he World’s Most Comprehensive Military Encyclope< WORLD MILITARY POWER‘The Encyclopedia of WORLD MILITARY POWER The Encyclopedia of World Miltary Power's lavishly illustrated encyclopedia of the weapons of modern warfare. Itdeseribes the developments and operations of each family of weapons and how they fitinto the overall military spectrum. Within each family, the major types are discussed and illustrated with superb color photographs showing them in their combat environment and with full-color drawings displaying their technical details. Spectfcations| are provided for the major types to allow comparison of their combat capabilities. The encyclopedia is organized in four major parts The frst section discusses the strategic weapons that are so often the subject of heated debate, Principal among these are nuclear weapons, which are described here, from small free-fall weapons to multiple warhead ballistic missiles. Otherareas under scrutiny include chemical and biological war fare, and the current and projected use of space asa battlezone, The section covering military aircraft and their weapons describes al families of aircraft involved in combat ‘operations from nuclear bombers to armed lightplanes, from secret strategic reconnaissance types to assault transports. The avionics that allow the modern combat aircraftto perform ts functions are also discussed, as well as the abundance of weapons that are available to today's combat pilot. The naval weapons section describes the world's warships and analyzes how each class of vessels used in wartime. Every facet of naval warfareis covered, from the mighty aircraft carriers to naval radars and guns, each with an expert appraisal of the family’s unique position in the battle for the seas. The final section on land weapons discusses and analyzes the massive selection of weapons available tothe land forces ‘commander. At one end of the scale are the tanks, missile systems and heavy artillery deployed by the ‘top brass’ commanders; athe other are the rifles and pistols used by the individual soldier. Every group of weapons to be found onthe modern battlefield is coveredin this comprehensive section, The four sections of The Encyclopedia of World Miltary Power form a complete overview of the weapons in use by the world's armed forces, from the captured assault rifles of the guerilla in Afghanistan to the mighty cartier battle groups ofthe United States Navy. Each has its placein the military spectrum ands describedin full detail within the pages of this comprehensive volume.The Encyclopedia of LD MILITARY POWERWORLD: MILITARY POWER Editors: Chris Bishop and David DonaldAll rights reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a Fetrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic; mechanical, photocopying, reconfing of otherwise, without the permission of the publishers and the copyright holders. Copyright © Aerospace Publishing Limited 1986 Produced by Aerospace Publishing Ltd 179 Dalling Road, Hammersmith, London W6 OES First English edition published 1986 by Temple Press an imprint of | The Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited Bridge House, 69 London Road, Twickenham, Middlesex, England TWI 38B ‘This 1086 edition published by ‘The Military Press and distributed by Crown Publishers, Inc. Reprinted 1988, hafede ISBN 0- -49597-X Printed in Italy by Poligrafici Calderara S.p.A. Bologna, Picture acknowledgements ebae iod efloning pen rintotrhhdp nie chicas segacre ascent desd aicject sears elo hona lsh aairaey ete APSENGD PMA Vade lads ate Seba ego 7: Peer Fuser Mange Doug. bets Arorect ‘ere ern Se Wr cee Aaa fete Bb Munro (OSA Frc 46, Pe Fecer US Marys Ar meee ft akeer Foie f-USepureen felon h Wena US Ney US Nar ak cepacia. 0 {SAE Rie ban iniy Mena 1:03 Fone fy aa [ESNet pn. S Nye cre MMRAER Dusk Hern Seema er Fea Dana Bera satay 9: ceva gin etned Rach Esty Sheehan ‘SoocDomnt weg meter Laws 8:08 Say un tee Dood Dana ot aaa AAT betre BCNCDUS Aries ie US rate tar B6 UAP es He's cri eno i a cer iets Sinatra eset oss us es em A i obtreitie ate wR trae ace REED bcs ur inteaa cout SEGA De Soe pig humains Morera ‘ai Neds Na. Fa: tiencranrke Whee COLCOT 145 Lewes fF Wh. Be Ses SEATS toa mee that ee areac t ‘loa MeDutel Bogle nate io MARS, Lina PGP Armee 18:18 Son Nery teats Seta eros ei note at ie Sora aaeucats ar sets Nanos ca US tata: BOY pe anes aenckear fab Usage erty aac Pan AOS Ec ae Fra ay e US A NY NAS Orion Rion dae eds Arey Ver he raat Dl Geer oye Pe rn aight or dan ae cr Roum a ta eet ten SEG Ete er incimn tani ag ween hues Bechara Hep eb recur nin eae EO Fe aD eee td Amey) US AmCONTENTS Strategic Power Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles § 16 Froe-FallNucear bombs CeuiseMissiles 12 18 Chemicaland Biological Weapons Airlaunched Missiles 14 20. The Strategic Usesof Space Air Power Bomters Fighters StriketAtack irra ‘Atack Trainers 64 Naval Helicopters 68 Attack Helicopters 74 Liftand Assaule Helicopters 80 Heavy Transports 86 Light Transportsand Liaison Aireraft 88 Inflight Refueling 92 Avionics 94 Unguided Air-Launched Weapons 96 Guided Air-Launched Weapons ractical Reconnaissance Strategic Reconnaissance AEW snd Control Aircraft ‘Maritime Reconnaissance eearsseyy Carrier Aircraft Ballistic MisileSumarines 102 144 Assault Landing Ships [Nucleat-Powered Attck Submarines 108 150 Mine Warfare Conventionaly-Poweredsubmarines 112 154 Naval Auslares AireraftCariers 116 188 Naval Surfaceto-Suface Mises rsersand Destroyers 124 160 Naval Artlery Ecors,Frigatesand Corvettes 132 162 lect AirDefence FastArtickCraft 140 166 Underwater Weapons Land Power ‘MainBatleTanks 170 216 Man-Portable Surfae-to-Aiemissiles Reconnaissance Vehicles 180 217 Towed Anti-aireraft guns Infantry Fighting Vehiclesand Armoured PersonnelCarriers 184 220 Air-Defence Radars Combat Engineer Vehicleandequipment 188 222 Pistols, SelePropelled Atilery 192 226 Sub-machineGuns FiedArillery 196 230 Rifles Heavy Arcilery 200 236 Machine-Guns MultipleRockst-Launchers 202 242 Infantry Support Weapons Anti-Tank Weapons 206247 Assault Weapons Mobile Anti-AirerafiSystems 210 248 Mines ‘Surficeto-tir Missiles 214 250 attlefield Electronics Index GlossaryStrategic Power ‘The atom bomb explosions over Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 heralded a new and more frightening age. Since that ime, man’s destructive ingenuity has reached new heights, and now there are weapons capable of obliterating cities across intercontinental distances with unprecedented accuracy. The fact remains, however, that the weapons have not been used, and in spite of periods of great tension general war between East and West has not broken out. Contents Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles 8 16. Free-FallNuclearbombs Cruise Misses 12 18 Chemical and Biological Weapons Air-launched Miles 14 20 The StrategicUsesof SpaceIntercontinental Ballistic Missiles f tenia A Ballistic misICBMs capable of carrying nuclear weapons thousands ‘of miles over oceans and continents into the heartland ‘of any enemy was intimately related. An ICBM isin facta small space rocket but instead of being designed to place its payload in orbit, it carries it on a trajectory ‘which depares from the stmosphere only briefly 30 thatthe payload will ‘re-enter’ close tothe arget aa, In the first generation of ICBMs that payload was single large and comparatively inaccurate nuclear war head, contained ina casing capable of standing the heat ‘of re-entry called simpivare-entry vehicle(RV). Inthe Tate 1960s, with the development of powerful but light eight computers, it became possible to refine the “front end” of an ICBM from a Single simple warhead into miniature spacecraft ins own right, with theus {er motors to make course corrections and on-board guidance to tell them to do 50. This is the Post Boost Vehicle (PBV) or bus’ on a MIRVed ICBM (MIRV. stands for Multiple Independently-targetable Re-entry Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles ‘Veticles) which can be conigured to carry a numberof individual RVsand dispense them in light ofallin the required pattern or Yootpriat. The PBV has very accurate inertial guidance system which can