Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103975

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Functional Foods

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jff

Plant-based milk substitutes: Bioactive compounds, conventional and novel T

processes, bioavailability studies, and health effects
⁎
Elif Feyza Aydara, Sena Tutuncua, Beraat Ozcelika,b,
a
Department Food Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, 34469 Istanbul, Turkey
b
BIOACTIVE Research & Innovation Food Manufacturing Industry Trade LTD Co., Maslak, Istanbul 34469, Turkey

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The consumption of plant-based milk substitutes has spread rapidly around the world due to its numerous
Plant-based milk substitute positive health effects on the human body. Individuals with cow’s milk allergy, lactose intolerance, and hy-
Production pocholesterolemia prefer these beverages. In spite of the added sugar and lack of total protein content, phenolic
Novel technology compounds, unsaturated fatty acids, antioxidant activity, and bioactive compounds such as phytosterols and
Health effects
isoflavones make plant-based milk substitutes an excellent choice. In addition to the health effects, this review
Bioactive compounds
Bioavailability
includes conventional and novel processes for 12 different plant-based milk substitutes including almond,
cashew, coconut, hazelnut, peanut, sesame, soy, tiger nut, oat, rice, hemp, and walnut. The unique element of
this review is our holistic approach in which 12 different plant-based milk substitutes production techniques are
presented, including patents, the health effects of bioactive compounds, the bioavailability of vitamins and
minerals, the market share, consumer acceptance, and the environmental impact.

1. Introduction
Recently, consumers have tended toward a plant-based diet which
includes cereal, legumes, seeds, nuts, fruits, and vegetables because of
varied reasons such as an aversion to animal cruelty, a desire for a
healthy lifestyle, and environmental awareness (Janssen, Busch,
Rödiger, & Hamm, 2016; Sebastiani et al., 2019). For these reasons, a
variety of trends like veganism, vegetarianism, lacto-vegetarianism,
and ovo-vegetarianism have arisen. Veganism is defined as not con-
suming meat, fish, chicken, pork, milk or milk products, egg, honey, or
any product that contains any amount of these foods. Plant-based milk
substitutes are one of the food groups that are irreplaceable in the
vegan food industry because plant-based milk substitutes are used as an
essential ingredient in many vegan food products such as plant-based
yogurt, cheese, kefir, butter, ice cream, etc. In addition, plant-based
milk substitutes are also needed by consumers who have lactose intol-
erance or an allergy to cow’s milk. According to research by the U.S.
National Library of Medicine (2020), a reduction in the digestion of
lactose has appeared in 65% of the world population. In east Asia,
70–100% of people suffer from lactose intolerance. This disease also
occurs in west African, Arab Jewish, Greek, and Italian populations.
People also choose plant-based milk substitutes for several health-re-
lated reasons. For instance, while a heavy consumption of animal-based
foods causes cardiovascular diseases and an increase in cholesterol,
cereals, legumes, seeds, and nuts contain dietary fiber, vitamins, mi-
nerals, and antioxidants. In addition, these foods are placed in the
functional and nutraceutical food class (Omoni & Aluko, 2005). In ad-
dition to the role of a plant-based diet on a decrease in cardiovascular
diseases, Pistollato et al. (2018) observe that a diet rich in plant-based
foods including soybeans and nuts reduces the risk of neurodegenera-
tive disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease. Moreover, Rita and Luciana
(2018) state that even a daily consumption of only two glasses of cow’s
milk results in an intake of D-galactose above 100 mg/kg which could
cause Parkinson’s disease. In this context, oilseed and nut milk sub-
stitutes–almond (Prunus dulcis), cashew (Anacardium occidentale), co-
conut (Cocos nucifera), hazelnut (Corylus), peanut (Arachis hypogaea),
sesame (Sesamum indicum), soy (Glycine max), tiger nut (Cyperus escu-
lentus), oat (Avena sativa), rice (Oryza sativa), hemp (Cannabis sativa),
and walnut (Juglans)–are preferred by vegans and people who suffer
from an allergy to cow’s milk. The health effects of plant-based milk
substitutes have been studied in terms of both positive and negative
effects. Plant-based milk substitutes have positive effects because of
rich antioxidant activity and fatty acid which reduce the risk of cardi-
ovascular diseases, cancer, atherosclerosis, and diabetes (Zujko &
Witkowska, 2014). However, plant-based milk substitute products also
have various negative health effects including lack of protein content,
low bioavailability of minerals and vitamins, and oral health problems.
One problem, the low bioavailability of vitamins and minerals because

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ozcelik@itu.edu.tr (B. Ozcelik).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2020.103975
Received 25 December 2019; Received in revised form 15 April 2020; Accepted 19 April 2020
Available online 30 April 2020
1756-4646/ © 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
E.F. Aydar, et al.
of some anti-nutrients and polyphenols, can be overcome by fermen-
tation (Dubey & Matel, 2018; Rekha & Vijayalakshmi, 2010; Rosado
et al., 2005). Another problem, the adverse effect on oral health, is
because of the added sugar used to sweeten the plant-based milk sub-
stitutes thereby increasing consumer acceptance. The WHO (2016)
pointed to the consuming added sugar as one of the aetiologic causes
for tooth decay in that sugar intake has a post-eruptive impact on dental
caries. One of the WHO (2016) suggestions for promoting the for-
mulation of regional policies and national recommendations to lessen
the burden of chronic illnesses relevant to nutrition included a re-
commendation that free (added) sugar consumption should stay below
10% of calorie intake and the consumption of foods/drinks that include
free sugars should be limited to four times a day.
The common steps in the production of all almond, cashew, co-
conut, hazelnut, peanut, sesame, soy, tiger nut, oat, rice, hemp, and
walnut milk substitutes are wet milling, filtration, the addition of in-
gredients, sterilization, homogenization, aseptic packaging, and cold
storage. Gums are used to improve stability, and salt and sweeteners are
used for the development of sensory properties (Bernat, Chafer, Chiralt,
& Gonzalez-Martınez, 2014; Manzoor, Manzoor, Siddique, & Ahmad,
2017; Makinde & Adebile, 2018; Nor, 2012; Padma, Jagannadarao,
Edukondalu, Ravibabu, & Aparna, 2018). In some cases, novel tech-
nologies such as ultrasound, pulsed electric fields, ohmic heating, and
high and ultra-high-pressure homogenization are applied to enhance
stability without the use of additives. In addition to the fortification and
enrichment of plant-based milk substitutes with protein, vitamin and
mineral enrichment are also a vital issue for consumers who prefer
plant-based milk substitutes instead of cow’s milk. Mintel's research
showed that comparing plant-based milk substitutes consumption data
of 2018, consumption increased 19% in three months beginning in
February of 2019; moreover, each category of plant-based milk sub-
stitutes have increased year by year. For example, the volume of sales
from 2017 to 2018 for oat milk substitute rose 71%; for almond milk,
10%; and for coconut milk, 16% (Wood, 2019). The health claims for
plant-based milk substitutes are valued by both young and old con-
sumers, and, as a result, consumption has recently risen 60–70%.
Blumenfeld (2019) states that other plant-based milk products such as
ice-cream, yogurt, creamer, butter, and salad dressing generated 697
million dollars in 2018; furthermore, the non-dairy creamer industry
increased 131%. Non-dairy milk was a bonus because dairy milk sales
were still stable even if the plant-based milk substitute industry had
soared (Walker, 2019). In addition to the benefits of the consumption of
plant-based milk substitutes, the manufacturing of these beverages has
numerous environmental impacts including decreasing the water usage
footprint and the potential for reducing climate change and ecotoxicity.
This paper presents a comprehensive review of plant-based milk
substitutes including processing methods, patents, health effects, mi-
nerals, vitamins, and isoflavones bioavailability through a holistic ap-
proach. The scope of this review is to evaluate the market share, con-
sumer acceptance, the production steps including patents, the effects of
novel technologies on the final product, health effects, and the en-
vironmental impacts of plant-based milk substitutes. This study aims to
give an opinion about the studies on plant-based milk substitute pro-
duction and its health effects that have been conducted and the studies
that can be conducted in the future. Unlike most of other studies, in this
study, conventional production conditions from patents are given for
each plant-based milk substitute, and comprehensive information about
the effects of applied novel technologies and the evaluation of bioactive
components, fatty acids, and bioavailability in terms of health are in-
cluded.
2. The market for Plant-based milk substitute
The conventional understanding of milk has transformed due to the
shift of consumer attitudes towards cow’s milk, awareness of lactose
intolerance, and widespread incidence of cow's milk allergy. A plant-
2
Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103975
based milk substitute for cow’s milk is a rising trend. According to
Nielsen’s current market share forecast, the continuing annual growth
rate of plant-based milk substitute will exceed 8–12% in four years, and
Euromonitor data reflected that in the six year period between 2009
and 2015, the sales of plant-based milk substitute doubled (Walsh,
2017). The increasing sales of plant-based milk substitutes depend on
popular trends like veganism and concern for animal and environ-
mental prosperity reflected in food blogs and social media. The ve-
ganism trend has jumped 360% in ten years, and it is estimated that
there are now 500,000 vegans in the UK (HRA Food and Drink, 2017).
According to the HRA report, an increase in branded products and
vegan-friendly labeling, a decrease in the market price of plant-based
milk substitute, and rising ethical concerns about animal welfare, and
global pollution are important aspects of the spread of veganism. A diet
that contains more plant-based food provides a lower calorie intake and
causes fewer negative effects on the environment. Behaviors & Atti-
tudes, Ireland’s leading independent market research agency, reports
that five to seven percent of 1001 participants, divided into categories
according to gender, age, religion, social class, and location, consume
plant-based alternatives to milk (Walsh, 2017). In North America, the
per capita consumption of cow’s milk has declined in recent decades
(Canadian Dairy Information Centre, 2015; Research and Markets,
2017). Between 1997 and 2016, the cow’s milk consumption per capita
decreased from 89.14 L to 69.48 L in Canada (Canadian Dairy
Information Centre, 2017). Research and Markets (2017) reported that
retail market sales of plant-based milk substitutes were estimated to be
approximately $6 billion in 2017 and in the USA retail market is esti-
mated to rise to $28 billion by 2021.
3. Consumer acceptance
Experience of a new food depends on a number of criteria: a good or
familiar taste, the nutritional information, the health benefits, and the
environmental aspects of the product. All criteria have an impact on
increasing or decreasing the public’s willingness to try a new food
(Makinen et al., 2016). According to market analysis, plant-based milk
substitute consumption has been steadily increasing. and developing
the sensory and quality of plant-based milk substitutes could be a key
factor in the increasing awareness of the product. However, in the in-
dustry, two problems have been observed, a final product having
“beany” or “painty” off-flavor due to lipoxygenase activity, and a
chalky mouthfeel caused by insoluble large particles (Kwok & Niranjan,
1995; Durand, Franks, & Hosken, 2003).
The survey which was conducted among adults in the USA indicated
that lactose-free cow’s milk was preferred over soy milk regardless of
participant ethnicity, gender or dairy intolerance state (Palacios,
Badran, Drake, Reisner, & Moskowitz, 2009). Önning, Åkesson, Öste,
and Lundquist (1998) conducted an experiment that revealed that
Swedish people like oat milk substitute more than medium-fat UHT
cow’s milk, but soy milk had a lower score. McCarthy, Parker,
Ameerally, Drake, and Drake (2017) conducted a study regarding ex-
trinsic factors and personal values that affect the purchasing of bev-
erage product in other categories. The results indicated that, when
choosing dairy milk, fat content, (the most significant parameter for
preferability), packaging size, and label claims had a substantial im-
pact; moreover, participants generally preferred a fat content of one or
two percent, gallon or half-gallon packaging, and a conventionally
pasteurized store-brand. In the plant-based milk substitute category, the
sugar level, the plant-based source, and the packaging size were im-
portant factors in purchasing, particularly sugar level. Lactose intoler-
ance and a desire for a balanced diet also have significant impacts for
both dairy and non-dairy consumers. Unflavored and chocolate lactose-
free cow’s milk and soy beverages were compared for their sensory
intensity, attribute liking and overall liking in a group of children aged
eight to 16 without revealing the product type; chocolate lactose-free
cow’s milk was preferred in the flavor category. Unflavored soy
E.F. Aydar, et al. Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103975

Fig. 1. Flow chart for production of plant-based milk substitute.

beverages were far less preferred products for children aged 13 to 16 Table 1
and moderately less children aged eight to 12. (Palacios et al., 2010). The type of raw material is indicated by each arrow mark.
Additionally, the price of plant-based milk substitutes is higher than Raw material Flow Chart
cow’s milk since the production cost of plant-based milk substitutes is
higher. Such problems cause the inventory turnover ratio of plant-based Almond
milk substitutes to become lower. Therefore, the taste should be im-
Cashew
proved in a way that responds to the preferences of consumers but
Coconut
keeps the health benefits.
Hazelnut
Peanut
Sesame
4. Production of Plant-based milk substitute Soy
Tiger nut
There are several methods for producing cereal, grain, and nut milk Oat
Rice
substitutes. Because they have many common steps, one flowchart is
Hemp
prepared for general oilseeds, grains, and cereals milk substitute pro-
Walnut
duction in this study (Fig. 1). In Table 1, the path that can be applied to
produce each plant-based milk substitute is given.
Raw materials such as coconut, peanut, soy, walnut, and cashew can

