projections. Prove that fis an unbranched covering map and Deek(e(r —L OP) 3 Per. 55. Let X N2, -2), Y=C\EL, £2} and let p: ¥+X be the map ple) Prove that pis an unbranched 3-sheeted holomorphic covering map. Calculate Deck ¥/X) and show thatthe covering ¥—+X is not Galois [Htint: Use the fact that every biholomorphic map f: ¥ + Y extends to an auto- morphism of P] 5.6. Let X = C\(0, 1}, Y= C\O, +i, +1/2} and let p: YX be the map plz) =(2? 4+ 1) ae Prove that pis an unbranched 4-sheeted covering map, which is not Galois and that Deck(¥/X) oh where (2) 51. Suppose X and Y are connected Hausdorff spaces. Show that every 2-shected ‘covering map p: ¥—+X is Galois.40 1 Covering Spaces §6. Sheaves In complex analysis one frequently has to deal with functions which have various domains of definition. The notion of a sheaf gives a suitable formal setting fo handle this situation. 6.1. Definition. Suppose X is « topological space and 2 is the system of open ets in X. A presheaf of abelian groups on X is a pair (%, p) consisting of (i) a family ¥ = (F(U))p. of abelian groups, i) a family p = (p¥)e, re, rev Of group homomorphisms pf: FU) > F(V), where Vis open in U, with the following properties: ot Pleo PE = py for WoVcU. idsu) for every U eZ, Remark. Generally one just writes # instead of (F, p). The homo- morphisms p¥. ate called restriction homomorphisms. Instead of p¥(f) for fe F(U) ove writes just f |V. Analogous to presheaves of abelian groups ‘one can also define presheaves of vector spaces, rings, sets, ete 6.2, Example. Suppose X is an arbitrary topological space. For any open subset Uc X let @(U) be the vector space of all continuous funetions f- UC. For Vc U let pl: €(U) -» @(V) be the usual restriction mapping. ‘Then (6, p) is a presheaf of vector spaces on X. 63. Definition. A presheaf ¥ on a topological space X is called a sheafitfor every open set Uc X and every family of open subsets U; < U, i ¢ I, such that U= rer Ur the following conditions, which we will call the Sheaf Axioms, até satisfied: (1) Iff g € #(U) are elements such that f|U, = gl U; for every € f, then f= 9. (i) Given elements fe (U; K\Uro U, then there exists an fe #(U) such that f|U, =f; for every ie I i) Fe J, such that [Uso Uy forallinjek Remark. The element , whose existence is assured by (II), is by (1) uniquely determined Applying (I) and (If) to the ease U sists of exactly one element. = Useo Urimplies6 Sheaves 4a 64, Examples (a) For every topological space X the presheaf @ defined in (6.2) is a sheaf: Both Sheaf Axioms (I) and (II) are trivially fulfilled. (b) Suppose X is a Riemann surface and (U)is the ring of holomorphic functions defined on the open set U < X. Taking the usual restriction map- ping ¢(U)-+ 0(V) for V < U one gets the sheaf © of holomorphic functions on X. The sheaf f of meromorphic functions on X is defined analogously. (c) For an open subset U of a Riemann surface X let ©*(U) be the multiplicative group of all holomorphic maps f: U-> C*. With the usual restriction maps ©* is a sheaf of (multiplicative) abelian groups. The sheaf * is defined analogously: For any open set Uc X, ./*(U) consists of all meromorphic functions fe .(U) which do not vanish identically on any connected component of U. (2) Suppose X is an arbitrary topological space and G is an abelian group. Define a presheaf # on X as follows: For any non-empty open subset Ue X let 9(U) = and let 9() =0. As for the restriction mappings et p¥ = ide it V # & and let p¥y be the zero homomorphism. IG contains at least two distinct elements g,, qa and if X has two disjoint non-empty open subsets U,, Up, then g is not 2 sheaf. This is because Sheaf Axion (Ii) does not hold. For, since U;U,=@, one has g,|Uym Uz=0= g2|U, 0 U; but there is no fe HU, U Uz) = G such that (| Uy = 9, and f\U2= 02 (¢) One can easily modify the previous example to obtain a sheaf. For any open set U, et 9(U) be the abelian group of all locally constant map- pings g: UG. Then if U is non-empty connected open set, one has GU) = G.For Vc U let 9(U)-+ 9(V) be the usual restriction. Then 9 is a sheaton X which is called the