be further ‘efined to take a starshot ofthe heavens to update its Position (stellae-inertil guidance). Given such accura y and the ability of the PBV to make powered adjus- ‘ments 10 the lightpath, targets can be reached with reat precision over very long ranges. The accuracy of & ballistic missiles expressed asthe Circular Error Prob- able (CEP) the radius ofa circle within which half the ‘missiles med at it wil land. The smaller the radivs, the more accurate the missle TLand-based MIRVed ICBMs are the most powerful nuclear weapon delivery systems in the world today, And also the most contentious. Because they ae land bused, fired from fxed-site silos, they cam be consi- dered tempting targets for e pre-emptive first strike. ‘Aguin because they are land based, in the past they Current strategic ballistic missiles 8-19 erat: 225m ‘ahchropa ome er S10 « ‘Sigucomsysten. css4 a. pli NAV) ” B eal hhave been more accurate than submatine-bsed mis siles, and thus are the ideal instruments for such first strike. ‘They are said to have greater “counterforce™ potential, in that they are so accurate that they cam be fsed for pinpoint attacks on rival weapon systems thousands of miles away in their silos rather than om sprawling cites, which is all the frst generation of submarine-based missles could be guaranteed to bring lunder threat, And because ICBMs are so big and powerful they can each carry many of the warheads ‘with which to do it: in the jargon they have a large “throw-weight Hence land-based ICBMs are held be particularly esuabilizing and are amongst the most contentious issues in arms control negotiations. To make things sore difficult, the USSR with its large lend mass has Concentrated on deploying large numbers of massively ppowerlul ICBMs In prelerence 10 submarine-based SEBMs, MGM-118 Peacekeeper feet aoe. ema ae tose Se no | ESS Mitemanm = a cee eS 2 Sohapropetions rode rates u eae oa ‘Sehaprenslant : cero a Seton intete ProvinceIntercontinental Ballistic Missiles In-was the build up of the Soviet ICBM force in the 970s and the deployment of such lage and apparenth accurate weapons a the 1D-rarhead SS-18 Med 4 that hipped away at the original deterrent idea of Murval Assured Destruction (MAD) and eventually buried it The existence of a very powerful and accurate Soviet land-bosed missle force with multiple warhead, it as argued in the USA, opened ‘window of vulnerability which gravely imperiled the United States. A propor thon of these ICBMs could be used to eliminate the land-based eg of the US strategic triad, the Minute sman ICBMs, by attacking with MIRVS. The hydra headed ICBMs could target more silos with multiple warheads than missiles actually launched, leaving & proportion in reserve tothreaten an equally devastating EScond strike. The US supreme commander would ‘only have asingle option: that of racking Soviet cities ‘with the surviving submarin-based missles and thus inviting the destntction of US cities by the temainder he enemy force in return, That option was closed and thus the US would “ose” a nuclear war with the destruction ofthe strategic ‘warfighting’ element, the ‘ounterfrve-capable ICBMs. That was why the development of the Missile Ex- perimental (MX, now renamed Peacekeeper) was for fo long such a plitically important issue in the USA. While ic could carry 10 MURVs in comparison with the ‘Minuteman’ three, was the missiles mode of basing ‘which seas so important’ the MX was originally de Signed to be land mobile with an advanced inertial uidance system that Rep its own launch position up fited in its computer memory a it was moved around ‘on railway cars, by transport aircraft or through vast underground tuanels) to beout ofthe enemy's counter force reach. After many different and bizare basing ‘modes had been considered, it was eventually decided to deploy 100 Peacekeepers in modified Minuteman fixedsite sos While the Peacekeeper ended as just another although very powerful ICBM, its AIRS (Advanced Inertial Reference Sphere) inertial guidance system is to be used in a project called Midgetmaa to build a small single-warkead ICBM. Midgetman isto be land ‘mobile, shutlingaround on armoured launchers inside ‘vast military reservations in the US south west, Dut ‘because it wll be so hard to bit and have only a single wathiad, it wil be a far less tempting target fr a fist Strike, snd thus add to rather than detract from strategic stability ‘Meansshile the Soviets have continued development ‘ofaformidable new generation of ICBMsincluding the 10G00-kim (6,215-mile) range MIRVed $S-19 fist de Missile deployment ployed in 1974, and the stil experimental §S-X-24 and SS-X-25. The big three-stage slid-propellant SS-X- 24, thought to be a replacement for the SS-18, is the ‘broad equivalent to the US Peacekeeper with 10 -MIRVs and range up to 16000 km (9,940 miles). US imeligence predicts initial deplosment in fxed-site silos, followed by railsmoble basing; another mobile ‘model earied on tacked crosecountry vehicle is said tobe under development. The smaller single-warhead SS-X-25 has apparently been developed to be road ‘mobile from its original deployment, and is possibly a Lat The fietcompltly Above: Th umber Saveeloc hares” {development ofthe intermediate range 8S.20, capable of operating from roughly prepared bass. Intermediate-range ballistic missiles “Two shorter-range ballistic missiles deployed inthe late 1970s and early 1980s certainly did not add to strategic stability and fuelled fears of 2 nuclear war being fought in Europe. These were the Soviet SS-20, ‘hich fist became operational in 1977, and the US Army's Pershing II, deployed from 1983 onwards along with the USAF's ground Launched eruise mis:Which is examined in detail elsewhere, The $§-20 is a triple-warhead, land-mabile misile withatrange thacallowsictocover the whole of Western Europe from bases in the westera USSR. US sources {quote the system as carrying three independently ‘argetable RVs each witha yield of 150 kilotons. They aceibute a range of 3000 km (3,105 miles), while Une Soviets admit to 4000 ken 2,483 miles). Inertial guide ance is employed, and 3 CEP figure of 400 m (437 ards) is generally accepted. Asa counterweight to the §8-20 deployment, after along peviod of politcal de bate in 1979 the western NATO alliance began the process known as Theatre Nuclear Force (TNF) mod. mization which brought the Pershing Ils and GLCMs to Europe ‘At the end of 1983 there were 108 Pershing 1A missiles deployed in West Germany. ‘The 1960s-vin- ‘age Pershing IA, which the Pershing I soto replace fon a one-for-one basis, is the only US Army nuclear System aimed at present targets deep in Warsaw Pact territory, and forms part of the Supreme Allied Com ‘ander Europe’s QRA (Quick Reaction Alert) forces Kept at permanent readiness according wo a three-stage ‘Force Genertion’ level “The Pershing 1A (which superseded the Pershing I inthe early 1970s, the upgrades being confined to the ‘mobility of the fresupport units and the ability to Dperste from tnstrveved firing positions) has a range fof up to 740 kam (460 miles) and uses an inert) gu {ancesystem toachieve accuracies of 40m (437-yard) CEP at maximum range. The warhead isthe WO with selectable yields of 60, 200 and 400 kilotons “The Pershing Il in fet has a warhead (the W8S based ‘oma neve generation freefall bomb) with a much smal Jer yield than the weapon which itis replacing, re poriedly selectable from I-10 20-kiloton yield, It has, however, afar longer reach, variously quoted as be ‘ween 1300 and 1800 km (810 and 1,120 mils) les texteemely fast (Mach 8 in the Boost phase) and is far ‘more accurate than the system it replaces. The Per shing Iisa ballistic missile, bu has a radar guidance system in its nose. The guidance system developed by Goodyear Aerospace and Norden Systems is called Radar Area Guidance (RADAG). Inthe terminal des cent phase, the radar starts scaing (at 120 cpa) a initial reference area, and then compares the return ‘with pre-stored reference map. Guidance commands are generated and transmitted as course corrections © the re-entry vehicle's control vanes, “The result isa eduction of CEP to under $0 m (SS yards) over