3
E.F. Aydar, et al.
be supplied shelled. If the product is unshelled, one of the methods
dehulling is soaking the raw material in hot water (Manzoor et al.,
2017). After shelling, the obtained fresh material requires a drying
process (Kohli, Kumar, Upadhyay, & Mishra, 2017). If the raw material
is supplied in dried form, those raw materials do not require a drying
process but follow the roasting or dry grinding processes. Therefore, in
Fig. 1, “dried” represents the raw material that is not fresh and not
require a drying process, for example, almonds or peanuts that are sold
in the markets. Drying is required if the raw material is bought without
a shell and it is fresh, or if it is bought with shell and the shell is re-
moved before processing. Lastly, dry grinding represents grinding
without the addition of water.
4.1. Roasting
In the literature, the roasting process is used for peanut, almond,
hazelnut, sesame, and grain milk substitute production (Ahmadian-
Kouchaksaraei, Varidi, Varidi, & Pourazarang, 2014; Chavan, Gat,
Harmalkar, & Waghmare, 2018; Europe Patent No. EP2476317A1,
2012; Ilyasoglu & Yilmaz, 2019; Zaaboul, Raza, Cao, & Yuanfa, 2019).
Roasting increases the emulsion stability index and protein isolate so-
lubility (Zaaboul et al., 2019). In order to reduce the benzaldehyde and
pyrazine concentration in an almond milk substitute to less than
0.5 ppm and to obtain a neutral taste, the process is started with heat
treatment (Europe Patent No. EP2476317A1, 2012). According to the
results of a study on the production of sesame milk substitute, the
roasting process reduces acidity, total solids content, protein, fat, and
stability and prevents bitterness and a chalky taste (Ahmadian-
Kouchaksaraei et al., 2014). In addition, hazelnuts and grains such as
barley, finger millet, and moth beans can also be roasted (Ilyasoglu &
Yilmaz, 2019; Chavan et al., 2018). The raw materials to which the
roasting process is applied and the conditions given in the literature
may be seen in Table 2.
4.2. Dry grinding
Dry grinding is not preferable in plant-based milk substitute pro-
duction, however, Makinen et al. (2016) state that dry milling presents
an alternative to wet milling, and there is a patented almond milk
substitute which is obtained by dry milling of roasted almonds (United
States Patent No. US5656321A, 1997).
4.3. Peeling
Peeling with the use of acid or base is applied to sesame, walnut,
tiger nuts and Brazilian nuts in the literature (Chen, Lu, Yu, Kong, &
Hua, 2014; Cui, Chen, Wang, & Han, 2013; Kizzie-Hayford, Jaros, Zahn,
& Rohm, 2016; Kluczkovski, Lima, & Oliveira, 2016; Maghsoudlou,
Alami, Mashkour, & Shahraki, 2015; Quasem, Mazahreh, & Abu-Alruz,
2009). In addition to acid and base, water may also be used, but, in this
case, the process time increases. For example, peeling the skin of wal-
nuts and almonds by soaking in water must be done overnight, a period
of 18–20 h, respectively; however, when 2% citric acid at 90 °C is used,
the walnuts can be peeled in two to three minutes (Cui et al., 2013;
Maghsoudlou et al., 2015; Xiaoli, 2014). The peeling process time also
depends on the raw material. Kizzie-Hayford et al. (2016) observed that
tiger nuts may be peeled by soaking a one g sample in 100 mL of citric
acid for 24 h. Base solutions, such as one or two percent sodium hy-
droxide (NaOH) are also used for peeling walnuts and Brazil nuts, re-
spectively (Kluczkovski et al., 2016; Chen et al., 2014). However, after
the treatment, the product must be cleaned to remove any remaining
acid or base solution (Chen et al., 2014). In walnut milk substitute
production, after a 10-minute treatment with one percent NaOH(w/w)
and a 90 °C water bath, the walnuts are washed until the pH reaches 7.2
(China Patent No. CN103621647A, 2014; Chen et al., 2014). Peeling
has the additional advantages of releasing the toxic compounds caused
4
Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103975
by the shell and thus overcoming the bitterness problem in the final
product (Quasem et al., 2009; China Patent No. CN101233945A, 2008).
For instance, oxalic acid found in the sesame hull which is toxic when
ingested can be removed by the decortication of the sesame seeds
(Quasem et al., 2009).
4.4. Soaking in water
A treatment of soaking in water is applied to soybeans, hazelnuts,
rice, almonds, tiger nuts, grains, sesame seeds, and peanuts (Aboulfazli,
Shori, & Baba, 2016; Alozie Yetunde & Udofia, 2015; Bernat et al.,
2014; Bernat, Chafer, Chiralt, Laparra, & Gonzalez-Martinez, 2015;
Chavan et al., 2018; Kizzie-Hayford et al., 2016; Kohli et al., 2017;
Padma et al., 2018; Sethi, Tyagi, & Anurag, 2016). In this step, the
swelling and softening of the cereals and nuts are achieved. Soaking in
water enables the rice kernel to soften, and thus the time needed for
blanching decreases (Padma et al., 2018). In addition, Padma et al.
(2018) state that, after soaking, apparent amylose is less, and toxins are
released into the water. When tiger nuts are soaked in water, the ex-
traction yield of tiger nut milk increases (Kizzie-Hayford et al., 2016).
According to Sethi et al. (2016), the addition of alkaline to the soaking
water can be applied to sesame seeds, soybeans, and peanuts. It has
been observed that the use of NaHCO3 reduces off-flavor and increases
the stability of sesame milk substitute (Ahmadian-Kouchaksaraei et al.,
2014). In Table 2, the process conditions for some plant-based milk
substitutes are given.
4.5. Blanching
In the literature, blanching is applied to soybeans, almonds, coco-
nuts, sesames, peanuts, rice, and quinoa (Bolarinwa, Aruna, Adejuyitan,
Akintayo, & Lawal, 2018; Diarra, Nong, & Jie, 2005; Karshenas, Goli, &
Zamindar, 2018; Kohli et al., 2017; Kundu, Dhankhar, & Sharma, 2018;
Maghsoudlou et al., 2015; Makinde & Adebile, 2018; Padma et al.,
2018; Pardeshi, Murumkar, & Tayade, 2014; Pineli et al., 2015; Quasem
et al., 2009; Seow & Gwee, 1997; Ismail et al., n.d.). Blanching has
numerous advantages like decreasing the microbial load and enzyme
inactivation (Pardeshi et al., 2014; Seow & Gwee, 1997; Sethi et al.,
2016). Blanching also inactivates lipoxygenase which causes the beany
flavor in soy milk substitutes (Sethi et al., 2016; Pardeshi et al., 2014).
Seow and Gwee (1997) also mention that blanching decreases the in-
itial microbial load and inactivates the lipase. Instead of blanching,
steaming can also be used which increases the total solids and protein
yield when compared to boiling and soaking (Quasem et al., 2009).
Moreover, during the cooking of rice, the addition of 0.22% of α-
amylase provides an increase in the rate of cooking time (Padma et al.,
2018). In Table 2, the blanching conditions for plant-based milk sub-
stitutes are given.
4.6. Wet milling
Wet milling is applied to tiger nuts, soybeans, coconut, cashews,
hazelnuts, hemp seeds, cowpeas, almonds, walnuts, and peanuts
(Aidoo, Sakyi-Dawson, Abbey, Tano-Debrah, & Saalia, 2012; Cui et al.,
2013; Dhakal, Giusti, & Balasubramaniam, 2016; Kizzie-Hayford et al.,
2016; Maleki, Khodaiyan, & Mousavi, 2015; Manzoor et al., 2017;
Pardeshi et al., 2014; Seow & Gwee, 1997; Wang, Jiang, & Xiong, 2018;
Zaaboul et al., 2019). In the wet milling process, water is added to the
raw material, and then grinding is applied. The amount of added water,
milling temperature, pH, milling type, and feed rate are the factors that
affect the final product (Seow & Gwee, 1997). The amount of water
added has a definite impact on the concentration of the obtained milk
substitute (Seow & Gwee, 1997). In Table 2, the wet milling conditions
that take place in the literature are given.
E.F. Aydar, et al. Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103975

Table 2
Process conditions for plant-based milk substitute production.
Raw material Roasting conditions References

Peanuts 225 °C, 25 min Zaaboul et al., 2019

Almonds 95–100 °C, 30 min Europe Patent No. EP2476317A1, 2012
Sesame 145 °C, 20 min Ahmadian-Kouchaksaraei et al., 2014
Hazelnuts 140 °C, 15 min Ilyasoglu & Yilmaz, 2019
Grains (barley, finger millet, and moth bean) 130 °C, 5 min Chavan et al., 2018
Conditions for soaking in water
Soybeans 500 g in 1 L, 12 h Kohli et al., 2017
10 g in 1 L, 14 h Aboulfazli et al., 2016
Rice 1:2 parts of water, 1 h Padma et al., 2018
Tiger nuts 50 g in 400 mL water, 40 °C, 24 h Kizzie-Hayford et al., 2016
40 g in 100 mL sodium metabisulfite 0.20% (w/v), 8 h, 20 °C Costa Neto et al., 2019
Grains (barley, finger millet, and moth bean) 1:2 (seed to water), 8 h, 30 °C Chavan et al., 2018
Almond 6 h, 4 °C Alozie Yetunde & Udofia, 2015
Blanching conditions
Soybean 1.25% NaHCO3, 30 min Kohli et al., 2017
0.5% NaHCO3, 30 min Kundu, Dhankhar, & Sharma, 2018
Almond Water at 90 °C, 3 min Maghsoudlou et al., 2015
Steam bath at 85 °C, 5–30 min Makinde & Adebile, 2018
Coconut Water at 80 °C, 10 min Seow & Gwee, 1997
Sesame Water at 100 °C, 30 min. Karshenas et al., 2018
Steaming, 95 °C, 15–30 min Ahmadian-Kouchaksaraei et al., 2014
Rice 80 °C, cooked for 15 mins Padma et al., 2018
Water at 103 °C, 3 h Ismail, Abou-Dobara, & Nawal, n.d.
Quinoa 1:7 (quinoa: water), 112℃ for 30 min Pineli et al., 2015
Wet Milling conditions
Sesame 5 water: 1 sesame, 20 min Ahmadian-Kouchaksaraei et al., 2014
Peanut 1:9 water, 18,000 rpm, 2 min, 4 cycle Zaaboul et al., 2019
Tiger nut 1:1 water, 800 W Costa Neto et al., 2019
200 g water for 50 g, 13,000 rpm, 20 min Kizzie-Hayford et al., 2015
Hazelnut 10,000 rpm, 10 min Gul et al., 2018
Soybean Soybeans were ground for 10 min using 250 mL boiling water for 10 g. Aboulfazli et al., 2016
The ratio of 3:1 (water to beans on a weight basis) to remove the okra Kohli et al., 2017
Almond 1:9 water, 18,000 rpm, 2 min Dhakal et al., 2016
Walnut Walnuts were mixed with water 4.5 times their own weight at 50 °C and ground for Cui et al., 2013
5 min.
Cashew 1:3 (w/v) ratio Manzoor et al., 2017
Groundnut 2000 rpm for 10 min Adeiye, Gbadamosi, & Taiwo, 2013
Pine nut and rice mixture 1:8 water, 1 min at low speed (15,000 rpm), 2 min at high speed (20,000 rpm) Lee & Rhee, 2003
Homogenization conditions
Peanut 150 and 300 mPs Zaaboul et al., 2019
Hemp Two-stage homogenizer, 30 or 60 MPa Wang et al., 2018
Sesame 55 °C, 6 MPa Ahmadian-Kouchaksaraei et al., 2014
Pine nut and rice mixture Twice at 0, 19.6 MPa and 29.4 MPa respectively Lee & Rhee, 2003
Groundnut 15 psi, 15 min Adeiye et al., 2013
Coconut Two-stage homogenizing at 1,500/500 psi Khuenpet et al., 2016
Almond 350 MPa (UHP), 85 °C Briviba et al., 2016
Two-step valve homogenizer, 180 MPa and 40 MPa Nor, 2012
172 MPa Bernat et al., 2015
Hazelnut 62, 103, 172 MPa, 85 and 121 °C Bernat et al., 2015
400–1600 bar Gul et al., 2018
33 MPa Bernat et al., 2014
Ultrasound homogenizer at 100 W and 20 kHz for 10 mins Ermiş et al., 2018
Twice by using a two-stage high-pressure homogenizer at the pressure of 100 MPa. Atalar, 2019

4.7. Filtration 4.8. Addition of ingredients

Filtration is applied to separate the cake and the milk part of the
ground raw material. Different filtering materials like double-layered
cheesecloth, muslin cloth (25 μm), and filtering paper with different
sizes (150 mesh sieve, filter paper, 180 µm sieve, four µm-pore-size
filter, and 100 μm filter) are used Ahmadian-Kouchaksaraei et al., 2014;
Balogun, Kolawole, Joseph, Adebisi, & Ogunleye, 2016; Bolarinwa
et al., 2018; Chen et al., 2014; Codina-Torrella, Guamis, Ferragut, &
Trujillo, 2017; Cui et al., 2013; Dhakal et al., 2014; Ekanem &
Ojimelukwe, 2017; Ermiş et al., 2018; Ilyasoglu & Yilmaz, 2019; Kizzie-
Hayford et al., 2015; Maghsoudlou et al., 2015; Maleki, Khodaiyan, &
Mousavi, 2015; Manzoor, Manzoor, Siddique, & Ahmad, 2017; Padma,
Jagannadarao, Edukondalu, Ravibabu, & Aparna, 2018; Pardeshi,
Murumkar, & Tayade, 2014). Naziri et al. (2017) used ultrafiltration in
the production of hazelnut, sesame, and maize milk substitute.
In industrial applications, sunflower lecithin, locust bean gum, and
gellan gum are used to enhance physical stability. Ascorbic acid is
added to the ingredients to prevent oxidation. Kohli et al. (2017)
mention adding antioxidants and preservatives to the soymilk sub-
stitute after filtration. In addition to industrial stabilizers, Bernat et al.
(2014) benefited from 0.05 g/100 mL xanthan gum added before the
heat treatment which thickens the hazelnut milk substitute and in-
creases the colloidal stability of the final product. In addition, xanthan
gum (0.33% w/w) is used in rice milk alternatives to inhibit the pre-
cipitation of particles (Padma et al., 2018). The addition of stabilizers is
not only applied after the grinding process. Nor (2012) added lecithin
(0.03% w/w) at the time of the milling process in the production of
almond milk substitute. To inhibit gelatinization during the heat
treatment, Codina-Torrella, Guamis, Zamora, Quevedo, and Trujillo