sheaf of locally constant functions with values in G. Often itis just denoted by G. 65. The Stalk of a Presheal. Suppose F is a presheaFof sets on a topological space X and a c X is # point, On the disjoint union ror where the union is taken over all the open neighborhoods U ofa, introduce an equivalence relation ;- as follows: Two elements f © #(U) and g « (V) are related fy g precisely if there exists an open set W” such that /|W7-= g|W. One can easily check that this really is an equi- valence reiation. The set F, of all equivalence classes, the so-called inductive limit of #(U), is given by Fin 0) =(y e00))/> u3e 036 and is called the stalk of ¥ et the point a. If isa presheaf of abelian groups (resp. vector spaces, rings), then the stalk %, with the operation defined on42 Spaces the equivalence classes by means ofthe operation defined on representatives, is also an abelian group (resp. vector space, ring) For any open neighborhood U of a, let Pai FU) > Fe be the mapping which assigns to each element (U) its equivalence class modulo z. One calls p,(f) the germ of fat a. As an example consider the sheaf © of holomorphic functions on a domain X c C. Let ae X. A germ of holomorphic function ¢ € Cis represented by a holomorphic function in an open neighborhood of a and thus has a Taylor series expansion Y=. 9 ¢,(¢ ~ a)’ with a positive radius of convergence. Two holomorphic functions ‘on neighborhoods of a determine the same germ at a precisely if they have the same Taylor series expansion about a. Thus there is an isomorphisn between the stalk @, and the ring C{e — a} of all convergent power series in 2 —a with complex coefficients, In an analogous way, the ring. of germs of meromorphic functions at a is isomorphic to the ring of all convergent Laurent series Yele-ay, kez ec, which have finite principal parts, For any germ of a function @ € G, the value of the function, g(a) € C, is well-defined, ic, is independent of the choice of representative, 66. Lemma. Suppose F is a sheaf of abelian groups on the topological space X and U & X is an open subset. Then an element f © ¥(U) is zero precisely if all germs pal f) € Fy X € U, vanish This follows directly from Sheaf Axiom (I). 6.7. The Topological Space Associated to a Presheaf, Suppose X is a topolo- sical space and F is a presheaf on X. Let lFl= UF be the digoint union of all the stalks. Denote by pi |Fl +X the mapping which assigns to each element @ € #, the point x. Now intro- duce # topology on |¥| as follows: For any open subset Uc X and an element fc F(U), et [Uf]. f):x€ Ube |F|6 Sheaves 4B 68, Theorem. The system B of all sets [U, f], where U is open in X and fe F(U), is a basis for a topology on |# |. The projection p: |F| + X isa local homeomorphivsn. PRooF (2) To see that 8 forms a basis for a topology on ||, one has to verify the following two conditions: (i) Every element y © |F| is contained in at least one [U, f], This is trivial (i) I ge [U, F]o[V, gh then there exists a [W, he ® such that @& LW, He [U, f]o[V. g} For suppose p(y) =x. Then xe Un V and @ = pA) = p,{g). Hence there exists an open neighborhood Wc Un V of x such that |W = g|W =h. This implies @ € [W, h] < [U, f] 0 [V. gh (b) Now we will show that p: || -»X is a local homeomorphism. Suppose y € |F| and ply) = x. There exists 2 [U, [Je B with 9 €[U, f] Then [U, isan open neighborhood of g and U isan open neighborhood of x. The mapping p|[U, f]-> U is bijective and also continuous and open as one sees immediately from the definition. Thus p: |¥| +X is a local homeomorphism. o 69. Definition, A presheal ¥ on a topological space X is said to satisfy the Identity Theorem if the following holds. If Yc X is 2 domain and f, g€ F(Y) are elements whose germs p,(f) and p,(g) coincide at point ae ¥, then fg. For example, this condition is satisfied by the sheaf © (resp. .