ranges which, from launch in West Ger- ‘many, bring targets deep within the western USSR Under the Pershing’s thrall. This, allied 10 the ‘weapons’ very short flight time, is why the Pershings in particular were seen by the Soviets as especially menacing and such stumbling blocks in the Geneva intcrmediate-range nuclear weapons talks Which col- lapsed at the end of 1983. "The Pershing Ili particulary effective against har- dened point and underground targets because of its high aceuracy and the uniqueeart penetrator warhead ‘capability. Its accuracy and range, n spite of the smal ler-yeld warhead, considerably raised the temperature ‘farms contro diplomacy. The fact that it was seen by NATOasa counterdeployment tothe Soviet SS-20 did litle to soothe Europe's nuclear jitters during the approach to and altermath of the initial deployment Fo ‘SSBES aOM orwell or. ‘bmetneannched CO, igh Muti Ra-aey Wetclshoegreat torn Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles Abo: Thes5-X15nobie Iiseonparede Mss sos tanto ipo fr i {Srisandweretanted 8 Avore:TheSS-X4mcble Below: S6-8'Sase {naan meured ine end gern Cait fie'mn,_noduced i, namedied(si stwomegtonwarendtoa imsomam range ot inCruise Missiles Teer inho rus fissile then plunging carthicards with its 880-kg ;870-1b) high explosive warhead. The V-l was stop pable however, for i could be shot down by anti piston-engined aircraft. In contrast, the V-2 ballistic Foekcet sas terifvingly unstoppable Thatis why the cruise missle largely fll from favour in the postwar years. The US Ait Force developed the sround-launchod intercontinenl-range Snark and the Inermediate-range Mace and Matador cruise missles twhich were based in Europe during the late 1980s, bu these were clumsy weapons, their bases were vulner ableand they were in any event lable to interception in flight by the incresingly sophisticated Soviet air de fences, The same strictures applied to the US Navy's \warship-launched Regulus [and submarine-launched Regulus I strategic cruise missles, quietly abandoned once the Poaris-submmarine launched ballistic missile became operational. The Bocing B-S2s of USAF Strategic Air Command operated ai-launched Hound Dogersise isis, each witha lmegaton warhead, in the period 1961-76. under development ery system from the mi-1950s on ‘out only for launch by warship or airraf a Short tanges, while concentrating on ballistic missiles fs strategic delivery systems. Nevertheless the Soviets fare now reported fo be developing s long-range adv danced cruise missle similar to the US Tomahawk ex ‘amined in detail below Tn the early 197054 range of new technologies being developed in the USA seemed torevive the potential of the cruise missile as a long-range strategic delivery system. These factors were mvch smaller (and thus lighter) nuclear warheads, modern guidance technolo sy combined with satellite mapping, and small ful ficient turbofan engines which sipped fuel and thus ‘made posible very long ranges. Moreover, cruise mis siles were outside the scope ofthe SALT negotiations Which began in 1972. Here as an elegant new system ‘ypifving American technological superiority, and the more the Soviets tied {0 include cruise systems in SALT 2,themore such weapons reputation as wonder ‘weapons grew ‘Both the USAF and US Navy sponsored develop ‘ment programmes in the 1970s, and the result is ¢ plethora of systems in all sorts of permutations, but ‘onetheless ll developments of ether Boeing's AGM- 486 Air-Launched Cruise Misile (ALCM) developed for the air forve or General Dynamics’ BGM-109 ‘Tomahawk, developed orginally forthe US Navy but also adopted by the USAF a its Ground-Launched Cruise Missle (GLCM). The operational ALCM is considered in more detain the sectionon ar-launched missiles, The General Dynamics Tomahawk is one of the most significant weapons of the 1980s, Its ground launched BGM-109G variant was adopted along with the Pershing II ballistic mise as pare of the NATO Intermediate Nuclear Force (INF) modernization programme: 464GLCMsare tobe forward-deployed at ‘Sma operating bases in Europe. In addition to ths, the Tomahawk provides the siframe for range of sea-launched cruise mises (SLCMs) which are set 10 increase by a huge degree the sirike power aboard American surface warships and stack submarines, and to give quite bumble vessels the capability of making Ton: tacks, The interlocking develop atively small, cheap and flex from a wide range ich platforms. In the GLCM, with sings, und engine ante folded On firin ket booster punch he m ffm engine then starts up while after 13 seconds the booster ‘motor burns out and isjetisoned. The Tomahawk fies Slowly, in fact at about the speed of a jet airliner, far Slower dhan the Pershing’s Mach 8, But what itlosesin Speed it guins in accuracy, again showing the results of the targeting revolution (made possible by satellite mapping and onboard computer power) in being able to snipe at ertcal point targets overlong ranges de livering a nuclear weapon with devastating accuracy US cruise misiles in their ground, sea- and sf-aun- ched varieties use a guidance technique called TER. COM (TERrain COntour Matching). Like the Per shing's RADAG system, this uses hybrid of inertial navigation and computer analysis of geographical in Formation, but TERCOM sustains the provess over lat greater distances, taking muluple reaings along the appecach route to is target The system uses a doven-locking radar altimeter to rund allied to an altimeter izatmospherc pressure and thus height above an absolute datum such as sea level. The difference be Tveeen these two readings provides a measure of the height of the ground surveved below. The reading btsined i the average for 1800 m” 1,708 34 yards) of land. By taking repeated readings, the digital reslts an be compared by the guidance computer with & preset mate of the approach route prepared trom obiained by siete esonnatsance und J inside the guidance computer. BY comparing ‘nun and ding spthe small jet emizecngine the measured track with all possible similar tracks in the matrix, any along-track or cross-rack deviations can be detested and thus corrected The disadvantages of eruive missies ae the same as those which might affect the penetating bomber ‘which cruise technology goes some way to supersede. Both types are vulnerable ro counter-air defences such assurface-tosair missiles and interceptor aircraft armed ‘with Jook-down shoot-down aitto-air missiles, and ‘while in themselves comparatively cheap, cruise mi biles need reconnaissance satellites to provide the appropriate guidance data, The USA is therelore work ingona new generation of eruse missiles which wil fy supersoniall, employ new form of guidance ech (que and have radar-baffng “stealth technology en {ineered into them US cruise missile programme summary Sea-launched TASM= Tactical anti-ship missile (BGM-109B F Tomahawk, non-strategic TLAM-C: Conventional landattack missile (RGM 18¢. Tomahawk, non-straegic TLAMGN: Nuclear land attack missile (BGM-109ATomahawk). This missle, combined with the VLS (Wertical Launch System), will arm US Navy attack submarines and warships of destroyer size and up- wards giving them a strategic nuclear attack capability ‘over 2.2500-km (1,$50-mile) range, Airlaunched ‘The Boeing-developed AGM-86B ALCM isakey com- ponent of the US strategie arms modernization pro- fgramme keeping the B-32 force inthe frontline until the late 1990s. Current plans eal for 170 B-52Gs and B.S2Hs tobe re-engineered with 20 ALCMs each while development of an advanced air-launched cruise # sile with longer range is also under Wey Ground-launched The BGNC-109G Tomahawk i the missile operated by USAF Tactical Air Command forwartbased in Europe with operational sites in England, Belgitrn, Tals, the Netherlands and West Germany. The war heads the 150-kiloton WS4, and canbe cartied over a range of 2800 km (1,$50 miles). Operationally, the GLCM is i" of 22 vehicles (wo launch-control centres, four Transporter Erector aunchers, carrying total of 16 misiss, and support ‘men, The fights are contained emerging periodically Taunch sites Soviet strategic cruise missile development Recent US reports