5
E.F. Aydar, et al.
(2018) benefited from adding 0.05% of the α-amylase enzyme which
hydrolyzed the starch granules.
Various sweeteners such as sugar cane and sea salt are added to
improve the flavor of the product as well as ingredients such as vanilla
or cocoa. For example, Makinde and Adebile (2018) and Manzoor et al.
(2017) used sugar syrup to sweeten almond and cashew milk sub-
stitutes. Manzoor et al. (2017) also used vanillin after pasteurization.
Quasem et al. (2009) added two percent sucrose to sesame milk sub-
stitute to develop the sensory properties. To improve the silky ap-
pearance, sunflower oil (one percent of the initial mass of quinoa) was
used in quinoa milk substitute (Pineli et al., 2015), and olive oil is in-
cluded in the ingredient list of plant-based milk substitutes of the Fo-
milk brand (www.fomilk.com, n.d.).
4.9. Fortification and enrichment
The protein, vitamin and mineral content of a product are important
criteria for people who prefer plant-based milk substitutes instead of
cow’s milk. To keep the protein amount as high as possible, it is ne-
cessary to increase the amount of seed used. During production, dif-
ferent raw materials are mixed in to increase the total protein amount
and improve the sensory properties of the product (Sethi et al., 2016).
Another solution to increase the protein amount in the plant-based milk
substitute is to use a raw material with high protein content such as
lentils whose sensory properties are close to soy milk (Jeske, Bez,
Arendt, & Zannini, 2019). Calcium, vitamin A, B2, B1, B12, D2, and E
are also added to raise the vitamin and mineral content, and the use of
calcium tricitrate raises the amount of calcium in the final product
(Sethi et al., 2016).
4.10. Sterilization
The purpose of heat treatment is to extend shelf life and keep the
quality high (Khuenpet, Jittanit, Hongha, & Pairojkul, 2016). Heat
treatment can be applied as pasteurization, sterilization, or ultra-high
sterilization (Khuenpet et al., 2016). Sterilization occurs at 121 °C for
15–20 min (Bernat et al., 2015; Lee & Rhee, 2003; Manzoor et al., 2017;
Quasem et al., 2009). Additionally, although there has been no research
on plant-based milk substitutes specifically, microfiltration, which is a
non-thermal sterilization method, is also a choice for eliminating mi-
croorganisms and extending shelf life (Anis, Hashaikeh, & Hilal, 2019).
4.11. Homogenization
Homogenization is applied to enhance the physical stability of the
final product (Bernat et al., 2015). In the literature, homogenization has
been carried out using low, high, and ultra-high pressure. As the ap-
plied homogenization pressure increases, the stability, clarity, and
whiteness index of the milk substitute increase (Bernat et al., 2015;
Briviba, Gräf, Walz, Guamis, & Butz, 2016; Zaaboul et al., 2019).
However, homogenization does not affect viscosity and protein stability
(Bernat et al., 2015). In addition, ultra-high pressure reduces the par-
ticle size (Briviba et al., 2016). While the yield can be increased by
applying the process twice or more, an increase in the temperature of
the product occurs due to homogenization pressure (Gul, Atalar,
Saricaoglu, & Yazici, 2018; Quasem et al., 2009). Gul et al. (2018) said
that the temperature of the product increases by five to 10 °C during the
homogenization process. In Table 2, some of the process conditions
applied to seeds and nuts are given.
4.12. Aseptic packaging and cold storage
For long shelf-life and high stability, aseptic packaging and cold
storage are necessary. The storage temperature must be +4 °C.
6
Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103975
5. Novel technologies applied in production of Plant-based milk
substitutes
During the production of plant-based milk substitutes, it is crucial to
apply a method that will protect the physical stability of the final
product which is a problem for the food industry and which can also
minimize the need for additives such as hydrocolloids and emulsifiers
that are used to enhance physical stability (Bernat et al., 2014). The
novel technologies applied to plant-based milk substitutes are ultra-
sound, pulsed electric field, high-intensity ultrasound irradiation,
ohmic heating, and ultra-high and high-pressure homogenization
(Bernat et al., 2014; Briviba et al., 2016; Codina-Torrella et al., 2017;
Dhakal et al., 2014; Gul et al., 2018; Iorio et al., 2019; Kohli et al.,
2017; Lu et al., 2019; Maghsoudlou et al., 2015; Sethi et al., 2016;
Zaaboul et al., 2019). Generally, the applied novel technologies aim to
inactivate microorganisms and enzymes, decrease particle size, and
reduce viscosity to increase physical stability. Researchers prefer
studying a combination of thermal novel technologies, such as ohmic
heating and ultra-high- and high-pressure homogenization, to obtain a
better quality in the final product (Briviba et al., 2016; Codina-Torrella
et al., 2017; Dhakal et al., 2014; Dhakal et al., 2016).
Ultrasound, ultra-high-pressure homogenization, and high-pressure
homogenization were applied to almond milk substitute, and the results
indicated that the particle size decreased after ultrasound treatment;
however, the particle size increased after ultra-high pressure treatment
(Bernat et al., 2015; Briviba et al., 2016; Dhakal et al., 2014; Dhakal
et al., 2016; Iorio et al., 2019; Maghsoudlou et al., 2015) (see Table 3).
Moreover, Dhakal et al. (2016) mention that, as the pressure and
pressure holding time increased, particle size also increased. The direct
proportion between pressure, pressure holding time, and particle size
occurred because of macroscopic compressibility and the aggregation of
almond milk substitute protein allergens (Dhakal et al., 2016). Magh-
soudlou et al. (2015) indicated that a reduction in particle size occurred
about five times with the increase in ultrasound time in five minutes. By
this comparison, it can be concluded that ultrasound could be a better
option for producing almond milk substitute because of being a non-
thermal application and providing better physical stability by a re-
duction in particle size. However, Bernat et al. (2015) mentioned that,
although a high-temperature causes aggregation of the protein, the
application of high-pressure homogenization before thermal treatment
and the application of a low-temperature provided an increase in the
physical stability of almond milk substitute.
Ohmic heating and pulsed electric field have been applied to soy
milk substitutes (Kohli et al., 2017). Kohli et al. (2017) mentioned that
there was little increase in protein aggregation after ohmic heating. As
Bernat et al. (2015) indicated, protein aggregation in soy milk after
ohmic heating can happen owing to protein denaturation and an in-
crease in hydrodynamic volume. Since there are no numerical values
for particle size reduction or microbial or enzymatic inactivation in the
study by Kohli et al. (2017), a comparison between ohmic heating and
pulsed electric field cannot be made. However, the pulsed electric field
is to be preferred over ohmic heating because it is a non-thermal ap-
plication.
The missing studies in novel technologies applied to plant-based
milk substitutes are about comparing different applications. To find the
best option for industrial usage, a comparison of various technologies is
required. However, all in all, due to the protection of nutritional and
sensory properties, non-thermal technologies have more favorable ef-
fects on the last product than the thermal technologies.
6. Health effects of plant-based milk substitutes
Nuts, cereals, and oilseeds have countless benefits for human health
owing to their rich content of bioactive compounds, macronutrients,
micronutrients, and phytochemicals. Unsaturated fatty acids including
essential fatty acids, fibers, well-balanced mineral ratio, rich selenium
E.F. Aydar, et al. Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103975

content, polyphenols, tocopherols, and phytosterols are some of the

Bernat et al., 2015; Gul et al., 2017

Briviba et al., 2016; Dhakal et al.,
Iorio et al., 2019; Maghsoudlou
factors that provide a connection between healthy body and con-

Codina-Torrella et al., 2017;

Codina-Torrella et al., 2018
sumption of nut, cereal, and oilseed. Nuts, cereals, and oilseed are

2016; Dhakal et al., 2014

known as key elements in a daily diet for a healthy life, thanks to their

Zaaboul et al., 2019

well-balanced fat content that has a high amount of mono and poly-

Bernat et al., 2015

Kohli et al., 2017

Kohli et al., 2017

unsaturated fatty acids and a low amount of saturated fatty acid which

Lu et al., 2019
includes essential fatty acids such as linoleic and α-linolenic acids that
et al., 2015
Reference

the human body cannot synthesize.

Wang et al. (2019) stated that the total phytosterol amount in nuts
and seeds varies from 15.9 mg/100 g for chestnuts to 255.2 mg/100 g
for pistachios by dry weight. Rawal, Yadav, & Nagayach (2015) men-

increase in shelf life from 3 days to 25, 30 and 57 days, increase in brightness

Decreasing the consistency of products, improving microstructural properties,

particles, increase in enzymatic stability, increase in lipid oxidative stability,

Significantly reduced size, decreased, consistency index (k) and increased in

Slight increase in the protein aggregate formation, trypsin inhibitor activity

tioned that the total phytosterol amount of certain nuts–rice bran,

Submicron/nanoparticle formation, threefold increase of the mean particle
(TIA) and chymotrypsin inhibitor activity (CIA) inactivation are observed.

Reduction in particle size, increase in particle surface charge, clarity, and

size, complete loss of antigenicity, a decrease in free exposed sulfhydryl

Higher colloidal stable, a decrease in particle size, new network formed

groups, microorganism inactivation, reduction in protein solubility, and
Microorganism inactivation, reduction in particle size and viscosity are

1055 mg/100 g; soybeans, 221 mg/100 g; peanuts, 206 mg/100 g;

coconut, 91 mg/100 g, cashews, 158 mg/100 g, almonds 143 mg/
100 g; and walnuts, 10 mg/100 g. Like unsaturated fatty acids, phy-
tosterols have positive health impacts on the human body such as
lowering cholesterol, preventing cancer, modulating the immune
system, and protecting the skin against aging. Because of their choles-
terol-like behavior, they decrease the risk of heart diseases, stroke, and
A decrease in soybean lipoxygenase is observed.

heart attacks. Furthermore, their high antioxidant content makes them

preventative agents against ovarian, breast, stomach, prostate, and lung
the flow behavior index (n) are observed.
amandin immunoreactivity are observed.

cancer (Rawal, Yadav, & Nagayach, 2015). It has been proven that beta-
Particle sizes are found to be smaller.

sitosterol prevents HT- 29 human colon cancer cell growth where HT-
increased viscosity are observed.

29 is a human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line with epithelial

whiteness index are observed.
and whiteness are observed.

morphology (Achoribo & Ong, 2017). Phytosterols increase the activity

of cells that are designed for the recognition, response, and recalling of
Effects on the product

antigens. In this way, they participate in the modulation of the immune

system. Also, phytosterols promote the production of collagen whose
Novel technologies, the product processed, the process conditions, and the effect of novel technology on the final product.

loss occurs in the skin from sun exposure (Rawal, Yadav, & Nagayach,
observed.

2015)
Although nuts and seeds have restricted amounts of protein, they
include both essential and non-essential amino acids. Brufau, Boatella,
& Rafecas (2006) indicate that the well-balanced ratio of lysine to ar-
80% of power, 8 min, the pulse at 6 s- for E. Coli 80%, 2 min

Electric field intensity of 18, 20 and 22 kV cm – 1 and number

ginine which is 0:19 for hazelnuts, 0:20 for walnuts, and 0:24 for al-
6 s- for L. monocytogenes. 4.9 min, 300 W, and 20 kHz for

Ultrasonic intensity:50–55 W cm−2, Frequency, 20 khz,

monds enable them to prevent hypercholesterolemia and athero-

sclerosis. They compared the essential amino acids found in nuts with
amino acids in a whole egg. They stated that, although a change was
350 MPa, 85 °C 450–600 MPa at 30 °C, 300 s

observed in the number of amino acids according to the cultivars,

tryptophan, leucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, valine, histidine, and
threonine (which is the limiting amino acid) are found approximately
equally in nuts and whole eggs (Brufau, Boatella, & Rafecas, 2006).
of pulses of 25, 50, 75 and 100

Such a blend of bioactive substances allows nuts, cereals, and oil-

200 and 300 MPa and 40 °C

seed to support the inflammatory system, to suppress oxidative stress,

62, 103 and 172 MPa

and to decrease a number of important morbidities like the risk of

110, 165, and 220 V
Process conditions

cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes Type 2, and hypertension

150 and 300 MPs
physical stability

Amplitude 40%

(Alasalvar & Bolling, 2015; Kris-Etherton et al., 1999; Pathak, Bhaduri,

& Rai, 2017; Ros, 2010; Souza, Gomes, Naves, & Mota, 2015; Zec &
150 MPa

Glibetic, 2018).
As their raw materials would indicate, plant-based milk alternatives
have also some favorable effects on human health thanks to their
Coconut-grain milk

phenolic compounds and unsaturated fatty acid content. However,

Soy milk substitute

Soy milk substitute

Plant-based Milk

there is a lack of research on the plant sterols, vitamins, amino acid,

Tiger nut milk

Hazelnut milk
Almond milk

Almond milk

Almond milk

dietary fiber, and other bioactive substance content of non-fermented

Peanut milk
Substitutes

substitute

substitute

substitute

substitute

substitute

substitute

substitute

plant-based milk alternatives.

Plant-based milk alternatives differentiate from cow milk in several
ways. First, from the macronutrients point of view, the protein content
of plant-based milk alternatives is generally lower than in cow’s milk,
High-pressure homogenization

but plant-based milk alternatives are richer in terms of fiber and un-
Novel Production Technology

saturated fatty acid content. In addition to a high level of unsaturated

High-intensity ultrasound

fatty acids, plant-based milk substitutes are cholesterol-free. Cashew,

homogenization
Pulsed electric field

Ultra-high-pressure

oat, and soy milk, in particular, have a higher level of dietary fiber than
irradiation
Ohmic heating

the other plant-based milk alternatives (Table 8). Isoflavones that are
found naturally in plant-based milk alternatives, especially in soymilk
Ultrasound

alternatives, decrease cancer risk; however, cow milk does not possess
Table 3

isoflavones. On the other hand, cow milk has more pleasant taste be-
cause of its naturally existing lactose content. Plant-based milk

7
E.F. Aydar, et al. Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103975

alternatives found on the market generally include added sugar to re-

Bopitiya & Madhujith, 2015; Fitrotin, Utami, Hastuti, & Santoso,

Ismail, Abou-Dobara, & Nawal, n.d.; Muntana & Prasong, 2010

Alu’datt, Rababah, Ereifej, & Alli, 2013; Hamza & Mahmaood,
create that pleasant taste that people remember from cow’s milk.