#/) of holo- morphic (resp. meromorphic) functions on a Riemann surface X. 6.10. Theorem. Suppose X is a locally connected Hausdorff space and F is a presheaf on X which satisfies the Identity Theorem. Then the topological space |#| Is Hausdorg. PROOF. Suppose @, @2 € |F| and , # g2. We have to find disjoint neigh- borhoods of @, andy, Case 1. Suppose pps) =x # y= pl(y2) Since X is Hausdorff, there exist snborhoods U and V of x and y respectively. Then p-1(U) and p> (V) are disjoint neighborhoods of , and ga, respectively. Case 2. Suppose p(p1) = ply2) =x. Suppose the germs ~; € F, are re- presented by elements f, € (U;), where the U, are open neighborhoods of x, i= 1,2. Let Uc U, 0 U; ben connected open neighborhood of x. Then [U, f|U] are open neighborhoods of y;. Now suppose there exists y& [U, fi|U] 0 [U, fa] 0]. Let p(y) = y. Then = p,(fi) = py(J2). From the Identity Theorem it follows that f,|U = f2|U, thus @; = @2. Contradiction! Henee [U, fi |U] and [U, f|U] are di 0a 1 Covering Spaces EXERCISES (§6) 6.1. Suppose X is a Riemann surface. For Uc X open, let o(U)be the vector space of all bounded holomorphic functions f: U + C. For Vc Ulet (LU) -» a(V)be the usual restriction map. Show that ois a presheaf which satisfies sheaf axiom (1) but not sheaf axiom (11) (62. Suppose X is a Riemann surface. For Uc X open, Jet F(U)=C*(UYfexp OU). Show that # with the usual restriction mapsis a presheaf which does not satisfy sheaf axiom (1). 63. Suppose # is a presheal on the topological space X and p: | F| > X is the associated covering space. For U < X oper, let (Li) be the space ofall sections of p over U, ie, the space of all continuous maps fUs FI With p of idy. Prove the following: (2) # together withthe natural restriction maps isa sheaf (©) There is @ natural isomorphism of the stalks FpFe, lor every xe X. §7. Analytic Continuation Next we consider the construction of Riemann surfaces which arise from the analytic continuation of germs of functions. 7.1. Definition. Suppose X is a Riemann surface, u:[0, 1] > X isa curve and a= 1(0), b =u(1). The holomorphic function germ y/ € @, is said to result from the analytic continuation along the curve u of the holomorphic function germ ¢ € 6, if the following holds. There exists # family ¢, € Ct € (0, 1] of function germs with go = g and g, = ¥ with the property that for every +e (0, 1] there exists a neighborhood T < [0, 1] of , an open set Uc X with u(T) U and a funetion fe €(U) such that puff) =. for every te T. Here py() is the germ of fat the point u(t), Because of the compactness of [0, 1] this condition is equivalent to the following (see Fig. 5). There exist a partition 0= fo X isa curve in X with u(0) =a and u(1) =+b, Then a function germ yy € Cys the analytic contin- uation of a function germ @€ Cy along u precisely if there exists a lifting 4 [0, 1] + O| of the curve u such that i(0) = @ and (1) = y. PRoor (a) Suppose y © 6% is the analytic continuation of g € ©, along u. Let 9, € Cy for t€[0, 1] be the family of function germs as given in the Definition (7.1). It follows directly from the definition of the topology of |@| that the correspondence t+, represents & continuous mapping f:[0, 1] > |@]. Thus isa lifting of u with (0) = go = and a(t) = ga (b) Suppose there is a lifting @: [0, 1] ++ © ofu with a(0) = gand a(t) = y. ge = Hit), Then @ € Cyn 81d Go = 9,01 = W-Lett € [0, 1] ‘| |@| isan open neighborhood of ic). Then there exists a neighborhood T< [0.1] of x such that a(T)<[U.f]. This implies u(T)cU and 9, = 0(0) = pya(f) for every t € T. But this means that y the analytic continuation of @ along u. a Because of the uniqueness of liftings (Theorem 48) it follows from the Jemma that if the analytic continuation of a function germ exists, then it is uniquely determined. Another consequence of the lemma is the Monodromy Theorem. 73. Monodromy Theorem. Suppose X is a Riemann surface and uo, uy: [0, 1] > X are homotopic curves from a to b. Suppose 4, 0. €, - Let Pui Or, y > Ox, won be the inverse of p'. 