have consistently pointed to th development ofa Soviet equivalent to the Tomahawk ruse missile, aso expected to appear in sealaunched imed §8.NX-21),air-aunehed (AS-X-18) and Iaunched (SSC-X-)vartants, Anair-breabing 4 single nuclear warhead and a range of up 0 Ato AUSDeDingrsinst pened 3 Temata Lot A ship-tnunehed BM {a onda sae 3000 ke (1,865 miles) have been confidently assigned ‘by Western analyst, ut the guidance system remains a matter for conjecture. A larger weapon up to 13 m (42.65 ft long (codenamed SS-NX-25) also reported to be under development, with a sea-launched mode expected to begin testing in "Yankee class submarines bythe late 1980s, Cruise Missiles sore: ARG gun fights thereat - nthe Entec epebiy es wales ‘ltainglangasge land taceanfenchip msn. fon Dring ie si weldAir-Launched Missiles Tepes acer ley yt ns bomber, the Boeing B-29 Superfort dropped the freefall ‘Lite Boy” and Fat Man’ atomic bombs on Hireshima and Nagasaki. The long-range bomber remained the most important instrument of rategic nuclear delivery unl the late 1950s, when missile research opened up tial of the ICBM tnd then the SLAM (Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile) and atthe same time made possible the high alutude guided surface-to-air missile like the Sovi ‘which knocked Gary Powers’ Lockheed U-2 spy- ‘out ofthe sky above Sverdlovsk in 1960. After aber raising invulnerably at high altitude were over ‘Meanwhile through the 1950s, USAF Strategic Air an enormous fleet of turbojet 1 B-47 and Boeing B-52 strategic bom = The RAF similarly deployed the ‘V-Force’ of ‘Vickers Vliant, Handley Page Vicor and Avro Vulcan bombers, the French Force Aérienne Stratezique be nal with Dassault Mirage TVAs, and the Soviet Long-Range Aviation put simall numbers of long-range bombers, the jt-powered Myasishchev Mt 2" Bison’ and turboprop-powered Tupolev T-95 ‘Bear’, into service. While the development of ICBMs seemed fo make ireevant the development of asecond generation af supersonic Bombers suchas the US Con- Vair B-S8 and North American XB-70, the Soviet ‘Myasishchev" M30 "Bounder and the British BAC ‘TSR-2, remarkably, numerous representatives ofthat fist generation of strategic subsonic jet bombers sol tiered on (and continue todo so) in frontline service. ‘This results fom the capacity of ther big airiames 10 ak up re-engineering and avionic retrofits, and from the development of new weapon systems (in particular air-launched strategic missiles), which put 8 modem ‘combat capability nan old airframe, The most impor fant recent example ofthis proces isthe reworking of the USAP's B52 feet to carry nuclear-armed.Ait- [Eiunched Cruise Missiles (ALCMS) Teas realized at an early stage tha io the era ofthe aquided susface-to-aie missile was the weapon rather than the manned bomisr that should ideally undertake the final penetration to a defended target. In terms of the stratepy of deterrence the manned bomber became merely mobile platform that, because i could be kept fon airborne alert, was relatively invulnerable toa hi Strike but would make its attack with ‘stand-off ‘weapons outside the range of ar defences. The Doug Tar Skybolt, for example, was developed in the ealy 1960s a8 an ‘ti-launched ballistic missile’ an other ‘wise unique configuration. Ic was planned that four 1600-krn(1000-mile) range Skybols would be carried Aloft by each available B52, but that the missle rather than the aircraft would thereafter do the job of taking a thermonuclear weapon toits target ikea silo-launched se Skybolt was cancelled for “technical reasons’ on 11 December 1962, the same day that it ‘completed a perfect tes light. The missile which B-52 ‘rews did, however, cerry operationally in 1961-76 was the North American AGM-28 Hound Dog, turbojet Powered winged cruise misile with a preprogramm- Able inertial guidance system, a range of 1125 km (700, niles) and a speed as high as Mach 2.1, carrying @ TPmegaton thermonuclear warhead. “The Victor and Vulean bombers of the British V- Force were similarly equipped with the Avro Blue Stel tand-off bomb from 1962 10 1975, Blue Steel was an inerially-guided, rocket-propelled. winged missle Taunched at high’altinade from a 160k (100-raile) ‘ange. Once released the missile could fly any prepro- ‘grammed trajectory at speeds up t Mach 2, delivering 2 Temegaton wathead, ‘The French Force Aétienne Stratégique originally armed its Mirage IVA strategic bombers with freefall ‘weapons, but in 1978 started development of a ramiet- powered stand-off missile called ASMP (Air-Sol ‘Moyenne Portée) originally for tactical nuclear weapon delivery, but inital deployment in 1985 was on 18 upgraded Mirage IVs. The 100-Kiloton yield ASMP has a reported range of 100 km (62 miles) and several flight profiles are possible, including fight at Mach 3 at high altitude. Ieis also expected to arm Dassault Bre- he Boe 6 Inodloftisolégesigneancory 12 mses an wing ‘guct Mirage 2000Ns and carrer-based Dassault-Bre- uct Super Etendards Short-range attack missiles ‘An important rationale forthe retention of manne: bombers, however, was their very ability 10 cover targets (such as mobile systems) by direct peneteation, and to carry bg free-fall weapons with very large yields ‘up to 20 megatons. That is indced why the USAF spending so much in getting a force of 100 Rockwell BEIBs into service by 1990 as penetration bombers. ‘Te wos apparent By the early 1960s that, no matt how smart the electronic countermessures and no mat. ter what altitude was flown, penetrating B-52s would Ihave to blast their ay’ into defended Soviet srspace rolling up" radars and SAM sites as they went, What ‘was needed was los of low-yield weapons per omber, hence the development of the SRAM (Shor Range ‘The ALCMs noma dierent design ote anand so ahh ngins ad gudence ytemot ina esthaef tn GLeM ond LeM,Attack Missile) which arms B-52Gs, and B-S2Hs and General Dynamics FB-ITIAS of SAC. The SRAM's W69 nuclear warhead has the same veld s a Minuteman IIT warhead, while lter SRAM B models have a W80 warhcad like that carried by Air-Launched Cruise Missiles (ALCMS). ‘The inertial guidance system is highly accurate and, once launched ‘on preprogrammed trajectory and flying at Mach 3, the missle virtually invulnerable to electronic jam ming or interception on its three-minute fight from bomber target. The B-S2 can carry up to20SRAMS, sixon each wing pylon and eight ina sotary launcher the Lomb bay. FB-I1Asearry two SRAMSunder each ‘wing and two more in the internal weapons bay SRAMs frst ecame operational in 1972 and produc tion formally ceased in 1984 after 1,500 had been del ered ‘SRAM is just that: syste with a maximum range ‘of 160 km (100 males if launched at high altitude and {60 km (37 miles) flaunched at low level. Avery dilfe- rent strategic weapon is also being deployed on the ‘enerable B52 force bur witha range of upto 2500 ki (S50 miles). This i the AGM-86 ALCM designed to carry a nuclear warhead and deliver it with great accuracy over long ranges, its ability 10 follow the terrain at very low altitude, its small size and its minim al radar cross section all improving its penetration. Air-launched cruise missiles ‘The ALCM was developed by Boeing in a separate programme to the General Dynamics Tomahawk, ‘which emerged asthe ground- and sez launched cruise ‘missiles, but it shares the TERCOM terrain-matching ‘navigation system and the vay Wiliams F107 turbofsn, ‘with the SECM and GLCM, The first squadron of reworked ALCM-carrying B-52Gs became operational at the end of 1982 and by early 1985 five operational Squatlrons, 90 B-52Gs each carrying 12 mise, hed been equipped with ALCMs. Production meanivile ‘was switched from the AGM-86A, which was designed originally tobe compatible withthe SRAM rosary laun= cher, tothe larger and longer-ranged AGM-86B. Wing ‘weep wasalso altered from 35°1025°. Starting in 1986, 2 the frst B-1Bs become availabe, the 90-trong B- 2H force at present armed with SRAM and grav ‘bombs fr the penetration role wil themselves undergo conversion 10 carry 20 ALCMs, serving into the 1990s. By then the B-1B itself will become an ALCM car. rier, armed with 20 Advanced Cruise Missiles (ACMS), for