Kamiloglu, Pasli, Ozcelik, & Capanoglu, 2014; Maleki et al.,

2013; Prvulović, Malenčić, & Miladinovic, 2016; Taie, El-

6.1. Positive health effects

2015; Pelvan, Olgun, Karadağ, & Alasalvar, 2018

6.1.1. Antioxidant activity

2015; Sethi et al., 2016; Ruslan et al., 2018

Nut and seed milk are rich in antioxidants which reduce the risk of
Bernat et al., 2015; Bolling et al., 2010

cardiovascular diseases, cancer, atherosclerosis, and diabetes by pre-

venting free radicals from oxidizing nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and
DNA (Maleki et al., 2015). When compared to dark chocolate, which is
high in terms of antioxidants and has a DPPH IC50 value of 10.43 μg/
Mergawi, & Radwan, 2008

mL, the sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is quite rich in terms of anti-
oxidant activity since its DPPH IC50 value is between 8.88 μg/mL and
44.21 μg/mL (Table 4) (Silva Medeiros et al., 2015; Ruslan, Happyniar,
& Fidrianny, 2018).
Reference

However, when plant-based milk is considered, it is significant to

realize that, even though nuts and cereals are rich in terms of protein,
dietary fiber, fatty acids, vitamins, and phytochemicals, plant-based
milk substitutes include smaller amounts of these beneficial bioactive
Method

DPPH

DPPH

DPPH

DPPH
FRAP

compounds which are lost during processing. For example, Alasalvar

and Bolling (2015) state that antioxidants found in walnuts are located
in the skin, and, when the nut is peeled, less than 10% of the anti-
Antioxidant capacity of the raw

oxidants remain. The total phenolic compounds of hazelnut decrease by

about 42% when the hazelnut milk substitute is produced. In addition,
the total phenolic compounds of the sesame decrease about 84% when
2.13–10.98 mg TE/g
642. 28 μmol TE/g

8.88–44.21 μg/mL

the sesame milk is produced (Table 4). There are few studies in the
material (DPPH)

0.0012 mg/ mL

literature of the antioxidant capacity and phenolic compounds of nut

56 mg/mL

and cereal milk substitutes.

Another reason for the decrease in total phenolic compounds seen in
most of the plant-based milk products is their possessing a smaller
amount of hydrophilic phenolics (Fitrotin, Utami, Hastuti, & Santoso,
26.00 mg GAE/g of sesame seed

2015). Although the raw material includes both hydrophobic and hy-
Total phenolic compounds for

drophilic molecules, plant-based milk products keep mostly the hy-

0.8931–0.9884 GAE mg−1

drophilic molecules. Fitrotin et al. (2015) state that lignan (919 mg/
94.1–116.7 mg/100 g
95.28 mg GAE/100 g

100 g) and ɣ tocopherol (25 mg/100 g) are the most commonly found
226 mg GAE/100 g
the raw material

antioxidants in sesame. The total amount of hydrophobic lignans,

which are sesamin and sesamolin, is 846 mg/100 g in sesame, and se-
oil extract

saminol, sesamolinal, and pinoresinal glucoside, which are hydrophilic

lignans, is 100–120 mg/100 g. Fitrotin et al. (2015) added that bound
antioxidants show much less activity than free ones, and they are
Total phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of both milk and the raw material.

generally found bound to the glucose such as sesaminol triglucoside

(11.72 mg/100 mL), which is the most commonly-found hydrophilic
Serum retention
capacity (SR)

lignan in sesame milk. The health benefits of sesame lignan can be

listed as enhancing detoxification of the liver, reducing the occurrence
Method

DPPH

DPPH

DPPH

of tumors, protecting of neuronal cells from oxidative stress, and pos-

sessing anti-hypertensive, anti-inflammatory, and anti-allergic qualities
*

(Jan & Ho, 2014).

Soymilk includes phytoestrogens such as genistein, daidzein, and
glycitein, which are similar to estrogen molecules in terms of their
Antioxidant

structure. Hamza and Mahmoud (2013) stated that 9.96 mg genistein,

50.47%

34.95%
activity

2% v/v

19.3%

6.68 mg daidzein, and 0.94 mg glycitein are found in 200 g of soymilk.

These phenolic compounds that are also known as isoflavones, have
*

numerous positive health effects against numerous diseases including

~ 4 mg GAE/g dry

dermatologic diseases, cancer, osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease, and

130.42 mg GAE/
1.24 GAE mg/L

neurodegenerative disorders. With aging, undesirable dermal mod-

8.79 mg/100 g
Total Phenolic

sesame seed

ifications occur due to a decrease in the amount of estrogen. Post-

compounds

menopausal syndrome involves epidermal thinning, a decrease in col-

100 mL

* indicates no information.

lagen level, reduction in the moisture content of skin, laxity, and a

*

delay in the healing process of wounds. An intake of estrogen provides

Sesame milk substitute

reconversion of the skin. Genistein recovers dermal breakdown by

Rice milk substitute

binding to the estrogen receptor β (Irrera et al., 2017). Moreover,

Soymilk substitute

genistein is a chemotherapeutic agent for numerous types of cancer.

Hazelnut milk
substitute

substitute
Almond milk

Genistein consumption during intake of some common anticancer

Product

drugs, adriamycin, docetaxel, and tamoxifen for example, gives rise to a

Table 4

synergistic effect (Spagnuolo et al., 2015). In addition to its preventive

impact on postmenopausal syndrome and various cancer types,

8
E.F. Aydar, et al. Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103975

genistein is a powerful antioxidant and protective agent against os-
teoporosis and cardiovascular diseases (Mazumder & Hongsprabhas,
2016). Pistallato et al. (2018) demonstrated that genistein showed a
mitigating effect on Alzheimer’s disease in mouse models. Likewise,
daidzein protects the body from cancer (especially breast and prostate),
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, dermal breakdown, and
neurodegenerative diseases. Like genistein, daidzein is also a strong
antioxidant and has anti-aging and anti-inflammatory effects (Poschner
et al., 2017; Sun, Ye, Xiao, Rahman, & Zhang, 2016). Another iso-
flavone that is found in soy-based alternative milk, albeit at a lower
amount than genistein and daidzein, is glycitein. Even with its lower
amount in soy milk and lower binding activity to estrogen receptors,
Song, Hendrich, and Murphy (1999) state that glycitein has a higher
estrogenic response due to its higher bioavailability than genistein.
Additionally, when glycitein metabolizes, compounds with higher es-
trogenic activity are produced. However, genistein metabolizes to p-
ethylphenol, genistein sulfate, genistein glucuronide, and dihydro-
genistein which are not estrogenic compounds (Song et al., 1999;
Zhang, 2000). Similar to glycitein, daidzein follows the metabolic
pathway that produces compounds having estrogenic activity. Equol,
which has a high level of estrogenic activity, is one of the compounds
that is produced at the end of the metabolic pathway of daidzein
(Zhang, 2000).
6.1.2. Fatty acid composition
It is common knowledge that the mono- and polyunsaturated fatty
acid ratio is higher than the saturated fatty acid ratio in nuts and cereals
(Li & Hu, 2011). This characteristic of nuts and cereals is also valid for
beverages made from them. With some exceptions such as coconut,
hemp, and oat milk, Table 5 indicates that almond, cashew, hazelnut,
peanut, and soy milk have a much higher total unsaturated fatty acid
content than total saturated fatty acid content. The major fatty acids
found in the plant-based milk alternatives are palmitic acid (16:0) and
stearic acid (18:0) from saturated fatty acids; and oleic acid (18:1),
linoleic acid (18:2), and α-linolenic acid (18:3) from unsaturated fatty
acids (Li & Hu, 2011). The existence of high amount of unsaturated
fatty acids is one of the reasons for decreasing blood lipid concentra-
tions (Eslami & Shidfar, 2019; Shin et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2019). In
addition to a reduction in blood lipid concentration, there are numerous
advantages of essential fatty acids. Gorji et al. (2018) mention that
these essential fatty acids such as oleic acid, linoleic acid, and α-lino-
lenic acid have positive effects on Alzheimer’s disease. They have
neuroprotective effects including supporting the axonal and dendritic
growth of neurons, the prohibition of Aβ oligomerization, and the
speeding up of the brain growth of fetuses during pregnancy and of the
newborn baby. Moreover, oleic acid inhibits prolyl endopeptidase ac-
tivity which shows increased activity in the brains of Alzheimer’s dis-
ease patients. In the frontal cortex and hippocampus of Alzheimer’s
disease patients, oleic acid insufficiency has been detected (Gorji et al.,
2018).
Phytosterols are similar to cholesterol molecules in terms of struc-
ture, and they compete with cholesterol to be solubilized in the diges-
tive system. Thus, they provide a reduction in blood cholesterol by
limiting the absorption of cholesterol in the small intestine. Low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) is responsible for the transportation of cholesterol.
The rise in the amount of LDL cholesterol gives rise to an increase in the
risk of coronary heart disease. The decrease in the absorption of cho-
lesterol thanks to phytosterols lead to a decrease in LDL cholesterol
(Brufau, Canela, & Rafecas, 2008; Decloedt et al., 2017; Trautwein
et al., 2003).
Decloedt et al. (2017) detected the amount of water-soluble glyco-
sidic phytosterols including β-sitosterol, β-sitosterol-β-D-glucoside,
stigmasterol, campesterol, brassicasterol, and ergosterol in various
kinds of plant-based beverages including coconut-rice, rice, soy,
cashew, unroasted and roasted almond, and oat milk substitutes. As a
result of their research, they indicate that the amount of water-soluble
glycosidic phytosterols are much greater than formerly measured
amounts in the solid nut, cereal, and seed itself. The maximum β-

Table 5
Fatty acid contents of plant-based milk products.
Product Fatty acids Reference

Saturated Total saturated fatty Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated Total unsaturated fatty

acids acids

Almond milk 0% 0% 16:1 0.005% 18:2 (linoleic) 0.208% 0.812% Food Data Central, n.d.a
substitute 18:1 (oleic) 0.619%
Cashew milk substitute 0.44% 0.44% 0.62% 0.44% 1.06% Chalupa-Krebzdak, Long, &
Bohrer, 2018
Coconut milk 6:0 0.013% 2.083% 0% 0% 0% Food Data Central, n.d.b
substitute 8:0 0.165%
10:0 0.131%
12:0 1.042%
14:0 0.411%
16:0 0.199%
18:0 0.122%
Hazelnut milk 16:0 0.28% 0.43% 16:1 0.008% 18:2 (linoleic) 0.84% 6.156% Ilyasoglu & Yilmaz, 2019
substitute 18:0 0.15% 18:1 (oleic) 5.3% 18:3 0.008%
Peanut milk substitute 16:0 0.4% 0.74% 18:1 (oleic) 2.3% 18:2 (linoleic) 1.3% 3.66% Diarra et al., 2005
18:0 0.07% 20:1 0.06%
20:0 0.07%
22:0 0.1%
24:0 0.1%
Soy milk substitute 16:0 0.15% 0.2% 18:1 (oleic) 0.31% 18:2 (linoleic) 0.584% 0.979% Food Data Central, n.d.c
18:0 0.05% 20:1 0.01% 18:3 0.075%
Oat milk substitute 0.42% 0.42% 2%0% 0.21%0% 4.21% Califia Oat Milk, n.d.
Rice milk substitute 0% 0% 16:1 0.001% 18:2 (linoleic) 0.305% 0.938% Food Data Central, n.d.d
18:1 (oleic) 0.624% 18:3 0.008%
Hemp milk substitute 16:0 0.30% 0.428% 18:1 (oleic) 0.47% 18:2 (linoleic) 2.63% 4.173% Chichowska et al., n.d
18:0 0.11% 20:1 0.011% 18:3 (n-3) (α- 0.91%
linolenic)
20:0 0.018% 18:3 (n-6) 0.097%
18:4 (n-3) 0.055%

