+ Introduction to Agriculture

Agriculture ; is the science that deals with growing of crops and rearing of livestock
IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE
Economic importance
- source of food
- source of draught power
- source of raw materials
- source of manure
Social importance
- they are used as food in ceremonies, e.g weddings
- they are used to pay bride
- for prestige( People with many cattle are respected by the community)
- Animals can be slaughtered during ritual ceremonies.
IMPACT OF HIV and AIDS ON AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY
Farmers and farm workers have become sick and unable to work effectively
•
.some cannot work at all leading to no or low productivity
• Farmers and farm workers often have to take care of relatives who are ill and they
cannot spend many hours working, leading to low productivity
• When farmers and or farmers’ workers die there are fewer skilled people to work
on farms.
• Farmers often have to spend a lot of money on medicines for themselves and their
relatives and they then have less money to spend on fertilizers and implements.
• The government has to spend money on helping those who are sick .This means
that there is ,less money to spend on training people
IMPACT OF AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES IN ON THE ENVIRONMENT
- I t may lead to overgrazing
- Lead to soil erosion
- Fertilizers and pesticides can lead to pollution of air and water
- Wild animals are forced from their habitat for agricultural activities
- May lead to depletion of some plant nutrients from the soil
- Diseases from domesticated animals may often kill wild animals.
- They may lead to drying up of water resources if too many animals are kept
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND OTHER SUBJECTS
Biology; is the study of living plants (botany) and animals (zoology), which is also done
agriculture
Geography; is all about learning about the soil, weather and climatic conditions of an
area, which is also important in agriculture
Chemistry; farmers apply this knowledge when dealing with pesticides, fertilizers
Mathematics; it deals with calculations and measurements which are also useful in
Agriculture
Physics; farmers use the knowledge on how to take care of farm machinery and repairing

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 in agriculture.
Home economics; helps farmers on how the food is used in animal bodies
Economics and accounting; can help farmers understand the market when they are
Ready to sell their products
BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURE
Soil Science, Agronomy, Animal Science, Forestry, Horticulture, Agricultural Engineering,
Agricultural Economics,
Animal husbandry - Livestock production and management.
Agronomy – Field crops production and soil management
Forestry – Growing and management, conservation and utilization of trees and other forests
products.
Soil Science- Classification, survey, conservation and management of soil
Horticulture - Production and management of fruit trees, vegetables, flowers and ornamentals.
Agricultural Economics - Farm management and economics of agricultural production
including accounting, financing and marketing.
Agricultural Engineering - Farm machinery, tools and farm structures water supply and
irrigation.
Career and training in Agriculture
 Teacher of Agriculture
 Ranch managers
 Agricultural Demonstrator
 Artificial inseminator
 Veterinary assistant
 Soil conservation officer
 Farm manager
 Agricultural research officer.
Institution offering Agriculture training.
Botswana College of Agriculture
Offers Certificates, Diploma and Degree programmes.
Minimum requirement- Form 5( BGCSE)
Ramatlabama Ranch management Centre
Offers training in Ranch management and Artificial insemination
Minimum entry require (JCE )
Colleges of Education
Produce teacher of agriculture
Minimum entry (BGCSE)
Rural Training Centre offer short course to farmers
Vocational Training Center and Brigades
Some offer training in Agriculture
Factors limiting food production and security in Botswana
Adverse climatic conditions
Endemic drought
Pests and diseases
Poor management and unskilled farmers
Low adoption of new technologies.
Unreliable rain fall
Cultural, norms and values.

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Ways of improving food production and security
 Increased training of expects in various agriculture and of farmers
 Encourage quick adoption of new technologies.
 Improve access by small farmers to credit and other production resources
 Prevention of soil erosion and range land degradation
 Better use of scarce water resources
 Use of better and recommended management practice in crop and and livestock
production.
 Increased use of fertilizers to improve soil fertility.
Government strategies to improve food production and security.
 Control national important diseases and pests.
 Provision of physical infrastructure and to facilitate agricultural development.
 Training of human resources development for betterment of agriculture
productivity.
 Establishment of livestock advisory centre(LAC)
 Support agricultural research to develop new and appropriate technologies.
 Provision of financial assistance through programmes such as CEEDA,
NAMPAADD,FAP, ALDEP, SLOCA
Food Situation in Botswana –
Botswana is a net exporter of beef and beef products. In regard to food stuff annual
domestic production is always less than national requirement demand. Supply from
domestic production is always low less than demand so Botswana is a net importer of
food stuff or food deficit nation.
Food self sufficiency – means that country produces adequate food to its self, so does not
import food.
Food security - refers to a situation whereby a country or household has access
to adequate food at all times regardless of source of supply.
Production Problems of Agriculture
 Poor and unsuitable soil
 Erratic and unreliable rainfall
 Farmers lack technical and managerial skill
 Tough competition from SA
 High cost of production
 Greater risks and uncertainty.
Marketing Problems of Agriculture
 Seasonal pattern of production
 Bulkiness’ of agricultural produce
 Inadequate storage facilities
 Perishability of agricultural products.
 Lack of trained personnel
 Lack of uniformity of agricultural produce
 Lack market information

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Types of Farming
Arable Farming- involves production of crops only
Pastoral farming – rearing of livestock only
Mixed farming – production of crops and livestock on the same farm.
Scale of farming

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Commercial farming – production of crops and livestock mainly for sale.
Characterized by
• High capital input
• High productivity
• Use of machinery
• Carry out on large scale.
Subsistence farming - production of crops and livestock mainly for family consumption
Characterized by
• low capital input
• Low productivity
• Use of hand tools
• Carry out on small scale

Tool- a device used to carry out mechanical functions usually held and operated using
hand as in produce little power.
Implement A device used to carry out mechanical function, usually larger and more
complex than a tool and require a great power.
Machine – Device which consists of various parts fixed parts and moving parts each with
definite functions together performing work using or applying power.
Example of farm tools, machine and Implemets
Tool Implements Machines
Spade, rake, digging Mould board plough Tractor, Combine harvester
fork, tape measure Disc Plough, Disc harrow Sorghum or Maize thrasher.
Slasher, Mattock, Pick, Cultivator, Ridger, Planter
Pick axe, Saw, Burdizzo, Safim planter, Zigzag
Hoe, Secateus, Watering harrow
can,

Safety use of Tools and Machines

• Carry tools with sharp tools with blades or spikes pointing down and never run
when you carry these tools
• Make sure you have enough room to work in when you use equipment
• Never throw or drag tools and implements, unless this is the way equipment is
supposed to be used.
• Store equipment with care.
• Never carry a passenger on a tractor- there is only on e seat for an operator.
• Separate tools according to sizes

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Care and storage of farm tools, implements and machines.
• Use equipment for the purpose for which it was made for so that it will last
longer.
• Clean equipment after it has been used and before it is put away
• Store equipment away from direct sunlight and from rain
• Oil or grease the moving parts of the equipment to prevent rust
• Check engine oil levels and type pressure on tractors and other machines before
using them.
• Sharpen tools such as shears and axes regularly.
• Before using equipment inspect bolts, nuts and tighten any that are loose
Farm Mechanization – The use of machinery to perform farm operations

Advantages of Farm Mechanization

• Work is done faster and easy
• Mechanization is labour saving
• Farm can farm on large scale and have high yield
• The use of machine minimizes pests and diseases
Disadvantages of farm mechanization
• Machinery are expensive to buy and maintain
• Mechanization create unemployment
• The use of heavy machines destroy soil structure
• Farmers require certain skills to operate , repair and maintain the machines
Problems caused by tools implements and machines on the environment
• The constant use of implements such as plough and harrows can loosen the soil
too much and level and can cause soil erosion.
• The eroded soil is washed into rivers, streams or dams and makes these water
sources sit up.
• The exhaust fumes from machines pollute the environment.
• The regular movement of tractors and animals on the soil makes it compact.
• Solutions to the problems
• Farmers should reduce the number of times the soil is cultivated so that particles
are kept together
• They avoid ploughing on the steep and sloped areas
• Using machines that do not produce a lot of carbon monoxide
• Farmers should not plough when the soil is too dry or too wet as the wind
• Service the machines regularly

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Soil Fertility
- refers to the ability of soil to promote plant growth
- ability of the soil to supply plant with enough nutrients
Fertilizer – a substance added to soil to improve its fertility.
Importance of Fertilizers to the soil
They add nutrients to the soil
Some fertilizers can correct pH of the soil
Fertilizers from plants and animals improve the structure of soil.
Organic fertilizers provide food for soil microbes.
Types of fertilizers
Organic Fertilizers
Inorganic fertilizers
Organic fertilizers – come from plants and animal products
Example of Organic fertilizers
• Farm yard manure
• Compost
• Wood ash
• Green manure
Organic Fertilizers
Advantages Disadvantages
 cheap and usually available locally  Bulky and difficult to store
 Improve soil structure  A large quantity is of fertilizers is
 Supply soil organisms with water needed because of low concentration
 No special skills are required to apply  Take a long time to releasing nutrients
 Do not pollute or harm environment so  Some smell unpleasant when wet
the are environmental friendly.  Some contain weed seeds.
 Some fertilizers may attract worms and
other insects that can attack crops.

Inorganic Fertilizers – are made from chemicals.

Examples of Inorganic Fertilizers
- Ammonium nitrate - Limestone ammonium nitrate - 2:3:2 (22)
- Super phosphate - Sulfate of potash
- Urea - Potassium chloride
Inorganic Fertilizers
Advantages Disadvantages
 Easy to store because they take less  Expensive to buy
space  Can pollute the environment
 Needed in small quantity.  Do not provide soil organisms with
 Do not harbour or attract insects food
 Do not improve soil structure
 Special skill is needed to apply them.

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Determine the application rate of the fertilizers
If Super phosphate application rate 200 kg per hectare, how much super phosphate
needed for 5 ha.
5 x 200 kg = 1 000 kg.
How much Super phosphate is needed for 1m x 5m seedbed? Use an application rate of
200kg / ha. N B: 1 ha = 10 000m2

Step 1 - 1m x 5m = 5 m2
Step 2 1 ha : 200 kg Substitute 1 ha by 10 000m2
Step 3 10 000m : 200 kg Multiple 5 by 200 kg and divide 10 000
2

5m2 : X

5 x 200 kg = 1 000 kg = 0.1 kg

10 000 10 000
When to apply fertilizers
Basal Dressing – application of fertilizer before planting
Top dressing - application of fertilizers to crops that are already growing.
Methods of fertilizer application
Broad casting – Scattering fertilizers over the field it ca be done by hand or machine
Banding - application of fertilizer in a strip next to plants
Side dressing – Shallow hole are made next to plants.
Drilling - the seeds and fertilizers are placed in the together in the shallow furrow
Fertigation – Fertilizers is mixed with water then the mixture is applied to water
- application of fertilizers through irrigation water.
Foliar Spraying – Fertilizers is dissolved in water then spray through the leaves rather
than in the soil.
Plants Nutrients/ Elements
Major Elements - are those that are needed by plants in small quantities
Example of major Elements
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulfur
Minor Elements – are those elements that are needed by plants in small quantities,
Example of Minor Elements
Zinc, Iron, Manganese, Cobalt, chlorine
Major Elements found in fertilizers
Nitrogen
Potassium
Phosphorus

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 Source of major Elements found in fertilizers
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
 Organic Matter  Organic matter  Rocks
 Inorganic fertilizers  Inorganic fertilizers  Inorganic fertilizers(
 Nitrogen fixation from  Rocks Murate of potash)
legume crops
 Lightning Strikes

Functions major Elements

Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
 Needed by plants in  Helps in root  Helps plants to produce
chlorophyll formation development better seeds and fruits
 Nitrogen is necessary  Helps plant to produce  Needed in production of
for making protein flowers chlorophyll.
 Nitrogen in absorption  Improve plant resistance  Helps plant to produce
of other major elements to disease. and store carbohydrates.
Symptom Deficiency of
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
 Stunted growth  Leaves and stem become  Leaves edges become
 Leaves turn yellow reddish, purple or brown yellowish
 Plants mature early  Roots develop poorly  Flowers, fruit and seeds
 Plants show stunted develop poorly
growth  Low resistance to disease
 Plants develop few  Plant lodge easily( fall
flowers over)
 Fruits and seeds take
long to ripen
Symptoms of excess ( too much) supply of
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
Plants develop long large Too early ripening of fruits Slow seed germination
and very dark leaves and seeds Seeds ripen slowly
Plant leaves become weak Reduce crop yield Erratic growth
and soft. sometimes May iduce calcium
Easily attacked by diseases

Loss of Nitrogen, Phosphorus an Potassium for soil.

Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
Leaching Leaching Leaching
Soil erosion Soil erosion Soil erosion
Removal of crop residue Removal of crop residue Removal of crop residue
Continuous cropping Continuous cropping Continuous cropping
Bush burning
Denitrification

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Ways of improving soil fertility
• Practicing crop rotation
• Application of fertilizers
• Preventing soil erosion
• Application of mulch
• Controlling weeds
• Ploughing in of crop residues
• Control soil pH
The negative Effects of Fertilisers on the environment
• Contamination of drinking water
• If fertilizers are not properly mixed they can be carried away by surface water
into dams and rivers and contaminate source of drinking water
• Affecting Aquatic Species
• Nutrients such as nitrates and phosphate can wash into lakes, rivers and dams.
Soil pH
Is the measure of acidity and alkalinity of the soil

The pH scale
Acidity Alkalinity

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly

Neutral
The pH scale is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of the soil.
The scale ranges from 1 – 14
7 is the neutral point.
Acidic soil has a pH less than 7
1- 3 is strong acidity, 4 – 6 is slightly acidic
Alkaline soil has a pH greater than 7
8 – 10 is slightly alkaline , 12 to 14 is strong alkaline
The effects of soil pH on plant growth
1. A low soil pH ( acidic condition) reduce activities of soil microbes and this may results
in low levels of nitrates in the soil.
2. A very low soil pH may increase the amount of aluminum in the soil solution where
they become poisonous to plants.
3. In nature plants grow well in the soil with pH between 6.5 and 7.5 .
4 . When soil pH is more than 8 saline soil are formed. Those are highly alkaline soil
and may not be good for growing crops.

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Crops and their Soil pH range
Groups Crop Soil pH range
Filed Crops Maize 5.7 – 7.5
Millet 5.0 – 6.5
Sorghum 5.5 – 7.5
Ground nuts 5.5 – 6.5
Beans 6.0 – 7.0
Vegetables Spinach 6.0 – 6.8
Rape 5.5 – 7.0
Tomatoes 5.5 – 6.0
Green pepper 5.5 – 7.0
Onions 5.0 – 6.5
Fruits Banana 5.0 – 8.0
Citrus 5.5 – 7.0

Activities that alter or Change soil pH

1. Addition of lime
Lime is added to the soil to raise its pH.
2. Watering
Dry soil are more alkaline, adding water to the soil reduces its alkalinity.
3. Addition of Organic matter
Organic matter makes soil pH to be more acidic
4. Adding Sulphur to the soil
This lower soil ph. Sulphur is used reduce alkalinity of the soil.
5. Application of fertilizers
Fertilizers such as limestone Ammonium Nitrate(LAN) contain lime. Lime raises soil pH

Ways of controlling or Regulating Soil pH

• Soil acidity can be reduced by adding lime such as calcium carbonate, dolomite,
wood ash and fertilizers such as LAN
• Adding organic matter to the soil can lower its pH. This because the rooting of
plats materials usually creates aid conditions in the soil.
Soil alkalinity can be reduced by adding Sulphur or potassium sulphate or Gypsums to
bring the pH to the correct level suitable

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Crop Production
Systems of Crop Production
Monoculture
Mixed cropping
Inter cropping
Crop rotation
Continous cropping
Continuous cropping – is the growing of crops in a field year in year out without
allowing the field a rest.
Advantages
• Crop produce is available all year round.
• Soil is under a continuous crop cover
• Promotes efficient use of labour as it kept occupied all time.
• Soils of high potential are used to the maximum.
Disadvantages.
• Requires availability of adequate moisture all year round.
• Requires soil of high fertility.
• Can lead to gradual decline of soil fertility and deterioration of soil.
• Requires irrigation during dry season so it is expensive.
Monoculture/ Monocropping – Practice of growing one crop to maturity on a
piece of land.
Advantages
• Promotes development of specialized skill
• Facilitates mechanization of farm operations.
• Suitable for large scale faring
• Farm operations are easy to carry out.
Disadvantages
• Leads to inadequate utilization of land resources
• Promote build up of pests and diseases.
• High risk of complete crop failure
• Calls for increased use of fertilizers and pesticides.
Mixed cropping- Means growing two or more crops in a field at the same time.
Advantages
• Affords better soil protection from soil erosion
• High crop yield peer unit area
• Efficient use of water, sunlight and soil resources.
• Spread of pests and diseases are minimized.
• Reduce risk of complete crop failure.
•
Disadvantages
• Difficult to mechanize farm operations.
• Specialization is limited as several crops are involved.
• Farm operations are not easy to carry out.