which development concricts were awarded 10 General Dynamics in 1983, The US Department of Defense's 1986 report stated thatthe development of the ACM would incorporate radar-baflling ‘stealth’ technology and that the missile would have a longer stand-off range than the existing ALCM. Soviet strategic ALMs “The USSR began developing airlaunched stand-off missiles in the late 1940s. The AS-3 "Kangaroo’ ‘sppeared in 1961 and is associated with the Tupolew ‘Tu-95 ‘Bear’ bomber. The AS-3, which is carried under the big turboprop-powered bomber’ belly, looks tke and isas big as a swept-wing fighter aircraft. I's powered by an air-breathing turbojet and speed is thought to be subsonic. Guidance is considered to be by atstopilot with command override, although the AS.3 ie thought to be not very accufate, with area targets such as coastal cities the objective for its 800- Kiloton warhead. ‘The smaller AS-4 ‘Kitchen? carried by Tu.9S¢ and ‘Tupolev Tw-26 ‘Backfire’ variable-geometry bombers is thought to be a more advanced weapon with super~ Sonic speed, a range pechaps a great 2s 800 km (500 miles) and a wathead of 200 kilotons. Propalsion is by Tiquid-fue rocket motor, and mid-course inertial guid- ance is complemented by terminal-homing ative radar. The AS-6"Kingfish’ missile associated with Tu- 16s and Tu-26s of the Soviet naval airforce is aso thought to come in nucear-as well as conventionally- armed versions, the former having a yield of 350 bilo tons. Range is estimated at 200 kim (125 miles) and speed as Mach 3. “The US Department of Defense has slso postulated that the Soviets have developed and deployed an ‘equivalent tothe USAF's Ai-Launched Cruise Missile twit & range of up to 3000 em (1,865 miles). Coded {AS-15, the weapon is thought to be rurbojet- powered, fuclear-armed and asocited withthe TW-95 Bear reworked as an ALCM carrier just as the B-S2 has been, There has been no overt speculation about the AS-15's method of guidance. Air-Launched Missiles ‘AnfB-AN1Aolthe USAF Sater Command dala Short Range Atack Mist SBAMin ite intra wnsposby Ti upersnic ceignedts ive ssogc atch aeratsomesend-lfeaasiy lowing 8 Strand FB HFetomaie he sac am geo! 6Okm ao eve ance as developed sano missile called ASMP Sel teers cr Hersam ate ee ee reFree-Fall Nuclear Bombs he only nuclear weapons ever used in anger wer free Ee parachute retarded romie bombs, the weapons codenamed “Lite Boy nd "Fat Man’ wich were used to destroy Hireshima nd Nagasakt in August 1945, For 13 years after th he scratepic bom ith free ity bombs remained the my antmethodof nuclear elivery until the development of high-altitude SAMs nd ge strategic missiles ended the bomber's predominance. Bur meanwhile strategic and so called clear bombs had entered the arsenals of the USA and USSR in comparatively large numbers, and heir ai forees and navien proved reluctant wo give them nent of new-generation Weapons, tnd Chinese air forces also s¢ i stockpiles of free-fall nuclear weapons lopment of nuclear Weapons fom the comp tively clumsy fission devices of 1945 to thermonuclear travity bombs of huge destructive power weighing ess 450 kx (1,000 1b) and capable of mass production ras remarkably rapid taking less than 10 years Im the USA the bomber force grew dramatically in size the $s while a the same time the fis Sana bombs for tactical use (MK 5, AUK 7 fnd Mk 21) made their appearance, as did the firs fnt-submarine depth bombs. The Mk 12 i typical o its generation: it became operational in 1954, weighed less than 454 kg (1,000 Ib) and could be delivered by 8 supersonic jet. AY the seme time strategic bombs ‘appeared with very high vields in the form ofthe Mks 6, 13 and 18.) The Mk I8wasthefist high ied fusion thermonuclear) bomb, deployed in 1953 for interim fepending deployment of the-deliverable’ Mk I3and hhermonuclear bombs which entered the stockpile in 19545, the latter a massive weapon weighing some 21 tons. On 1 May 1986.4 MK 17 ith 2 icld of 25 tegarone was detonated over Bikini Atal in Operstion Relwing The first US warheads were all gravity bombs, and i was not until 1982 that the frst land tactical artilery Fired wathead was deployed. In the folowing three years the versatile MKT bomb was adapted as the warhead ofthe Corporal and Sergeant SSMs and asthe fist atomic demolition munition or nuclear landmine By the 1980s the first-generation bombs had been serired but older weapons still make up lage part of the US stockpile. US bomber and strike aircraft carey five nuclear bomb types (828, B43, B53, BS7 and Bl) depending on mission, these bombs varying in yield from approximately 5 kilotons to 9 megatons. A.new free-fall nuclear weapon, the I.I-megaton yield B83, ‘begun to enter service in 1984, and itis believed that ‘over 20 types of US or NATO aircraft can carry nuclear weapons. Themomentot stnsin os ndmore hank 0 mis) frompraundzea! 4 Fary hemo auctor weapons [ibs were essive ferrying tant gant ee agave tows hagas 8 Tie wast Tirothmstooke cent tite Bayon Auge A nuclear-capable aircraft is simply one with the proper wiring to carry and release a nuclear bomb, just Es it would a conventional one, The AMAC (Aircraft ‘Monitoring and Control) s¥stem in US auiclear strike srcraft monitors and contrals fusing, arming snd sa ing of the actual bom themselves while there fa s0 called PAL (Permissive Action Link) or ncleat “vo in’ device in the cockpit. Great attention is given to incorporation of failsafe devices to prevent accidental detonation should the sireraft crash (there have been ‘many such incidents since 1950) toa point where ‘ene point safety" is achieved. This means that the probabil fry of ¢ nuclear detonation s reduced to one ins milion should there be an unwarranted detonation initiated at ‘single poine in the high explosive trigger mechanism, ‘Artable of US and NATO muclearscapablesireralt i fiven atthe end of this chapter. Gravity bombs must ssually be dropped directly cover their targets to asure accuracy and high enough 0 void airburst detonation too close tothe grouad, but this is where the airraf self ie most vulnerable. The newer bombs such asthe B6] and B83 allow the borib to be released at low level with 2 rapidly deployed ‘rogue parachute and atime delay fuse. When sed at low altitude this delayed low-level laydoven technique ishighly accurate. The accuracy ofthe B61 and B83 is fonaverage 185 m (600 ff circular error probable (CEP the radivs ofa circle into which ball the mises aimed at large inits centre willland), while the older bombs havea minimum delivery alu of 90 to 180 m (300 10 600 fOperationalUS gravity nuclear bombs The BPS rst stockpile entry 1958) sa strategic and tactical thermondilear bor builtin various modifica tions with yields from 70 kilotons to 1-43 megatons Fusing must be selected on the ground. Approximately 1,221 were deploved by T981 and the weapon is com: puile witha Wide variety of ucleatscapable area The B43 (fst stockpile entry 1939) isa high-yield thermonuclear bomb again compatible with US and NATO strike sircafe suchas the F-111, FB-111, F-16 Act, AG, A7, Bo ee. Ics estimated that 2,000 were ‘Sepiayed in 1983. The BS is the highestvield gravity bbomb in the US stockpile, at 9 megatons the same as the Titan ITICBM warhead with which tis wery simi lar. Formerly carried by Convair B-S8s and Bocing B-i7s, all 180 of these large weapons ate caried by 'B32s and wil be retired ss the B'32s ae reworked a8 ALCM carriers ‘The BS? (frst stockpile entry 1980) is lightweight nuclear depth bomb also usable in tactical land roles, Approximately 1,000 re estimated to bedeploved with the US fleet, at shore bases and with NATO flect sir arms including the Royal Navy. ‘The weapon can be carried by maritime patrol aircraft such as the Lock- heed P-3 Orion and BAe Nimrod and by helicopters Yields estimated at between I and 10 (perhaps 20) kilotons. ‘The Bit (frst stockpile entry 1968 for Mods Oand 1, and about 1975 for Mods 2, 3, 4 and 5) is a new” ‘Reneration tactical bomb manufactured through the 1970s s0 that some 3,000 are deployed in a series of ‘modifications with various yield options from 100 kile- ton (Mods 0,2, 3,4 and 5) to over I megaton (Mod 1), Later models have highly