9
E.F. Aydar, et al.
Table 6
Water-soluble glycosidic phytosterols in various kinds of plant-based milk substitutes measured by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass
spectrometry (Decloedt et al., 2017).
The substitute milk type β-sitosterol (mg/ β-sitosterol-β-D-
100 mL) glucoside (mg/100 mL)
Coconut-rice milk substitute 0.51 ± 0.07 2.8 ± 0.9
Rice milk substitute 1.4 ± 0.1 2.4 ± 0.6
Soymilk substitute 2.5 ± 0.5 4.9 ± 2.1
Cashew milk substitute 2.7 ± 0.4 > 60
Almond (roasted) substitute 2.6 ± 0.6 78 ± 14
Almond (unroasted) 2.5 ± 0.1 13 ± 2
substitute
Oat substitute 2.1 ± 0.2 26 ± 4
Oat (canola oil added) 3.9 ± 0.7 33 ± 4
substitute
sitosterol concentration is found in oat milk at about 4 mg/100 mL and
β-sitosterol-β-D-glucoside in unroasted almond milk substitute at about
78 mg/100 mL (Table 6). Furthermore, Decloedt et al. (2017) men-
tioned the importance of the effect of the processing steps on phytos-
terol concentrations. Roasting has a significant impact on the β-sitos-
terol-β-D-glucoside and stigmasterol content. Roasted almond milk
substitute includes 78 mg/100 mL β-sitosterol-β-D-glucoside while
unroasted almond milk substitute has 13 mg/100 mL β-sitosterol-β-D-
glucoside. Stigmasterol concentration in roasted almond milk substitute
is lower than 0.03 mg/100 mL, but, in unroasted almond milk sub-
stitute, the concentration is about 1.9 mg/100 mL (Decloedt et al.,
2017). This difference between roasted and unroasted almond milk
substitutes emphasizes the significant effect of processing conditions on
the number of bioactive compounds in the produced plant-based milk
substitute.
6.2. Negative health effects
6.2.1. Lack of nutrient content
Despite the positive health effects of plant-based milk substitutes,
because the beneficial compounds from cow’s milk are not supplied,
they are not a replacement for animal-based milk products, and the risk
of incidence of some diseases can occur. The main difference between
cow’s milk and plant-based milk substitutes is protein content. The
protein amount in the cow’s milk is 3.28% whereas Table 8 indicates
that the highest protein content of the plant based milk substitutes is in
soy milk, 8.71%, and the lowest protein content is in the rice milk
substitute, 0.07% (Vanga & Raghavan, 2017). The best milk product is
soy milk and the least beneficial milk substitute in terms of the protein
content is rice milk substitute. Even though soy milk has the highest
protein content among the plant-based milk substitutes, almond milk
substitute is preferable to soy milk thanks to its balanced nutrient
content and pleasant flavor when compared to other plant-based milk
substitutes. Soy milk is less in demand due to its beany flavor and the
presence of some anti-nutrients such as trypsin inhibitor, phytic acid,
and saponin. However, it plays a vital role in making up for the lack of
protein and amino acid content compared to other foods and drinks in
the diet (Vanga & Raghavan, 2017).
6.2.2. Bioavailability
Bioavailability is the ratio of a compound in an active form at the
targeted site of action (McClements & Peng, 2019). Multiple factors
may affect the bioavailability of bioactive compounds like those of
structure, dosage, contextual diet, the origin of the food, and gut mi-
croflora (Zhang, 2000). Low bioavailability of vitamin and mineral is
another disadvantage of plant-based milk substitutes. Although nuts
and seeds are rich in terms of mineral and vitamin, antinutrients as seen
in Table 7 cause a decrease in bioavailability. The bioavailability of
calcium (Ca) is low due to the prevention of its absorption by phytate
and oxalate which are found particularly in sesame milk (Dubey &
Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103975
Brassicasterol (µg/ Campesterol (µg/ Stigmasterol (µg/ Ergosterol (µg/
100 mL) 100 mL) 100 mL) 100 mL)
NF (< 3) 72 ± 10 76 ± 13 ND
10 ± 3 260 ± 28 234 ± 23 ND
4.6 ± 0.4 1290 ± 291 998 ± 111 ND
NF (< 3) 279 ± 44 15 ± 1 NF (< 3)
NF (< 3) 101 ± 30 < 30 ND
NF (< 2) 62 ± 4 1915 ± 109 ND
NF (< 3) 475 ± 30 182 ± 16 ND
217 ± 12 1098 ± 61 < 15 NF (< 3)
Matel, 2018; Sethi et al., 2016). Dubey and Matel (2018) indicate that
normal Ca absorption occurs when the ratio of calcium and phosphate
is 1:2 and 2:1; if the amount of phosphate is higher, insoluble calcium
phosphate molecules are formed, and this situation decreases calcium
bioavailability. In addition to Ca, the bioavailability of iron, zinc, and
magnesium is also affected by phytate due to formed insoluble com-
plexes as a result of reaction with the cations of minerals; therefore,
absorption of these minerals decreases (Gibson, Perlas, & Hotz, 2006).
Furthermore, the phytic acid found in oat, soy and cashew milk sub-
stitutes prevents the absorption of zinc and iron (Ogunwolu, Henshaw,
Oguntona, & Afolabi, 2015; Rosado et al., 2005; Sethi et al., 2016).
Gibson et al. (2006) also denote that, because various polyphenols
cause the inactivation of thiamin, the absorption of thiamin decreases.
Polyphenols also cause a decrease in the digestibility of protein by
binding enzymes for digestion (Gibson et al., 2006). Processes such as
thermal application and boiling affect the bioavailability of minerals
and vitamins. Thermal applications break the bonds of formed com-
plexes and antinutrients. Boiling degrades oxalate found in sesame and
brings about improved Ca absorption (Gibson et al., 2006).
Besides its beneficial effects, there are a variety of studies that in-
dicate the low bioavailability of genistein (Irrera et al., 2017; Kwon
et al., 2007; Spagnuolo et al., 2015; Yang, Kulkarni, Zhu, & Hu, 2012).
Although the desirable absorption ability of genistein in the intestine,
poor water solubility prevents a higher concentration from being ab-
sorbed (Kwon et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2012). Yang et al. (2012) added
that genistein passes through extensive metabolism, and oxidation,
reduction, and conjugation reactions occur during metabolization.
Glucuronidation and sulfation are the main metabolic pathways of
genistein. Extensive metabolism is certainly one of the major factors
contributing to genistein's low oral bioavailability. Furthermore, gen-
istein and its glucuronide and sulfate conjugation are the substrates of
breast cancer resistant protein (BCRP), one of the ATP-binding cassette
transporters and is responsible for the intestinal and biliary excretion of
numerous compounds and their metabolites. High levels of efflux
transporters, especially BCRP, may be the most crucial factor re-
sponsible for genistein's low oral bioavailability (Yang et al., 2012) On
the other hand, the low bioavailability of genistein can be desirable for
some vulnerable consumers. Pistollato et al. (2015) mentioned that,
even though large scale clinical and epidemiological studies are needed,
consumption of genistein during pregnancy presents a risk of causing
one type leukemia in infants, MLL + acute myeloid leukemia.
The addition of probiotic bacteria is one of means to enhance
bioavailability as a result of formed short-chain fatty acids that enhance
the solubility of bioavailable calcium, hydrolysis of glucoside linkage,
synthesis of vitamins, and production of bioactive peptides. Probiotics
such as Lactobacillus and bifidobacteria in certain foods with estrogenic
activity like soymilk increase the bioavailability of calcium by hydro-
lysis of glycoside bonds in the intestines. Vitamins play a key role in
controlling metabolism and absorption systems in the intestinal tract.
Folate, vitamin C, D, and K have an impact on calcium absorption, and
10
E.F. Aydar, et al.
Table 7
Antinutritional components found in plant-based milk substitutes.
Product Antinutritional components
Cashew milk substitutes Tannis, trypsin, phytic acid
Sesame milk substitutes Oxalate, phytate
Soy milk substitutes Trypsin inhibitor, phytic acid, saponin
Oat milk substitutes Phytic acid
probiotics support vitamin synthesis and promote calcium absorption
(Dubey & Matel, 2018). In addition, fermentation promotes organic
acid formation, and organic acids enable the production of soluble li-
gands with trace minerals appearing in the gastrointestinal system.
Hence, the absorption of some minerals, especially Zn and Fe, is im-
proved (Gibson et al., 2006). Phytase enzyme, which is found in lactic
acid, bacteria, and yeasts, is responsible for the hydrolysis of phytate
(Rekha & Vijayalakshmi, 2010). Rekha and Vijayalakshmi (2010) also
mention that probiotic bacteria and yeasts enhance the bioavailability
of isoflavones, support the digestion of protein, and increase calcium
solubility in fermented soymilk. Fermented non-dairy products are ri-
cher in terms of mineral and vitamin content than plant-based milk
substitutes. Calcium, magnesium, riboflavin, and niacin are found in
higher amounts in fermented soymilk than unfermented soymilk
(Rekha & Vijayalakshmi, 2010). Although the component content
changes depending on the lactic acid bacteria used or the yeast species,
it can be said that fermentation increases mineral bioavailability and
vitamin B. In addition, antinutrient content decreases, and the enteral
health and immune system improve (Rekha & Vijayalakshmi, 2010).
6.2.3. Effects on oral health
Added sugar used to sweeten plant-based milk substitutes and in-
crease market acceptance has a detrimental impact on oral health.
WHO (2016) points to the significance of consuming added sugar as one
of the aetiological causes of tooth decay. Intake of sugar has a post-
eruptive effect on dental caries. One of WHO’s (2016) suggestions for
supporting regional policy formulation and national guidelines for re-
ducing the burden of nutritionally related chronic diseases includes
limiting free (added) sugar intake. Free (added) sugars should stay
below 10 percent of calorie intake, and food/drink consumption that
includes modified sugars should be limited to four times a day.
Recent studies have drawn attention to the adverse effects of added
sugar found in plant-based milk substitutes on oral health. Huang et al.
(2019) stated that sugar cane in particular provides an opportunity for
the biofilm formation of Streptococcus mutans on the tooth surface. S.
mutans creates sugar fermentation, and the pH of the environment de-
creases (Huang et al., 2019). Huang et al. (2019) also noted that S.
mutans is stable at low pH in the plaque. As a result, the acidic en-
vironment and biofilm formation on the tooth surface damages the
demineralization-remineralization balance, and the loss of this balance
causes the disappearance of tooth mineral content and dental protec-
tion (Huang et al., 2019).
Another disadvantage of plant-based milk substitutes also been in-
vestigated by Shen et al., 2019 who compared soymilk and bovine milk
in terms of tooth enamel mineral content. As a consequence of having a
smaller amount of bioavailable minerals, soymilk demineralizes the
lesion while dairy milk remineralizes the lesion because dairy milk has
a higher level of bioavailable calcium (Shen et al., 2019). The authors
warn about the risk to oral health of the low bioavailable calcium
content of soymilk.
7. Environmental effects of the production of plant-based milk
substitutes and cow’s milk
Food production has a variety of influences on the environment
including accelerating climate change, increasing water usage, creating
11
Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103975
Reference
Ogunwolu et al., 2015
Sethi et al., 2016
Nilufer & Boyacioglu, 2008; Sethi et al., 2016
Sethi et al., 2016
eco-toxicity, increasing land usage, eutrophication, and loss of biodi-
versity. Consequences of such threats from food production can be
quantified through life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) methods, and
there are numerous studies that attempt to determine how much and in
what way food production damages the environment (Naranjo et al.,
2020; Noya et al., 2018; Röös, Patel, & Spångberg, 2016).
The dairy industry is one of the most closely monitored sectors
because of its environmental consequences. In dairy production, the
impact on the environment is mainly from direct greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions, water usage, and land requirements (Naranjo et al., 2020).
Following meat and meat products, dairy products rank second in
greenhouse gas emissions with nearly four percent of total emissions,
10 percent of the global risk for anthropogenic eutrophication, and six
of acidification (Noya et al., 2018). Milk, the production of which has
grown rapidly in recent decades, is the most important commodity in
the dairy industry. Noya et al. (2018) emphasized that climate change is
the most common type of adverse effect of milk production to the en-
vironment followed by acidification and eutrophication. In addition,
the authors add that feed and fodder production is the largest factor in
the water footprint due to farming operations.
Röös, Patel, & Spångberg (2016) compared and measured the effect
on climate, eutrophication, acidification risk, and ecotoxicity impacts of
a traditional Swedish dairy farm when oat milk substitute is produced
instead of cow’s milk. The findings indicated that oat-based milk sub-
stitute production provided more than a 10–20% decrease in the effect
on climate. The direct greenhouse gas emissions from livestock, ferti-
lizer, and energy usage were substantially lower (16–41%) for oat-
based milk substitutes when compared to cow’s milk. They mention
that the eutrophication risk of oat milk substitute production was si-
milar to that of cow’s milk production because the same amount of land
was cultivated. The acidification risk for oat milk substitute production
was 21–37% higher than for cow's milk because more digestate was
generated, causing ammonia emissions during storage and distribution.
The ecotoxicity impact for the oat-based milk substitute was sub-
stantially lower compared to the cow’s milk production due to more
grass-clover cultivation. To sum up, the research of Röös et al., (2016)
showed tremendous potential for reducing the effect on climate by
manufacturing oat drink rather than cow's milk on a Swedish farm
while at the same ensuring biodiversity conservation resources for
pasturing. An opportunity to reduce the potential for ecotoxicity da-
mages by processing oat drink instead of cow's milk was also reported.
Also, plant-based milk waste includes high amounts of bioactive com-
pounds, antioxidants, and essential oil, and an antimicrobial agent, a
surface-active agent with high added value, dietary fiber, and colorant
were obtained from the plant-based waste product (Ayar & Ayar, 2016;
Çatalkaya and Kahveci, 2016; Mutlu-İnkök et al., 2016; Tekin, Köse, &
Bayraktar, 2016; Yavuz, Özel, Gülkirpik, & Ozcelik, 2016). This re-
cycling of plant-based waste products helps to decrease the environ-
mental problem.
8. Conclusion
This comprehensive review presents a holistic approach to the
processing technology, health effects, and bioavailability of plant-based
milk substitutes, a distinctive and interesting topic for researchers in
food technology, nutrition, and dietetics. The plant-based milk
E.F. Aydar, et al. Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103975

substitutes are a fledgling category in the plant-based food industry and

Atalar, 2019; Bernat et al., 2014; Bernat et al., 2015; Gul et al., 2017; Gul et al., 2018;
Abdullah et al., 2018; Edem & Elijah, 2016; Lu et al., 2019; Seow & Gwee, 1997; Sethi

Kundu et al., 2018; Manzoor et al., 2017; Shen et al., 2019; Vanga & Raghavan, 2017
Alozie Yetunde & Udofia, 2015; Bernat et al., 2015; Kundu et al., 2018; Maghsoudlou
its popularity has been expanded due to various factors including rising

Codina-Torrella et al., 2017; Kizzie-Hayford et al., 2015; Kizzie-Hayford et al., 2016;

levels of lactose intolerance, different diet types, desire for a healthy

Chichowska et al., n.d; Ismail, Abou-Dobara, & Nawal, n.d.; Wang et al., 2018
lifestyle, concern for animal welfare, and environmental concerns. The