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Inter cropping – it is a form of mixed farming where short term annuals are planted
between long term annuals or biennials and harvested before the main
Advantages
- Water and nutrients are used efficiently
- If legumes are included they will add nitrogen to the soil
- Variety of food is obtained
- Reduced risk of spread of pests and dieases
Disadvantages
- More labour needed to manage many crops
- More time taken to grow different crops
- Farmers should have skils for growing all the crops
- Crops compete for sunlight, water,nutrients and space
Crop rotation – the growing of different crops in a given sequence on the same piece of
land in order to make use of the best soil resources.
Principles of crop rotation.
• Alternate deep rooted with shallow rooted crops.
• Alternate easy to weed crops with those that are not.
• Crop with similar pests and diseases must not succeed each other in a rotation.
• Alternate heavy givers with heavy feeders.
• Include a legume crop in a rotation, to improve fertility and structure.
• If possible, include a fallow period to allow the land to regenerate/ recover.
Year PLOT or FIELD
A B C D
1 Sorghum Cowpeas Sunflower Fallow
2 Cowpeas Sunflower Fallow Sorghum
3 Sunflower Fallow Sorghum Cowpeas
4 Fallow Sorghum Cowpeas Sunflower

Advantages of crop rotation.

• Results in better use of soil resources.
• Maintain or eve improves soil fertility.
• Parasitic weeds such as striga(witch weed) are easily controlled.
• Increase nitrogen content if a legume crop is included.
• Pests and diseases are easily controlled as it helps to break their life cycle.
• Controls soil erosion
• Improves soil structure and soil moisture content

Disadvantages of crop rotation.

• Requires skill and knowledge to plan a good crop rotation.
• Fallow period is a waste of land where is scarce.
• Do not apply in perennials crops.

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Factors to consider in site selection
• Type of soil, choose a site where the soil is fertile, for good growth of plant
• Topography – a flat land is prefered than steep slopping land to control soil
erosion
• Nearness to permanent source of water, for easy watering of plants
• Nearness to market, for easy accessibility by the consumers
• Distance between the garden and home, for easy management by the farmer
• Presence of wind breaks to protect crops from strong winds
Land clearing/ stumping - This involves removal of bushes, trees stumps crop residues
and any undesirable object from site
It is done to :
• Facilitate tillage operations
• Avoid competition between crops, and trees for nutrients
• Control pest and diseases
• Stumps can damage machines and implements used for tillage operations
• TILLAGE. It involves digging and cultivating the soil with tools or implements
resulting in a suitable seedbed for growing crops
• Primary Tillage; is the initial breaking down of the land either after clearing or
following the previous crop
• Secondary tillage; is the working of the soil after ploughing aimed at seedbed
refinement before planting( breaking of the hard clods)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY TILLAGE AND SECONDARY
TILLAGE
PRIMARY TILLAGE SECONDARY TILLAGE
- This cannot be done when the - It can also be done when crops
crops are in the fields are in the field
- It is the first cultivation done to - It is done to break hard clods,
the soil when soil has already been
- It does not involve leveling of loosened
soil - It involves leveling of the soil

Primary tillage implements. Mould board, disc plough, chisel plough, subsoilers,
subrippers
SECONDARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS; harrow, surface roller, rotavator ,ridger,
cultivator
Ploughing – digging and harrowing the soil before planting

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REASONS FOR PLOUGHING
• Bury crop residues
• Control weeds by burying them underground
• Loosen the soil, thus improving aeration, water penetration and easy rooting of
seedlings
• To control pests and diseases
• To burry seeds
• To prepare fine tilth
Reasons for leveling after ploughing
• To allow for equal distribution of water on the field
• To break down clods or lumps so that the soil becomes smooth and fine.
• To remove weeds, stone and any waste plant material not good for plant are
removed during leveling.
Reasons for Basal dressing, (Applying fertilizers before planting)
• To ensure that during ploughing, fertilizers is turned under the soil.
• To replace nutrients lacking in the soil.
• To improve soil fertility and structure.
Implements used for applying fertilizers
• Planters- Adds fertilizers to the soil at the time of planting
• Fertilizers spreader – Used to spread fertilizers in a liquid
• Trailers – used when spreading kraal manure or compost to a crop field
• Sprinklers – Used to spray liquid or dissolve fertilizers on the leaves.
• Sprayer- applying fertilizers on top of leaves of plants
Techniques/methods of Planting
Difference between direct and indirect planting
DIRECT PLANTING INDIRECT PLANTING
- is sowing of seeds in a plot or field - This involves sowing seeds in a
where the plants will grow until nursery and later transplant them to
they are harvested. permanent seedbed.
-

Direct Planting- Advantages of Direct planting

- Time saving because planting is done once until the crops are harvested.
- Less money is spend on labour since less work is done
- Seeds can be planted quickly over a larger area than if we use indirect
Disadvantages of direct planting
- Many seeds has to be planted since some may die during germination.
- Care has to be given to all seedlings even those of poor quality.
- Some seedlings may be overcrowded unless they thinned to give them space.
Indirect Planting – Advantages of indirect planting
- Only healthy and strong seedlings are transplanted
- Fewer seeds are used
- Young seedlings are protected from bad weather conditions
- Better management of seedlings
- Seedlings that die after planting can be replaced

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DISADVANTAGES OF INDIRECT PLANTING
- Transplanting is time consuming
- More labour is needed
- Transplanting disturb plant growth
- Transplanted seedlings take time to adjust to the new environment
- Some seedlings may die during transplanting
- Some seedlings may be wasted
Techniques/methods of Planting
Difference between Row planting and broadcasting
Row planting is sowing of seeds in a row while broadcasting is sowing seeds by
scattering them over the field
Advantages
• Only few seeds are used.
• Easy to use machines
• Easy to establish correct plant population
High crop yield
Disadvantages
• Required skill and knowledge
• It is expensive as it requires special implement to carryout.
• Consumes time and labour
• Soil between rows are exposed to agents of soil erosion
Broad casting – scattering over the field to
Advantages
• It is easy quick and cheaper
• Does not require skill
• Suitable for tinny seeds
Disadvantages
• Difficult to establish correct plant population
• Uses high rate of seeds
• Results in localized over spacing or overcrowding.
Depth of planting seeds- how deep the seed is placed in the soil
Factors influencing depth of planting
Seed size - A seed is planted at a depth 3-5 time s its diameter, so the larger the seed the
deeper the planting depth
Soil type- Seed are planted deeper in light soil than in heavy soil
Moisture content – seed are sown deeper in dry soil in order to place them in contact
with moisture.
Emergence Habit – A seed that shows hypogeal emergence should be planted deeper
that the on e which shows epigeal
Crops and their depth
Crop depth
- Wheat - 1.5-2.5 cm
- Barley - 1.5- 2.5 cm
- Maize - 2.5-5 cm
- Groundnuts - 2.5-5 cm
- Sorghum - 2-3 cm

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 - Millet - 2cm
- Beans - 3cm
- Cabbage - 1cm
- carrots - 1cm

Spacing- means the distance between rows and crops in a row

Inter row spacing – space between rows
Intra row spacing – space between plants in a row
Factors influencing Spacing of crops
Use machinery – The space between rows should facilitate use of machinery
Soil fertility – The high the soil fertility, the closer the spacing and vice visa
Growth habit - Plants with large canopy or leaves or wider spread of roots needs more
spacing than those with small lateral spread.
Purpose which the crop is grown - thus if maize is intended for grain is planted at a
wide spacing than maize intended for silage.
Moisture availability- Closer spacing is encouraged in areas with high rain fal than
those than with less rain fall.
Crop Space between rows Space between plants in a
row
- Sorghum 60 cm 15-20 cm
- maize 90- 100 cm 20-30 cm
- millet 60 cm 15 cm
- beans 50-60cm 20 cm
- groundnuts 100-120 30 cm
- cabbage 45 cm 45 cm
- carrots 30 cm 2 cm

Mulching- Means covering the soil surface with a layer of material to conserve soil
moisture.
Material used as mulch
Dry grass, leaves, saw dust, wood shavings, and compost kraal manure
Reasons for Mulching
• Reduce evaporation
• Promote seedling germination since it modifies soil temperature.
• Increase water penetration
• Minimizes runoff and soil erosion
• Prevents compacting and capping of soil surface
• Insulates and regulates soil temperature
• Smothers weed as and decomposition , organic mulch , humus and nutrients
When should the mulch be removed .after planting
- Remove mulch as soon as seedling emergence
- If the termites start eating it.
WATERING-APPLICATION OF WATER TO PLANTS IN THE FIELD
Reasons
- For plants to survive
- For transpiration

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 - Dissolve nutrients in the soil
- To maintain plant shape
- To transport nutrients all over the plant
- For photosynthesis
Weeds- a weed is a plant growing where is not wanted or in a wrong place
Weeding is the removal of unwanted plant in the field or plot.
Reasons for weeding
- weeds compete with crops for space , light water and nutrients
- habour crop pests and help spread disease
- contaminate crop produce and lower its quality.
- May produce phytotoxic substances
- Lower productivity of pasture
- Reduce crop yield.
Common weeds found in Botswana
- Large thorn apple/ mokhure
- Coach grass/motlhwa
- Black jack/ moonyana
- Mexican poppy /lopero
- Pigweed /thepe
Parasitic weed a weed that depend on other plants for its survival, e.g.witchweed is a
parasitic weed of maize and sorghum
WAYS OF CONTROLLING WEEDS
Physical control-hand pulling and using hoes to remove weeds
Chemical control-use of chemicals called herbicides to control weeds
Cultural control- practice crop rotation, mulching and early planting
Biological control-use of living things to control weeds
Thinning – is the removal of extra seedlings to allow enough space for the remaining
seedlings.
Advantages of thinning
- Provide sufficient growing space for seedlings
- Minimise competition between plants for water, air, nutrient and light.
- Prevents occurrence of damping off disease
- Increase crop yield as plants grow vigorously and healthy.
Disadvantages of thinning
- Require skill and good timing to carry it out well
- Waste seeds unless put to good use , and is time consuming and laborious.
Care during thinning
- Thin when the plants are still young before their roots grow into each other.
- Advisable to do it in stages rather than in one operation
- Thin when the soil is moist but not too wet.
- Remove weak plants care fully without disturbing the remaining ones.
- Earth up rows to support the remaining seedlings.
Transplanting- is the transfer of seedling from a nursery to the permanent site.
When to transplant
- Transplant vegetable seedlings when they are about 10 cm high and tree seedlings
when they are 30cm height.

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 - A cool, cloudy and wet day is best for transplanting.
- The evening is also the best time for transplanting.
Tools used, hand trowel
How to transplant.
- Water seedling at least 12 hrs before transplanting.
- Make small holes at correct spacing in the main plot.
- Lift up the seedling with as much soil as possible.
- Place the seedling in a pre-prepared hole at the same depth as they were in the
seedbed.
- Press the soil around the seedling to remove air pockets.
- Water soon after transplanting.
- Shade the seedling using leaf twigs
Supporting
- Trellising – Means supporting plants with a frame work of parallel and /or crossed
Wire fixed on vertical posts
- Staking – supporting plant with a stick placed vertically next to the plant
Advantages of supporting
- Ensure exposure of plant leaves to adequate sunlight.
- Lengthens the harvesting period of certain crops
- Facilitates working between rows of certain crops during spraying cultivating
- Aids the free flow of air which dries plants quickly
- Facilitate harvesting and prevents lodging
- Promote better quality produce as pods fruits and leaves do not hang.
Disadvantages
- Time and labour consuming
- Expensive to carry out
- Requires skill and knowledge.
PRUNNING- it is the cutting off unwanted parts of plants, so that we can control its
growth
Advantages
It makes harvesting easy
- It removes the diseased parts of the plant
- It prevents the plant from bearing too many fruits
- It gives the plant the shape that want
- It helps remove the unwanted parts of the plant
Disadvantages
It requires a lot of labour
- It requires skills
- It can cause injury to plants
- It can also cause injury to the prunning person

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Field Crops - Crops grown in large fields and rain fed
Examples of field crops grown in Botswana
Maize, Sorghum, Millet, Beans, Watermelon, Jugo beans, ground nuts, pumpkins, Melon,
Sunflower, Cotton, Potatoes, Tea, Coffee
Importance of Field crops and their products.
 Source of raw materials
 Create employment
 Generate income to the owner
 Source of income
 Source of raw materials.
 Use as livestock feeds
Classification of field crops
Class Example of field Crop
Cereal Maize, Sorghum, Millet
Legume Jugo beans, ground nuts, Soya beans
Roots Sweet potatoes, irish potatoes
Oil Ground nuts, Sunflower
Fruits Watermelon, Pumpkins, butternuts,
Fodder Lucerne
Condiments and Spices Chillies, Garlic, Ginger
Fibre Cotton, sisal, jute and hemp
Plantation Cassava

Varieties of field crops

Crops Varieties /cultivars
Maize Kgalagadi Early Pearl, Potchefstroom Pearl,PNR473,R201,SR42.
Sorghum Marupantsi,65D,Segaolane,8D,Mmabaitse,BSH1,Town,Phofu,Mahube.
Cowpeas Blackeye,Tswana,Rhenoster,ER7
Groundnuts Sellie,S46,GC8-13,ICGS-31
Millet Serere,Bontle,Legakwe
Sunflower Russian No.4

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Soil and climatic conditions needed for growth of field crops
Field crop Soil conditions needed Climatic conditions needed
Maize -Different types of soil -Can grow well under hot
-Fertile, deep, well aerated sunny weather conditions
and well drained loam soil. -rainfall 400mm-900mm
-slightly acid to neutral pH -dry weather needed before
harvesting the crop.
Sorghum -Wide range of soils -Can survive under dry
-Sandy loam soil conditions
-well drained and fertile soil -Rainfall of at least 300mm
-soil pH 5.5-8.5 -can be damaged by frost
Millet -Light sandy loam soil -grow well under hot
-deep well drained and temperatures
aerated -rainfall of at least 300mm
-Soil pH 5.0-7.0 -needs more water during
flowering stage
Sunflower -Different types of soils -needs about 500mm of
-well drained sandy loam rainfall
-soil pH 6.5-8.5 -grows well under warm
temperatures
Groundnut -Sandy to sandy loam soils -grows well in warm to hot
-soil pH 5.8-6.2 temperatures
-deep, well drained and -needs rainfall of 500mm
aerated soil throughout the season.
Cowpeas -Well drained sandy loam -grows well in warm dry
and clay loam soils areas
-soil pH 5.5-7.5 -rainfall of at least 300mm.
Type of manure or fertilizer required for normal growth of field crops.
Most crops will benefit from addition of compost and kraal manure as they also improve
soil structure. Fertilisers like urea, Limestone Ammonium Nitrate, Superphosphate and
2:3:2(22) .There is no need to add nitrogen fertilizers to the soil when growing legume
crops because they fix their own nitrogen in the soil.`
Calculating and measuring the amount of fertilizer to apply to a crop field.
A recommendation can be made on the rate of fertiliser to add to a crop field.
For example: when growing cowpeas ,superphosphate fertiliser is added at a rate of 200-
300kg per hectare. If you have 10 hectare field you multiply 200 and 300 by 10.
Precautions when applying fertilizer in crop fields.
-Avoid applying fertilizer directly onto the plants since they may burn the plants.
-Do not broadcast fertilizer on windy days as the fertilizer may be blown away.
-Use the correct method to apply the fertilizer.
-Do not eat or drink when handling the fertilizer
-Do not add too much fertiliser as this can kill the plants.
Reasons for treating seeds before planting.
-To kill any disease causing germs that might be in the seeds.
-To protect seeds from attack by insects or any pests
-To improve germination of seeds.

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-To enable seedlings to grow healthy.
Methods of treating seeds.(DEMONSTRATE)
a)Traditional method-using wood or cow dung ash to treat the seeds.
b)Modern method-using chemicals to treat and protect seeds against any insects that can
damage them.
Precautions to be taken when handling treated seeds.
-Read the instructions
-Wear protective clothing such as gloves and masks.
-Keep treated seeds out of reach of children.
-Do not eat or drink while handling treated seeds.
Correct management when raising crops
Watering, Thinning, Soil cultivation, Weeding, Applying fertilisers, Controlling pests and
diseases.
Pests affecting field crops and their control.
Pests Control methods
Maize/sorghum stalkborer Use endosulfan
Destroy crop residues
Practice crop rotation
Armoured cricket Use carbaryl
Build trenches around field to trap them
Remove weeds and bushes around field
Yellow sorghum aphids Use endosulfan
Plant resistant varieties
African bollworm Practice crop rotation
Use carbaryl and endosulfan
Quelea birds Scare the away
Harvesting sorghum and millet earlier
Locusts Spray with insecticides
Spray the breeding areas
Diseases affecting field crops and how they are controlled.
Diseases Control methods
Maize rust Destroy crop remains
Practice crop rotation
Leaf spot Use Dithane M45
Planting earlier
Rotating crops
Sorghum smuts Treating seeds
Rotating crops
Keeping crop field free of weeds
Maize streak virus Use of carbofuran
Control leaf hopper which spreads it
Powdery mildew Plant resistant crop varieties
Avoid over-head watering
Bacterial blight Practice crop rotation
Use clean treated seeds

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Precautions when using chemicals or pesticides
-Read all the instructions
-Follow the instructions
-Do not spray during windy days
-Never eat,drink or smoke when using chemicals
-Keep out of reach of children
-Always keep chemicals in their original containers
Effects of chemicals or pesticides on the environment
-They pollute the soil,water in rivers,wells and dams
-They kill useful animals like bees,fish,birds and earthworms
-They can damage or kill crops and other plants
-Some evaporate into the atmosphere and pollute the air
Pest control methods not harmful to the environment
Biological control-Use insects that eat crop pests e. g use of cat for rodents.
Cultural control-crop rotation, cultivation, weeding.
Mechanical control-beating by sticks, scare away birds, use of traps ,use of trenches.
Quarantine method-e .g chillies used to control elephants.
Correct way of using a sprayer
-Read the instructions on how the sprayer is used.
-Get your sprayer ready
-Wear protective clothing and mix chemical as specified
-Put the chemical in the sprayer
-Spray the crops identified
-Clean the sprayer
-Wash your hands thoroughly.
Chemicals used to control pests and diseases of crops
Pest control chemicals
-Cutworm bait
-Doom
-Malathion
-Dimethoate
-Carbaryl
-Endosulfan
Disease control chemicals
-Virikop
-Bravo 720
-Dithane WG
-Carbofuran
Harvesting and marketing of field crops
Harvesting-different crops are harvested and marketed differently. Harvesting can be
done using hand tools ,using machines, hand picking and uprooting.
Marketing-this involves promoting and selling a product. Crops can be sold to
individuals, shops, milling companies, breweries, Botswana Agricultural Marketing
Board.

