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 Managerial Psychology

Nyitor A. Shenge, Ph.D

Department of Psychology, University of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

1
Chapter Description organizations as a whole. After reading the

chapter, the reader is expected to, among

Managerial psychology is a sub-discipline
other things: (a) know something about
of Psychology or Management, focusing
managerial psychology, including its
on understanding organization behaviour.
meaning and scope; (b) know and
Managerial psychology draws from
appreciate people’s needs in organizations;
frameworks and descriptions about the
(c) understand social influence in
psychology and sociology of organizations
organizations; and (d) develop skills for
and the institutional context of work and
decision making, and organizational
careers. This chapter introduces the reader
analysis. The chapter highlights
to behavioural science concepts,
perceptions and attitudes, cognitive style,
constructs, theories, methods, and tools
decision making, motivation, creativity,
that are used and applied to issues that
networking, negotiation, social influence,
people encounter in their work and career.
group dynamics, group decision making,
The chapter provides an overview of work
organizational culture, organizational
and organizations in contemporary
learning, leadership and power,
industrial society. It considers individual
organizational change, and organizational
behaviour, then moves to behaviour in
analysis. The aforementioned are areas
groups or teams, and finally discusses
relevant to managerial psychology.

2
 was based on no measurement and hence

defined management as an art. However,

“scientific management” is an art based

upon a science, so it qualifies management

as both a science and an art. Scientific

management draws upon laws deducted

from time and motion measurement.

Regardless of changes in its definition,

Introduction management continues to be what it has

always been, - the art of directing activity

Management may be defined as the art and
(Gilbreth, 2005; 1911).
science of getting things done through

people. Hellriegel and Slocum (1996, p.5)

define management as “the planning,

organization, leading, and controlling the

Throughout the history of management, it
people working in an organization and the
was never doubted that knowledge of the
ongoing set of tasks and activities they
discipline would be of great value but it
perform.” The term "management," as
was doubted that management could be
defined by the Century Dictionary, is also
studied otherwise than by observation and
"the art of managing by direction or
practice. That was why many people
regulation." Management is relevant to
assumed that management was an art and
almost every sphere of life where people
that it was a gift or talent bestowed
work and interact to achieve defined goals.
divinely, rather than an acquired
As a discipline, an art or science,
accomplishment (Gilbreth, 2005). Indeed it
management has evolved over time.
was common belief that one could learn to
Successful management of the old type

3
manage only by going out on the work and organizations and individuals not only co-

observing other managers, or by exist, they depend on each other for

attempting to manage. Many people survival. To ignore the welfare of people

actually believed that good managers were in any organization is to jeopardize the life

born. However, the advent of "Scientific of that organization (Denga, 1982).

Management" has demonstrated that the

An organization is the framework
best management is rooted in laws that
within which management occurs. It
have been determined, and can be taught
(organization) is defined as any structured
(Taylor, 1911).
group of people who come together to

There is a growing awareness of a achieve specific goals that individuals

global need for improved and effective could find challenging to achieve alone.

management of human and material Organizations can be viewed through three

resources in work organizations. Work lenses, namely, a strategic design lens,

organizations range from universities, political lens, and cultural lens. Making

schools, places of worship, hospitals, use of these lenses enables a manager to

correctional institutions such as prisons, better appreciate the complexity and

and small or big businesses. It has been interconnectedness of organizations

recognized that management as an exercise (Carroll, 2006). According to Crossan,

in social engineering requires managerial Rouse, Fry, and Killing (2009), a

psychology (Denga, 1982). The human fundamental challenge facing managers

side of enterprise was sadly overlooked by today is stems from the reality that

Frederick Taylor and his associates during external environment in which their

the scientific era. However, it has organization operates is changing so

increasingly received emphasis in modern rapidly that the firm is hard-pressed to

management. It is now realized that keep up.