76. Definition. Suppose X is a Riemann surface, a € X isa pointand y € 0, is a function germ. A quadrupel (¥, p, fb) is called an analytic contirwation of if: (i) Y is « Riemann surface and p: Y + X isan unbranched holomorphic map. (i) fis « holomorphic function on ¥. (ii) b is a point of ¥ such that p(b) = a and Pale) = 9. ‘An analytic continuation (¥, p, , b) of @ is said to be maximal if it has the following universal property. If (Z, 4. g,c)isany other analytic continuation of g, then there exists a fiber-preserving holomorphic mapping F: Z-+ ¥ such that F(c) = b and F*(f) = 4.7 Analytic Continuatin 47 ‘A maximal analytic continuation is unique up to isomorphism. Namely, using the above notation, if (Y, pb) and (Z, q,g,¢) are two maximal analytic continuations of g, then there exists a fiber-preserving holomorphic map- ping G: ¥ + Z such that G(b) = cand G*(q) = f. The composition F « Gisa fiber-preserving holomorphic mapping of Y onto itself which leaves the point b fixed. Hence by Theorem (48) one has F » G= idy. Similarly GF =id, and thus G: ¥ + Z is biholomorphic. 77. Lemma, Suppose X is a Riemann surface, a € X, @ € ©, and (Y, p,f,b)is an analytic continuation of . Then if: [0, 1] “+ ¥ is acurce with v(0) = b and v(1) =, then the function germ W = py(p(f)) © C4 is an anal ytic continua- tion of @ along the curve u=p © v. Pxoor. For t © [0,1] kt ¢=Pelpag(S)) © Cr = Cy: Then Go = 9 and 1 Pals) ~¥- Suppor te e101} Since p*'Y-» X is a local homeo- torphisin, there exist open neighborhoods = Y and U © X of w(t) and lett) = ute) resp. such that p| > U is biholomorphic. Let q: U-» V be the inverse mapping and let ¢-=G"(f |) © 6(U). Then pyle /)) = Prnl@) for every 9 eV. There exists @ neighborhood of ty in [6 I] such that Ur)e Vyie, u(T)e U. For every te Pucol) = Pathol I) = % This proves that y is an analytic continuation of along QO 78, Theorem. Suppose X is a Riemann surface, a € X and g € Cis a holo- ‘morphic function germ at the point a. Then there exists a maximal analytic continuation (Y, p.f, b) of @. PRoor. Let ¥ be the connected component of |@| containing g. Let p also denote the restriction of the mapping p: |¢| + X to ¥. Then p: ¥-» X isa local homeomorphism. By Theorem (4.6) there is a complex structure on ¥ so that it becomes a Riemann surface and the mapping p: Y—> X is holo- morphic. Now define a holomorphic function f: ¥-+C as follows. By definition every 9 € Y is a function germ at the point p(7)). Set f(z) = (p(n). One easily sees that f is holomorphic and p(p,(/)) = for every nc Y. Thus if one lets b =9, then (Y, p,f,b) is an analytic continuation of g. Now we will show that (Y, p.f,b) is# maximal analytic continuation of . Suppose (Z, q 4, ¢) is another analytic continuation of g. Define the map F: Z+ Yas follows. Suppose { € Z and q(¢)='x. By Lemma (7.7) the func- tion germ q,(p:(q)) € ©), atises by analytic continuation along a curve from a to x from the function germ g. By Lemma (72) ¥ consists of all function germs which are obtained by the analytic continuation of along curves. Hence there exists exactly one 1) Y such that 4,(p¢(g)) =n. Let F(€) = 1. It is easy to check that F: Z + Y is « fiber-preserving holomorphic map such that F(c) =h and F*(S) = @ o48 1 Covering Spaces Remark. The analytic continuation of meromorphic function germs can be handled by using the techniques employed in this section for holo- morphic function germs. One just looks at the map |.4| -»X. So far we have disregarded branch points but in the next section we will also consi these for the special case of algebraic functions. Exenctsts (67) 7A. Suppose X and ¥ ate Ricmann surfaces, p: YX is a holomorphic (un- branched) covering map and fi ¥+€ is holomorphic function, Let be ¥, (b) and ¢*palpa(f))€ C2. Prove that (Y,p, fb) is a maximal analytic ‘continuation of ¢ ifund only if the following condition is satisfied: For any two itn points bbs (a) te gems oy =pelrn(f)) and 2 Pa(r!) 7.2. Suppose X is a Riemann surface and a € X. Suppose @ € € admits an analytic continuation along every curve in X which starts at a. Let (, pb) be the maximal analytic continuation of g. Prove that p: ¥-» X is a covering map. §8. Algebraic Functions One of the first examples of a multi-valued function which one encounters in complex analysis is the square root w = ./2. This is a particular case of an algebraic function, ie, a function w = w(z) which satisfies an algebraic equa- tion w" +a,(2)""! ++" + a(2)=0, where the coefficients a, are given meromorphic functions of z. In this section we present the construction of the Riemann surfaces of algebraic functions. It turns out that they are proper coverings such that the number of sheets equals the degree of the algebraic equation. 