sophisticated inbuilt PAL failsafe devices. Fusing can be selected in flight, and delivery can be made at very low level at supersonic Speed. The B61 is compatible with all US Ait Force, Navy and Marine Corps nuclear-capable aircraft, and is aso held under dual-key control by the ait forces of Belgium, Ialy, the Netherlands, West Germany, Greece and Turkey "The B83 (first stockpiled entry 1984) is a new strategic bomb designed specifically for ground-burst retarded or aydown delivery against hard targets such { missle silos and underground command centres. ‘Witha L1-megaton yield, the B83 sreplacing the B28, BS3 and B43, and is planned a the major gravity weapon for the Rockwell B-1B, which can carry perhaps 38 such weapons. Soviet weapons Soviet strategic and tactical nuclear bombs are re- ported tobe of consistently higher yields than their US ‘Counterparts. The standard tactical bomb hasa yield of 4350 kilovons and weighs about 1000 kg (15343 1b) is now being succeeded by a borb of 700 kg (1,543 Ib) ‘with a lower yield. Strategic bembs have been de Yeloped with vields of 5, 20 and even 50 megatons. ‘Nuclearcapable aircraft include the Su-7, Suel7 and 0:28, the MiG-21, MiG-23 and MiG-27, and the Tu- 16, Tu-95, 10-22 and Tu-26, Nuclear depth bombsare catred by the Tu-142, 1-38 and Be-I2 araft, and Ke-25 and Mi-l4 ASW helicopters NATOnuclear-capable non- strategic strike aircraft ‘A-4 Skyhawk: USMC light attack aircrafts being re placed by AV-8B; can carry one B43, BS7 or Bol ‘As6 Intruder: US Navy earrier-based medium attack sircraty can carry three B28, B43, BS? or Bol ALT Corsair It US Navy cartier and USAP Air [National Guard strike aircraft; being replaced in USN bby F/A-I8; can carey four B28, B43, BS7 or BOL AV-SB: USMC VISTOL strike fighter; can carry one (2) BAB, BS? or Bol B52: USAF “big stick’ bomber; can carry four or eight (depending upon what other weaponsarecaried) B28, BAS, BS7, BOL or BBS F-4 Phantom: USAF, Navy, Marine and NATO-wide ike aircraft; NATO nclear-capable F-4s only in Greek, Turkish and West German air forces; can carry ‘one B38, B43, BS7 or BOL F-1S Eagle: USAF intereeproristsike fighter; can carry four B28, B43, BS7 or Bol 16 Fighting Falcon: USAF and NATO-Wide strike fighter; ean carry up to five nuclear bormbs but general, ‘oliguratin is single BOL F/A-I8 Hornet: US Navy and USMC cartierborne strike fighter; can carry two B87 of B6L FA104G Starfighter: can carry one B28, BS7 oF B61 in strike role, but phasing out of NATO ait forces, F-IIEF: on constant quick reaction aler st two UK bases: generally carries three B43, BS7, BOl or BS3, bbut can carry up to six FB-IILA: USAF medium-range bomber; can carry six (ormally two) B43, BOL or B83 3 Orion: land-based US Nevy maritime patrol air- rats can catty two BST S-3A Viking: US Navy carier-based ASW airraft;can hipborne ASW helicopter; can carry SH.60 Seahawk: new-generation shipborne ASW heli copter; can cary one B57 ‘Tomado: British/German Ttaian-developed interdic- Sea Harrier: Royal Navy VISTOL strike fighter; aue- lear capable Nimrod RAF land-based maritime patrol aireraft;can carry nuclear depth bombs Jaguar: Anglo-French light strike sirraft; nuclear Free-Fall Nuclear Bombs The tks uciear weapon digloyed at eUS Naina Atomic Maceumin Albuqere sade purpose Weapon gman sed ‘anosnbmn deh onan atow stance capable Super Etendard: French carierborne strike sircrats nuclear-cspable with one IS-kiloton AN-S2 gravity bomb Mirage 2000N: French interditor and srike aircraft nuclear-capable with one ISekiloton AN-S2 gravity bomb Mirage IIE: French strike aircraft; can carry wo () 1Siloton AN-S2 gravity bombs ewan Reed Aas enter oten ie Utpby he eapesion aida pine conpenentofneclet lw.Chemical and Biological Weapons Cosi Sively to disupt the defence, or defensively to erate ‘ontaninatedarcas difficult forthe enemy to cross or cups, This is sehy chemical agents have been de ‘eloped with such a range of elfects, not ust in degree ‘of lethality but in persistence once dispense, the ater being alected by factors such as climatic conditions wind speed and direction, temperature and tempera Any countiy witha chemical industry can manufac ture chemical weapons, although thei storage and rainenance presents problems, Chemical stockpiles Seteriorate, unstable compounds break down, and the handling and security of such deadly materials is a rave problem. For these reasons the development of "inary" weapons (in which io inva harmless ccompounds sre combined into a deadly chemical gent ‘nly in the operational weapon, an arullery shell or srcralt bomb for example) was hastened in the 1960s ‘Chemical agents were used in World War [om 1915 onwards, although the widespread use of such susesas Phosgene and Mustard, after thei initial shock Successes, signal failed to break the trench deadlock, Since then chemical agents have been used extensively by technically advanced troops against guerillas of other insurgents, but aever on European batlfields During World War If the Germans developed the deadly new generation of “nerve agent’, but although these were manufactured ‘piled, they were never used for fear of a Which in fact did not exist, Miltary equipment, electronics and weapons can sui function even though contaminated: chemical agents have just one target, the human body. ‘They ‘enter by one of three routes: the skin, the langs and the istic tract. There ate diferent sorts of chemicals ‘grouped according 10 their eflets on their human target and method of operation: incapacitating, vomit ing, choking, blood, blister and nerve agents. Chetic- al herbicides, defolanis, smoke and flame agents are ‘often inchuded in consideration of chemical warfare, but as thei principal targets are not the human body they are not covered here A further category tants, are not covered by the definition of chemical agents used in the 1925 Geneva Protocol, but as they ae the ‘most frequently ured of all chemical agents Gin tot Control, police and internal security operations) they fre included in the following summary. Choking agents Chlorine, Phosgene and Diphosgene, the gases of ‘World Warl are the main choking agents. They attack through the lungs and are fatal. They ace suscepublevo wind direction and disperse within hours. Bloodagents Hydrogen Cyanide and Cyanogen Chloride are deadly if absorbed via the lungs. These agents are very vole tile, dispersing rapidly after deployment. A rapid saturation of blood agents (delivered for example by 3 rultiple rocket-Launcher barrage) would force the de fenders to take protective action but would not neces saily hinder the attacker, Blister agents These agents, such as Mustard gas and Lewisite, come {nliguid or vapour form and attack protein enzymes in body tissue causing disabling skin blisters. The eyes and lungs are very susceptible, and mustand as is ‘deadly if inhaled. Blister agents can be odourless and persist for days Chemical weapons ar he stata arateie tack a Onan Air Bae inthe Hpbi oftoma doing Ecce Taam Irritants There are two groups of ieritans, ter and sneezing agents, They’ are designed to act ditecty on the eves tnd mucous membranes, The eflets are immediate bhut recovery i rapid once the sufferer i clear of the saturated area. Distribution is usually by aerosol, rifle br hand:-thrown grenades. CS gas isa typical ittant ‘using immediate copious tears, coughing, nasca tnd burning skin at very low dosages Incapacitating agents ‘These act on the victim's ming, causing disorientation and hallucination. Recovery is predictable, but effects ‘may persist for hours or days after exposte, Vomiting agents These attack eyes and mucous membrane causing very severe cold symptoms, headache and vomiting. The tlests persist from 30 minutes to three hous. ‘Snake ig usodo sma chemical tack at Sol Air Basen None daring ono athe opto Rela mdorakonNerve agents Tabun, Soman and Sarin (US codes GA, VX and GB are the most deadly of chemical agents They are highly toric, odoutless, colourless, and hard to detec. ‘They are generally non-persistent but can be thickened %0 disperse more slowly. They ean be sbaorbed into the body ia the hings or skin to react with an enzyme Cholinesterase) in the