FACTORS THAT LED TO ABOLITION OF SLAVE TRADE

New economic ideas emerged that militated against slave trade. For instance, Adam Smith’s
theory of Mercantilism argued that slave labour was more expensive than hired labour, hence
capitalists must go for hired labour. His argument was based on expenses incurred in getting
slaves from Africa as well as the reluctance, sabotage and even rebellions by slaves. In the
Americas, for example, slaves destroyed several property and plantations during rebellion.
There was also religious revival in Europe, where Christians largely condemned slave trade as
anti-Christian and anti-human. Anglicans and Catholic popes took the lead in protesting against it,
thereby prohibiting it. Consequently, many religious leaders served as examples when they gave
freedom to their slaves as early as 1774.
Christian missionaries who wanted to evangelise Africa also condemned slave trade as an
obstruction to their mission. Africans could not be persuaded to join Christianity as long as their
European counterparts were engaged in the inhuman trade. Besides, the kidnappings, killings and
migrations for slave raids meant that Africa was too instable for Christian missionaries to settle
and preach, and not conducive for missionaries to gain converts.
To Britain, the reasons for abolition of slave trade were largely economic. She wanted to push out
other European countries that were still benefitting from cheap sugar, among other raw materials
produced by slaves in American plantations. Britain had already industrialised hence not primary
dependent on slave labour. Her booming industries now demanded raw materials and markets, the
two which could be made available if Africans were not removed from Africa as slaves. She also
wanted opportunities to invest surplus capital in Africa
Enlightment ideas in Europe also served to discourage continued trade in African slaves.
Humanitarians like William Wilberforce, Granville Sharp and Thomas Clarkson were inspired by
the American revolution of 1776 and the French revolution of 1789. These revolutions clearly
stated that all human beings are born equal, should have liberty as a natural right as well as
fraternity. The morality to deprive fellow human beings of their liberty was now questioned.

REASONS WHY SUPPRESSION OF SLAVE TRADE TOOK SO LONG

British desire to end slavery and slave trade was made manifest by as early as 1772, when slavery
was abolished in Britain and later on, when Britain abolished slave trade among its subjects in
1807. One would expect therefore, that slave trade was coming to an end immediately. Instead it
took so long to bring the slave business to a halt. In West Africa, the last slave ship was seen in
1866, but in East Africa, slave trade continued up to 1927. Various reasons have been put forward
to explain the prolonged processes of slave trade abolition.