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Determining the market prices for legume and cereal crops
The following factors influence the price.
-The input costs
-Quality of products
-The demand for the crop
-The form in which crops are marketed.
Storage pests affecting field crops
Pests Damage caused Control
Rats and mice They eat the grains, urinate Use of rat
on the seeds and leave their Chemical method
feaces on the grains. Use of rodent proof stores
Weevil They eat the inside of grains Chemical method
and lower product quality Use of wood ash
by making holes.
Moth Bore holes on grains Chemical treatment

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Animal Nutrition
The study of food the way it is processed and used in the animal body.
Reasons for feeding animals.
- For maintenance purpose
- Production of products such as milk, meat, eggs, wool
- Protection against diseases
- Reproduction of young ones
- For energy to do work
- For normal growth
Importance of different feed substances in animal nutrition.
Water
• Forms and maintains shapes of body cells
• Needed for digestion
• Assists in the body temperature regulation
• A reactant in many biochemical reactions.
• Aid in excretion of waste products;
• Forms 60 -70% of the animal body
• Form part of all animal fluids and secretions
Carbohydrates
• Source of energy
• Excess stored as fats for later use
• Form part of animal products such as lactose.
Lipids( fats and oils)
• Serves as energy reserve in the body.
• Source of energy
• Form part of animal products
• Insulate animal body against cold
• Protect some parts of body against shock e.g kidney
Proteins
• Essential for growth and development
• Needed for replacement and repair worn out tissues and cells
• Form part of animal product
• Excess supply is used as to supply energy
Minerals
• Needed for strong bones and skeleton e.g phosphorus
• Essential for blood formation e.g iron
• To prevent nutritional diseases.

Vitamins
• For blood clotting e.g vit K
• For strong bones and teeth e.g vit D
• Improves eye sight e.g vit A
• Protects against diseases

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 Ration
The daily measured amount of feed given to an animal (24 hrs).
Types of Ration
1) Balanced ration.
2) Maintenance ration
3) Production ration.
1) Balanced Ration
- Supplies nutrients needed for maintenance and production in the correct amount and
proportion.
2) Maintenance Ration
- A balanced ration that contains enough nutrients to keep an animal alive and in good
health without gain or loss of weight.
3) Production Ration
- A balanced ration given in addition to maintenance ration to provide nutrients for
production. E.g. A lactating cow can be given a dairy meal at the time of milking.
Roughages – coarse feed that are rich in fibre but low in energy and protein.
Types of roughage
Dry and Succulent roughages
Succulent roughages – They contain very low moisture content for example, hay, dry
grass, dry crop residues and straw.
Dry roughages – They contain high moisture content e.g. green fodder, green grass,
silage, root crops
Concentrates – Feeds that are high in energy and proteins in their dry matter but low in
fibre.
Types of concentrates
Energy concentrates – They are rich in digestible carbohydrates, while not very rich in
proteins e.g. molasses, maize and sorghum meal, rice bran
Protein concentrates – They supply high content of protein in their dry matter. – oil
cakes, fish meal, cowpea meal, skim milk.
Difference between Concentrates and roughages (nutritional value)

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ROUGHAGES CONCENTRATES
 Rich in crude fibre  Low in crude fibre
 Difficult to digest  Easily digestible
 Feeding value quite variable  Feeding value fairly constant
 Low in total digestible nutrients  High in total digestable nutrients
 Supply bulk which improves the  Provide little or no bulk
working of the system.
 Needed in large quantities as their  Needed in small quantities since their
nutrient content mass is low. nutrients content per unit is hig
 The main feed for ruminants.  The main feed type for non- ruminants
 Used as maintenance and production  Used as supplements for ruminants
rations
Supplementary Feeding – It is the practice of giving extra feeds to animals to correct
certain deficiencies in their normal diet.
The extra feeds given are called supplementary feeds
Significance of supplementary feeding
To prevent animal from developing nutritional diseases
Example of feeds
o Bone meal and salts
o Calcium hydrogen phosphate and salt
o Mineral licks, drought pellets, rumevite blocks, Molasses
Nutritional Diseases - They are diseases that occur in animals because of lack or
deficiency of certain nutrients in their diet.
Examples of Nutritional Diseases
o Aphosphorosis –lack of phosphorus
o Rickets-lack of phosphorus and calcium, also lack of vit D.
o Bloat-too much gas filling up the stomach due to eating a lot of fresh green plants.
o Milk fever-lack of calcium in the bloodstream.
o Anaemia-lack of iron

Aphosphorosis develop when animals eat food deficient in phosphorus.

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Aphosphorosis
Animals Affected
-Cattle
-Goats
- Sheep
Cause
- When the soil and grass is very low in phosphorus. Then the animal eats grass( food)
lacking phosphorus.
Symptoms- Animals eat old bones and wires.
 Swollen joints and stiff joints.
 Difficulty in walking because of swollen joints and stiff joints.
 Loss of appetite.
 Animals become thin.
 Young animals do not grow well.

Control and Prevention- Feed animals with Dicalcium phosphate and salt at a ratio of
1:1. This should be fed ad-lib(without limitation).
- Provide animals with minerals supplements regularly

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BEE KEEPING
Importance of beekeeping
-It is a source of employment
-It is a source of income
-Bees pollinate flowers
-It needs very little capital
-Bees produce wax (called beeswax)
-Bees produce honey

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS LABELLED

The body of a bee is divided into three parts.
a)Head
Antennae- for smelling, hearing and feeling.
Two compound eyes and three simple eyes-allows the bee to see very well and in all
directions at the same time.
Mouthparts (mandible)-the honey bee has jaws for chewing the wax for building the
combs. It has a long tongue which is called a proboscis. The proboscis is used to suck up
nectar from the flowers.
b)Thorax
Wings-used for flying and fanning the hive
Legs-used for movement(walking)
-front legs-guide the proboscis when piercing the flower to suck nectar
-hind legs-since they are hairy, they trap pollen and collect it to the hive.
They also help in flying and landing
c)Abdomen
Sting- for stinging enemies during defence of the colony.
Spiracles -for exchange of gases during respiration.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF A BEE

Worker bee collects

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30
FRUIT TREE PRODUCTION
NAME FRUIT TREES IN BOTSWANA

INDEGENIOUS fruit trees: These are fruit trees that originate in Botswana. They
grow naturally in Botswana. Examples include; moretlwa(brandy bush) ,
mogorogorwane(monkey orange), mmilo(widmedlar), mmupudu ( red
milkwood),,mowana(baobab)

EXOTIC fruit trees; they originate from other countries other than Botswana and
have been imported to Botswana. Examples include; bananas, oranges, mango,
grapes,apples,pawpaws
Materials Needed for construction of fruit tree Nursery
Gum poles, shade net, cement, sand, gravel, heavy wire, nails, staples pegs,
measuring tape
Equipments Needed for construction of fruit tree Nursery
Wheel barrow, hammer, hole digger, step rudder, pliers, shovel
Importance of net shading
- protects seedling from high temperature and direct sun light
- reduce evapo- transpiration.
- Protect seedling from direct beating action of rain drops.
- Protect seedlings from bird damage.
Methods of propagation.
- Sexual- raising fruit tree using seeds
- Asexual- raising seedling using vegetative parts. ( cuttings, grafting, budding ,
layering, )
Example of frit tree which can raised using asexual propagation
Propagation media in a nursery.
- Loam soil, sandy soil, peat moss, composted kraal manure, saw dust, perlite,
horticultural vermiculite.
Characteristics of good planting media.
- Firm and dense enough to hold seeds and cuttings
- Maintains constant moisture
- Good water retention
- Free from weeds and nematodes.
- Capable of being pasteurized.
Type of fertilizers used in a nursery
- Compound fertilizers such as 2:3:2(22) are usually used.
- Kraal manure can also be used.
Preparation for planting fruit tree seeds
- Have seeds ready
- If needed treat seeds to improve germination
- Sieve and add a compound fertilizers
- If needed pasteurize the medium using steam or chemical.
- Fill up nursery pots with te propagating medium and add water leave it for a day
to settle before planting.

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Cuttings – It is a vegetative portion of a plant with one or more buds.
Preparation of cuttings-
Hard wood cuttings are prepared from late autumn to early spring and planted in summer
-

Take cuttings from a riped wood wood from the previous year s growth. Use sharp knife
to ensure clean cut of cuttings. Size 0.6 – 2.5 cm in diameter and about 30cm in length
with atleast 2nodes. Remove leaves from the portion to be buried and those on the aerial
section side. Treat a basal cut in with rooting powder to promote early and better root
development
Planting of Cuttings. Cuttings can either be set in a nursery beds or planted directly ina
field.. Usually plant them to a depth of half their length. Water regularly following
planting settings .
Grafting – It is the act of connecting parts of two plants so that they will unite and grow
into one unit.
There are different methods of grafting but they all involve uniting scion and root stock.
Scion form the upper part and root stock for the lower part. Grafting is done in spring or
late winter.

Budding – It is a special form of grafting that involve uniting a vegetative buds and a
root stock.. T- Budding – it involves selection of a scion plant and root stock.
Preparation of budding site on root stock , cutting of bud shield, uniting of bud shield
to the stock, binding the union firmly: germination of the bud shield and eventual
cutting off of part the stock.

32
 Layering- This involve inducing a branch to develop roots whilst still attached to the
a mother plant.

Propagation Using Suckers – Suckers is a shot that arises on a plant from below the
ground. Bananas and pine apple are propagated using sukers ,
Step for for propagation using suckers
i. Selection of strong and suckers of 1 – 1.5 m in height
ii. Digging out and cuttings of the suckers from the mother plant.
iii. Trimming the suckers of excess leaves and adventious roots.
iv. Protection the suckers from drying until they are planted.
v. Suckers are usually taken during dormant season.
Management of Seedlings in a nursery
- regular watering
- Protection from pests and diseases
- Regular control of weeds
- Thinning to avoid over crowding

33
 - Protection from adverse weather conditions
Factors affecting dimensions of a planting hole.
Type of roots system - a tree with deep and wide root system requires a deeper planting
and wider hole.
Soil type – in heavy and hardy soil planting hole has to be deeper.
Size of a fruit tree – large trees need deeper an wider planting hole.
Soil fertility –.in soil of low fertility the hole should be deeper and wider then filled with
more good soil and manure.
Topography of the land – on steep slopes planting holes should be deeper and wider
than in gentle slope.
Expected productive life of a tree.- a tree of a longer life span need a bigger hole than
one with short life span.
Method of Propagation – trees raised from cuttings and layering do not develop tap
roots, so they need deeper planting hole.
Factors affecting spacing of fruit tree
Roots system - a tree with deep and wide root system requires more space than with
lateral rooted spread.
System of land use – trees grown in a pure stand would be closer than those to be inter
row planted with other crops.
Growth habit – a tree with large and spreading canopy requires more than the one with
small crown.
Soil fertility - in soil of low fertility should be deeper and wider than usual
The purpose for which they are raised – trees whose fruits are for exports or processing would be spaced
differently from those that are for local market.
Use of machinery - spacing should take account of use of machinery if the orchard is
mechanized.
PREPARATION OF PLANTING FOR A FRUIT TREE
- Mark hole position at a recommended spacing
- Dig 1m square of at least 60cm deep, keep hole straight to the bottom
- Separate top soil from sub soil as you dig the hole

- Mix top soil with composted kraal manure at a ratio of 1:1 and add about 100-500g of super
phosphate to the mixture.

34
 - Break up the bottom surface and make it loose.
Transplanting fruit tree seedling
Lifting and moving seedling from nursery to an orchard.
Preparing to plant – by back filling the hole so that the root collar will be level to the ground surface. Add
some water to the hole to help remove air pockets.
Planting seedling – Remove pot and place the seedling in the centre of the hole . Add the remaining soil as
back fill. Firm the soil to remove air pockets. Add soil to the level of the collar.

Use sub soil to construct a dish shaped basin round the plant to water.
Mulching - Apply mulch in the basin to reduce evaporation and maintain good soil structure and
control weeds. Water the seedling heavily and repeat it every 2-3 days to 2 weeks.
PRECAUTIONS WHILE TRANSPLANTING
-Lift seedlings with as much soil round the roots as possible
- Protect uprooted seedlings from heat until they are transplanted.
- Transplant in the afternoon
- Ensure that roots are well spread out in the hole and the stem kept erect
- Plant the seedling so that the collar is a level with the ground.
- Press the soil round the seedling firmly to the remove air pockets
- Water seedling immediately after transplanting.
- Provide shade to seedling to protect them from heat.
- If a seedling s is in danger of bending, support it with a stake.
Management practices in an orchard.
Cultivation – done to control weeds, aerate soil and improve water infiltration.
Watering – regularly done normal of growth and high yield.
Control pests and diseases otherwise the quality and the yield of tree would be reduced.
Regular removal of weeds – to prevent them from competition with trees would reduced.
Pruning – is the removal of unproductive parts of a plant.
Reasons for Pruning
- remove dead, diseased and otherwise damaged branches

35
 - ease air circulation and light penetration
- form and maintain desirable shape
- prevent overbearing
- control pests and diseases
- facilitates harvesting of fruits
- increase quality and yield of fruits
- induce fruiting in certain fruit trees.
Methods of harvesting fruit
- hand picking
- Use of hand tools
Factors to consider when marketing fruits
- Sorting, grading, and packaging
- Perish ability and storage facilities
- Distance from major consumption centre
- Marketing channels – individual consumers, retailers wholesalers
- Price and weather conditions
- Competitions from other fruit producers
- Quality of fruits
- Consumer ‘s preference and ta
- Forestry – is the science, art and practices of managing forest resources for
various purpose.
Exotic tree Indigenous Trees
Eucalyptus ( Gum tree) Colophospermum mopane
Pine tree Camel thorn
Pepper tree Mogotlho
Syringer Baobab
Christmas tree Shepherd tree
Silk oak Snop apple
Rubber tree

Importance of trees and tree products.

- Provide shade for animals
- Protect soil from soil erosion by water and wind.
- Improves soil fertility and assist in nutrients recycling through the leaf
- Protect watersheds
- Used for borders planting to demarcate holdings, line in the fields.
- Provide habitant for livestock and game animals.
- Provide browse livestock and game animals.
- Provide timber, poles and pulp.
- Provide nectar and pollen for bees and other insects.
- Source of fuel and charcoal.
- Source of tannin and dyes
- Shade soil, so reduce evaporation of soil moisture.

Importance of tree products and their uses

Tree Products Uses(s)
Timber and poles Furniture, fencing, poles for
electricity, building
Wood pulp Making papers

36
 Tannin and dyes Dyeing and tanning industries
Fuel wood and charcoal Fuel for cooking, warming houses
Fibre and fronds Handicraft making
Fruits and roots Food for animals and people
Gums and resins Food for animals and people
Nectar and pollen Food for bees
Medical herbs/ products Treat of diseases
Phane worms Food for people
Browses and green fodder Food for livestock and game.

Veld products – are non - timber products.

Veld product and their Uses

Veld product Uses

Kalahari truffle( Mahupu)
Edible, Gums Oils and resins
Tannins and Dyes
Dikgose( Wild coffe bean)
Devil’s claw
Mosukujane and mosukudu
Artemisia afra
Thatch grass
Tree barks and leaf mould
Honey and mush rooms
Fungi that grows underground consumed as
vegetable
Used for dying and tannin industries
Beans are roasted an eaten
Secondary roots are used as medicine or tea.
Used as tea and to treat cold, bronchial
Trouble
Used as medicine
For roofing
Used as planting media
Used as food

Factors inhibiting germination of tree seeds

 Hard coat that are impervious to water
 Hard coat enclosing structures such as pits and shells that limit embryo
expansions
 Chemical germination inhibitors
 Embryo still undeveloped at the of seed dispersal
 Embryo dormancy due inhibitors within the embryo
 Unsuitable temperature
 Insects , diseases or mechanical injury.
 Viability of the seed
 Lack of air

37
SEED TREATMENT METHODS-SEEDS ARE TREATED BEFORE PLANTING
TO IMPROVE GERMINATION.
What could be done to improve seed germination?
( Softening seeds coat and other coverings)
 Scarification-breaking,softening the hard seed coat so as to enable moisture to
penetrate the seed.
 Mechanically breaking the seeds coat to make permeable to water and gas
 Soaking seeds in water for a given prime period.
 Treating seeds with hot water 70 – 100oC and then soaking them gradually
cooling water for 12- 24 hours
 Acid Scarification – dry seeds are soaked in concentrated sulphuric acid until the
seed coat is paper thin.
Overcome embryo dormancy
 Stratification – subjecting imbibed seeds to a chilling period
 Leaching out inhibitors by soaking seeds in running water or placing them in
frequent changes of water.
Methods used to treat seeds for pathogens and pests before planting
Disinfecting to remove organisms internal and external to seeds
Applying protestants to protect seeds from fungi in the soil
Applying insecticides and bird or rodents repellents
Germination percentage determination by Direct Germination Test
A random sample of 400 pure seeds are taken . The test seeds are then placed in optimum
conditions to induce germination. At the end of test period a count of normal seedling is
done and germination percentage is determined thus.
FOR EXAMPLE________...............________
Source o tree Seeds
Purchase from dealers and forestry
Collection from forests or woodlots
Private company nurseries
Imports
Source of tree Seedlings
• Government Forestry nursery
• Council nurseries
• Commercial nurseries
• Private or owners nurseries
Collection of tree seeds.
Seeds are collected from trees of high quality. Only mature and ripe seeds are collected
from tree tops and are of prime/super grade as they have grown and developed under the
most optimum conditions compared to those that are from other locations.
Woodlot – is apiece of land set aside for growing trees.
- A small forest plantation
Why the existing woodlots should be correctly managed.
• To sustain yield of their resources
• To protect soil erosion
• To meet ever increasing demand for fuel wood and other trees products
• To protect the existing water shed.