8.1. The Elementary Symmetric Functions. Suppose X and Y are Riemann surfaces, x: Y> X is an n-sheeted unbranched holomorphic covering map and f is a meromorphic function on Y. Every point x € X has an open neighborhood U such that x°'(U) is the disjoint union of open sets Vix aes V, and nV,» U is biholomorphic for v= 1,..., 1. Let 14: U-» K, be the inverse mapping of |, > U and let f,:=08 f =f t,.. Suppose Tis an indeterminate and consider [he -ertar beta ‘Then the e ae meromorphic functions in U and (C1) where s, denotes the vth elementary symmetric function in n variables. Ifone carries out this same construction in a neighborhood U' of another point8 Algsbraie Funetions 49 X eX, then one gets the same functions ¢),..., ¢,- Thus these functions piece together to give global meromorphic functions ¢), ..., ¢ € M(X), which we call the elementary symmetric functions of f with respect to the covering ¥-» X. 8.2. Theorem, Suppose X and ¥ are Riemann surfaces and n: ¥-> X is an nesheeted branched holomorphic covering map. Suppose Ac X is a closed discrete subset which contains all the critical values of r and let B = x "(A) Suppose f is a holomorphic (resp. meromorphic) function on Y\B and Cy os 6 € (XA) (resp. € .€(X\A)) are the elementary symmetric functions off. Then f may be continued holomorphically (resp. meromorphically) to Y precisely if all the ¢, may be continued holomorphically (resp. mero- ‘morphically) to X. ‘The Theorem ensures that the elementary symmetric functions of a fune- tion fc .#(¥) are also defined when the map ¥ > X is branched holomor- phic covering. PROOF. Suppose a€ A and by,....b, re the preimiges ofa. Suppose (U, 2) is a relatively compact coordinate ‘neighborhood of a with z(a)=0 and Un A= {a}. Then V=2-'(U) is a relatively compact neighborhood of each of the by 1. First consider the case fe 6(Y\B). (a) Assume f may be continued holomorphically to all the points 6, ‘Then fis bounded on V\(b), «.., b,). Thisimplies that all the c, are bounded ‘on U\fa}. By Riemann’s Removable Singularities Theorem they may all be i lly t0 a. (b) Suppose all the c, may be continued holomorphically to a. Then all the ¢, are bounded on U\{a}. But this implies fis bounded on V\(by, .... by) for, if y € V\fbys---» By) and x = x(y), then SOY + ex) FOYT +o + G(x) = 0. Again Riemann's Removable Singularities Theorem implies that f may be continued holomorphically to every point b, 2. Now suppose fe -#(Y\B) (a) Assume f may be continued meromorphically to all points b,. The function @=x*2 € C(V) vanishes at all the points b,. Thus gf may be continued holomorphically to all the points b, if k is sufficiently large. The elementary symmetric functions of gif are 2%, and by the first part of the proof they may be continued holomorphically to a. Thus all the ¢, may be continued meromorphically to a. (b) Suppose all the ¢, may be continued meromorphically to a. Using the above notation one has: For k sufficiently large all the 2c, admit holo- ‘morphic continuations to a. Thus gf admits a holomorphic continuation to50 1 Covering Spaces all the points b,. This implies that f may be continued meromorphically to all of the points b, a For later use note that the proof does not use the fact that ¥ is connected. Thus the Theorem also holds in the case that Y is. disjoint union of finitely many Riemann surfaces. If'x: ¥ + X is a non-constant holomorphic map between Riemann sur- faces X and Y, then for any meromorphic function f on X the function n8f-=f © mis 2 meromorphic function on ¥. Thus there is a map m:M(X) > MY) which is a monomorphism of fields. 