There was opposition from some African states whose lifeline and economic welfare entirely
depended on slave trade. There was active participation and willing cooperation of African chiefs
and coastal traders who were making a lot of profits, making the slave trade last for so long.
Seyyid Said and Bargash in East Africa were always unwilling to end slave trade at once due to
fear of losing revenue and risk of rebellion by Arabs who found it profitable. Asante, Dahomey,
Niger Delta states and Mandinka in West Africa had especially realized so much profits that they
were unwilling to end slave trade. European slave merchants and Africans involved in the trade
began to realise more profits the more Britain intensified its efforts, as slaves became scarce.
The British anti - slave campaign lacked co-operation from other European countries like France,
Portugal, Brazil, Spain and America. This lack of political will was because these countries looked
at the British campaign as selfish, aimed at frustrating their budding industries. Their industries
still relied on raw materials made at a cheap cost of labour. Thus, they half heartedly committed
themselves to suppress slave trade, yet fully committed themselves to smuggling of slaves.
For the sake of sovereignity, African and European states were not willing to co-operate with
Britain. African states questioned Britain’s authority over them, as she dictated to them the trade
that was ‘illegimate’ and ‘legitimate’. Some African states like Dahomey claimed that slave
trade was part of their customs and Britain had no right to deprive them of their culture. European
states as well regarded such treaties as Search and Equipment Treaties as loss of sovereignity to
Britain. Some African chiefs like Seyyid had to be bribed by huge monies to accept abolition, yet
Britain had no enough resources to bribe all agents in the slave trade business
There was no immediate substitute for Slave trade to most African states, which made people
refuse to abandon the trade since their source of livelihood was not guaranteed. The only
economic alternative of slave trade was Agriculture which was not reliable compared to the
booming slave trade. Asante could not easily give up slave trade given that its geographical
location was poor for agriculture, compared to Niger Delta and Dahomey. The crops suggested to
replace slave trade such as rubber, cocoa. palm oil, could not grow in some places of west Africa.
Palm oil and coconuts needed a long time to mature than the British expected. Therefore items for
trade were in short supply at the start. Ivory and gold were scarce.
The anti-slave trade British Squadron had challenges on suppression of slave trade. First, The East
African and West African coastlines were long given the sizes of the squadron. Secondly,
squadrons were left concentrated on the coast when slave trade was carried in the hinterland, and
slave ships would just appear on the coastline when they are up to flee. Thirdly, most British
personnel were affected by the African climate and diseases.
There was smuggling of slaves outside the forbidden areas. Slave traders would pretend to sail
northwards when sighted by British patrol ships but would change course after British navy ships
had disappeared. European powers continued with slave trade, they shipped the slaves cargos in to
ships bearing American flags, as these were not searched.
Some African areas gave suitable geographical places that were difficult for the British squadron
to effectively monitor slave trade. For instance, the lagoons and creeks in the Niger Delta. Slave
ships could appear and disappear in the various creeks provided by the delta, while slave trade
could occur on many parts of the delta unnoticed by the British Squadron. Chasing the slave ships
in the delta was a waste of time
[6/24, 07:43] +263 78 548 6181: TRANSITION TO LEGITIMATE TRADE
Legitimate commerce meant trading in legal and acceptable commodities of exchange like,
clothes, Ivory, coconuts and not human beings. In west Africa up to 1860s, both slave trade and
legitimate trade co-existed e.g. palm oil was continuously exported by the Calabar people while
slaves were exported from Niger delta. Dahomey was exporting both palm oil and slaves, though
gradually retreating from the later. Demand in slaves drastically dropped by 1860s as most of
Europe was mechanised.
In West Africa, the major exports of legitimate trade were palm oil from the Niger Delta and
Dahomey, palm Kemals and also palm wood from Sierra Leone. Senegambia exported
groundnuts, Gold Coast specialized in gold and Ivory Coast focused on ivory. Bee wax and
Ostrich feathers were supplied by Gambia and Cameroon. In exchange, Africans imported guns
and gunpowder, textile, spirits, beads, glassware, whisks and tobacco, among other items.
It must be noted, however that transition to legitimate trade was difficult to African states. Yet
some states were able to move from slave trade to legitimate trade relatively quicker and easier
than others. For some states, abandonment of slave trade brought economic and political miseries,
if not total decline of such states. Niger Delta States and Dahomey serve as prominent examples of
West African states which made it relatively quickly and successfully, compared to Asante and
Samouri’s Mandinka state, among others
Transition to legitimate trade was determined by the following factors, among others:
Proximity to the sea. Nearness to the coast meant ease of transport of commodities. It also meant
dealing directly with European buyers and getting maximum profit rather than through the
middlemen. Asante state was a landlocked state which could only trade through middlemen,
especially the Fante. But because they did not have cordial relations, this proved costly to Asante.
But Niger Delta and Dahomey benefited from their coastal locations.
Availability of economic alternatives. Some states had no ready economic alternatives. Dahomey
and Niger Delta States, fortunately, were located on palm tree belts. Asante could not resort to
palm oil production as there were no palm trees and as the area was not suitable for such.
Agricultural production was not an easy alternative, as the state was located on poor soils with low
rainfalls. Many other states in West Africa could not turn to palm oil and rubber, for instance, as
they needed time to mature.
Visionary leadership. Visionary leadership prepared for the soft landing of their states, as they
foresaw that end of slave trade was a reality, and prepared for life afterwards. While Dahomean
kings were resisting abolition of slave trade on one hand on the other hand, they were massively
expanding palm oil plantations, preparing an economy based on palm oil. In contrast, Asante kings
and many other African chiefs were in denial as late as 1860, and fell on hard times when slave
trade was finally switched off.
Relations with Europeans. Most states that made successful transition were in good relations with
Europeans and benefitted from affirmative action. Europeans for instance, assisted in cash crop
production by giving farming ideas and paying good prices for raw materials as well as
developing transport infrastructure. This is true of coastal states. However, for states like Asante
which had bad relations with Britain, transition to legitimate trade was denied. Deliberately,
Britain sought the collapse of Asante than its transition, as it was accused of being too powerful
and hostile to Europeans.
Religion also played its part in transition. Most African states that were based on Islamic religion,
like those of East Africa, were resistant to transition, swearing that Christians were not in a
position to dictate their economic dispensations. Hence Europeans were mostly opposed to Islam
than to traditional religion, and targeted to destroy rather than assist Africans in their transition.
Samori’s Mandinka was an Islamic stronghold, hence a target for destruction and not Assistance.
Asante was impervious to Christianity, having rejected missionary activities in its boundaries.
Missionaries, instead, called for its breaking up for missionary enterprise as well as stopping its
unending raids for slaves in the neighbourhood.