38
Effective management of woodlots
o Prune off the lower ranches of trees to facilitates access to the plantation
o Control insects pests and fungal diseases
o Protect woodlots from fire by removing weeds, use of fire breaks,
o Allow livestock to graze under large trees to reduce growth of vegetation.
o Practice selective cutting by harvesting only large trees
o Thin weak trees so that the best trees can grow big.
Forestry conservation
- is a planned management of forest resources to prevent their negligence,
exploitation and destruction

Importance of forestry conservation

- prevent loss of water shed areas through deforestation
- Prevent the spread of desert like conditions
- Conserve soil and water
- Prevent loss of an important natural resources for aesthetic purposes and tourist
attraction
- Prevent endangered species
- Prevent loss of animals and animals species due to habitant
Ways of Conserving Forests
- Discourage clearing of forest
- Protect the forest from fire by constructing fire breaks
- Regulations of timber harvesting coupled with replanting
- Limit or exclude browsing animals.
- Establishment of wood lots as an alternative for fuel wood.
- Increase public awareness of the need and value of forest conservation
- Promote active involvement in the community development.
- Forest research must be given a priority.

Agro forestry – is a land use system involving sequential or simultaneous production of

trees, crops and animals on the same land in order to benefit form positive interaction.

Agro forestry Practices.

Silvo arable – production of tree and crops
They include
• Alley cropping: Field are planted in alleys between hedges
• Cropping under established trees
• Strip planting in the forests or timber plantations.
• Wind breaks or shelter belts
Silvo pastoral – Production of trees with pasture and livestock.
They include :
• Trees planted in a range land, in permanent pastures and grass
• Grazing animals in forest plantation
• Boundary planting mainly for fodder
• Live fences used as a means of decreasing cost of making fences.
• Bee keeping in trees

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 • Insects in trees eg Phane worms in mophane trees.
• Aquaculture in mangrove trees
Agro silvo pastoral.[ trees, crops and livestock]
• Woody hedgerows for browse, mulch
• Trees livestock mix in homesteads

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 CHICKEN PRODUCTION
Systems of raising chicken
Free range system – this is an extensive system in which chicken are allowed to
move freely
Advantages
• Very low input costs
• Vices are not common
• No special skills required
• Require little time to manage
• No need to provide grit and food
Disadvantages
• Eggs are laid all over and some may be eaten by dogs or other animals.
• Chicken can destroy people s crops
• There is no control over breeding because chicken roam around freely
• The system requires a lot of space.
• Chicken are not protected from predators and thieves.
• Poor growth and egg production
• Difficult to control diseases
• No control over what chicken eat.
Deep litter system- this is an intensive system in which birds are kept permanently in
a chicken house and not allowed to go outside.
Advantages
• High stoking rate
• Low labour requirement
• Chickens are secure from thieves and predators.
• Possible to keep records
• Easy to control what and how much chicken eat.
• Easy to control diseases and parasites
• High chicken egg production
Disadvantages
• High input costs
• Vices such as cannibalism are common
• Litter not always available
• More time is needed to manage the chickens
• Promote rapid spread of diseases
Battery cage system-this is an intensive system in which birds are kept in cages for the
rest of productiion
Advantages
• High stocking rate
• Chicken eat and waste less
• Easy to mechanize
• Easy to keep production record for individual chicken.
• High egg production
• Eggs are easy to collect and stay clean

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 • Vices and brooding are not common
Disadvantages
• Chicken develop chicken paralysis
• Require more labour
• High capital investment
• Require high level of management
FOLD SYSTEM
This is not commonly used in Botswana. Under this semi intensive system chickens are
kept in enclosed areas known as folds or chicken runs. These folds are made of wire
mesh, metal bars and poles to make handling. About 25 to 50 chicks can be kept in these
movable folds or chicken runs. Folds are about 6m by 2m.
Advantages of the fold system
- Close attention can be given to chickens under this system
- Parasites and diseases can be easily controlled
- Chickens are kept away from predators
- There are better control of chickens than in free range system
Disadvantages
- It is time and labour consuming
- Not many chickens can be raised under tis system
- It is more expensive than keeping chickens under free range system
Breeds of layers
White leghorn
• A light breed suitable for commercial egg production
• Has white plumage and yellow shanks and lays white shelled eggs
Black Austrolop – a heavy breed , has black plumage and is moderate lays brown
shelled eggs
Hybrids of layers – are cross bred of chickens.
Isa brown, Hyline, Cornish game
Breeds of Broilers
Red/ light Sussex
It has white skin,legs,feet and beak
It has white feathers but with black stripes around the neck and tail
It is a large breed which grows fast.
Ply mouth rock
It has stripes of black and white feathers
It is a medium sized breed kept mainly for meat.
Hybrids of broilers – Ross, Hubbard, Babcock, Cobb 500
Dual purpose breeds- kept for both meat and eggs
Rhode Island red
New Hampshire
General characteristics of good a layer.
• Early maturity of layers and lays many eggs of high quality
• Has little or no broodiness
• Low mortality rate among growing chickens and laying stock.
• Light bodies with little flesh and good converters of food to eggs
• High resistance to diseases and parasites

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 • Have large abdominal cavity, smooth, wrinkles face, soft textured skin and
bright red comb.
General characteristics of a good broiler
• Rapid growth rate, reach kill weight within 8 – 10 weeks.
• Efficient converter of food to meat FCR of 2:1 is considerate
• Low mortality rate during brooding and rearing periods..
• Large body size and good carcass quality
• High resistance to diseases and parasites
• Big head and broad backs
• Skin and flesh consistent to costumer preference and taste
• Chicks must be covered with plenty of feathers when they are hatched and
good tail feathers at 10 days of age.
Reproductive System of a Hen.

Ovary – ova develop, release ovum into the infundibulum

Infundibulum – Receives ovum released from ovary : store sperm and reserves as a
site for fertilization and chalazae is added to the yolk
Magnum – Albumen(egg white) is added to the ovum.
Isthmus : Water, mineral salts and vitamins are added to the developing egg
membrane is added.: determines the egg shape.
Uterus; - Shell is added around the egg and shell pigment some water and minerals
salts are added.
Vagina – cuticles added to egg shell and store egg temporarily
Cloaca – Site for sperm deposition and removes eggs ad droppings
Vent - an exit through which the egg passes to outside.

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Functions of different parts of an egg
Egg shell. – Protect the inner/ inside parts (including the developing embryo) from harm
- Act as a barrier that prevents some micro-organisms entering the egg
Shell membrane. – acts as a barrier against entry of bacteria in the egg
- serve as a breathing surface for the developing embryo in the egg
Albumen./egg white – Provide the embryo with water and proteins for growth
Chalaza . Hold the yolk in the centre of the albumen
- Protect the developing embryo by acting as a shock absorber.
Germ spot; it is spot in which the embryo develops when fertilized
Yolk: Provides the growing embryo with proteins and fats
Air space; it allows the exchange of gases for the growing chick
Factors to consider when choosing type of chicken to raise
• Demand for the chicken product
• Farmers and preferences
• Purpose for which the chicken are to be kept
• Level of experience knowledge and skill of a farmer
• Gestation period of the project
• Amount of capital
• Magnitude of risk and uncertainty.
• Availability of inputs and costs
Types of records in Chicken Production
Production – records all details of production of a chicken enterprise
Examples of production records.
• Eggs Production- for each laying house egg laid and number of layers must be
kept
• Live weight gain record –
• Mortality record – a record of deaths should be kept
• Feed consumption – Amount of feed used.
• Illness and treatment record
• Vaccination ( inoculation ) record
• Produce used at home- eggs or chicken used at home should recorded

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Financial records- are those which record details of all transaction s involving money.
Examples of financial records.
• Cash book- All cash received and paid out
• Debtors and Creditors Accounts – to be recorded and keep track of debtors
• Expenditure-
• Income account
• Assets and liabilities
• Profit and loss account
Construction of a chicken House
Qualities of a good chicken house.
• Well ventilated
• Easy to clean relatively permanent structure
• Predator proof
• Weather proof
• Cheap but not of poor quality
• Have damp proof floor.
Materials needed for construction of a chicken house.
o Bricks o Cement and sand
o Gravel/ stone o treated poles
o Rafters and purlines o door locks
o DPC sheets o roofing nails
o Chicken wire mesh o roofing nail
o Doors and door frames
o Corrugated iron
Sources of live chickens
1, Private chicken farms e.g. Notwane layer farm, star poultry, Ace layer farm, Tswana
pride, Goodwill
2. Individual chicken producers
3. Imported from other countries
4. Hatcheries( they incubate and supply day old chicks)They are very few hatcheries in
Botswana( Mmadikoko, Tswana pride)
Preparation to be made before the arrival of day old chicks
• Repair and disinfect the chicken house and the equipment
• Place brooding unit in correct position
• Cover the brooder floor with litter and lay down newspapers
• Ensure adequate supply of fresh chick starter mash
• Ensure necessary vaccines and drugs are available
• Ensure brooder lamps are lit or heaters are switched on 24 hours before the chicks
arrival and temperature be between 32ºC to 38ºC
• Place feeders and drinkers troughs in position
• The attendants should be trained and drilled
• Make all records books available
• Clean foot bath and fill it with clean disinfectants

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Preparation to made before the arrival of point of laying Pullets.
• Repair , clean and disinfect the chicken house and the equipment
• Put litter on the floor incases of deep litter.
• Ensure adequate supply of fresh chick starter mash
• Ensure necessary vaccines and drugs are available
• Place feeders and drinkers troughs in position
• The attendants should be trained and drilled
• Make all records books available
• Clean foot bath and fill it with clean disinfectants
Type of feeds for layers
Chick starter mash – a diet for chicks from day old to five weeks . It contains high
amount of protein (18-20%), minerals and vitamins for development of healthy bones and
muscles.
Growers mash – a diet given for pullets from five weeks to lay. It contains less (14–
16% ) protein as growth is occurring at a slower pace and more carbohydrates than chick
starter mash
Layers mash – a diet for laying hen that contains 16-18% protein is coarsely ground and
contains plenty of minerals especially calcium and phosphorus. It contains just enough
carbohydrates and fats to maintain the hen s’ bodily functions to lay eggs.
Type of feeds for Broilers
Broiler starter mash - a diet given to broiler chicks from one day old to5 weeks old. It is
high in protein (21-24%), minerals and vitamins which are needed for
body building. They have very fine partcles, for easy swallowing by
chicks. They contains coccidiostants to protect chicks against coccidiosis
Broiler finisher mash - a diet for broilers from 6 weeks to the age of slaughter. It is rich
in protein (18-20%) and carbohydrates which promote rapid growth and
lot of fleshing on the body and provide energy.
Provision of clean water at all times to chickens
• Proper feeding of dry feeds
• To grow and develop in cases of young birds
• To maintain their bodies and produce eggs
• To prevent dehydration which can lead to death
• To prevent spread of disease and parasites
• Promote high quality of chicken products.
Importance of keeping the house Clean
• Prevent diseases and parasites
• Prevent the build up of unpleasant smells
• Provide good and healthy working environment
Importance of litter management
• To ensure that the litters remain absorbent at all times.
• To promote proper and efficient breakdown of litter chicken droppings by micro
organism.
• To prevent build up of pathogens and parasites in the litter.
Brooding – is care and management of chicks from time they are hatch until they grow
their own feathers.

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Natural brooding – a method where by a hen takes care of her chicks. She provides
them with natural nests, protection from enemies, help them from finding food
and provide them with warmth.
Artificial Brooding – is brooding without the mother hen as used by commercial poultry
producers. A brooder is used to provide optimum environmental condition for the
growth of the chicks. These environmental conditions are those provided by the
broody hen such as adequate warmth, adequate food supply, sufficient space,
ventilation
Construction of a brooder
Materials needed for construction of a brooding unit.
• Pieces of thick cardboard or hard board, 35 m high to serve as chick guard.
• Heaters such as an infrared electric lamp, paraffin gas burners, small stoves,
mbawula charcoals.
• Containers for food and water ( feeders and drinkers)
• Heat reflectors or canopy
• Litter material such as wood shavings.
• Thermometer to monitor temperature changes in brooder area.
• Pieces of card board are made into a circular fence around the brooder area.
Why should the brooding unit be round?
• They are round or have corners to avoid a situation where chicks may rush to
corners and et crushed due to over crowding.
Why the brooding unit should be made warm before the arrival of day old
chicks.
• To ensure that the equipment are functioning before the arrival of .
• To stabilize temperature at the correct level

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Method of heating the brooding unit

Mbawula System – This is a cut drum or bucket

with holes. The source of heat is fire wood.The
drum may be surrounded by wire netting to
avoid burning the chicks. Carbon monoxide can
be a problem if the unit is not well ventilated.

Tunnel System –A metal pipe is fitted to

the wall of the poultry house. The tunnel or
pipe runs from one end to the other side of
the house. It protrudes beyond the wall and
extends into a chimney. The opening of the
pipe is heated by a fire. As is heated, the
heat is transferred through the house.The
smoke escapes through the chimney.

Gas brooder –The source of heat here is gas.

Special gas heaters are available which can be used
to warm up a brooding unit. To avoid too much heat
in the brooding unit, the temperature must be
controlled. Gas brooder can be dangerous to the
chicks and workers if there is gas leakage.

Drum brooder – a drum that is open on one

side is fitted into the wall of the poultry
house. The open side faces the outside. Fire
is made inside the drum so that heat
radiates to the part that is inside the house.
The hot drum warms the inside of the
house.

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Management of chicks in the brooder/ Brooding unit.
Temperature control.
Keep chicks at the correct temperature from the start. It is essential for good
feathering, normal growth and to avoid chilling and heat prostration. Maintain
temperature at about 35ºC in the first week and then reduce it gradually so that by the
fourth week it is 26ºC.After that additional heat is unnecessary. but do not the
temperature goes below 18C. If the chicks huddle together under heating unit, they
are not warm enough. If chicks are away from the heating unit then they are not warm
enough.
Feeding.
For the first two days area chick starter mash on the news paper or chick trays to
encourage chicks to start eating. Allow for a feeder space of 2.5cm per chicks for the
first week and increase it by 2.5 cm per week.
Watering
Provide clean, fresh water to chicks at all times. Provide the water in chicks drinkers
allowing for water space of the 1st 2 weeks and 5.0 for the remaining period. Change
the water daily and clean drinkers thoroughly before adding clean water.
Floor space.
Allow 20 chicks per m2 in the 1st 4 weeks and then increase to 12 birds per m2.
Adequate floor space is essential for rapid development, good feathering.
Ventilation
Provide adequate without compromising protection against draught. Maintain relative
humidity at about 65%for optimum development of chicks. Good ventilation prevents
the occurrence of respiratory disease, prevent build up of ammonia and fumes from
brooder lamps.
Litter
Provides a covering of litter of suitable material to absorb dropping and serves as
warm bedding for chicks. Remove any wet litter immediately.
Disease and pest control.
Chicks are highly susceptible to disease during the brooding stage of their
development, so vaccinate them against disease like New Castle.
Predators
Protect chicks from predators such as such snakes, cats and mouse.
Incubation of eggs
Provision of warmth to an egg so that it can hatch.
Natural Incubation-This is when a hen sits on eggs so as to hatch them using the
warmth of its body. The eggs should be fertile in order to hatch. The hen turns the
eggs several times a day using its beak.
Artificial incubation- is done in a machine called an incubator. Large numbers of
eggs are incubated at the same time. They all provide optimum conditions of
temperature, moisture, aeration, and relative humidity which are the carefully
controlled.