4
The role of a manager in an three categories, namely, interpersonal,

organization informational, and decisional. Four points

need to be made in respect to the

A person who allocates human and
aforementioned managerial roles
material resources and directs the
categorization. First, a manager’s job is a
operations of a department or an entire
combination of these roles. Second, these
organization is called a manager. From a
roles influence the attributes of managerial
traditional point of view, a manager is a
work. Third, these roles are highly
person who plans, and directs people and
interdependent. Fourth, managerial level
resources. From the point of view of an
and function shape the relative importance
organization, a manager is a person who
of each role.
supports, coaches, coordinates, and leads

(Carroll, 2006, p.15). Other responsibilities/functions of a

manager
Managers represent only a fraction
Typically, the functions, duties,
of the workers or employees in large
responsibilities, or roles of a manager
organizations (Hellriegel and Slocum,
include planning, directing, staffing,
1996, p.5). Some the functions that
controlling/coordinating, reporting , and
managers perform are planning,
budgeting. A manager coordinates
organizing, leading, and controlling. There
resources (human, physical and financial).
are also specific roles that managers play.
He/she also tries to study and understand
Whereas managerial functions define what
the behaviours of his co-workers
managers do, the managerial roles define
(including his subordinates, and
how managers do their jobs (Hellriegel and
colleagues). He/she also manages his
Slocum, 1996, p.31). Minzberg (1973)
relationship with co-workers. A manager
identified the ten most common
also provides managerial Leadership.
managerial roles which he grouped into

5
Under this subheading, the functions of a Psychology, in a popular sense, is "the

manager and the qualities of a good leader study of the mind." Another definition of

can be addressed. Managers also ensure psychology is that it is the scientific study

managerial communication and managerial of human and animal behaviour and

decision-making (manager and delegation mental processes. However, one of the

of authority). most comprehensive definitions of

psychology is that given by Wade, Tavris,

In the past two or three decades,
Saucier, and Elias (2010). They view
duties of management have changed
psychology as “the discipline concerned
considerably across the globe (Mullins,
with behavior and mental processes and
1999). This has posed a number of
how they are affected by an organism’s
challenges to organizations. For instance,
physical state, mental state, and external
employees of most national and
environment” (Wade, Tavris, Saucier, and
transnational organizations are older and
Elias, 2010, p.4). The methods used by
more culturally diverse today more than
psychologists to study human behavior
ever before. There also have been more
include observation, interviews, appraisal
rapid changes within modern organizations
or assessment (Denga, 1982).
than in organizations in previous eras.
Psychology started as a branch of
Importantly too, product-service mixes
philosophy but it is now a scientific
have been redefined in modern
discipline in its own right. Psychologists
organizations. The foregoing statements
make use of scientific methods or
presuppose that management, the “process
techniques to study human behaviour.
of obtaining and organizing resources and
Many of the different kinds of behavior
achieving goals through other people” is
that psychologists study are puzzling in
dynamic rather than static (Mullins, 1999).
nature (Wade, Tavris, Saucier, and Elias,
Defining psychology

6
2010, p.4)). The aims of psychology as a make objective judgments on the basis of

science are to describe, explain, predict, well-supported reasons and evidence,

and control behavior. In modern times, rather than emotion or anecdote.” Some

psychology is viewed as a discipline as key characteristics of the ideal scientist

well as a profession. (and that includes the psychologist) are

In carrying out psychological precision, skepticism, reliance on

research, psychologists utilize the tools of empirical evidence, willingness to make

observation, experimentation, analysis and “risky predictions”, and openness.

testing. Psychologists may also be Not all psychologists do clinical

empirical in their approach to research. work. Many do research work and teach.

There are numerous areas of specialization Some research and work in business or

in psychology. These include clinical, consultancy firms. According to Wade,

industrial-organizational, developmental, Tavris, Saucier, and Elias (2010), the

school, educational and personality. Others “professional activities of psychologists

are physiological, and experimental. Areas with doctorates fall into academic or

of specializations in psychology have been research psychologists, clinical

developing at different rates. In all areas of psychologists, and psychologists in

specialization in psychology, critical industry, law, or other settings.”

thinking is essential. Hellriegel and Among the oldest and most

Slocum (1996) view critical thinking as the developed areas of specializations in

careful consideration of the implications of psychology are clinical psychology and

all known elements of a problem. industrial-organizational psychology.

Wade, Tavris, Saucier, and Elias Clinical psychology “integrates science,

(2010, p.7) define critical thinking as “the theory, and practice to understand, predict,

ability and willingness to assess claims and and alleviate maladjustment, disability, and

7
discomfort as well as to promote human emerged from the discipline of industrial-

adaptation, adjustment, and personal organizational psychology. This chapter is

development” (APA Division 12, Society concerned with managerial psychology.