EFFECTS OF TRANSITION TO LEGITIMATE TRADE

Once slave trade has been relaxed, many changes began to occur in Africa, beginning with the
relations between Africans and Europeans. Africa ceased to be the source of slaves, but supplier of
raw materials and the consumer of European products. European involvement in Africa gradually
increased, culminating into imperialism.
First and foremost was that Africans gained dignity as they were treated as human beings and not
as commodities for exchange. However, the dignity was shortlived as Africans were subjected to
colonialism, eroding away their social, economic and political independence. Africans were
reduced once again to slavery, same if not worse than that slavery which had been abolished by
Britain.
Many trading firms especially from France and Britain stampeded for West Africa. The result was
a serious competition between these companies, leading to the formation of such a giant company
known as Royal Niger Company (R.N Co) which was a chartered company of the British origin.
Already, competition degenerated into conflicts, and losses, thereby creating the urgency for home
governments to intervene and protect own subjects.
Not only did Europeans face competition from each other, but also from African middlemen, who
were organized in business and contributing to losses among European firms. Traders began to call
for home governments to intervene and serve them from competitions from fellow Europeans and
African middlemen.
There was also emergency of new classes in Africa. For instance, there was now a class of
business men and private traders on one hand, and then the proletariat or working class employed
by various emerging companies.
Transition to legitimate trade also had an urbanization effect. New trading stations and trading
ports soon grew to become towns, so as to accommodate activities of traders. Onitsha and Lokoja
towns, for example, became famous in West Africa as a result of legitimate trade activities.
African way of life was changed as Africans consumed European products. Dressing, eating
habits, and even language soon changed as everywhere Africans adopted and adjusted to European
culture.
Traditional use of the barter system became a thing of the past as economies evolved to monetary
economies, making use of currency. Banking systems began and so was the credit.
Infrastructure was also developed to cater for needs of legitimate trade. Railways were developed
to transport raw materials and workers. A number of railway lines were constructed to connect
West Africa and the interior to the coast. Examples are the railway from Lagos that reached Kano
in 1911 in Nigeria, another in Ghana (Gold Coast) connecting Accra with Sekondi and Tarkwa in
1901 for the purpose of gold collection. Roads were also established in to link with resourcefula
area in West Africa
New cash crops that were unknown before were introduced in West Africa to supplement the
traditional kolanuts, rubber and palm oil. These included coffee and cotton the main raw rnatenals
needed by European powers

THE DOWNFALL OF MUTAPA STATE*

-The Mutapa state collapsed as a result of internal and external factors.

*Internal factors*

1) *Succession disputes*

-Rulers started to fight against themselves and this led to disunity in the state hence the downfall f
the state. e.g Nyahuma was killed by two vassal chiefdom Togwa and Changa.
-Changa went on to kill Togwa.
-Changa was later on killed by Chikuyo chisamarenga who became the next ruler after Nyahuma.
-These succession disputes also rampart when Puppet rulers were introduced by the Portuguese.

2) *Civil wars*
-People started to fight over scarce of land and other resources in the state. -There was serious
shortages of land and other resources.
- This created disunity in the state hence e due downfall of the state .