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Culling – a process of removing non- productive or unwanted birds from the flock.
Unwanted birds are those that produce few eggs. those that are sick time and
again,weak,deformed or injured.
Type of culling
Mass culling - when the entire flock is removed and replaced .
Selective culling- when a farmer removes undesirable individual birds from the flock.
Criteria for culling
Low production – poor layers and non layers must be culled.
Ill health – diseased birds should be removed from the flock.
Vices or Bad behaviour- Birds that exhibits vices such as egg eating, cannibalism
or broodiness should be culled immediately.
Poor growth – Growing birds that show retarded growth must be culled.
Weakness and deformity - Weak and deformed chicks should be culled.
Debeaking – removal of part of the beak of a chicken to reduce the amount of
severity of pecking. It is done mainly to prevent chickens from eating
eggs, feather pecking and pecking others.
• Debeaked hens are calm and more restful.
• Result in increase efficiency of food consumption.
• More uniform growth is obtained.
• Egg eating and breakage are prevented.
• Population can be increased considerably.
Debeaking Procedure.
Age of debeaking – Early debeaking of chicks at the age of about 10 days gives good
results
Debeaking tools – Clipper, pliers, knifes. They can be used cold or hot. Electric
debeaker can also be used.
Debeaking technique: Both upper and lower beaks of a chick are put through a
4.5mm hole at the same time and cut at the same time with a red blade.
Vaccination – makes an animal immune to disease
Reason for Vaccination
To control and prevent diseases
To prevent economic loss due to diseases.
Chicken parasites
Internal or ectoparasites
Round worm, Tape worm, Gape worm, Threads worm, Ceacal worm
External
Lices, Tampaans, grey ticks, Mites, fleas
Chicken Mites
Harmful Effects of mites.
• Attack feathers, suck blood, causing anemia
• Loss of weight and condition.
• Reduced egg production
• Pale comb and wattle
• Poor growth in growing chicken
• Sore patches under the wings and place where the bird cannot peck at them.
• Incubation hen maybe forced to leave a clutch of eggs.

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 • Cause itchy irritation to the birds
Control and prevention
• Spray or dust birds with recommended insecticides or acaridae such as
malathion 5%, Sevin, Carboryl, sodium fluorides and benzoate.
• Mix an insecticide into dust bath
• Rub old engine oil or recommended insecticides into the resting boxes and
perches.
• Clean and fumigate the poultry house thoroughly before putting in a new
batch.
• Sound floor made of concrete and walls without cracks and crevices are
recommended in a chicken house.
Chicken disease
• New castle Fowl pox
• Coccidiosis Gumburo disease
• Fowl typhoid Fowl coryza
• Mareks disease Infectious bronchitis
• Salmonellosis
New castle disease
Cause - Virus
Transmission
The virus can be carried by the feet of wild birds from one farm to another. Then
swallowed through contaminated food and water.
Symptoms
• Difficulty in breathing and gasping breath.
• Coughing and sneezing
• Paralysis in wings and
• Lack of coordination.
• Chicks are observed walking back wards. And falling down.
• Neck twisting also occur.
• High mortality rate about 90%
• Sharp drop of food intake
• Soft shelled eggs or egg production may stop.
• Enlarge crop
• Sick bird release yellow diarrhoea.
• Stinky mucus is released through the mouth.
Treatment- there is no treatment
Control and prevention
• Proper and regular vaccination should be practiced as excellent as vaccines as
Hitcher at day old administer through the eyes. Lasota at 3-4 weeks of age,
administered through drinking water or eyes, Komarov at 4-20 weeks
administered intramuscularly or through drinking water.
• Incase of out break all sick bird and in contact should be destroyed. Strict
hygiene and sanitation must be observed
• Chicken house must be screened against wild birds.

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 • Avoid introduction by refusing visitors entry in to flocks and separate
chickens of different ages
Cocciodiosis
Cause – Protozoa
Transmission – It is spread from one bird to another through droppings of the
affected birds. It can also be spread through contaminated water and food.
Symptoms
• Chicks look dull, weak, depressed and sleepy.
• Chicken have raffled feathers and droppings wings.
• Loss of appetite but drinks a lot of water.
• Watery and bloody droppings
• High rate of mortality.
• Pale combs and wattle in old chickens.
• Swelling and inflammation of the intestine.
Treatment
• Put a chemical such amprol, sulphamezanethine, embazine.
Control and prevention
• Use effective coccidiostats continuously on feeds.
• Young chicks should always be clean
• Avoid over crowding chicks.
• Good litter management to ensure that litter is maintained dry always.
• Observe strict hygiene and sanitation.
• Keep food and water absolutely clean.
• Isolate the affected birds change litter and sterilize all equipment.
Factors influencing price of chicken products
• Force of demand and supply
• Production costs
• Quality of the products
• Whether are sold processed or raw products
• Competition among producers.
• Shift in consumers
• Taste and preferences
• Transport and marketing costs
• Marketing structure and intervention
• Government interventions
Slaughtering and processing of chickens
Chicken are fasted for 12 – 20 hours before slaughter. Chickens are hung upside down for
about 3 minutes and stunned using an electrical current. Their throats are cut within 30
seconds of stunning and allowed to bleed completely.
Killed chickens are scalded in hot water for about 30 seconds at temp 55-62 0c, to loosen
the feathers then plucked manually or automatically using machines. Plucked chickens
are placed on a table, legs, necks and crops are trimmed off their bodies.
Evisceration is then done- removal of interior organs.
Eviscerated carcass are cleaned, inside and out with clean water. The giblets are
separated from viscera, washed and put in iced water.

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The carcasses are chilled rapidly in iced water drained off, trussed and packed in plastic
bags exhausted of air. They may then be frozen and distributed to consumers via
marketing channels.
Grading and Packaging of eggs
Egg grading-Eggs are graded according to quality and size.
Weight classes of eggs (grading according to size)
Grade 1 : >65 g
Grade 2; 55- 65g
Grade 3: 45 – 55g
Grade 4: < 45
Grading according to quality

Egg quality grades Comments

1st Grade or Class A Best quality,clean ,fresh,no blood spots and
cracks.
2nd Grade or Class B Second best,not very clean,have small
cracks,not very fresh.
3rd Grade or Class C Poorest in terms of quality,have cracks,are
dirty ,have blood and not fresh.
Egg Candling – passing a powerful light through an egg in a dark room so that its
internal qualities can be determined. This is done using a candler.
Internal qualities of an egg – Size and condition of air space, condition of egg yolk,
condition of egg white, presence of blood or meat spots in egg white , presence of other
abnormalities.
External qualities - size and weight of the egg, shape of the egg: smoothness and
evenness of the shell ,colour of the shell, cleanliness and soundness of the shell.
Egg packaging: Eggs easily breaks and must be handled care. Eggs should be placed in
an egg tray and packaged in the boxes. The pointed end must face down to keep the air
cell in place and the yolk in the centre.

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 FARM MANAGEMENT
Farm management – is the active process of making decisions so that the available
resources of a farm business is planned, organized and controlled to
achieve its set goal most efficiently. It is about making the best use of available resources
to achieve maximum production in a farm.
Importance of farm management
 Provide decisions on the best use of the available resources.
 Plans and organize productive resources to effective production
 Implements a farm plan
 Keeps up to date records
 Evaluate a farm business with a view to making improvements
 Helps in getting work done efficiently.
 Helps in monitoring and controlling the work.
Demand - It is the quantities of a product that consumers are willing and able to buy at a
given price during a given period.
Determinants of demand
 Price of a commodity-If the price is high, the demand will be low.
 Quality of a product-If the product is of good quality, more people would like to
buy it (high demand).
 Income of consumers-If the consumer income increases, the demand will be high.
 Taste and preferences-If the product is of good taste, the demand will be high.
 Advertising-A successful advertising will increase the demand.
Supply – This means the quantity of a commodity offered for sale by a supplier at a
specified price in a given market and at a given time.
Determinants of Supply
 Price of a commodity-If the price of a product is high, the supply will be high
because the supplier would like to get profit.
 Costs of production-when price of inputs increases the supply will be low.
 Production technique-use of machines and new varieties of crops can make
production easy therefore supply will be more.
 Change in weather conditions-bad weather will affect food production therefore
supply will be low.
 Number of sellers in a market
Market Price-It is the value or worth of something which is indicated by the amount of
money one has to pay for it. Is the price at which quantity demanded equals quantity
supplied.
Determinants of Market price
 Force of demand-if the demand is high the price will increase.
 Force of supply-if the price increase the supply will also increase.
 Change in technology-when supply is high due to technology the price will
increase.
 Availability of a product-when there is shortage of a products its price will
increase.

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Legal forms of a business organization
1. Sole proprietorship
This type of business has one owner and this owner manages the business.
The owner makes all the decisions and takes all the responsibilities for the business.
The owner provides all the money needed to start and run the business.
2. The partnership
This is the type of business that is larger than a sole proprietor. Instead of only one
owner it is owned by two up to twenty owners.
The partners provide all money needed to run the business. The partners make all the
decision.
They usually have a written, legal agreement about each person’s responsibility and
level of owner ship. For example one partner may own 60% of the business while the
other partner owns 40%.
This type of business usually has more money, skills and experiences to start with
because the partners put their resources together. However because the partners have
to share and make decisions together, there is more opportunity for conflict.
3. The cooperative
A co-operative is a legal registered organization created by a group of people who share
a need.
A co-operative then service this need. The money needed to run the cooperative comes
from sale of the shares.
Work is divided among group members.
4. The company-A company is a large type of business.
The owners are shareholders rather than individuals. This means that the company sells
shares in the company to anybody whom has money to buy them.
The company then uses the money raised from sale of shares to start or build up the
business. The share holders vote for board of directors that are responsible for hiring and
supervising a manager or chief officer (CEO), who in turn responsible for the daily activities
of the company, for example we have; private and public companies.

An organizational structure is a frame work for identifying and organizing the tasks to be
performed within an organization. It specifies the different departments of the organization
and who is responsible for what. The structure is also a chain of command in the
organization.

An effective organizational structure ensure that everyone is involved in the business,

interacts well with each other and under the vision and mission of the organization

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 An Effective organizational Structure in a farm.

Generalmanager

Poultry Fruit tree Marketing Field crops Vegetable

Manager Manager Organ gram 2 Manager Manager Manager
Generalmanager

Worker Worker Worker Worker

Livestock Crop
Marketing
manager manager
Manager

Poultry Dairy Field crops Vegetable

Employee Employees Employees Employees

Third example:

Business owner
Top of the chain of command, final decision making board.

Farm manager
Reports to the business owner, maybe given powers to make day to day decisions on the
farm. Supervises the farm foreman and other farm workers.

Farm foreman
Supervises farm workers, disseminates information to workers, acts as farm manager
when need arises.

Farm workers
Carry out general duties on the farm, report directly to the farm foreman.

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General functions and roles of management in an agribusiness venture
 Decision making – decide on the activities to be done on the farm.
 Planning – outline activities on the farm for the next month or the whole year.
that is plan on what to be produced, how much to produce, how to produce, who
will buy the produce
 Organizing – involves organizing the limited resources to achieve what the
organization can afford
 Implementing – Carries out the activities of that have been planned
 Controlling/supervising-Ensuring that plans are carried out in the best way
possible.
 Staffing-it is the management responsibility to identify qualified people, recruit
staff, employ and replace employees who have resigned, provide training for
staff.
 Supervising- in order for a business to prosper, somebody must oversee all the
departments and ensure that work is done properly and completed on time.
 Reporting-feedback from the department heads is very important because it
assists management to identify whether the business is doing well or not.
Qualities of a good manager.
 Ability to make decisions-acts quickly when necessary and does not pass the
problem to someone to resolve.
 Hard working and time conscious-should be an examplery and does things on
time.
 Ability to think clearly and logically
 Fair, honest in dealing with other people.- treat people equally and tell them the
truth.
 Has a sound knowledge in marketing, organizing and accounting.
 Has ability to motivate, inspire. get on well in with and control people.
 Good health – She / He must be in good health to keep up demand and stress of
the farm.
 Empowers and delegates-allows and gives employees opportunities to do their
work to the best of their abilities and makes them responsible for their actions.
 Creative and innovative-must come up with new ways of doing things, be
prepared to change and take calculated risks.
Factors to consider before Starting an agriculture production enterprises
 Availability of capital
 Skill and Knowledge
 Availability of markets- carry out market research
 Availability of water
 Availability of inputs
 Availability and cost of labour relatively to other inputs
 Availability of good fertile land
 Viability of the project
 Availability of qualified staff

57
 Problems experienced by commercial farmers in Botswana and their solutions
 Poor and unsuitable soil-addition of fertilisers
 Erratic and unreliable rainfall-building more dams
 Farmers lack technical and managerial skill-use of rural training centres to train
farmers.
 Tough competition from SA-govt should stop the importation of farm produce if
there is enough local supply.
 Pests and diseases-govt should train more veterinary assistants.
 HIV and AIDS- farmers should be taught about HIV and AIDS.
MARKETING AND MARKETING CONCEPT
Marketing-defined as performance of all business activities involved in the flow of
goods and services. It involves activities that ensure that the needs and wants of
consumers are met. It is used to create and satisfy customers.
Marketing concept-It is the idea that a business cannot survive without satisfying the
needs and wants of its customers.
Reasons for marketing
-It helps to identify customers, keep and satisfy customers.
-Make customers aware of the business and its products.
-It creates new customers for the business.
-Helps business have competitive advantages over its competitors.
Marketing mix-It outlines the most important elements of a successful marketing plan.
Also referred to as the 4Ps of marketing.
1. Product- attractive, affordable, good quality that might satisfy customers need.
2. Price -affordable, it determines the amount of income that can be generated.
3. Place-the product must be in the right place to be purchased by the consumers.
4. Promotion-to tell customers about the product. A new business will have no
customers unless it is advertised.
Methods of marketing
1. Direct marketing-Consumers are contacted directly by calling or informing them
about the product.
2. Advertising-The business can be advertised on radio, newspapers and internet.
3. Personal selling-It involves a sales person visiting individual customers convincing
them to buy the product.
4. Sales promotion-The business sells a product at a special (reduced) price. The method
attracts customers away from other sellers.
5.Organising District and National Agricultural shows-Farmers in Botswana have
been marketing their products through these shows.
The use of ICT (Information Communications Technology to promote trade in the
Agricultural sector.
ICT involves computers (internet websites and emailing), mobile phones and landline
telephones.
ICT for example; use of internet makes it possible to reach overseas markets for your
products.ICT allows the farmer to create advertisements, increase awareness about his
products and attract more customers. A farmer who has the necessary skills and access to
ICT will have great advantage over farmers who don’t use it.

58
Farm Records
- any written information about activities of the farm.
Type of records
-Production
-Financial
Production records – involves all details of production of individual enterprises of a
farm business.
Example of Production records
• Farm diary records
• Crop
• Livestock
• Inventory
• Labour records
• Machinery records
Financial records – are those which records details of transactions involving money
Examples of financial records
-Cash account
-Bank account
-Debtors account
-Creditors account
-Expenses account
-Income accounts
-Capital account
-Asserts and liabilities account
-Profit and loss account
Profit and loss account is a summary of revenue and expenditure recorded over period
of time.
How to draw profit and loss account.
The lay out is such that on one side returns are recorded and the other side costs or
Expenses are recorded.
On expenses side
 all items of expenditure both variable and fixed
 Value of produce produced from the previous year
On revenue side
Sale of produce (output) and value of produce used at home.
Value of produce produced during the current year awaiting sale

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Use the information below to draw a profit and loss account for Mr Smith
 Purchase of 200 pullets on point of laying costs P15.00 each
 Purchase of drugs and vaccines costs P45.
 Water bills and electricity bills P540 each
 Wage for chicken attendants P4 200
 Egg tray costs P2000
 Purchase of 50 bags of layer s mash P90 each
 Sale of eggs is P20 000
 Sale of off- layers is P10 per bird

Expenses Revenue
Items Amount Items Amount
Point of laying Pullets P3 000 Sale of Eggs P20 000
Drugs and Vaccines P 45 Off- layers P2 000
Water bills P 540
Electricity bill P 540
Wages P4 200
Egg trays P2 000
Layers mash P4 500
P22000
Sub total 14825 Sub total
7175
Profit/Loss
Total Expenses P22000 Total Income P22 000

Determining profit or loss of the enterprise

Profit/ Loss =Income -Expenses
Profit/Loss= P22000-14825
PROFIT =7175
Profit always has a positive answer, Negative answer shows a loss

60
Budget- is an estimate of expected income and expenses of a proposed farm business
Budgeting, is the process of estimating future income and expenses
REASONS FOR BUDGETING
-Shows weak and strong points of the project
-Is a requirement for obtaining loans and grants from banks or other lending institutions
-Enables farmers to choose the best enterprise or combination of enterprises
-Provides a good estimate of the amount of investment required to start an enterprise or
expand a project
-Indicate progress or lack of it towards set goals
Prepare a budget
EXPECTED COSTS EXPECTED RETURNS
Date Item Amount(P) Date Item Amount(P)
1/3/11 Bought 2000 layers 4000.00 17\10/11 Sale of eggs 5000.00
11/3/11 Bought feeds 1000.00 20/10/11 Sale of layers 4400.00
12/3/11 Bought vaccines 200.00 20/10/11 Sale of manure 200.00
14/3/11 Bought egg trays 800.00
Total expected costs 6000.00 Total expected returns 9600.00
Expected returns –Expected costs=Expected loss/profit
P9600.00-P6000.00=P3600.00
MARKET RESEARCH
A market research is a process of collecting information about the market where a
product is to be sold.
Reasons for a market research.
-To identify customers for your products
-Find out customer needs
-Help in marketing the product
-Help in finding the competitors

61
Source of funding for Agriculture enterprises
• Government grants such as CEDA (Citizen Entrepreneurial Development
Agency) and ISPAAD (Integrated Support Programme for the Arable Agriculture
and Dairy Development)
• YFF (Young Farmers Fund)
• NAMPAADD (National Master Plan for the Arable Agriculture and Dairy
Development)
• LIMID (Livestock Management and Infrastructure Development)
• National Development Bank
• Commercial banks
• Personal savings and loans from friends and relatives
• Non governmental Organizations.
Conditions attached to the Government schemes and grants
• Only citizens of Botswana are legible
• Farm project must be productive
• Any Motswana eighteen years old or older can apply for assistance
• It must be clear that the project is viable
• Applicant must meet the approval conditions and then signed the agreement
How to apply for the fund
• Obtain the application forms from the relevant government institution or bank
• Complete the form fully and return it
• The application form is then appraised by technical officers
Business idea-it is a thought about a possible business one can start and how it can be
done.
Business opportunity-it is a chance to own a business either by buying or leasing any
product that will enable you to start operating the business.