body and so dstupe the central nervous system. Convulsion, paralysis, bronchial rex- {eietion, axphysia and death follow ssithin 15 minutes sf eeceiving a fatal dose, which can be as little 28 0.7 milligeammes, Distribution of nerve gas can be via anillery shell, land mines, aircrafteelivered free-fall tomb or multiple rocketlauncher, The USSR has a very large stockpile of chemical weapons, and the USA has announced its intention of rebuilding its offensive capacity withthe facilitation of 4 binary munition plant at Pine Bluff, Arkansas to manufacture 15S-mm (6 l-n) shells and “Bigeye free fall bombs. The UK destroyed its stockpile in the mid-1950s, leaving in Europe only France with a 1e- ported offensive capability. Actual stock levels are hard To atsess, although reports suggest that the largely obsolete US stockpile is about 42,000 tons and the Soviet stockpile 380,000 tons. The USA cites a total Sength of 4,700 troops assigned to Chemical Warfare (CW), of which half are eservists. The Soviet and ‘Warsaw Pact armies have specialist CW units from company levelupwards, «total of up to 100,000 troops Chemical trocps are an integrated part ofthe Soviet doctrine of combined-arms warfare, and these have a range of agents and delivery systems for different tac tical requirements. Each tank and motor rifle division thas chemical defence bataion with 32 decontamina- tion vehicles. Many tanks and infantry fighting vehi cles are pressurized asan NBC (nuclear, biologieal and chemical) protection measure, as are NATO's srmoured fighting vehicles, although individual War Pac soldier's protective clothing is not as comprshen. sive as NATO equivalent. NATO protective clothing is typically an all-over suit with a permeable skin anda charcoal interliner to protect the skin against blister and nerve agents, plusa Fespirator with chemical filter. Warsaw Pact clothing is cape of impermeable rubber, but all NBC suits are ‘uncomfortable and physically hamper the wearer. Spe tal electto-chemical detectors can provide early warn fing ofthe presence of agents, bu the current US MS slarm can apparently detest only vapour and not liquid persistent agents, and can also be set off by vehicle exhaust fumes After exposure, men and equipment must be decon- ‘aminated with an oxidizing agentcon the body (uch as Fuller’ earth) and vehicles must be washed down with soapy water or bleach. Nerve agents require immediate Special treatment. An injection ofa mixture of wimedo- ine, atropine and benactvzine s an immediate ther- py, and both NATO and the Warsaw Pact have tan- dardized antidotes (BAT/TAB and Nemicol5). Biological weapons While chemical warfare has a particular horror about it, biological warfare adds a further dimension. Biolo- fal weapons owe their effects to the multiplication of bacteriological organisms within the victim, whiletox- ing" are poisonous chemicals inially isolated from arganic sources which may include micro-organisms, ‘There ae over 30 known viruses, micro-organisms and toxins suitable for use as weapons. The UN Conven- tion of 1972 that prohibits the manufacture and stock- Piling of biological and toxin weapons was signed by 109 nations including those of NATO and the Warsawy Pact. A major provision of the convention entreats its signatories never in any cifcumstances to ‘develop, Stockpile, acquire of retain microbial or other biologe- cal agents of toxins of types other than quantities that have justification for prophylactic, protective or other peaceful purposes, as wel as weapons, equipment and means of delivery designed to use such agents or toxins {or hostile purposes or in armed conflict This defensive’ research into biological weapons is permitted, and continues t several major centres. In 1979 a reported explosion ina military compound at Sverdlovsk led to release of anthrax spores into the aunosphere,reawakening fears that dhe USSR is mass producing biological agents. ‘The Soviet authorities Slaimed the outbreak was the result of contaminated feat and accused the CIA of fabricating the whole thing. ‘The anthrax bacillus has characteristics that make it terrfyingly efficient agent of biological war- fare, Itis the hardest, most casily produced and most easly disseminated disease-producing organism for Chemical and Biological Weapons use against humans. In its pulmonary form, anthrax Ato: Them a Aecacig wo US has almost 2 100 per cent mortality rate. Anthrax meatbe inet peomal fantensheve spores can remain inthe sol for decades: the Scorish NUE ind of Gruinard, used for dispersal experiments of Anthrax B in 1941, has been barred from the outside ‘world ever since, ‘Ave: Al sevet woop aetained te operate She ving tom company level pods specify {ined decortmnaan proceduresThe Strategic Uses of Space ofspaceas potential battlefield genever before. Multiple tech nds have intervined Tamim tee make itso, but thee in particular are of signal import ance. These ae the development by both superpowers Sf operational anti-satellite’ capabulit si testo the US reusable Earth orbiter pro he Space Shuttle, and its increasing tse for mlitary pur poses (although that has been severely set back by the shed by President Reagan in 1983 calling for the de- ‘lopmient of 4 space-based defence against ballistic Inislles, the Stratenie Defense Initiative (SD popu larly known as ‘Star Wars! Ta spite af the Oster Space Treaty of 1967, which in Article 1V'1) forbids ils signatories “o place in orbit around the Earth any objects carrying nuclear weapons Srany other Kindo! weapon of mass destruction, intall Such weapons on celestial bodies or station such ‘weapons im outer space in any other manner’, about three-qusrters ofall earth satellites launched have been for military purposes. Satellites are not themselves ‘weapuns such, but they are vital for providing eaely warning and C* (Command, Control and Communica tions) forthe strategic weapons that sit on Earth and have been almost since the very beginning of the space age inthe late 1950s. The treaty, whichentered forces (October 1967, left significant loopholes. While this high-minded agreement wes meant to rule out the pos: sibility of nuclear, chemical or biological weapons being placed in storage’ orbits and called down on command, it did not necessarily prosribe the placing in orbit of “actcal” space systems capable of attacking cach other (cival satellites, for example) or weapont which would enter space en route to ther targets, such as ICBM or the Soviet FOBS (Fractional Orbit Bom: bardment System) ‘wrong way round the globe? rock: ‘By he early 1970s the Soviets had successfully tested lowealtitude hill satellites able to close in on a target in orbit and explode close enough to destroy it. The USA hegan testing alow altitude ASAT (Anti-SATel Tite) missle in 1982. ASAT technology filed to be proscribed mesnvhile by arms control diplomacy in the late 1970s, but by the mid-1980s the ASAT isue had been overshadowed by the far greater technologic- al and political conundrum of a space based defence’ Against ballistic missiles using directed energy Wweapons, the so-called ‘Star Wars issue Satellites “Tactical” space weapons such as an ASAT are of great significance because they are designed to attack. the strategic space systems without which the nuclear world order of today would be impossible. The very ‘concept of deterrence depends onthe idea of ‘warning’ Jan inbound atack shouldbe verified in enough time for an assured retaliatory attack to be made. Destroy C reworks and deterrence no longer works. Early warn ing and the C” net begin and end with space-based systems for their execution and for aucleer war plan- ning. Intelligence and reconnaissance satellites with their highly accurate mapping led strategic targeting d ines away from the idea of MAD. Mutual Assured Destruction), which depended on targeting big targets such as cites, towards counterforce strategies based ‘pinpoint precision targeting of iva contol centres and missiles in their sis, Cruse missile navigation Alcpends on satellite mapping and the same is true for the submarine-launched ballistic missiles of the Tri dent If generation which are as accurate as their kd based