83. Theorem. Suppose X and Y are Riemann surfaces and w: ¥-»X is a branched holomorphic nsheeted covering map. If fe.M{(Y) and Cin sons Gy € A(X) are the elementary symmetric functions of f, then SOF CAE Bot (he A + 0. The monomorphism 1*: .4(X)-+.4(Y) is an algebraic field extension of degree X and a fiber-preserving biholomorphic mapping @: YMA) > ¥. Proor. For every € A choose « coordinate neighborhood (U,, ,) on X with the following properties: z,(a) = 0, 2(U,) is the unit disk in € and U,0 Up =@ ik afd. Let Ul=U,\a}. Since x’: ¥' X" is proper, x" (U3) consists of a finite number of connected components V3, v=[,.:.,n(a), For every v the mapping x'|VZ, UE is an unbranched covering. Let its covering number be k,.. By Theorem (5.10) there exist biholomorphic mappings ¢,,: V3, + D* of V3, onto the punctured unit disk D* = D\(@Q} such that the diagram is commutative, where 7,,(C) a Now choose “ideal points” pay a € A, v=, .-.. nla) ie, pairwise distinct elements of some set disjoint from ¥". Then on Ym YU bmi d AY = Myon Ma} there exists precisely one topology with the following property. If Wi, i € Lis ‘neighborhood basis of a, then {Pa} VW) Va teh, is w neighborhood basis of p,, nd on ¥ it induces the given topology. Thi makes Y into # Hausdorff space, Define n: Y— X by x(y) = x) for y€ ¥” and r(P.,) = a. Then, as one easily checks, x is proper: In order 10 make ¥ into a Riemann surface, add to the charts of the complex structure of ¥” the following charts. Let Ve, = V4 U {Pa} and let be the continuation of the mapping £4,: V3, ~» D* described above which is obtained by defining C,,(Pq,) 0. Since the last mapping is biholomorphic with respect t0 the complex structure of Y’, the new charts C,,: Ve, > D are holomorphically compatible with the charts of the complex structure of ¥". The mapping x: ¥ + X is holomorphic, Since ¥\r~"()= ¥" by construc- tion, we may choose g: Yyr"(A)-+ ¥" to be the identity mapping. This then shows the existence of a continuation of the covering 7: YX’.32 1 Covering Spaces The following Theorem shows that the continuation of the covering, whose existence was just proven, is uniquely determined up to isomorphism. 85. Theorem. Suppose X, ¥ and Z are Riemann surfaces and m: ¥ -»X, 1: Z-+X are proper holomorphic covering maps. Let Ac X be a closed discrete subset and let X’ = X\A, Y= 1(X’)and Z' = '(X"). Then every {fiber-preserving bikolomorphic mapping a: ¥'-» Z' can be extended toa fiber- ‘preserving biholomorphic mapping 6: ¥+Z. In particular every covering transformation o Deck(¥'/X") can be extended to a covering transformation a Deck(¥/X). PRoor. Suppose a € A and (U, 2) is coordinate neighborhood of a such that 2(a)=0 and 2(U) is the unit disk. Let U* = U\{a}. Moreover we may assume that U is so small that x and c are unbranched over U*, Let Vig vvvs Vy (resp. Mi, «+4 Wy) be the connected components of x~'(U) (resp. © (U)). Then V3= ¥,\n"Ma) (resp. WE = W, \e~ "(a)) are the connected components of x” '(U*) (resp. 1 (U*)). Since o/|n\(U*) +7" \(U*) is biholomorphic, n =m and one may re- number so that o'(V#) = W%. Since | V+ U* is a finite sheeted un- branched covering, V0 n-"(a) (resp. W,'n + "(a)) consists by Theorem (5.11) of exactly one point b, (resp. c,). Hence o'|x~'(U*) +c '(U*) can be continued to a bijective mapping x~'(U)-+e~ '(U) which assigns to b, the point ¢,. Since x|¥,—+ U and r| W,—> U are proper, the continuation is homeomorphism and by Riemann’s Removable Singularities Theorem it is biholomorphic 2s well. The Removable Singularities Theorem applies since V, and W, are isomorphic to the unit disk by Theorem (5.11)) If one now applies this construction to every exceptional point a € A, then one gets the esired continuation ¢: ¥ + Z. o ‘Theorem (8.5) makes the following definition meaningful (ef. Definition 55) 86. Definition. Suppose X and ¥ are Riemann surfaces and x: ¥-> X is 2 branched holomorphic covering. Let A < X be the set of critical values of x and let_X"=X\A and Yo=x-(X’). Then the covering Y—+X is called Galois if the covering ¥'-+ X" is Galois, 8.7, Lemma. Suppose ¢y,.... 6 are holomorphic functions on the disk DIR)=(zeC: |z|O. Suppose wo €€ is a simple zero of the polynownlal T+ 6,0)P) +--+ 60) € €[T]8 Algebraic Functions 33 Then there exist an r,0 0 such that the function w+-+ F(O, ) has a unique zero w, in the disk {w € C: |w ~ wo|