Business plan-It is a written document or proposal describing in detail the type of

business you would like to start or are involved in and how it will be organized.

62
Reasons for preparing a business plan
-Helps in planning for the business
-Assist in budgeting
-Shows possible ways of improving the business
-Directs the business
-Shows the viability of the business
-Forms a basis for getting a loan
-Helps to evaluate the project

Elements in a business plan

Description of a business
Mission and vision statements
Objectives
Product description
Marketing plan
Business operation
Staffing and management
Financial forecast \ plan

63
VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

a) EXOTIC VEGETABLES-Vegetables that do not grow naturally in Botswana. They

originate from other countries.
Examples: cabbage,tomato,spinach,onion,cauliflower,cucumber,beetroot,radish,egg
plant and lettuce.

b) INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES-Vegetables that originate or grow naturally in

Botswana. Examples:Delele,thepe,rothwe,monyaku.

Nutritional value of vegetables.

a )They are rich in minerals and vitamins which protect body against diseases.
b)Spinach is a rich source of iron which is essential for blood formation.
c) Eating carrots can help improve eye sight.
d)Many vegetables contain a lot of water needed for body processes such as building
body cells and tissues and transporting dissolved nutrients.
e)Onions and garlic increase one’s appetite.

Supply of vegetables in Botswana.

The supply is low hence the reason why most of veges are imported from other countries
such as South Africa and Zimbabwe.

Demand of vegetables in Botswana.

The demand is very high.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTION IN BOTSWANA.

The opportunities for producing vegetables are high.

-There is high demand for vegetables
-Vegetables are marketable

Government strategies aimed at improving vegetable production in Botswana.

-Provides input at subsidized prices-Farmers buy seeds, seedlings, pesticides, fertilizers
from ISPAAD (Integrated Support Programme for Arable Agriculture Development).
-Including horticulture in the school curriculum-Students are taught how to grow
vegetables.
-Providing technical support to vegetable producers-Many Agricultural Demonstators
have been employed by govt to provide technical advice to vegetable producers.
-Conducting agric shows-Vegetable producers exhibit their produce at this shows.
-Providing financial support-CEDA(Citizen Entrepreneurial Development Agency)
and YFF( Young Farmers Fund) provides low interest loans to viable production
businesses.

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REQUIREMENTS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A VEGETABLE
ENTERPRISE.
-Adequate and fertile land
-Adequate irrigation water
-Equipment,tools,machinery
-Skilled,experienced and reliable personnel
-Reliable market
-Adequate funds or capital

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN DECIDING WHICH VEGETABLE CROPS

TO GROW.
-Type of soil required by the crop
-Reason for growing the crop
-Climatic conditions needed by the crop
-Availability of labour
-Value of the crop
-Management needs of the crops
-Technical knowledge of the crops
-Needs of the market

METHODS OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION TO ADOPT.

1.OPEN BEDS-This is where vegetables are grown in an open cultivated piece of land.
No individual plots are prepared instead the whole whre veges are to be planted is
cultivated.

2.CONCRETE BENCHES-Several permanent beds with a frame work of bricks or

concrete are constructed. Suitable soil is then used to fill up the benches.Vegetable crops
are planted until maturity.

3.GREEN HOUSES-This are structures with a glass or plastic roof and walls also made
out of glass or plastic. The transparent glass or plastic roof and wall of a green house
allow sunlight to enter and warm the inside but prevent heat from escaping.

TYPES OF SEEDBEDS

a)Flat seedbed-It is level with the ground level.

Advantages
-It is easy to make and less time consuming
-Less labour required

Disadvantages
-Easily eroded
-Water may break the walls and escape.

65
b)Sunken seedbed-it is made lower than the ground level.

Advantages
-It conserves moisture therefore suitable for drier areas.
-Reduces soil erosion.
-Plant roots can use deeper underground water.
-Seedlings are protected from damage by strong winds.

Disadvantages
-Easily become waterlogged.
-Not good for areas of high rainfall.
-Time and labour consuming

c)Raised seedbed-it is raised above the ground level.

Advantages
-It has good drainage.
-Plants cannot be easily washed away.
-It encourages better root penetration.

Disadvantages
-It cannot be used in sandy soils
-Time consuming
-Labour intensive

Classification of veges
Vegetables are classified according to part of the plant that is eaten or used.
Class Examples
Leaf Lettuce, spinach
Legume Peas ,beans
Root Beetroots, carrots
Fruit Tomatoes, egg plant
Bulb Onions, garlic
Flower Cauliflower, brocolli
Tuber Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes

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GROWING OF BEETROOT
BEETROOT CULTIVARS/VARIETIES
-Detroit dark red
-Crimson globe
-Red ace
-Early wonder
-Egyptian
SOIL REQUIREMENT
Beetroot does well in loose,well dug,well drained and fertile sandy loam soil with the
optimum soil pH of 5.8-8.If beetroots are grown in a plot where fresh manure has been
added, the roots may fork or become deformed.
CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTIt is a cool weather crop which requires a temperature of
20 0c. It is affected by cold weather which normally results in thick tap roots.
FERTILIZER REQUIREMENTS
Add 80 g/m 2 of 2:3:2 (22) a week before planting and later top dress with 35-75 g/m2.
When roots of beetroots start cracking or show blackened areas, this might be an
indication that Boron is not enough in the soil. Hence Borax should be added as a
corrective measure.
GROWING BEETROOTS
Method of Planting
Inter row spacing-20-30 cm apart.
Intra row spacing-10 cm apart.
Depth of planting-2cm.
Pests of Beetroots and spinach.
Pest Crops affected Damage caused Control measures
Aphids Spinach, beetroot They suck sap causing Remove and destroy
wilting and transmit plants, weeding and
diseases. use of malathion or
Dimethoate.
Nematodes Spinach, beetroot Makes root knots Uprooting crops,
which blocks the root practice crop
causing wilting, rotation, soil
stunted growth and fumigation.
death of seedlings.
Cutworm Spinach, beetroot Cut the stem at ground Sprinkle cutworm
level at night and hide bait over the
in the soil. soil,weeding.
Diseases of Beetroots and spinach
Disease Affected crops Symptoms Control
Leaf spot caused by Spinach, beetroot Small irregular light Apply Dithane M45
fungus. brown spot on the Use certified seeds
leaves, dark leaf Practice crop
edges appear rotation
Field sanitation
Avoid water logging
Damping off caused Spinach, beetroot Base of root and Use certified seeds

67
by fungus. stem turns black or Practice crop
brown and rots rotation
causing death of Field sanitation
seedlings. Avoid water logging
Apply Dithane M45

Management of Beetroot.
Management practice Reason for carrying them out
Thinning-Removing extra crops from the Thin so that the remaining seedlings have
field. enough space for growth and reduce
competition between seedlings for water,
air, .
Weeding-Removing unwanted crops from
the field.
Watering-applying water to plants
Soil cultivation-loosening of soil by
digging.
Fertiliser application-addition of fertilizer
to the soil.
Control of pests and diseases.

SIGNS OF MATURITY OF BEETROOT

The actual size of mature seed beetroot depend on the variety planted. Mature beetroots
are about 8cm in diameter. It can be harvested beginning 9 weeks after sowing.
HARVESTING OF BEETROOT
It is best to water the plots where beetroots are to be harvested a day before to make it
easier to lift or pull out the roots from soil. A garden fork can be used to loosen the soil
so that beetroots can be lifted out of the soil.
PROCESSING AND MARKETING OF BEETROOT
Beetroots should be washed with clean water to remove soil. Damaged beetroots should
be separated from those that are not damaged. Beetroots should be packaged in boxes or
tied in bundles and transported to the market. Beetroot can be sold to individuals, retailers
and wholesalers.
STORAGE AND PRESERVATION METHODS OF BEETROOT

Refrigeration- keeping of beetroot in a refridgerator.

Bottling-beetroot put into bottles which are then sealed.

GROWING OF SPINACH
Varieties;
Fordhook Giant, Lucullus, Rhurbab,Viroflay and New Zealand
CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS;
A cool weather crop that resist light frost. Optimum temperature for its growth is 10-30
0C.

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SUITABLE SOIL TYPES;
Grows in a wide range of soils, but does well in deep, fertile and well drained soils.
Sandy loam soil with a ph range of 6.0-6.8 is ideal.
BASAL DRESSING;
Add kraal manure or chicken manure at rates of 5-8kg and 2-3kg respectively before
planting. 2:3:2 [22]+1Zinc at a rate of 80g per m2 at least 7 days before planting using
broadcasting method.
TOP DRESSING; Apply 14g of L.A.N or 20g of Ammonium Sulphate per m2, 3 weeks
after planting and repeat the treatment every 2-3 weeks. Side dressing or ring method is
used as method of application.
Why add fertilizers to a crop
Leaf crops are heavy feeders and require lots of nutrients to produce good quality leaves
and for sustained yields.
SOWING AND SPACING
Sown directly or in the nursery on raised or sunken plots. Inter-row spacing is 40-60cm.
Intra row spacing 15-25cm at final thinning. Seeds are planted 1-2cm deep.
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Watering
• Thinning- start thinning spinach 2- 3 weeks after seedling emergence to allow
seedling enough space to grow
• Weed control; Keep plots free of weeds at all times.
• Cultivation
• Mulching
• pest and diseases control ( NOTE) see beetroot to get pests and diseases of
spinach)
• Avoid use of pesticides unless pests are too many
Signs of maturity and harvesting of spinach.
Spinach will reach maturity within 7-9 weeks after direct planting.Leaf picking starts
about 2 months after planting and continues for 3 – 10 months.
Processing and Marketing of spinach
Washed spinach leaves are tied into bundles before sold. Leaves are sold after harvesting
to individuals, supermarkets, schools and clinics.
STORAGE AND PRESERVATION OF SPINACH

Drying –cooking spinach then sundrying.

Refrigeration-keeping spinach in a refridgerator.

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Goat Production
Importance of Goat production
 Source of income and employment
 Source of animal protein(food)
 Source raw materials
 Can be exchanged for goods and services
 Source of foreign exchange
 Goats are used in social and religious ceremonies
 Require little capital and gives quick returns
 Goats are drought tolerant
Demand and Supply situation
There is high demand in cities and big villages. Demand is greater than supply . Goats are
imported mainly from Republic of south Africa.
Government Strategies to improve goats production
 Provides financial assistance policy through grants schemes such as CEDA.
 Provide training to agriculture staff and farmers
 Provides improved research and educational facilities
 Takes responsibility for controlling nationally I portent disease and parasites.
 Pays compensation to farmers incases of loss of stock to predators
 Promotes diversification of agricultural production
 Passed a stock theft bill intended to protect farmers from stock theft
Factors to consider before starting goat production enterprise
• Distance to markets , slaughter and processing centres
• Method of production to adopt and level of production
• Availability of enough land
• Availability of drugs and vaccines
• Availability of suitable breeds of goats
• Availability of permanent water supply
• Incidence of disease and parasites
• Availability and costs of labour
• Availability and costs of credit
• Viability of the project
• Feasibility study of the proposed project
Breeds of Goats
- Boer - British Alphine
- Saanen -
- Toggernburg - Tswana
Classification of Goats and their characteristics
Mohair Breeds _- Angora
• A large horned breeds
• Body covered with long, soft wavy hair,
• Adapt to a fairly dry climate but suffers recurrent abortion.
• It is a dual purpose breed but mainly kept for mohair.
Dairy breed- Saanen, British Alphine and Toggernburg

70
 Saanen
• A large size dairy breed, usually polled
• Body covered with short hair, white/ cream coloured, has erect ears
• Docile and gentle nature
• High milk producers averaging 3 L
Dual purpose breed - These are breeds which can be reared for more than
one product.
Boer, Tswana and Angora
Boer
• A large and fast maturing breed
• White in body colour with reddish brown heads
• Quite hardy and resistant to disease and parasites.
• Well adapted to climatic conditions in SA
• High fertility rate, twins or triplets are common and has good mothering
abilities
• It is dual purpose breed mainly for meat
Tswana
• Hardy and well adopted to the local conditions
• Exhibits reasonable growth
• Produce good quality carcass and does produce satisfactory milk
Hence called dual purpose breed.
Importance of housing in goat production
• Protects goats from adverse weather conditions eg entensive heat cold, draught
and rain
• Protect from predators and thieves
• Keeps mother and young ones together for a few days after kidding
• Facilitate general management of goats
Importance of providing food and water regularly to goats
• To maintain goats in strong and healthy conditions at all times.
• To increase fertility of, hence rate of conception in breeding stock.
• To enables goats to produce more efficiently
• To allow rapid growth of foetus and build up of body tissues
• To maintain high milk production in lactating goats.
Types of Feeds for goats
• Roughages – browse and grazing from natural pasture, hay and silages
• Concentrates – usually fed to lactating goats.
• Supplementary feeds – bonemeal and salts and mineral licks

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Routine management Practice
Castration
Deworming
Vaccination
Hoof trimming
Identification
Castration- removal or destruction of testes to prevent a male from breeding.
Tools used
.Burdizo
.Rubber ring and an elastrator
.Knife\scalpel

PROCEDURE
• Burdizzo- a bloodless method in which burdizo is used to crush spermatic cords
• Elastrator and Rubber ring band/ ring – a band is placed on scrotum above the
testicles
• Knife or scalpel – knife is used to cut the lower part of the scrotum, testes are
pushed out and their cords are scraped off, disinfect the wound with Stockholm
tar.
Deworming - Giving of anthelmintics to goats to prevent internal parasites,
Reasons
• Prevent spread of worms
• Prevent economic loss due to death
• Improve resistance of goats to diseases
• To attain fast growth and maturit
Tools used
.Drenching gun,dosing gun

PROCEDURE

Hold the animal,hold the head up,place the drug at the back of the throat.
Hoof trimming – cutting back the elongated or overgrown hooves of livestock
Reasons
• Control foot rot
• Prevent build up of parasites and dirt between hooves
• Keep animal in groomed and condition
• Prevent lameness and reduce stress in goats
.Tools used
Hoof trimmer,strong clippers

PROCEDURE
Hold the animal,clean the hoof,cut the overgrown without causing bleeding.

Vaccination – Administration of vaccines to animals to produce immunity to certain

Diseases.
Tool used : Syringe and needle

72
Identification- means giving each goat a mark or number to distinguish it from all the
other goats.
Method of Identification
Branding - a mark or a number is placed on the skin of the animal using extreme heat or
cold
Tool used: Branding iron.
Ear tagging – small numbered stripped metal or plastic ear tag is attached to the ear of
every kid using ear tag applicator
Ear notching – small pieces of an ear clipped out using ear notcher
Ear – tattooing : Numbers are made in the ear using tattoo forceps and needle and
shape of numbers
Parasites of goats
Internal
• Round worm
• Tape worm
• Liver flukes
• Wire worms

External
 Fleas
 Lice
 Ticks
 Mites

73
Round worm
An internal parasites of goats.
Life Cycles of round Worm:

The goat pass The eggs

faeces with eggs. hatch into
The eggs pass out larvae and
into pasture. ingested by
the grazing
animal

Inside the host

larvae develop into
mature worms
which lay eggs after
mating thus
completing the life
cycle.

Effects of round worm

• Poor condition and very slow rate of growth.
• Cause reduced production of milk, mohair and meat.
• Cause lowered resistance to disease, and general unthrift ness
• Affected goats have harsh, rough coat with the hair standing up( staring coat)
• Cause diarrhea ( scours ) anemia , loss of appetite and coughing in severe cases.
• May results to death of kids.
Control and prevention
• Maintain high standards of hygiene and sanitation.
• Suspected animals should de isolated and treated for round worms.
• Practice routine dosing using recommended anthelmintics such as dylox,
phenothiazine, copper II sulphate and Oviva x 6.
• Graze goats on well drained pasture, avoid wet and marshy pastures.

74
 • Practice rotational grazing to break the life cycle of the round worm

Diseases of Goats.
Pulpy kidney, Contagious abortion,
Foot rot, Bloat,
Foot and mouth, Black quarter,
Heart water, Mastitis. Anthrax

Foot rot caused by bacteria

Symptoms
• Pus forms between hooves leading to lameness, difficulties in walking
• Hooves bleed and smell badly
• Goats are seen grazing while kneeling if the front legs are affected.
Treatment
• Isolate goats and trim off over grown hooves and rotten tissues and then clean
with antiseptic eg. Copper II sulphate solution or dettol.
• Apply penicillin or tetracycline in a spray or cream form to affected hooves
until healed,
Control and Prevention measures
• Practices regular hoof examination and trimming
• Isolate affected goats immediately for treatments
• Walk them through a foot bath containing 25% of Copper II suphate solution
• Practice rotational grazing and avoid keeping goats in a filthy kraal.
Goats products
• Meat, Milk products, Milk, Mohair
Goats By- products
• Skin and pelts, manure, blood meal bone meal gut

Marketing of goats
• Goats are sold to local butchers, individuals, middleman. Skin and pelts are sold
to skin dealers and mohair is for exports market. Goat meat is sold to the public
via local butchers and supermarkets.