counterparts, 4 fact made possible bY space: based navigation sateltes, At the same time global superpowers like the USA and USSR simply cannot hold together their military machine without satelite Stellites are the principal protagonists in military space, broadly falling the following functions: global ‘Sommunications, early warning of long-range missile tack, surveillance of events on the ground and a sea, tlectronic intelligence, weather reconnaissance, nav. ational reference and. position fixing, and (on the Soviet side) anti-satellite warfare Earth satelite are not permanent features. Accord- Jing to the way they are put into orbit (angle in relation tothe Earth, height and speed), the tack of their orbit can be shaped for the maximum effectiveness. Some ‘navigation, communication, surveillance and carly Warning satellites are designed for permanence and ‘thus put into geostationary’ orbits acan altitude above ‘the equator andl ata velocity where the period of orbit rmatehes the Earth's rotation, so that the satelite is Stationary relative to apointon the Earth below. Phowo- reconnaissance satellites are, in contrast, generally placed into low Earth orbit astinga matter of days) t0 each tle perigee (the lowest point of the orbit) over the area of maximum interest for 8 close look. ‘Amore detailed glance at one particular kind of niltary satellite, the photo-reconnaisance varity, ‘hows how sophisticated and critically important these ‘mul-billion dollar systems have become. The most significant reconraissance satellite in the US line up is the so-called ‘Big Bird series developed by Lockhesd’s Space and Missle Division, As orbited it weighs over 13000 kg (28,660 Ih) and consists of « modified Agena rocket upper stage over 15 m (49.2 fe longand 3.05 m (0 tin diameter. The fact that thas racket engine, ‘estariableon command, means itcan stay in low Earth orbit for up to 190 days, much longer than the 10 days that would normally be possible with such a large vehicle encountering drag at such a low altitude ig Bird's a flying phowolaboratory. It cartes a very high resolution Perkin-Elmer camera capable of ‘identifying objects as smal as 0.3 m (1 ft) across from heights of up 10 160 km (100 miles). Film is either processed on board, scanned and then transmitted Aigially toa global nxworkof seven receiving stations, for ejected in capsules which are caught in mid-air by specially modified sircralt. The operational technique it similar to that of Earth resource satellites. ‘The chosen orbit is ‘sun synchronous’, 3 the ‘Big Bin! passes over the same target every dayat the same time, aking case beforesnd-sfter comparisons of events ind objects om the ground in identical lighting cond tons. I the same way passes can be timed when sun angles are greatest to give the extra dhiniton of Tog shadows. In 1976 the first of the next generation US sp ste lites, codenamed "Keyhole, ws launched, The KHL series satellites are placed in higher orbit than Big Birds up 10 500 ke 310 miles) alter lah from Van enberg AFB in California by Titan 34D boosters. ‘They also have restarable manveuvrig motors able to restore the original orbit on command, so Bing @ two-year lifetime, KHIIT does not use the capsule re ‘covery techniquc, but transmits data in near Fal tine based on dita interpretation of what is igh-resl tion cameras, IR sensors and side-looking Fadat pick ‘up. Of the series, KH is.a lowealtiude Alm-return spacecraft used oniy to photograph the highest-protty targets 8 KH was aumched on 81 July 1983 tornspect fnew Soviet missle radar in central Siberia, KES Inissions are classified. Tt was reported in early 1984 thar podiction of the KH and RHO had been cermin- sted because of hea cost overrun, while the Soviets had apparently learned how to eamoullage certain act tities effectively by Reeping thems hidden from peving eves in the sy ‘The Shuttle ‘While these close Took ‘reconsatsare designed to fy specific missions, communications, ocean feconnais- since and navigation satelites are designed for mich longer lfespans. These complex satelite networks re S84 nape ae Ech Nortvop FE Tier othe Chileon croc. The Eis tho major version hic poplar Fhe Lockheed (Aeritalia) F-104S Starfighter ‘Seed: 524i 20a eBay Hei although their vulnerability the Italian sand Romanian. Yugoslav TAR.93/Or00, for example) whilst the two superpow cers have developed their own designs optimized for armour and close support. When th ‘child Republic A-10 Thunderbolt Simultaneously se new standards of batefield survive bility and ugliness. Bult around a giant Avenger 30 very high rate, the Spend protracted periods over the battleild, relying fm atmour,siirame redundancy and ulrilow flyingAttack aircraft Strike/Attack Aircraft Mikoyan-Gurevich Mi Hepa: 00m HOB Soe -23BN ‘Flogger’ Late bewloped as an ‘vow tig te tnlicenseceopy afte Mage leet manyeftafay shire MvitadrSenpnecbelAlRtr — Srthe Canaani/Ac hassaenmichactenwittne, Hornets whichare employed Ksagitorssacatgnars fervototck nd in tar entre it 1 office its low spesd. The A-10 concept hss been Sukhoi Su-7‘Fttor-A’ ‘copied by the USSRin the ormoftheSu-28Frogfoot’ Sei! 72202 gol ad Mch annoy es Which, though lacking the heavy cannon, hasasimilar HOW azomlisnan”” — Eaily itos0m an0%0 Inge capaci for underwing sores, Whilst not dub. ing the heavy Gropower of sicher thereare tne tro question ther survrabtyin the ace of modern {Eensive weapons and the apparent ck of wis of the US decabn not w pretoce 4 treed! saute sisted aight and averse eather A-10 forth Bar - pean eeviaoes “Weaponcuryng capability ofthe more widely em- ployed attack aircraft ranges between the Su-7's ad S00 kg (512 b) and the Thunderbue 7238 ky {6,006 1,” Armament options normaly include 8 Snnon of Z0smm or 30m calibre andthe ul nse ‘of bombs, rocket-pods, cluster bombs and, occasional. Nanchang Q-5 iy, artorsutace mistles Inthe past two decades it27290L100),, ares Gale ‘mcthods have ben devscd.of considerably improving Weg <2 71505 theelfecvenss of aac sraftby meresing the it rota of ordnance, noubly by he cof aes In Sisesupporstastons, trope can illuminate target fora laser-guided bomb or the marked target seeker fied fo an avert: Findly aerate wih appropriate equipment can provide later designation fir tekind the Hoot Avera ner equipment aso able to prove accurate ge range so that weapons tay be dropped automaticly wih remarkable prec Son after fomputer has made aliwancs for even One tonte coe GG. Noshas Stet ‘Sinus mole sa as wind speed snd deci, Electronic capabilities Itisthe abilities of modern electronics and the devas tating narre of nclese weapon which Rave together permited the small srikeaieraftto wield destructive Power valing that ofthe beaty bomber. Even though Ereraft as basic asthe Sic? iter’ are nuclear Capable, restrke irra are today rogardedas being ‘hose withthe ably to find thie targets in all weathe ess, They ms ths have sophisticated navigation aide {Gimost variably including ground-mapping radar) died to the penetration ati Gaming equipment, hails dispensers, eiédefence AANE, ets cers: Sary during the transit of enemy-held sirspace to targets in the rear. The more advanced have two cw _Theatsat rast Mage has orasinay ban sd otck es seca g Mane tember on of whom es son tens oper Sagonequpacae TEESE Seah AJS7Viggen — sasstcrzunginn —criaanirrne it Wherecne the nuclear weapoo'sconsierableforee Somi9eonautazsei sss slim Maries) faueroearun at ond vas used to offic the navigational icuraces of od HUB ESIWISKSGm ——RimpBenettRetes Sredlasc oni, today’s strike aera are designed to achieve pickle barrel securacy. Primary, this toreduce the ‘Bel aaton tough ancy owe aetn. A weapons to goad effect or ia conflict becomes ucla, only thee weapons with the lowes possible Jie Infered vision equipment and high-eoluion Zadar are being added to modern arta further methods of ensuring rapid and precise target acquis othe Svat armoury sth uke Su-7 Fata. These ough od bid wiser ations, such es Ey, nose foratack es, Sour ves usted 1 Me Donnell Douglas AA Skyhowhi rare teckploerm which began ogre ‘SEPECAT Jaguar SSSR deren ALM Vigenel 5, Seah tf. The Vis eanbe ‘rand guess te evemnovet many comes