3) *Decline in trade*
-Trade declined because it was now monopolized by the Portuguese.
-There was exhaustion of minerals in the mine shifts and this led to people to face shortages of
minerals such as gold and copper.
-This affected them and later on contributed to the downfall of the state.

4) *Drought*
-Serious drought occurred and people started to face problems of food shortages.
-Some even died as a result of failing to have enough food.
-A number of people had to abandon the state and they joined the Changamire state which was
formed by Changamire Dombo 1.
-Added to this was also shortages of salt,Salt was no longer found in abundance in the state.

*EXTERNAL FACTORS*
-The Portuguese to a larger extent contributed to the downfall of the Mutapa state.
-This was because :
1) *Introduction of Christianity*
-Father Gonzalo Da Silveira introduced Christianity which divided the people.
-Some remained following their tradition of appeasing the spirits and some were converted
became Christians.
-Father Gonzalo Da Silveira was killed as a result of introducing this new religion.

2) *The Banishment of Swahili Traders*

-The Swahil traders were banned in the Mutapa state by the Portuguese.
-They were accused that they were responsible for the death of Father Gonzalo.
-This affected the Mutapa people because they were no longer in a position of getting some of the
items that they used to get from these Swahils .
-It later on contributed to the downfall of the state.
3) *Forced labour*
-The Shona were forced to work in the minds and also on the fields of the Portuguese .
-They resented this and a number of them abandoned the state and joined the Changamire state.
-They were no longer free to do what to do as was the situation before the coming of the
Portuguese.

4) *Unfare trading activities at the Feiras*

-Feiras were trading markets where the Portuguese used to trade with the local people.
-However,the local people /Shona were unfairly treated.
-The items that they were given by the Portuguese did not match what they gave them during the
trade.

5) *Chikunda army*

-This was a secret army rod the Portuguese

-It was cruel and brutal.
-It terrorised the people and a number of people were how living in fear.
-Those who fail to pay their credits were harassed and some even forced to work in the mines and
also at the lands of the Portuguese.
-People were angered by this and this led them to abandon the state.

6) *Loss of land*
-The Mutapa people lost their lands to the Portuguese who went on to formulate what were known
as Prazos.
-The Shona people lost their land and this affected them .
-They started to experience serious food shortages and hunger.
-This frustrated them and it explains why later people abandoned the state.

7) *Monopoly at Dambarare, Luanze. and Massapa.*

-The Portuguese started to have monopoly over these trading areas.

-This affected the people because a number of commodities that they used in trade were taken
away by the Portuguese.
-People were frustrated as a result of this and later on they abandoned the state.

8) *The Installation of Puppet rulers*

-The installation of puppet rulers such as Gatsi Rusere, Mavura and Kapararidze.
-These rulers were unpopular to the people.
-This was because they introduced reforms that favoured the Portuguese at the expense of their
own people.
-The Portuguese were no longer paying tribute to the local rulers and a number of were now
heartless as a result of losing their lands to the Portuguese.
-These puppet rulers were told what to do by the Portuguese and they never wanted to be
associated with their people.
-Their reigns were unpopular and eventually this contributed their demise.

9) *Issue of taxes*
-The Portuguese introduced a number of taxes e.g the cloth curva.
-These taxes were increased time and again.
-Those who fail to pay taxes were arrested and they were forced to go and work in the mines and
also in the lands of the Portuguese.
-The introduction of taxes was meant to increase hardships on the local people so that they were
going to seek employment in their prazos and also mines.
-This once again angered the people and it explains why the Mutapa state eventually collapsed.

10) *Maravi invaders*

-The Maravi invaders were refugees who were seeking for a new settlement.
-They passed through the Mutapa state and fought with the local people.
-This further parallised the Mutapa state.
-As a result of their invasion it contributed to the downfall of the Mutapa state.

11) *The Rise of the Changamire state*

-The rise of the Changamire state contributed to the downfall of the Mutapa state.
-This state was established by Changamire Dombo 1at Mbire Guruuswa, however the capital
change later on to Khami, Nalatale.,and dhlodlo.
-As a result of persisting problems in the Mutapa state a number of people abandoned the state and
joined this new vibrant state that was formed by Changamire Dombo.