of Clinical Psychology, 2013). It focuses

on “the intellectual, emotional, biological,

psychological, social, and behavioural The Psychology of Management

aspects of human functioning across the

The Psychology of Management, as used
life span, in varying cultures, and at all
by Gilbreth (2005; p.1), means “the effect
socioeconomic levels” (APA Division 12,
of the mind that is directing work upon
Society of Clinical Psychology, 2013).
that work which is directed, and the effect
Industrial-organizational
of this undirected and directed work upon
psychology (I-O) is interested in the
the mind of the worker.” It is the branch
scientific study of human behaviour in
of psychology studying mental features of
organizations and the work place (APA,
the person and its behaviour in the course
2013). The focus of the I-O specialty is on
of planning, organization, management
deriving principles of individual, group
and the control of joint activity (Talibova,
and organizational behaviour and applying
2008).
this knowledge to the solution of problems

at work (APA, 2013). The ultimate aim of Management is a science that is

industrial-organizational psychology is to concerned about coordination of resources

increase efficiency in the industry. of the organizations on reaching the

In the last two or three decades, a planned purposes. Where people exist their

number of new focus sub-areas or sub- psychological features are reflected in their

specialties, including consumer activity. It makes sense to state that

psychology and managerial psychology, “studying the psychology of management,

8
we study the psychology of the person, his The value of psychology to

activity and the most important thing - management also depends on modern

influence of the mentality of the person on management’s emphasis that successful

activity and influence of activity on management lies on the man (or woman),

psychology and behaviour of the person. not on the work; that efficiency is best

achieved by placing the emphasis on the

There is a value in the subject of
man (or woman), and modifying the
psychology that demands the attention of
environment and methods to make the
the manager. First, it is recognized that
most of the man (woman) (Talibova,
every human being venturing into the
2008). Effective management is necessary
world needs all the knowledge that is
for recording success in an organization.
required for effective functioning of the

human mind. This helps the individual to Further, it has established that the

not only give but receive information with mind of the human being is a controlling

the least waste and expenditure of energy. factor in efficiency. Therefore, knowledge

of psychology is imperative for

understanding the human mind as it affects

the work of the manager or the managed

(Gilbreth, 2005). This is exactly the whole

mark of the "psychology of management."

Thus, the human factor is considered as the

central point in the psychology of

management, as its essence and a core.

Among a variety of problems facing

psychology of management, Seyidov

(2000) has given the greatest attention to

9
four, namely, motivation, leadership, Managerial psychology is defined

interpersonal relations, selection of as the application of psychological

personnel. knowledge and principles to executive and

managerial positions. Put in another way,

What is Managerial Psychology? managerial psychology is the application

“Psychology,” as earlier defined in this of an understanding of behavioural

chapter, is the scientific study of human psychology in human beings to executive

and animal behaviour and mental and managerial positions with the aim of

processes. Human behaviour is an supporting and improving the effectiveness

aggregate of traits which include emotions, of mangers whilst in their roles. It is a sub-

attitudes, interests, dislikes, needs, discipline of organizational behaviour

aspirations, self-concepts, temperaments, focusing on understanding the

interpersonal relationships, response to psychological insight for the whole

stimuli, strengths and weaknesses among organization behaviour from the

others (Denga, 1982). Only two terms management perspective. Managerial

(“managerial” and “psychology”) are psychology is interested in how managers

involved in managerial psychology. do their managerial work while deploying

Therefore pairing of the term “managerial” or taping into one or a combination of the

with “psychology” would appear to mean aforementioned skills.

that the field has something to do with The Psychology Dictionary defines
applying the principles and knowledge managerial psychology as “the application
from the discipline of psychology to the of an understanding of behavioural
tasks of management. In a way, this is psychology in human beings to executive
correct. and managerial positions to help support

and improve the effectiveness whilst in

10
their roles.” Understanding, as used in this According to Denga (1982, p.2),

context, is the method of obtaining the use of the term ”managerial” implies

knowledge about oneself or other people that the use of psychology “has specific

or of knowing the meaning or significance application to work organizations as a tool

of something, such as an idea, a term, or an in the hands of management to use for the

occurrence. Managerial psychology is also efficient development of work

“the application of psychology to organizations.” A manager who

managerial positions and the theories understands the behaviour of his staff

underpinning management fashions" stands a better chance of effectively

(Psychology Dictionary, 2013). managing his organization to the benefit of

both the organization and the individual.

Managerial psychology is invariably an

aspect of social psychology used as a tool

for human engineering. Some experts also

refer to managerial psychology as

industrial psychology (Denga, 1982).