Bernat et al., 2014; Bolarinwa et al., 2018; Popovici, Baerle, & Tatarov, 2017
Afaneh et al., 2011; Ahmadian-Kouchaksaraei et al., 2014; Sethi et al., 2016
types of plant-based milk substitutes have both similar and distinctive
processing steps. Wet milling, filtration, the addition of ingredients,

Mäkinen et al., 2015; Perezgonzalez, 2011; Vanga & Raghavan, 2017

sterilization, homogenization, aseptic packaging, and cold storage are
applied to all plant-based milk substitute; dehulling, roasting, dry
grinding, steeping in diluted acid, the addition of some enzymes, and
soaking in deionized water are specific for different plant-based milk
substitutes production. Recently, novel technologies that include ul-
trasound, pulsed electric field, ohmic heating, high- and ultra-high-
pressure homogenization have been applied to increase the stability of
the plant-based milk substitutes, and these novel applications could be
improved for large scale production. Though plant-based milk is rich in
terms of antioxidant activity which is beneficial for the immune system
and fatty acid that has a positive effect on the prevention of cardio-
vascular diseases, an insufficient protein amount, a low bioavailability
Ukwuru & Ogbodo, 2011

of mineral and vitamin content, and the added sugar present a dilemma
Manzoor et al., 2017

Mäkinen et al., 2015

for the consumption of plant-based milk substitutes when compared to

Adeiye et al., 2013

cow’s milk. Although plant materials have a high phenolic content,

some processing steps cause a decrease in the antioxidant activity and
et al., 2012

et al., 2016
Reference

the number of bioactive compounds of the final product. Insufficient

protein content can be eliminated by mixing different types of plant-
based milk substitutes, and, in this way, a pleasant taste can also be
achieved without the need for added sugar. The lower bioavailability of
5.72–6.92

6.35–7.15
6.82–6.85
6.81–8.23

5.21–6.10
6.9–7.39
4.4–7.02

calcium and various vitamins can be overcome by fermentation of

6.608

7.16

5.08
pH

plant-based milk substitutes via the use of lactic acid bacteria and yeast.
*

In addition to the benefits of the consumption of plant-based milk

0.58–1.25%

0.53–0.65

substitutes, the manufacturing of these beverages has a positive effect

0–0.2%
1.15%

0.70%

on the environmental in numerous ways including decreasing the water

Fiber

0.8%

0.4%
0.4%
0%

0%
0.4

footprint and creating a potential for reducing climate change and

*

ecotoxicity. Increased consumer acceptance because of assorted trends

2.75% maltose
Carbohydrate

like vegetarianism, lacto-vegetarianism, and ovo-vegetarianism and the

3.23–3.99%
5.50–5.60%

4.78-5 ± %
0.08–4.5%

2.31–11%

great potential for reducing the effect on climate during manufacturing

25.28%
4.38%

4.04%

4.76%
6.6%

0.3%

ensure that the plant-based milk substitute market will expand.

9. Perspectives for the future

0.09–3.04%

0.22–0.48%
0.84–0.81%

0.13–0.42%

0.2–0.41%
0.13–0.7%
2.63%

0.48%

0.47%
1.2%

0.2%

The plant-based diet has become widespread as a result of popular

Ash

trends, social media, food blogs, and a trend toward a healthy lifestyle;
30.13–34.7%

therefore, the plant-based milk substitute industry has soared. Research

1.06–8.89%

1.55–4.02%
2.40–3.48%
6.43–8.02%
2.35–4.35%

0.87–2.33%
1,88–5.5%

7.37–18%

and markets surveys indicates that the value of the plant-based milk
Total Fat

4.61–5%
3.30%

0.28%

substitute industry would be $28 billion in the USA retail market

(2017). To supply the rising demand for plant-based milk substitutes,
the shelf-life of these products must be increased by improving emul-
10.19–13.91%

12.99–23.2%
3.36–8.11%

sion stability. While one of the solutions to this problem is using ad-
Total solids

5.3–9.6%

ditives which are not readily accepted by the consumer, the other so-
8.11%

12.9%
14%

lution is to apply novel technologies. The challenges to the plant-based

*

*
*

milk substitute industry are a lack of novel technology application in

0.65–4.17%
2,05–2,33%
2.48–2.97%
2.36–8.71%

large scale experiments; experimentation on only a few plant sources,

3.28–3.6%

0.47–7.7%

0.07–0.6%
Nutritional table for plant-based milk substitutes.

0.8–1.7%

1.3–1.7%

generally almond and soy milk substitutes; and investigation of dif-

2.6–4%
Protein

2.05%

0.78%

ferent novel technologies for only one type of plant-based milk sub-
stitute. Another issue is that, although nuts and cereals have a high
82.49–87.26%

antioxidant capacity, the final product of plant-based milk substitutes

76.7–80.7%
88.12–91%

have less than the raw materials because of the processing steps and low
72–93.4%
Moisture

50–54%
87.12%

85.97%
94.1%

91.6%

amounts of hydrophilic phenolics. Most of the bioactive compounds

* indicates no information.

remain in the waste products. Therefore, plant-based milk substitute

*
*

waste must be recovered, and the antioxidant capacity of plant-based

Hazelnut milk substitute

Tiger nut milk substitute

Coconut milk substitute
Almond milk substitute

Cashew milk substitute

Sesame milk substitute

Walnut milk substitute

Peanut milk substitute

milk substitute must be analyzed. Different novel technologies must be

Hemp milk substitute
Rice milk substitute
Oat milk substitute
Soymilk substitute

applied to investigate the effects of processing on bioactive compounds

in plant-based milk substitutes. To respond to consumer preferences,
Raw Material