75
REPRODUCTION IN CATTLE

Reproduction- Process which involve fusion of male and female to give birth to a young
animal
LEAVE A SPACE FOR THE DRAWING OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A
COW

Function of parts labeled

Ovaries- produce ova and female sex hormones.
Fallopian tube (Oviduct): Provide site for fertilization and conveys ovum to uterus.
Uterus: Provides site for implantation of zygote, where the embryo develops into a
foetus; protects and nourishes the foetus until birth and contraction of its
muscles aid the in the birth process.
Vagina: Receives male organs during copulation and serves as a birth canal at
parturition.
Cervix: Seals off the uterus during pregnancy and prevents pathogens from entering into
it,opens during giving birth.
Vulva: External parts of a cow opening of the reproductive pats . It facilitates mating and
serves as an exit through which foetus and urine are expelled.
Bull
LEAVE A SPACE FOR A REPRODUCTIVEW SYSTEM OF A BULL
Testis: Produce male gametes, spermatozoa.
Epididymis: receives sperms and from testes and store them until they mature.
Sperm duct; Convey mature sperms from epididymis to the penis.
Accessory glands; Add fluids to protect semen.
Urethra; Conveys semen or urine to the outside through the penis.
Penis ; Copulatory organ that introduces semen into female’s vagina during mating.
Penis sheath; Covers and protects penis
Scrotum; Encloses testis and regulates its temperature so that sperms do not die.
Cowper’s gland, prostrate gland and seminal vesicle together makes the accessory
glands.

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Process of reproduction in cattle;
Involves production of gametes from matured cow and bull : mating to introduce male
gametes into female reproductive system, Fertilizations, fusion of male sex cells to
produces zygote; development of zygote into foetus inside the female’s body, and end of
gestation period and parturition
Puberty
It is the stage when reproductive processes begin to function in a young male and
females.
Age of puberty for a heifer is 9 – 18 months average 10.5 months. The weight for puberty
is 200 – 260kg.
Factors influencing puberty are:
 Type of breed
 Season
 Feeding level
 Environmental factors
 Level of management
Heat period
A period when female animal is ready to mate. It lasts for 10-26 hrs averaging to 18
months.
Signs of heat period
 Redness of vulva
 Restless and frequent bellowing
 Frequent urination
 Loss of appetite, and slight drop in milk
 Clear ,thin mucus discharge from the vulva.
 Allow tha bull to mount without running away
 Mounting other cows in front.
Oestrus Cycles - It is the interval between one heat period and the next. It lasts for 21
days . During this period series of changes occur in animal body.
It is marked by development of ova , heat period, ovulation, preparation of uterus to
receive the zygote.
Ovulation – The release of one or more ova from ovaries to the oviduct.

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 Fertilization – A process where by a sperm fuses/unites with an ovum to form a
zygote.
Gestation period -A period between fertilization to parturition. It is 280 – 285 days.
Care of cow during pregnancy
 Protection from pests and diseasesat all times.
 Provision of adequate and correct nutrition.
 Allow dry period of a bout 60 days to a lactating cow.
 Careful handling and herding to avoid stress
 Allow regular exercise in cases of zero grazing.
 Ensure check up by a veterinary doctor.
Parturition – It is the process of giving birth or the time of calving.
Signs of parturition
 Cow become restless and seek a secluded place for calving.
 Udder enlarges and become fully developed.
 Appearance of the first milk.
 Vulva enlarges and a discharge of a plug of mucus from it.
 Cervix opens and uterus begins a series of contraction.
 Considerably relaxation of pelvic ligaments to allow for enlargement of
pelvic.
Dystokia- Means difficult or prolonged parturition.
Causes of dystokia
 Abnormal presentation- breech presentation.
 Large size of the calf.
 extremely small size of the cow
 Genetic factors e.g large cows with square rumps
 Weakness of the mother cow.
Control of Dystokia
 Regular check up by a veterinarian or an experienced.
 Heifers must develop well and must not calve too young.
 Use bulls with medium birth weight and avoid extremes in selection of a bull.
 Do not over feed heavily pregnant cows and heifers.
 Zero grazed cows should be allowed regular exercises to keep them fit.
 Avoid selecting cows with square rumps.

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Breeding – Process of mating selected male and females in order to produce young ones.
Selection – Process of choosing specified animals to serve as parents of the future
generation.
Factors on which selection is based
 Age of animal
 Body conformation
 Fertility rate
 Growth rate
 Resistance to disease and drought
 Heritability of the traits
 Parentage

Cross Breeding – Mating two animals of the same species but defferent breeds
Advantages of Cross breeding
 Produce hybrid vigour in offspring Hybrid vigour is the improved vigour of
performance above the parental average.
 Combine the desirable traits of two or more animals
 Introduce genetic variability in a herd of animals.
 Results in increased production in regard to fertility
 Results in establishment of new breeds
disadvantages
 Crossbred animals do not breed true to their kind
 Needs specialised skill and knowledge
 Require keeping different breeds of bulls.

Inbreeding – Form of pure breeding involving mating closely related animals eg Mother
and son, Father and daughter.
Advantages
 Concentrates desirable traits in a herd
 Can expose undesirable characteristics
 Useful in achieving uniformity in respect to certain traits in a herd
 Requires less skills to do

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disadvantages
 Results in inbreeding depression , decreased performance with respect to some
traits
 Give rise to deformed offspring as it helps to concentrates lethal genes in a herd.
 Undesirable traits can get concentrated in a herd along side desirable traits

Up grading – Form of cross breeding involving mating of pure sires of a superior breeds
with females of an inferior grade generation after generation to improve the
offspring.
Advantages of upgrading
 Up graded animal retain some proportion of their good grades.
 Relatively economic al as only bulls from other breed or even AI can be used for
upgrading
 There is no danger of developing unwanted offspring since the traits of the
offspring are known.
 It can be easily done through AI.
 Produce hybrid vigour in the upgraded animal
Disadvantages
 Require proper knowledge and skill of breeding which may not be available in
farmers.
 Usually difficult to get good quality bull.
 Compared to random mating its expensive.
 It takes along time to improve a breed.
Other methods of animal improvement
 Better feeding and management
 Gene transfer, involving injection of genes from one species to another.
 Proper animal protection against diseases and parasites
Methods used to control breeding of cattle.
Castration-this will lead to a male animal not producing young ones.
Bull separation-only selected bulls will be allowed to mate.
Culling-we get rid of any bulls we do not need or prevent them from mating.

Artificial Insemination
The act of depositing in the appropriate part of the female reproductive tract.
This can be done naturally or artificially.
Natural mating
Means use of a bull to mate females.
Advantages
 More accurate as males are the best detectors of females on heat.
 Eliminates the need to check for heat period
 Useful when oestrus in females is difficult to detect.
Disadvantages of
 High chances of inbreeding and uncontrolled mating

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  Expensive to buy and maintain bulls
 Large males can injure small females.
 Waste a lot of semen
 Venereal diseases or parasites are easily spread
Artificial Insemination
• - means depositing semen in the uterus of a cow by hand using an
insemination syringe or any other suitable equipment.
Advantages
 Control or Eliminates the transmission of venereal disease or breeding disease
and parasites
 Efficient use of the semen ( semen of the superior can be use to serve many
cows)
 Allows for more rapid genetic improvement as any farmer can have access to
semen from top quality semen
 Eliminate danger and costs associated with keeping bulls
 Avoid large bulls injuring small cows
 Easy to control breeding and inbreeding
 Semen can easily be transported to serve cows in the in remote areas.
 Semen can be stored for a long time even after the death of a bull
 It is much cheaper to transport a semen than a bull
Disadvantages
 Needs for accurate detection of oestrus period
 Not successful on females that have silent heat period
 Require trained personnel to carry it out successfully
 Storage facilities for the semen is expensive and may not be readily available.
Semen Collection
Requirement ( A bull, a dummy or teaser, artificial, vagina an inseminator, and Electro
Ejaculator
Procedure.
A bull is allowed to mount a dummy or teaser cow. Its penis is gently grabbed and
directed to artificial vagina which stimulates ejaculation.
Ejaculation can be stimulated by an electro ejaculator

Semen dilution and storage

Semen, microscope, nutrients solution, buffer solution, antibiotics,
Dimethysulphoxide, disposable straw, canisters, Liquid nitrogen, Liquid nitrogen
container,
Procedure.
After collection, semen is examined using micro scope to detect abnormalities in the
semen and determine its sperm count.
Distilled water-for volume
Buffer solution – that contain salts to maintain desirable pH and osmotic
pressure.
Dimethylsulphoxide - to prevent cellular damage during thawing.
Nutrients Solution(egg yolk)– that contain nutrients for the semen
Antibiotics – to prevent bacterial infection

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 Diluted semen is packed into disposable straws and place in canisters within a
cylinder containing liquid nitrogen in a freezer at a temperature at – 196C

How AI is carried out in cattle

Requirement : A cow in oestrus , an inseminator, warm water at 37oC, frozen semen in
a straw an insemination gun and pipette.
Procedure: When a cow is to be inseminated, a straw of semen is thawed and placed in a
special pipette fitted with an insemination gun/ syringe. One hand of an inseminator is
placed in the rectum to guide the pipette into the vagina and through the cervix. When the
pipette is position d correctly, the semen is deposited in the lower part of the uterus.

Period/Season when cows are artificially inseminated in Botswana and why

Cows are artificially inseminated in Botswana in the months of January, February and
March that is during the breeding season. During these months grazing is at its best, so
the breeding animals are in good health and conditions for mating. Thus increasing
chances of conception. Calving will take place between October and December when the
weather is warm.Parasites will die during dry season and when calves start grazing,
young tender grass will have appeared.

AI CAMPS
Ramatlabama
Dibete
Makoro
Morupule
Ncojane
Sefhophe
Makalamabedi
Nokaneng
Goodhope
Tsatsu
Makoba

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BEEF PRODUCTION
General Characteristics of a Beef Cattle
 Short, strong and blocky /square shaped body with a good covering of flesh all
over.
 Efficient converters of feeds into meat and fats
 Short legs that are well set apart with a small udder.
 Ability to grow fast and mature early
 Have large brisket, broad back and square rumps
 Resistant to most livestock diseases and parasites.

Breeds of Beef Cattle in Botswana

1.Tswana- The only native breed to Botswana.
2.Afrikander
3.Brahman
4.Simmental
5.Bonsmara
6.Tuli
7.Hereford

Recommended Beef Cattle Breeds in Botswana

They include -Tswana
-Tuli
-Brahman
-Simmental

Tswana breed is recommended for the following reasons;

# Well adapted to the harsh Botswana climatic conditions

# Highly tolerance to a wide range of diseases found in Botswana
# Ability to efficiently utilise poor quality rangelands grazing areas found in Botswana.
# Very hardy, produces fairly good quality carcass and has a fair reproductive
performance.

Tuli breed is recommended for the following reasons;

• Fairly well adapted to Botswana conditions

• Has excellent calving percentage and high fertility rate
• High growth rate and good carcass quality

Brahman breed is recommended for the following reasons;

 Resistant to heat due to its big skin surface and short fine coat

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  Need less nutrition to meet its maintenance requirements
 Resistant to tick infestation and eye infection
 Produce a large carcass and has a rapid growth rate

Simmental breed is recommended for the following reasons;

o Fairly well adapted to Botswana climatic conditions

o Produce a large carcass.
o It’s calves shows very rapid growth rate

Systems of Rearing Beef Cattle

i Communal grazing system

ii Ranching system

i. Communal Grazing System-main features include;

 Cattle graze on unenclosed communal pastures and common use of water

resources
 No limits to the number of livestock to keep on the grazing land
 Overgrazing is common especially around the watering points
 Management is poor, usually under the hands of unskilled and unmotivated
labourers scarcely supervised by the owners
 Low capital investment and productivity of livestock is also low.

Advantages of the Communal Grazing System

- Inputs costs are usually low
- A large number of cattle can be kept in an area (traditionally number of
cattle is a measure of wealth and determines one’s status)
- Skilled manpower is less important

Disadvantages of the Communal Grazing System

• Difficult to control breeding and feeding due to uncontrolled movement of
livestock
• Overstocking leads to overgrazing, soil erosion and rangeland degradation
• Parasites and diseases are difficult to control
• Cattle may destroy others people’s crops
• Difficult to preserve fodder for the dry season
• Government finds it difficult to provide assistance and extension service
• Production under this system is normally low.

ii. Ranching System- main features include;

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 • Practised in freehold or leasehold ranches
• Grazing land is fenced and paddocked
• Managed on commercial lines, maximization of profit being the main objective
• There’s high standard of management, owners provide daily supervision or
employ trained managers
• There’s improved animal husbandry practices such as controlled grazing,
controlled breeding, regular disease control and parasite control and weaning of
calves
• Capital investment is quite high and productivity is much higher

Advantages of Ranching System

* Diseases and parasites are easily controlled
* Breeding is easily controlled
* Better use of pastures since controlled grazing is practised
* It is possible to preserve fodder for the dry season
* Weaning of calves is easily carried out
* Conservation and sustainable use of range resources can be practised
* Management of farms is usually on the hands of skilled ranch managers
* Registers high productivity and high return to capital
* There is security of land tenure system that allows farmers to benefit from their
investments

Disadvantages of Ranching System

 Involves high capital investment and requires skilled people
 It requires a lot of land yet grazing land is limited
 There’s limitation on number of livestock to keep therefore, it is contrary to
Botswana’s culture

Management of Beef Cattle

1.Housing:
- Beef cattle are kept entirely out of doors with simple kraals to shelter them at night
and protect them from predators.
- A weather proof store for tools, medicines, bone meal and salt is essential.
- A loading ramp and handling structures such as dip tank and crush are also needed

2. Feeding:
- Is mainly by grazing natural pastures and browsing.
- In winter, or during drought, supplementary feeds, silage, hay and crop
residues are provided.
- Bone meal and salt or Dicalcium phosphate and salt are provided at all times to
counteract phosphorus deficiency in the grass.
- Calves are allowed to suckle their mothers for 7 - 9 months before weaning.

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 3. Watering:
- Beef cattle should have free access to fresh, clean water free from parasites at all
times.
- Water is essential for; # normal body processes
# regulates body temperature
# production function
- Sources of water for livestock in Botswana are;
 bore holes
 dams
 rivers

4. Breeding Control:
Done through the following means; - castration
- culling
- bull separation

( i) Castration : Bulls not wanted for breeding will have their testicles
removed or otherwise destroyed to prevent them from mating.

(ii) Culling : Bulls undesired for breeding are removed from the flock to
prevent them from breeding with the entire herd.

(iii) Bull separation: Bulls kept for breeding are kept separate from cows
until needed for servicing to control the time for breeding.

5. Dehorning and Disbudding

- Dehorning is the removal of horns from cattle.
- Disbudding is the removal of or prevention of growth of horn buds in young cattle.

Importance of Dehorning And Disbudding

* To prevent animals from hurting each other and attendants
*Dehorned cattle are easier to handle than those with horns.
*High quality hides are obtained as they are not torn by horns.
*Dehorned / polled cattle occupy less space in feeding and watering points as well as in
loading trucks.
*At B.M.C, farmers are paid a premium for disbudding their cattle.

Tools for Disbudding

- Dehorning iron
- Caustic soda
-Scoop dehorner

Tools for Dehorning

- Sharp knife
- Guillotine
- Scoop dehorner

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- Saw
-Elastrator band
-Dehorning wire
Note: Stockholm tar is used on wounds to prevent infections and at times local
anaesthetics are given to animals to prevent pains.

6. Weaning
- It is defined as the separation of calves from the mother to allow it to recover for
subsequent calving.
- It can be achieved by the use of nose plates on the calves but the separation into another
paddock is more successful.
- Calves are usually weaned at about 7 - 10 months of age.

Methods of Weaning
1. Complete Weaning
- In this system the young animals are separated from their mothers and kept in separate
paddocks where they will never meet their mothers.
- Food and water are then provided to the weaners in these paddocks.
2. Partial / Incomplete weaning
- In this technique the calves are not separated completely from their mothers .
Two types of partial weaning
(a ) The use of herdboys- these are used during the day to avoid calves mixing with
their mothers. Calves are only allowed to meet with their mothers in the evening.
(b) The use of nose plates -In this technique, the calves stay with their mothers but are
prevented from suckling by the use of nose plate placed on their nose.
Importance/Significance of Weaning
1.Weaning allows cows to gain weight and energy when calves stops suckling
2. Weaning allows cows to come on heat soon after drying
3. Weaning facilitates easy separation of different age groups of animals for better
management and handling.
7. Identification of Beef Cattle
Beef cattle can be identified by;

 Brands
 Ear tags
 Ear tattoos
 Ear notches
A combination of ear tags and brands is recommended in Botswana.
A) Branding
The making of a permanent and readily visible mark or number on the skin of an animal
for identification purposes.