You might also like

• The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  

  From Everand

  The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  Mark Manson

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (5814)
• The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  

  From Everand

  The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  Brene Brown

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1092)
• Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  

  From Everand

  Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  Chris Voss

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (845)
• • Magazines
  • Podcasts
  • Sheet music
• Principles: Life and Work

  

  From Everand

  Principles: Life and Work

  Ray Dalio

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (609)
• The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  Jeannette Walls

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1717)
• Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  

  From Everand

  Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  Angela Duckworth

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (590)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1104)
• Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  

  From Everand

  Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  Margot Lee Shetterly

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (897)
• Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  

  From Everand

  Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  Phil Knight

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (540)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

  From Everand

  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2104)
• The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  

  From Everand

  The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  Ben Horowitz

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (348)
• Bad Feminist: Essays

  

  From Everand

  Bad Feminist: Essays

  Roxane Gay

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1018)
• Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  

  From Everand

  Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  Ashlee Vance

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (474)
• Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  

  From Everand

  Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  Carmen Maria Machado

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (822)
• The Outsider: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Outsider: A Novel

  Stephen King

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1866)
• The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  

  From Everand

  The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  Siddhartha Mukherjee

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (271)
• The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  

  From Everand

  The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  Viet Thanh Nguyen

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (122)
• Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  Frank McCourt

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (441)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Tóibín

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (1947)
• The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  

  From Everand

  The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  Meik Wiking

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (401)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (4770)
• The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  

  From Everand

  The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  Thomas L. Friedman

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2259)
• Steve Jobs

  

  From Everand

  Steve Jobs

  Walter Isaacson

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (807)
• The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  

  From Everand

  The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  Sarah M. Broom

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (98)
• Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  

  From Everand

  Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  Gilbert King

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (266)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (4203)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

  From Everand

  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1929)
• Yes Please

  

  From Everand

  Yes Please

  Amy Poehler

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1898)
• A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  

  From Everand

  A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  Dave Eggers

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (231)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  

  From Everand

  Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  Doris Kearns Goodwin

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (234)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

  From Everand

  The Woman in Cabin 10

  Ruth Ware

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2522)
• Fear: Trump in the White House

  

  From Everand

  Fear: Trump in the White House

  Bob Woodward

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (738)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (3811)
• John Adams

  

  From Everand

  John Adams

  David McCullough

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2409)
• On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  

  From Everand

  On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  Naomi Klein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (74)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  M.L. Stedman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (789)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (792)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John le Carré

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (104)
• The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  

  From Everand

  The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  George Packer

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (45)
• Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  

  From Everand

  Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  Jay Sekulow

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (137)
• Little Women

  

  From Everand

  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (104)