Eze (2004) views managerial

psychology as very important and relevant

subfield of Industrial/Organizational (I/O)

psychology. He defines managerial

psychology as “the application of

psychology to the management of not only

the human resource but also other related

resources in industries and organizations”

(Eze 2004, p.135). The subfield of

11
industrial/organizational psychology operating managerial personnel. The

involves managing not only single subfield of managerial psychology is also

individuals but also small groups, large useful to practicing managers, leaders,

groups, and work executive teams in executive officers, managing directors,

institutions, industries and organizations. directors, corporate heads, general

The scope of I/O includes leading and administrators and individuals who have

managing people successfully, motivation, responsibilities to manage the affairs of

interpersonal and intergroup relationships, other people. Some of the psychological

communication, productivity, training and aspects of management which managerial

developing people and getting people to psychology is concerned with include

achieve their potentials. The thinking, reasoning, emotions,

aforementioned issues are key motivations, attitudes, assumptions and

psychological variables that bring about overall behavior of managers and others in

development at individual, organizational management positions in their

and national levels (Eze, 2004). By performance and control of resources.

applying psychological concepts, Hereditary, environmental, personal and

principles, theories and techniques, situational factors directly or indirectly

managerial psychology objectively finds influence psychological attributes

solutions to problems and challenges (thinking, reasoning, emotions,

affecting the interdependent social lives of motivation) in management personnel

people at work. (Triandis, et al, 1994; Spector, 1996).

According to Eze (2004; pp. 135, 136),

Managerial psychology is relevant
research in managerial psychology seeks
to different segments of professionals and
to achieve the following aims:
groups including prospective managers,

leaders and corporate heads, current

12
a. obtain information that can be used f. train management personnel to

to impart knowledge, skills and develop managerial competencies

abilities (KSAs) in the management and abilities and to obtain

of individuals, small groups and managerial skills;

large groups in industries and g. boost managerial efficiency and

organizations; effectiveness;

b. develop in managers and leaders h. enable managers and employees to

the right attitudes, motivations and become aware of themselves, to be

perceptions towards realizing independent in their judgment and

organizational effectiveness, and decisions.

developing high performance Managerial psychology is occasionally

organizations; associated with areas such as psychology

c. train managers on how to impart of leadership and supervision as well as

psychological attributes and values organizational psychology (Leavitt, 1964).

to their subordinates; Managerial psychology is very relevant to

d. assist the managers to develop the Africans considering the fact that many

right personality to cope with Africans are said to have challenges in

diversity-related conflicts and managing their resources, mastering their

pressures in civil society, environment.

organizations and establishments;

Managerial psychology draws from
e. handle managerial problems and
frameworks and descriptions about the
challenges that arise in the course
psychology and sociology of organizations
of carrying out managerial
and the institutional context of work and
functions, especially in managing
careers. The scope of managerial
human resources;
psychology includes assessing staff for

13
recruitment, rewarding, promoting and c) Helping employees to cope with

punishing employees. It also includes stress and psychological problems

promoting incentives and motivating staff emanating from work;

boost morale and increase productivity d) Establishing conditions for job

while providing conducive organizational satisfaction;

climate (Denga, 1982). Managerial e) Engaging in an unwritten

psychology equally encompasses psychological contract with

promotion of interpersonal relationships workers; and

between individuals and organizations as f) Establishing an effective network

well as within individual employee. The of communication and public

sub-discipline also deals with methods of relations.

assessing employee performance and

The Need for Managerial Psychology
personality in organizations as well as the Knowledge
study of individuals in and groups of
The utilitarian value of managerial
workers regarding their interactions with
psychology is to increase the performance
internal and external environments
or effectiveness of managers. Many people
(Denga, 1982).
do wonder exactly what it takes to be an
Denga (1982, p.2) also delimited effective manager. It may be challenging
managerial psychology as follows: to provide answer to this puzzle. However,

a) Assessing and meeting the mangers, to be effective, are expected to

psychological needs of workers in develop certain managerial skills.

order to derive maximum According to Hellriegel and Slocum

productivity from the workers; (1996), skills are abilities that are related

b) Managing problem behaviours and to performance. Skills are not necessarily

helping to resolve conflicts; inborn. For managers, skills may be

14
grouped as technical, interpersonal, Organizations and human behaviour have

conceptual, and communication skill. become very complex in today’s world. Thus

managerial psychology knowledge is so much

It needs to be stated here that
needed in today’s world because many
technical skills are most important to front-
managers and potential managers have great
line managers, who typically handle
technical grounding but not a good notion of
specific methods of production. how the real world works. Neither do they

Interpersonal skills are needed at all levels have a good notion of how to get things done,

of management, because managing is the and how to deal with people (Carroll, 2006).