Two Types of Branding

1) Hot branding
2) Cold/freeze branding

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1) Hot Branding
- Brand number or mark is burnt onto the skin of a calf at suitable position using a dull
red(stainless steel) hot iron.
-Hot branding is recommended for use in Botswana.
Advantages
 Less skill is needed to do it.
 It is quick and simple to be done
 Brand number is visible and permanent throughout the life span of an animal.
Disadvantages
 Stainless steel branding irons are expensive.
 Brand marks reduce the value of the hides.
 Branding may cause deep wounds that take long time to heal.
2) Ear Tagging
- A small strip of metal or plastic with a number is attached to the ear of every calf soon
after birth.
- An ear tag applicator is an instrument used to attach ear tags to the ears of calves.
Advantages
 Does not reduce the value of hides.
 It is easy and painless to apply.
 Number of a metal ear tag remain legible throughout the life of an animal.
Disadvantages
 Ear tags can get lost, especially the plastic ones.
 Metal tags need close inspection to ensure accurate reading.
 Plastic tags do not remain legible through out the life of an animal.
Parasites of Beef Cattle
-A parasite is any organism that depends upon another organism for its survival, as it gets
its nourishment from its host animal.
Two Types of Parasites
1) external or ecto parasite
2) internal or indo parasite
1) Internal Parasites
These are parasites that are found or live inside the body of an animal and depend on the
host for their survival.
Examples
-Tape worms
- Liver flukes
- Round worms
- Hook /wire worms
Effects of Internal Parasites on the Host
1.They suck the blood from the host and make it anaemic
2.Reduce the growth of the host and make it weak
3.Cause pain and irritation to the host
4.They are liable for the spread of pests and diseases

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Control And Prevention of Internal Parasites
# Practice routine vaccination of cattle
# Maintain high standards of hygiene in the animal houses
#Avoid contamination of animal feeds and water with cow dung (faeces)
#Disinfecting the animals’ houses regularly
Treatment of Internal Parasites
- Deworm the animals regularly using worm remedies such as panacur and nasalcur.
- Administer anthelmentic drugs such as ivomac.
Life Cycle of a Beef Tape Worm
-Adult tapeworm in the intestines of a person
-Segments with tape worm eggs released with feaces on grass
-Cattle eat grass contaminated with eggs
-Life cycle of a beef tapeworm
-Larva from eggs form cysts in the muscles
-Person eats poorly cooked meat with cysts
External/Ecto parasites
- They live on the skin of an animal and feed by sucking blood from the host animal.
- They may also carry disease from one animal to another.
Examples
- ticks
-fleas
-tsetse fly
Ticks
-There are different types of ticks that live on the skin of the animal around the ears and
neck, near the tail and on the dewlap.
- They feed by sucking blood.
- They are related to the spiders.
- The adult have small round bodies with eight legs.
Life Cycle of One Host Tick
- There are four (4) distinct stages in its life cycle: -eggs
-larvae
-nymph
-mature tick
- A one host tick completes its life cycle on one host animal i.e once the larva attaches its
self to an animal it develops into an adult tick while still on the same host
Steps
1. A female tick sucks blood from a host until she becomes fully engorged (full of
blood),then she drops to the ground and lays thousands of fertilized eggs on the grass.
2. The eggs hatch into tiny tick or larvae which have six legs.
These larvae climb to the tips of grass leaves and wait here for cattle to either brush
against them or lie down on the grass.
3.The larvae crawls to the new host and start sucking blood.
Soon they change into eight legged nymphs,then into male and female adult ticks.

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While they are going through these changes, ticks may drop off their host for a while and
be picked up later by another host.
This can happen several times and it means that ticks can easily carry disease causing
organism from one animal to another.
4.The male and female ticks mate .
The female tick become engorged with blood, drop off from the host animal and lays her
eggs on the grass, starting the life-cycle over again.
Effects of Ticks on the Host
@ Heavy infestation causes severe disability, anaemia and lower resistance to diseases
@ Transmit various tick born diseases such as - heart water
- gall sickness
- red water
@ cause wounds that may start off -infections
@ reduce the value of hides
@ ticks can cause blood poisoning resulting in death of animal
Control And Prevention
* Regular dipping or spraying of livestock.
*Practise rotational grazing to break the life-cycle of ticks.
*Practise controlled burning of heavily infested pastures
*Fencing farms to keep out unwanted animals for example wild animals
Diseases of Beef Cattle
Examples
- Heart water
-Foot and mouth disease (F.M.D.)
-Cattle lung disease
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF DISEASES
1.They cause losses of production due to deaths and sub optimal performance of diseased
animal
2.May ruin the export market of beef since importing countries must be assured of no risk
of importing diseases into their countries.
1. HEART WATER
Cause : protozoa of the Rickettis spp spread by a bont tick
Symptom/Signs
Affected animal show the following:
# Develops nervous symptoms such as champing of the jaws, animal moves in circles,
become restless, place head against hard objects, twitching eyelids and lips, and
uncoordinated leg movements.
#Fever, dullness, and loss of appetite
#Protrusion of the tongue
#When animal fall down, it may paddle its legs in the air before dying
POSTMORTEM FINDING
Collection of access fluid in the heart sac

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TREATMENT
Treatment is only effective in the early stages i.e before the onset of the nervous
symptoms. Antibiotics such as tetracycline and sulphonamides are given to the affected
animal.
CONTROL AND PREVENTION
a. Regular dipping of animals to control bont ticks
b. Administer ’heart water’ to susceptible animals and treat subsequent infection that
develops with tetracycline
1. FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE (FMD)
It is a highly contagious disease that affects only cloven hooved animals
Cause: Virus
The African buffalo transmits the disease
Symptoms and or signs
Saliva streams out of the mouth.
Blisters on the tongue, dental pad, gums, roof of the mouth
Marketing beef cattle
Beef producers sell their animals to individuals, local butcheries and Botswana
Meat Commission (BMC)
Age and weight at which beef cattle are marketed
Age-2-3 years
Weight-450 kg
Beef grades used at Botswana Meat Commission
-Prime grade (zero-two permanent teeth)
-Super grade (three-four permanent teeth)
-Grade 1 (five –six permanent teeth)
-Grade 2 (eight permanent teeth)
-Grade 3 (eight permanent teeth which are now worn out)
-Grade 4 (eight permanent teeth which are now worn out)
The above order is based on quality, tenderness, free from diseases which are
mostly affected by age of the animal.
Beef products
Boneless beef
Offal
Corned beef
By-products
Hides and skins
Blood meal
Carcass meal
Tallow (animal fat)
Horns

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DAIRY PRODUCTION
Dairy cattle are animals kept mainly for milk production.
Importance of dairy production in Botswana
1) Source of milk(a cheaper source of protein than meat)
2) Source of raw material for food industries.
3) Source of income for dairy farmers.
4) Source of employment, particularly in rural areas.
5) Source of beef(male dairy animals)
The demand and supply situation of dairy products in Botswana
Demand for dairy products is higher than the supply of milk in Botswana.
Botswana is about 25% self sufficient in liquid milk, 75% of the country requirements are
imported. All other milk products are imported.
Factors limiting dairy production in Botswana
 Lack of capital(money)
 Lack of managerial skills.
 Shortage of drinking water.
 Shortage of grazing land.
 Problems of parasites and diseases.
Solutions to the above mentioned problems
 Provision of funds by the government through schemes like NAMPAADD.
 Teaching of dairy production in school.
 Training of farmers through workshops and seminars.
 Control of animal diseases and parasites by the veterinary department(animal
health and production)
Requirements for starting dairy production enterprise
 A farm
 Electricity
 Milk breeds of animals
 Quality pasture
 Reliable clean source of water supply
 Milking parlour / milking shed
 Availability of adequate capital.
Dairy breeds found in Botswana
• Friesian
• Jersey
• Brown Swiss
• Simmental
• Guernsey
What is a dairy cow?
 Cattle that is able to convert most feed into milk and metabolize nutritive material
into milk efficiently.

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Characteristics of a good and a bad dairy cow

Good Dairy Cow Bad Dairy Cow

Large stomach Small stomach
Body carries little flesh Has well fleshed body
Angular or wedge shaped Blocked-shaped
Large and well developed udder with well Small and poorly developed udder with
spaced teats unevenly spaced teats
Docile with mild temperament Wild temperament
Calves regularly and has long lactation Calves irregularly and has short lactation
Resistant to diseases, parasites and ambient Prone to diseases, parasites and ambient
temperature temperature
Dairy production records
1. Milk production records;- Records milk produced per cow and per day.
Importance of milk production records
 To cull unproductive dams
 To select replacement stock
 To calculate profit per cow or for a whole herd
 To determine production per cow over a given period
 To compare production with other farmers in the area.
Example of milk production record sheet
Monthly milk record (kg) Month------------- Year -----------
Day Morning or Names of cows
evening milking Abi Ebi Obi Ubi Piki Poki
1 AM
PM
2 AM
PM
3 AM
PM
4 AM
PM
5 AM
PM
6 AM
PM

TOTAL
2. Breeding Records
- Records details of breeding activities of individual dams and bulls.
For example;
 Date of service
 Date of calving
 Birth weight

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  Sex and number of calves
 Bull number and breed used.
3. Operational records
- Records the followings;
 Date of weaning
 Dates for weighing
 Dates due for castration, vaccination, drenching.
4. Feed records
- Records the followings;
 Amount fed to animals daily
 Amount of feed in store
 Food conversion rates.
5. Health records
- Records the following details;
Vaccinations
 Outbreak of diseases and parasites
 Treatments and remedies used.
Importance of health records
 They help farmers to know what animals to cull on health grounds.
 They remind farmers when certain diseases/parasites prevention operations are to
be carried out.
Importance of keeping dairy production records
 To monitor the daily performance of a dairy cow.
 To help farmers to get loan from the banks.
 To determine whether the business is making a profit or loss.
 Records serve as true guides for other people who want to start the business.
What is colostrum?
- The first milk of a dam in the first 3-5 days after calving.
Importance/Advantages of feeding colostrums to a newly born calf
 Colostrum contains antibodies to protect the calf from diseases.
 Colostrum is highly nutritive (rich in proteins, vitamins and minerals) and
digestible.
 Colostrum has a laxative effects so it helps the calf to get rid of foetal dung.
What is weaning?
- The separation of calves from their dams permanently and stopping them from suckling.
Reasons for weaning
 To save milk that can be sold for income.
 To improve the dam’s condition and health.
 To facilitate carrying out of certain operations on calves.
 To allow dams to come on heat and get pregnant in the next breeding.
 To provide the calf with an opportunity to fully develop its rumen so it may
handle roughages.
How long should a calf stay with the dam before weaning?
- Dairy calves are allowed to suckle their mothers a week to 16 weeks depending on the
management system in place.

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Management of calves after weaning
- This involves the followings;
• Housing
• Feeding
• Diseases and parasites control
• Selection and culling
• Breeding
Management of dairy cows
Kraals-Simply constructed shelter to house cows at night.
Milking parlour/Dairy shed-A house in which cows can be milked under some
degree of comfort and cleanliness. It should have a roof, concrete floor, stalls, dung
gutter, a passage and a food trough.
Dairy-A room or building where milk is weighed, cooled, filtered and stored until
transported for selling.
Calf pens-Individual stalls in which calves are reared while still suckling their
mothers. It should be well ventilated, warm and free from draught and should be
kept clean.
Crush pen-Used for holding and securing animals when vaccinating, hoof
trimming, castrating and ear tagging.
Feed store-Used to store livestock feeds.
Zero grazing unit-A permanent structure used to house dairy cows continuously
under intensive system.
Types of feeds for dairy cows
1. Roughages
2. Concentrates
3. Mineral supplements.
1) Roughages;
- Examples; grass, fodder crops, silage and hay.
- Usually fed to provide nutrients for maintenance and a limited amount of milk
production.
2) Concentrates;
- Examples; dairy meal, dry cow meal and calf starter meal.
- they are fed in addition to roughages to obtain additional milk production.
3) Mineral supplements
- Examples; mineral licks like winter lick, dicalcium phosphate and salt, bone meal and
salt. Dicalcium phosphate and salt should be provided during dry periods.
Water requirements
-A dairy cow requires 35 litres plus 3 litres per litre of milk produced daily.
Importance of good nutrition in dairy production
 It prevents occurrence of nutritional diseases.
 It increases fertility in breeding stock.
 It ensures sustained economic level of milk production.
 It ensures proper maintenance and growth of dairy animals.
 It ensures proper nourishment of unborn calves and calves after birth.

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 Diseases of dairy cattle
1. Milk fever
2. Mastitis
3. Brucellosis
4. Tuberculosis
5. Foot and mouth
6. Heart water
7. Anthrax
8. Bloat
Milk fever disease
- It is a non-infectious, deficiency disease of cattle due to low blood calcium
after the sudden start of milk production
Cause;
- Low blood calcium in dairy cows.
Symptoms/signs
 Excitement
 Paralysis and then fall down in convulsions
 Rumen stops moving (rumen staysis)
 Saliva oozes from mouth
 Temperature drops to 350C
 Death may finally occur.
Treatment
- Intravenous injection of calphon to prevent heart failure.
- Intravenous or subcutaneous injection of calcium borogluconate.
Control and prevention
- Provide high calcium content feeds.
- Injection of 5 ml vigantol E or Detanol E or Zylphon a month before
calving.
Mastitis diseases
- It is a bacterial infection of the udder.
- It can be chronic or acute.
Cause;
- Bacterial infection of the udder.
Symptoms/Signs
- Inflammation of one or more quarters of the udder
- Udder becomes enlarged and hard.
- Animal rejects suckling or milking and kicks.
- Drastic reduction in milk production.
- Milk contains pus.
- Affected udder gets dead.
Treatment
- Treat early cases with antibiotics.
- Massage affected quarter or udder with a hot pad, milk out teat and fill it
up with antibiotics.

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 - Give antibiotic injections.

Control and prevention

Use correct milking techniques;
- Strict cleanliness and use of disinfectants during milking
- Milking machines must be properly adjusted.
- Infusion of long acting antibiotic into teats at the beginning of dry period.
Clean milk production (Milking hygiene);
- It involves the following practices;
 Maintaining clean healthy cows that are well trained for milking.
 Keep all milking utensils and equipment sterile as possible.
 Maintain milking shed spotless clean before milking.
 Milkers and other personnel involved in handling milk must be clean and free
from infectious diseases at all times.
 Milkers should wash hands and udder with warm sanitizing water before milking.
 Wash components of milking machine in disinfectant, particularly metal teat cups.
 Practise teat dipping after milking to control the spread of mastitis.
 Apply milking cream on teats to avoid teat cracking.
 Always cover milk after milking.
Preparation done before milking
 Clean the milking parlour/shed and the surrounding areas thoroughly.
 Assemble all equipment and materials needed for milking.
 Make sure that every piece of equipment is clean and sterilized, and in good
condition.
 Bring in cows to the milking parlour.
 Provide the cows with concentrate feeds.
 Make sure that you remain calm once the cows are inside.
 Clean hands with clean warm sanitizing water.
 Wash udder and teats with warm sanitizing water.
 Dry the udder and teats with a clean dry cloth.
 Smear teats with milking jelly/cream to avoid cracking of the teats.
 Use a strip cup to test the presence of mastitis.
Handling of milk soon after milking
 Move the milk to the dairy and filter to remove foreign objects.
 Cover the milk well to prevent dust and flies dropping into the milk containers.
 Cool the milk immediately and store it at 40C in closed containers until ready for
market.
 Use vehicles with refrigeration equipment to transport milk from the farm to the
market centre.
Hand versus machine milking
1) Hand milking
- This is a natural way of milking a cow by using hands.
Advantages
 It is easy and cheap to do it.
 It does not require skills.
 It does not require electricity.

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  It creates employment of unskilled labour because it requires more labour.

Disadvantages
 It is slow and requires more labour.
 It is less efficient at milking cows.
 If milkers are carriers of infectious diseases it would result in rapid spread of the
diseases.
2) Machine milking
-This is the use of machines to milk the cows.
Advantages
 It is quick and efficient at milking cows.
 It requires less labour.
 It promotes milk hygiene.(machine components are properly cleaned and
disinfected)
Disadvantages
 It is expensive(machines are expensive to buy and maintain)
 It requires skills.
 It leads to unemployment because it requires less labour.
Milk heat treatment
- This is done to stop bacteria in milk from multiplying.
Two examples of milk heat treatment
A) Milk pasteurization
B) Milk sterilization
A) Milk pasteurisation
-It is a process of heating milk to a temperature of 71-720C for 15 seconds and then
cooled quickly to 100C.
Reasons for milk pasteurization
 To destroy pathogens in milk and make it safe to drink.
 To prevent the spread of zoonotic diseases to humans.
 To increase keeping quality of milk.
B) Milk sterilisation
- It is the process of making milk completely free of living micro-organisms
- For example, UHT milk is heated to temperature of 1350C for 2 seconds
using steam, then cooled rapidly to 200C and packaged in cartons.
Reasons for milk sterilization
 To destroy all micro-organisms in milk.
 To prevent the spread of zoonotic diseases to humans.
 To increase the self life of milk up to 5 months if not opened.
 To allow milk to be transported to distant markets such as export markets.
Making of sour milk(madila)
-There are two methods;
1) Traditional method
2) Modern method

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1) Traditional method
 Fresh milk is added to a special pot(nkgwana), every day until filled up.
 The pot is positioned in a warm place.
 The milk becomes sour, forms curdles, due to the activities of bacteria in the
milk.
 After 3-5 days the curdled mixture is strained through a sack allowing the
whey(liquid part)to drip out, leaving madila in the sack ready for consumption.
2) Modern method
 Pasteurised milk is placed in a container and a starter(a culture of known bacteria)
is added.
 The mixture is left overnight at 15-200C to make it sour.
 Then it is strained to allow the whey to drain away leaving behind the sour
milk(madila).
Marketing of milk and milk products
- Milk can be sold as;
 Fresh milk
 Pasteurised milk
 UHT milk
 Sour milk(madila)
 Milk powder
 Condensed milk
 Low fat milk.
Milk products
 Cheese
 Butter
 Ice-cream
 Yoghurt

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