plant-based milk substitutes must be fortified with protein while

achieving a pleasant taste without the use of added sugar. This can be
Table 8

achieved by practicing sensory analysis for mixed types of plant-based

milk substitutes. In addition, the mineral, vitamin, and polyphenol

12
E.F. Aydar, et al.
bioavailability of plant-based milk substitutes must be investigated in a
detailed way. Consumers generally focus on the macronutrient because
of labeling protocols. However, micronutrients like phytosterol, phy-
toestrogen, and antioxidants also have a considerable effect on the
human body and health problems. Research should be conducted on the
bioactive compounds in plant-based milk substitutes, and consumers
have to be informed about all nutritional composition and their health
effects on the human body. In addition, although studies have been
conducted to investigate the environmental impact of cow’s milk pro-
duction, the comparison between the environmental impacts of the
manufacturing of plant-based milk substitutes and the cow’s milk is
missing. The impact of manufacturing plant-based milk substitutes
should be studied closely, and solutions to decrease acidification and
eutrophication should be developed.
Ethics statement
The work does not involve use of human subjects.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Voicevale Turkey and especially Erdem Koylan and Eytan
Aji for inspiring us for writing this review.
References
Ayar, E. N. & Ayar, A. (2016). Diyet Liflerin ve Aroma Maddelerin Kesme Muhallebide
Kullanılması ve Dondurmaya İşlenmeisnin Duyusal Analiz ile Değerlendirilmesi.
Gıda, Metabolizma ve Sağlık: Biyoaktif Bileşenler ve Doğal Katkılar Kongresi,
İstanbul, 28 November, 127.
Abdullah, N., Wahab, N., Saruan, N., Matias-Peralta, H. M., Xavier, N. R., Muhammad, N.,
... Bakar, M. F. A. (2018). Effect of replacing coconut milk with almond milk in spicy
coconut gravy on its sensorial, nutritional and physical properties. Materials Today:
Proceedings, 5(10, Part 2), 21919–21925.
Aboulfazli, F., Shori, A. B., & Baba, A. S. (2016). Effects of the replacement of cow milk
with vegetable milk on probiotics and nutritional profile of fermented ice cream. LWT
- Food Science and Technology, 70, 261–270.
Achoribo, E. S., & Ong, M. T. (2017). Tiger nut (cyperus esculentus): Source of natural
anticancer drug? Brief review of existing literature. Euromediterranean Biomedical
Journal, 12. https://doi.org/10.3269/1970-5492.2017.12.19.
Adeiye, A. O., Gbadamosi, O. S., & Taiwo, K. A. (2013). Effects of some processing factors
on the characteristics of stored groundnut milk extract. ISSN, 1996, 0794.
Afaneh, I., Abu-Alruz, K., Quasem, J. M., Sundookah, A., Abbadi, J., Alloussi, S., & Ayyad,
Z. (2011). Fundamental elements to produce sesame yoghurt from sesame milk.
American Journal of Applied Sciences, 8(11), 1086–1092.
Ahmadian-Kouchaksaraei, Z., Varidi, M., Varidi, M. J., & Pourazarang, H. (2014).
Influence of processing conditions on the physicochemical and sensory properties of
sesame milk: A novel nutritional beverage. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 57(1),
299–305.
Aidoo, H., Sakyi-Dawson, E., Abbey, L., Tano-Debrah, K., & Saalia, F. K. (2012).
Optimization of chocolate formulation using dehydrated peanut-cowpea milk to re-
place dairy milk. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 92(2), 224–231.
Alasalvar, C., & Bolling, B. W. (2015). Review of nut phytochemicals, fat-soluble bioac-
tives, antioxidant components and health effects. The British Journal of Nutrition,
113(Suppl 2), S68–S78.
Alozie Yetunde, E., & Udofia, U. S. (2015). Nutritional and sensory properties of almond
(Prunus amygdalu Var Dulcis) seed milk. World Journal of Dairy & Food Sciences,
10(2), 117–121.
Alu’datt, M. H., Rababah, T., Ereifej, K., & Alli, I. (2013). Distribution, antioxidant and
characterization of phenolic compounds in soybeans, flaxseed and olives. Food
Chemistry, 139(1–4), 93–99.
Anis, S. F., Hashaikeh, R., & Hilal, N. (2019). Microfiltration membrane processes: A
review of research trends over the past decade. Journal of Water Process Engineering,
32, 100941.
Atalar, I. (2019). Functional kefir production from high pressure homogenized hazelnut
milk. LWT, 107, 256–263.
Balogun, M. A., Kolawole, F. L., Joseph, J. K., Adebisi, T. T., & Ogunleye, O. T. (2016).
Effect of fortification of fresh cow milk with coconut milk on the proximate com-
position and yield of warankashi, a traditional cheese. Croatian. Journal of Food
13
Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103975
Science and Technology, 8(1), 10–14.
Berger, J., Bravay, G., & Berger, M. (1997). Birleşik Devletler Patent No. US5656321A.
Retrieved from https://patents.google.com/patent/US5656321A/en.
Bernat, N., Chafer, M., Chiralt, A., & Gonzalez-Martınez, C. (2014). Hazelnut milk fer-
mentation using probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and inulin. International
Journal of Food Science and Technology, 49, 2553–2562.
Bernat, N., Chafer, M., Chiralt, A., Laparra, J. M., & Gonzalez-Martinez, C. (2015).
Almond milk fermented with different potentially probiotic bacteria improves iron
uptake by intestinal epithelial (Caco-2) cells. International Journal of Food Studies, 4,
49–60.
Blumenfeld, J. (2019). In the aisle: Delicious alternatives to dairy for you to stock, New
Hope Network. http://newhope.com/food-and-beverage/aisle-delicious-alternatives-
dairy-you-stock.
Bolarinwa, I. F., Aruna, T. E., Adejuyitan, J. A., Akintayo, O. A., & Lawal, O. K. (2018).
Development and quality evaluation of soy-walnut milk drinks. International Food
Research Journal, 25(5), 2033–2041.
Bolling, B. W., Dolnikowski, G., Blumberg, J. B., & Chen, C.-Y. O. (2010). Polyphenol
content and antioxidant activity of California almonds depend on cultivar and harvest
year. Food Chemistry, 122(3), 819–825.
Bopitiya, D., & Madhujith, T. (2015). Antioxidant activity and total phenolic content of
sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) seed. oil. 24(3), 296.
Briviba, K., Gräf, V., Walz, E., Guamis, B., & Butz, P. (2016). Ultra-high-pressure homo-
genization of almond milk: Physico-chemical and physiological effects. Food
Chemistry, 192, 82–89.
Brufau, G., Boatella, J., & Rafecas, M. (2006). Nuts: source of energy and macronutrients.
The British Journal of Nutrition, 96(Suppl 2), S24–S28.
Brufau, G., Canela, M. A., & Rafecas, M. (2008). Phytosterols: Physiologic and metabolic
aspects related to cholesterol-lowering properties. Nutrition Research, 28(4), 217–225.
Califia Oat Milk (n.d.). Retrieved October 17, 2019, from https://www.califiafarms.com/
products/unsweetened-oatmilk.
Callewaert, D., Festjens, G., & Neirynck, N. (2012). Europe Patent No. EP2476317A1.
Retrieved from https://patents.google.com/patent/EP2476317A1/zh.
Canadian Dairy Information Centre (2015). Per capita global consumption of fluid milk.
533 Retrieved November 12, 2017, http://dairyinfo.gc.ca/index_e.php?s1=dff-
534fcil&s2=cons&s3=consglo&s4=tm-lt 535.
Canadian Dairy Information Centre (2017). Consumption of dairy products. Retrieved 9
January 536 2018, http://dairyinfo.gc.ca/index_e.php?s1=dff-537fcil&s2=cons&
s3=conscdn&s4=consmclc&page=consmclc.
Çatalkaya, G., & Kahveci, D. (2016). Domates Proses Atıklarının Değerlendirilmesi: Farklı
Çözgenler Kullanılarak Likopen Ekstraksiyonu, Gıda, Metabolizma & Sağlık: Biyoaktif
Bileşenler ve Doğal Katkılar Kongresi, İTÜ, İstanbul, 28 November, 135.
Chalupa-Krebzdak, S., Long, C. J., & Bohrer, B. M. (2018). Nutrient density and nutri-
tional value of milk and plant-based milk alternatives. International Dairy Journal/
Published in Association with the International Dairy Federation, 87, 84–92.
Chavan, M., Gat, Y., Harmalkar, M., & Waghmare, R. (2018). Development of non-dairy
fermented probiotic drink based on germinated and ungerminated cereals and le-
gume. LWT, 91, 339–344.
Chen, Y., Lu, Y., Yu, A., Kong, X., & Hua, Y. (2014). Stable mixed beverage is produced
from walnut milk and raw soymilk by homogenization with subsequent heating. Food
Science and Technology Research, 20(3), 583–591.
Chichowska, J., Kliber, A., Kozowska, J., Biskupski, M., & Grygorowicz, Z. (n.d.). Insulin,
thyroid hormone levels and metabolic changes after treated rats with hemp milk.
Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2625/
168857ebe1cf4bfb987532dcc278c2d92eb5.pdf.
Codina-Torrella, I., Guamis, B., Ferragut, V., & Trujillo, A. J. (2017). Potential application
of ultra-high-pressure homogenization in the physico-chemical stabilization of tiger
nuts’ milk beverage. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies: IFSET: The
Official Scientific Journal of the European Federation of Food Science and Technology, 40,
42–51.
Codina-Torrella, I., Guamis, B., Zamora, A., Quevedo, J. M., & Trujillo, A. J. (2018).
Microbiological stabilization of tiger nuts’ milk beverage using ultra-high-pressure
homogenization. A preliminary study on microbial shelf-life extension. Food
Microbiology, 69, 143–150.
Costa Neto, J. J. G., Gomes, T. L. M., Justo, T. F., Pereira, K. S., Amaral, P. F. F., Rocha
Leão, M. H. M., & Fontes Sant’Ana, G. C. (2019). Microencapsulation of tiger nut milk
by lyophilization: Morphological characteristics, shelf life and microbiological sta-
bility. Food Chemistry, 284, 133–139.
Cui, X.-H., Chen, S.-J., Wang, Y., & Han, J.-R. (2013). Fermentation conditions of walnut
milk beverage inoculated with kefir grains. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 50(1),
349–352.
da Silva Medeiros, N., Koslowsky Marder, R., Farias Wohlenberg, M., Funchal, C., & Dani,
C. (2015). Total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of different types of cho-
colate, milk, semisweet, dark, and soy, in cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and cere-
bellum of wistar rats. Biochemistry Research International, 2015, 294659.
Decloedt, A. I., Van Landschoot, A., Watson, H., Vanderputten, D., & Vanhaecke, L.
(2017). Plant-based beverages as good sources of free and glycosidic plant sterols.
Nutrients, 10(1), https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10010021.
Dhakal, S., Giusti, M. M., & Balasubramaniam, V. M. (2016). Effect of high-pressure
processing on dispersive and aggregative properties of almond milk. Journal of the
Science of Food and Agriculture, 96(11), 3821–3830.
Dhakal, S., Liu, C., Zhang, Y., Roux, K. H., Sathe, S. K., & Balasubramaniam, V. M. (2014).
Effect of high-pressure processing on the immunoreactivity of almond milk. Food
Research International, 62, 215–222.
Diarra, K., Nong, Z. G., & Jie, C. (2005). Peanut milk and peanut milk-based products
production: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 45(5), 405–423.
Dubey, M. R., & Patel, V. P. (2018). Probiotics: A promising tool for calcium absorption.
E.F. Aydar, et al.
The Open Nutrition Journal, 12(1), https://doi.org/10.2174/1874288201812010059.
Durand, A., Franks, G. V., & Hosken, R. W. (2003). Particle sizes and stability of UHT
bovine, cereal and grain milks. Food Hydrocolloids, 17(5), 671–678.
Edem, V. E., & Elijah, A. I. (2016). Optimization of coconut (Cocos nucifera) milk ex-
traction using response surface methodology. International Journal of Nutrition and
Food Sciences, 5(6), 384–394.
Ekanem, G. O., & Ojimelukwe, P. C. (2017). Potentials of coconut milk as a substitute for
cow milk in cheese making. Journal of Advances in Microbiology, 4(2), 1–9.
Ermiş, E., Güneş, R., Zent, İ., Çağlar, M. Y., & Yilmaz, M. T. (2018). Characterization of
hazelnut milk fermented by Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and
Streptococcus thermophilus. Gıda, 43(4), 677–686.
Eslami, O., & Shidfar, F. (2019). Soy milk: A functional beverage with hypocholester-
olemic effects? A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Complementary
Therapies in Medicine, 42, 82–88.
Fitrotin, U., Utami, T., Hastuti, P., & Santoso, U. (2015). Antioxidant properties of fer-
mented sesame milk using Lactobacillus plantarum Dad 13. Int. Res. J. Biol. Sci, 4,
56–61.
Fomilk (n.d.). Retrieved September 16, 2019, from https://www.fomilk.com/tr/.
Food Data Central (n.d.a). Retrieved October 17, 2019, from https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/
fdc-app.html#/?query=almond%20milk.
Food Data Central (n.d.b). Retrieved October 17, 2019, from https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/
fdc-app.html#/?query=coconut%20milk.
Food Data Central (n.d.c). Retrieved October 17, 2019, from https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/
fdc-app.html#/food-details/336099/nutrients.
Food Data Central (n.d.d). Retrieved October 17, 2019, from https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/
fdc-app.html#/food-details/336110/nutrients.
Gibson, R. S., Perlas, L., & Hotz, C. (2006). Improving the bioavailability of nutrients in
plant foods at the household level. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 65(2),
160–168.
Gorji, N., Moeini, R., & Memariani, Z. (2018). Almond, hazelnut and walnut, three nuts
for neuroprotection in Alzheimer’s disease: A neuropharmacological review of their
bioactive constituents. Pharmacological Research: The Official Journal of the Italian
Pharmacological Society, 129, 115–127.
Gul, O., Atalar, I., Saricaoglu, F. T., & Yazici, F. (2018). Effect of multi-pass high pressure
homogenization on physicochemical properties of hazelnut milk from hazelnut cake:
An investigation by response surface methodology. Journal of Food Processing and
Preservation, 1–11.
Gul, O., Saricaoglu, F. T., Mortas, M., Atalar, I., & Yazici, F. (2017). Effect of high-pressure
homogenization (HPH) on microstructure and rheological properties of hazelnut
milk. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies: IFSET: The Official Scientific
Journal of the European Federation of Food Science and Technology, 41, 411–420.
Hamza, A. H., & Mahmoud, R. H. (2013). Soy milk and Sesame seeds (Phytoestrogens)
Ameliorate cardiotoxicity induced by adriamycin in experimental animals. American
Journal of Research Communication, 1(10), 1–15.
HRA Food and Drink Consultants. Veganism. Insights and developments in the European
Market 2017. https://foodand-drink.marketing/veganism-insights-development/.
Huang, Y., Thompson, T., Wang, Y., Yu, Q., Zhu, L., Xu, X., ... Townsend, J. A. (2019).
Analysis of cariogenic potential of alternative milk beverages by in vitro
Streptococcus mutans biofilm model and ex vivo caries model. Archives of Oral
Biology, 105, 52–58.
Ilyasoglu, H., & Yilmaz, F. (2019). Preliminary investigation of yoghurt enriched with
hazelnut milk. International Food Research Journal, 26(2), 631–637.
Iorio, M. C., Bevilacqua, A., Corbo, M. R., Campaniello, D., Sinigaglia, M., & Altieri, C.
(2019). A case study on the use of ultrasound for the inhibition of Escherichia coli
O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes in almond milk. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 52,
477–483.
Irrera, N., Pizzino, G., D’Anna, R., Vaccaro, M., Arcoraci, V., Squadrito, F., ... Bitto, A.
(2017). Dietary management of skin health: The role of genistein. Nutrients, 9(6),
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9060622.
Ismail, M. M., Abou-Dobara, M. I., & Nawal, M. R. (n.d.). Functional Rice Rayeb Milk:
Chemical, Microbiological and Sensory Properties. Journal of Nutrition and Health
Sciences, 5(2), 1–12.
Jan, K. C., & Ho, C.-T. (2014). Inhibitory activity of sesaminol and sesaminol triglycoside
on cytochrome P450 enzymes and their pharmacokinetics in rats. Journal of
Functional Foods, 7, 142–149.
Janssen, M., Busch, C., Rödiger, M., & Hamm, U. (2016). Motives of consumers following
a vegan diet and their attitudes towards animal agriculture. Appetite, 105, 643–651.
Jeske, S., Bez, J., Arendt, E. K., & Zannini, E. (2019). Formation, stability, and sensory
characteristics of a lentil-based milk substitute as affected by homogenization and
pasteurization. European Food Research and Technology = Zeitschrift Fur Lebensmittel-
Untersuchung Und -Forschung. A, 245(7), 1519–1531.
Junliang, H., Jinliang, H. (2008). Çin Patent No. CN101233945A. Retrieved from https://
patents.google.com/patent/CN101233945A/en?oq=CN101233945A.
Kamiloglu, S., Pasli, A. A., Ozcelik, B., & Capanoglu, E. (2014). Evaluating the in vitro
bioaccessibility of phenolics and antioxidant activity during consumption of dried
fruits with nuts. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 56(2), 284–289.
Karshenas, M., Goli, M., & Zamindar, N. (2018). The effect of replacing egg yolk with
sesame-peanut defatted meal milk on the physicochemical, colorimetry, and rheo-
logical properties of low-cholesterol mayonnaise. Food Science & Nutrition, 6(4),
824–833.
Khuenpet, K., Jittanit, W., Hongha, N., & Pairojkul, S. (2016). UHT skim coconut milk
production and its quality. 23, 1–14.
Kizzie-Hayford, N., Jaros, D., Schneider, Y., & Rohm, H. (2015). Characteristics of tiger
nut milk: effects of milling. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 50,
381–388.
Kizzie-Hayford, N., Jaros, D., Zahn, S., & Rohm, H. (2016). Effects of protein enrichment
14
Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103975
on the microbiological, physicochemical and sensory properties of fermented tiger
nut milk. LWT, 74, 319–324.
Kluczkovski, A., Lima, N., & Oliveira, M. K. (2016). Brazil nut powdered milk properties.
Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 1–6.
Kohli, D., Kumar, S., Upadhyay, S., & Mishra, R. (2017). Preservation and processing of
soymilk: A review. International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition, 2(6), 66–70.
Kris-Etherton, P. M., Yu-Poth, S., Sabaté, J., Ratcliffe, H. E., Zhao, G., & Etherton, T. D.
(1999). Nuts and their bioactive constituents: Effects on serum lipids and other fac-
tors that affect disease risk. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 70(3 Suppl),
504S–511S.
Kundu, P., Dhankhar, J., & Sharma, A. (2018). Development of non-dairy milk alternative
using soymilk and almond milk. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science Journal,
6(1), 203–210.
Kwok, K. C., & Niranjan, K. (1995). Effect of thermal processing on soymilk. International
journal of food science & technology, 30(3), 263–295.
Kwon, S. H., Kang, M. J., Huh, J. S., Ha, K. W., Lee, J. R., Lee, S. K., ... Choi, Y. W. (2007).
Comparison of oral bioavailability of genistein and genistin in rats. International
Journal of Pharmaceutics, 337(1–2), 148–154.
Lee, S. W., & Rhee, C. (2003). Processing suitability of a rice and pine nut (Pinus kor-
aiensis) beverage. Food Hydrocolloids, 17(3), 379–385.
Li, D., & Hu, X. (2011). Chapter 4 - fatty acid content of commonly available nuts and
seeds. In V. R. Preedy, R. R. Watson, & V. B. Patel (Eds.). Nuts and seeds in health and
disease prevention (pp. 35–42). Academic Press.
Lu, X., Chen, J., Zheng, M., Guo, J., Qi, J., Chen, Y., ... Zheng, B. (2019). Effect of high-
intensity ultrasound irradiation on the stability and structural features of coconut-
grain milk composite systems utilizing maize kernels and starch with different
amylose contents. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 55, 135–148.
Maghsoudlou, Y., Alami, M., Mashkour, M., & Shahraki, M. H. (2015). Optimization of
ultrasound-assisted stabilization and formulation of almond milk. Journal of Food
Processing and Preservation, 828–839.
Makinde, M. F., & Adebile, V. T. (2018). Influence of processing treatments on quality of
vegetable milk from almond (Terminalia catappa) kernels. Acta Scientific Nutritional
Health, 2(6), 37–42.
Mäkinen, O. E., Uniacke-Lowe, T., O’Mahony, J. A., & Arendt, E. K. (2015).
Physicochemical and acid gelation properties of commercial UHT-treated plant-based
milk substitutes and lactose free bovine milk. Food Chemistry, 168, 630–638.
Makinen, O. E., Wanhalinna, V., Zannini, E., & Arendt, E. K. (2016). Foods for special
dietary needs: Non-dairy plant-based milk substitutes and fermented dairy-type
products. Critical reviews in food science and nutrition, 56(3), 339–349.
Maleki, N., Khodaiyan, F., & Mousavi, S. M. (2015). Antioxidant activity of fermented
Hazelnut milk. Food Science and Biotechnology, 24(1), 107–115.
Manzoor, M. F., Manzoor, A., Siddique, R., & Ahmad, N. (2017). Nutritional and sensory
properties of cashew seed (Anacardium occidentale) milk. Modern Concepts &
Developments in Agronomy, 1(1), 1–4.
Mazumder, M. A. R., & Hongsprabhas, P. (2016). Genistein as antioxidant and anti-
browning agents in in vivo and in vitro: A review. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy =
Biomedecine & Pharmacotherapie, 82, 379–392.
McCarthy, K. S., Parker, M., Ameerally, A., Drake, S. L., & Drake, M. A. (2017). Drivers of
choice for fluid milk versus plant-based alternatives: What are consumer perceptions
of fluid milk? Journal of dairy science, 100(8), 6125–6138.
McClements, D. J., & Peng, S.-F. (2019). Current status in our understanding of physi-
cochemical basis of bioaccessibility. Current Opinion in Food Science. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.cofs.2019.11.005.
Muntana, N., & Prasong, S. (2010). Study on total phenolic contents and their antioxidant
activities of Thai white, red and black rice bran extracts. Pakistan Journal of Biological
Sciences: PJBS, 13(4), 170–174.
Mutlu-İnkök, A., Daşkaya-Dikmen, C., Karbancıoğlu-Güler, F. & Ozcelik, B (2016).
Bitkisel atıklardan antimikrobiyal madde eldesi, Gıda, Metabolizma & Sağlık:
Biyoaktif Bileşenler ve Doğal Katkılar Kongresi, İTÜ, İstanbul, 28 November (pp.
79–84).
Naranjo, A., Johnson, A., Rossow, H., & Kebreab, E. (2020). Greenhouse gas, water, and
land footprint per unit of production of the California dairy industry over 50 years.
Journal of Dairy Science. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-16576.
Naziri, E., Koupantsis, T., Mantzouridou, F. T., Paraskevopoulou, A., Tsimidou, M. Z., &
Kiosseoglou, V. (2017). Influence of thermal treatment on the stability of vegetable
“milk” obtained by ultrafiltration of aqueous oil body extracts from various sources.
European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology: EJLST, 119, 1–13.
Nilufer, D., & Boyacioglu, D. (2008). Functional food components of soy and soy products.
Gida, 33(5), 241–250.
Nor, A. B. H. (2012). Almond milk production and study of quality characteristics. Journal
of Academia, 2, 1–8.
Noya, I., González-García, S., Berzosa, J., Baucells, F., Feijoo, G., & Moreira, M. T. (2018).
Environmental and water sustainability of milk production in Northeast Spain. The
Science of the Total Environment, 616–617, 1317–1329.
Ogunwolu, S. O., Henshaw, F. O., Oguntona, B. E., & Afolabi, O. O. (2015). Nutritional
evaluation of cashew (Anacardium occidentale, l.) nut protein concentrate and iso-
late. African Journal of Food Science, 9(1), 23–30.
Omoni, A. O., & Aluko, R. E. (2005). Soybean foods and their benefits: Potential me-
chanisms of action. Nutrition Reviews, 63(8), 272–283.
Önning, G., Åkesson, B., Öste, R., & Lundquist, I. (1998). Effects of consumption of oat
milk, soya milk, or cow’s milk on plasma lipids and antioxidative capacity in healthy
subjects. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 42(4), 211–220.
Padma, M., Jagannadarao, P. V. K., Edukondalu, L., Ravibabu, G., & Aparna, K. (2018).
Physico-chemical analysis of milk prepared from broken rice. International Journal of
Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 7(2), 426–428.
Palacios, O. M., Badran, J., Drake, M. A., Reisner, M., & Moskowitz, H. R. (2009).
E.F. Aydar, et al.
Consumer acceptance of cow's milk versus soy beverages: Impact of ethnicity, lactose
tolerance and sensory preference segmentation. Journal of Sensory Studies, 24(5),
731–748.
Palacios, O. M., Badran, J., Spence, L., Drake, M. A., Reisner, M., & Moskowitz, H. R.
(2010). Measuring acceptance of milk and milk substitutes among younger and older
children. Journal of Food Science, 75(9), S522–S526.
Pardeshi, I. L., Murumkar, R. P., & Tayade, P. T. (2014). Optimization of process for spray
drying of soymilk and sprouted soybean milk. Journal of Grain Processing and Storage,
1(1), 13–20.
Pathak, N., Bhaduri, A., & Rai, A. K. (2017). Sesame: Bioactive compounds and health
benefits. In J.-. M. Mérillon, & K. G. Ramawat (Eds.). Bioactive molecules in food (pp.
1–20). Springer International Publishing.
Pelvan, E., Olgun, E.Ö., Karadağ, A., & Alasalvar, C. (2018). Phenolic profiles and anti-
oxidant activity of Turkish Tombul hazelnut samples (natural, roasted, and roasted
hazelnut skin). Food Chemistry, 244, 102–108.
Perezgonzalez, J. D. (2011). Nutritional balance of rice milk. Journal of Knowledge
Advancement & Integration, 87–90.
Pineli, L. D. L. D. O., Botelho, R. B., Zandonadi, R. P., Solorzano, J. L., de Oliveira, G. T.,
Reis, C. E. G., & Teixeira, D. D. S. (2015). Low glycemic index and increased protein
content in a novel quinoa milk. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 63(2), 1261–1267.
Pistollato, F., Iglesias, R. C., Ruiz, R., Aparicio, S., Crespo, J., Lopez, L. D., ... Battino, M.
(2018). Nutritional patterns associated with the maintenance of neurocognitive
functions and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease: A focus on human stu-
dies. Pharmacological Research: The Official Journal of the Italian Pharmacological
Society, 131, 32–43.
Pistollato, F., Sumalla Cano, S., Elio, I., Masias Vergara, M., Giampieri, F., & Battino, M.
(2015). Plant-based and plant-rich diet patterns during gestation: Beneficial effects
and possible shortcomings. Advances in Nutrition, 6(5), 581–591.
Popovici, C., Baerle, A., & Tatarov, B. (2017). Biochemical aspects of walnut dairy free
milk. Proceedings of University of Ruse, 56, 28–33.
Poschner, S., Maier-Salamon, A., Zehl, M., Wackerlig, J., Dobusch, D., Pachmann, B., ...
Jäger, W. (2017). The impacts of genistein and daidzein on estrogen conjugations in
human breast cancer cells: A targeted metabolomics approach. Frontiers in
Pharmacology, 8, 699.
Prvulovic, D., Malenčić, Đ., & Miladinovic, J. (2016). Antioxidant activity and phenolic
content of soybean seeds extracts. Agro Knowledge Journal, 17(2), 121–132.
Quasem, J. M., Mazahreh, A. S., & Abu-Alruz, K. (2009). Development of vegetable based
milk from decorticated sesame (Sesamum Indicum). American Journal of Applied
Sciences, 6(5), 888–896. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajas.2009.888.896.
Rawal, G., Yadav, S., & Nagayach, S. (2015). Phytosterols and the health. Medico Research
Chronicles, 2(3), 441–444.
Rekha, C. R., & Vijayalakshmi, G. (2010). Bioconversion of isoflavone glycosides to
aglycones, mineral bioavailability and vitamin B complex in fermented soymilk by
probiotic bacteria and yeast. Journal of Applied Microbiology I, 109, 1198–1208.
Research and Markets (2017). Dairy and dairy alternative beverage trends in the U.S. (4th
654 edn.). Dublin, Ireland: Research and Markets.
Rita, S. A., & Luciana, B. (2018). Milk and Parkinson disease: Could galactose be the
missing link? Mediterranean Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism. https://doi.org/10.
3233/MNM-180234.
Röös, E., Patel, M., & Spångberg, J. (2016). Producing oat drink or cow’s milk on a
Swedish farm — Environmental impacts considering the service of grazing, the op-
portunity cost of land and the demand for beef and protein. Agricultural Systems, 142,
23–32.
Ros, E. (2010). Health benefits of nut consumption. Nutrients, 2(7), 652–682.
Rosado, J. L., Díaz, M., González, K., Griffin, I., Abrams, S. A., & Preciado, R. (2005). The
addition of milk or yogurt to a plant-based diet increases zinc bioavailability but does
not affect iron bioavailability in women. The Journal of Nutrition, 135(3), 465–468.
Ruslan, K., Happyniar, S., & Fidrianny, I. (2018). Antioxidant potential of two varieties of
Sesamum indicum L. collected from Indonesia. Journal of Taibah University Medical
Sciences, 13(3), 211–218.
Sebastiani, G., Herranz Barbero, A., Borrás-Novell, C., Alsina Casanova, M., Aldecoa-
Bilbao, V., Andreu-Fernández, V., ... García-Algar, O. (2019). The effects of vege-
tarian and vegan diet during pregnancy on the health of mothers and offspring.
Nutrients, 11(3), https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11030557.
Seow, C. C., & Gwee, C. N. (1997). Coconut milk: Chemistry and technology. International
Journal of Food Science & Technology, 32(3), 189–201.
Sethi, S., Tyagi, S., & Anurag, R. (2016). Plant-based milk alternatives an emerging
segment of functional beverages: A review. Journal of Food Science and Technology,
53(9), 3408–3423.
Shen, P., Walker, G. D., Yuan, Y., Reynolds, C., Stanton, D. P., Fernando, J. R., &
15
Journal of Functional Foods 70 (2020) 103975
Reynolds, E. C. (2019). Effects of soy and bovine milk beverages on enamel mineral
content in a randomized, double-blind in situ clinical study. Journal of Dentistry.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdent.2019.06.007.
Shin, M.-J., Rim, S.-J., Jang, Y., Choi, D., Kang, S.-M., Cho, S.-Y., ... Chung, N. (2003). The
cholesterol-lowering effect of plant sterol-containing beverage in hypercholester-
olemic subjects with low cholesterol intake. Nutrition Research, 23(4), 489–496.
Song, T. T., Hendrich, S., & Murphy, P. A. (1999). Estrogenic activity of glycitein, a soy
isoflavone. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 47(4), 1607–1610.
Souza, R. G. M., Gomes, A. C., Naves, M. M. V., & Mota, J. F. (2015). Nuts and legume
seeds for cardiovascular risk reduction: Scientific evidence and mechanisms of action.
Nutrition Reviews, 73(6), 335–347.
Spagnuolo, C., Russo, G. L., Orhan, I. E., Habtemariam, S., Daglia, M., Sureda, A., ...
Nabavi, S. M. (2015). Genistein and cancer: Current status, challenges, and future
directions. Advances in Nutrition, 6(4), 408–419.
Sun, M.-Y., Ye, Y., Xiao, L., Rahman, K., & Zhang, H. (2016). Daidzein: A review of
pharmacological effects. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative
Medicines, 13(3), 117.
Taie, H. A. A., El-Mergawi, R., & Radwan, S. (2008). Isoflavonoids, flavonoids, phenolic
acids profiles and antioxidant activity of soybean seeds as affected by organic and
bioorganic fertilization. American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural & Environmental
Sciences, 4(2), 207–213.
Tekin, B. N., Köse, M. D. & Bayraktar, O. (2016). Fenolik Bileşiklerin Yüzey Aktiflerle
Etkileşimi, Gıda, Metabolizma & Sağlık: Biyoaktif Bileşenler ve Doğal Katkılar
Kongresi, İTÜ, İstanbul, 28 November, 107.
Trautwein, E. A., Duchateau, G. S. M. J. E., Lin, Y., Melnikov, S. M., Molhuizen, H. O. F., &
Ntanios, F. Y. (2003). Proposed mechanisms of cholesterol-lowering action of plant
sterols. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology: EJLST, 105(34), 171–185.
U.S. National Library of Medicine (2020). Lactose intolerance. Genetics Home Reference.
Retrieved February 25, 2020, from https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/lactose-
intolerance.
Ukwuru, M. U., & Ogbodo, A. C. (2011). Effect of processing treatment on the quality of
tigernut milk. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 10(1), 95–100.
Vanga, S., & Raghavan, V. (2017). How well do plant-based alternatives fare nutritionally
compared to cow’s milk? Journal of Food Science and Technology, 55(1), 10–20.
Walker, G. (2019). High demand for plant-based milk products, research highlights,
Convenience Store. http://conveniencestore.co.uk/news/high-demand-for-plant-
based-milk-products-research-highlights/595766.article.
Walsh, M. (2017). Dairy alternatives - how do they compare? Dairy Nutrition Forum, 9(2).
Wang, M., Zhang, L., Wu, X., Zhao, Y., Wu, L., & Lu, B. (2019). Quantitative determi-
nation of free and esterified phytosterol profile in nuts and seeds commonly con-
sumed in China by SPE/GC–MS. LWT, 100, 355–361.
Wang, Q., Jiang, J., & Xiong, Y. L. (2018). High pressure homogenization combined with
pH shift treatment: A process to produce physically and oxidatively stable hemp milk.
Food Research International, 106, 487–494.
Wood, Z. (2019, 19 July). Plant-based milk the choice for almost 25% of Britons now, The
Guardian. https://theguardian.com/food/2019/jul/19/plant-based-milk-the-choice-
for-almost-25-of-britons-now.
World Health Organization (2016, September 26). Risks to oral health and intervention.
Oral Health; World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/oral_health/action/
risks/en/.
Xiaoli, Y. (2014). Çin Patent No. CN103621647A. Retrieved from https://patents.google.
com/patent/CN103621647A/en?oq=CN103621647A.
Yang, Z., Kulkarni, K., Zhu, W., & Hu, M. (2012). Bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of
genistein: Mechanistic studies on its ADME. Anti-Cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry,
12(10), 1264–1280.
Yavuz, M., Özel, N., Gülkirpik, E. & Ozcelik, B. (2016). Süperkritik Karbondioksit
Ekstraksiyonu ile Bitkisel Atıklardan Renklendirici Üretimi, Gıda, Metabolizma &
Sağlık: Biyoaktif Bileşenler ve Doğal Katkılar Kongresi, İTÜ, İstanbul, 28 November
(pp. 192–198).
Zaaboul, F., Raza, H., Cao, C., & Yuanfa, L. (2019). The impact of roasting, high pressure
homogenization and sterilization on peanut milk and its oil bodies. Food Chemistry,
280, 270–277.
Zec, M., & Glibetic, M. (2018). Health benefits of nut consumption. In Reference module
in food science. Elsevier.
Zhang, Y. (2000). Bioavailability and biological effects of the isoflavone glycitein and
isoflavone glucuronides: role of glucuronide in human natural killer cell modulation
in vitro (S. Hendrich (ed.)) [Doctor of Philosophy]. Iowa State University.
Zujko, M. E., & Witkowska, A. M. (2014). Antioxidant potential and polyphenol content of
beverages, chocolates, nuts, and seeds. International Journal of Food Properties, 17,
86–92.