process of motivating other people in order Yet, managers need to understand human

to get something done. Conceptual skills behaviour in varied work settings and varied

institutional (organizational, legal, national)

are particularly useful to top managers,
contexts.
who have to think in more abstract terms
Managerial psychology fits into the
and see parts in relation to the whole
jurisdiction of psychologists in industry or
Hellriegel and Slocum (1996).
industrial-organizational psychology.
Hellriegel and Slocum (1996)
Managerial psychologists are among the
further note that communication and
class of psychologists that identify and
critical thinking skills are important to all
solve or attempt to solve organizational
managers. Such skills aid managers to
problems.
lead, motivate, and shape the
Carroll (2006) further notes that over one-half
organization’s objectives. Critical skills of people that would eventually become

help the manager to put together somewhat managers do not have formal managerial

unrelated bits of information. This training in programmes such as MBAs. This

connotes creativity involved in the makes the need for such managers or would-be

management process (Hellriegel and managers to acquire managerial psychology

knowledge and skills all the more pertinent.

Slocum, 1996).

15
 Managerial psychology knowledge to be involved more in decision-making

and skills enable managers to understand who processes in organizations in which they exist

they are and also know and appreciate their or are employed. Problems such as worker

net-works, work groups, organization, and rebellion, worker-organization conflict, social

community (such as school, industry, loafing, job insecurity and job dissatisfaction

profession, union, city, country, gender, and have become have accentuated in

career). The changing nature of work in organizations today. A manager who has a

industries and organizations has also made it good grasp of managerial psychology is better

pertinent for managers to acquire managerial able to calm down behavioural incidents that

psychology knowledge and skills. For tend to weigh down an organization and

instance, organizations have evolved from adversely affect growth. Although managerial

limited production, generalist (do whole task) psychology does not lay claim to be the

or “jack of all trades” orientation to mass panacea for all organizational problems, it

production. The latter (mass production) is however, aims at lubricating the “human

characterized by separate work/family, machines” in work organizations to run

division of labour, assembly line, owners smoothly. Managerial psychology sees

versus union, and classic social contract of machines as being important to organizations.

loyalty for security. In more recent times, But it places more value on human beings

attention has been shifted from mass (Denga, 1982).

production to knowledge work which is Today’s management crises in areas

characterized by educated, professional, such as wage formula negotiations,

mobile “human capital” with “careers.” Today, productivity and cost of living adjustments,

service work (called the “new factory”) is fast diversity management and leadership have

dominating a dominant feature of reinforced the need for managers to acquire

organizations especially in the more developed knowledge and skill in managerial psychology

economies of the world (Carrol, 2006, p.13). in order to achieve better results. In the area of

More than ever before, there has been leadership, for example, achieving better

greater determination by workers and unions results partly entails that Peter Principle

16
(promoting a person to their level of organization goals, job performance and

incompetence) does not happen. It also partly productivity have focused on how workers
entails that, at worst, the most ineffective can be motivated for higher productivity.
workers are systematically moved where they
If workers are not adequately motivated
can do the least damage to management
they may not perform, and if they fail to
(Dilbert’s Principle) (Carrol, 2006).
perform the objectives that are set may
Perceptions and attitudes are
never be achieved (Fadeyi, 2004).
central in managerial psychology because
Creativity refers to new and useful
perceptions are our windows to the world
ideas. It is a process which encompasses
while attitudes affect behaviours, and are
problem presentation, preparation,
also affected by behaviours. This, of
generation of ideas, recognition/evaluation
course, depends on situational cues that
and preservation/reproduction. Group
lead people to interpret their behaviour in
decision process is also important in
particular ways. Cognitive style reflects
managerial psychology. It involves
the way a manager thinks and how this
identification of problem, search,
affects managerial decision making, which
divergence, disagreement and action.
is the ability to evaluate and choose from
Leadership and power connote the
available alternative courses of action
potential ability to influence behaviour, to
(Carroll, 2006).
change the course of events, to overcome
Motivation is important in
resistance and to get people to do things
managerial psychology because it
that they would not otherwise do (Carroll,
represents the reason for a manager’s
2006). Leadership and power are the
behaviour or course of action. There is a
processes, the actions, the behaviours
strong relationship between motivation and
through which this potential power is
efficiency or effective organization
utilized and realized. These too are
productivity. Many studies on

17
important issues in managerial should be carried along in any change

psychology. Managers and organizations process even as there is need to know the

learn by doing, reflecting, connecting, and cost and benefits of every change and

deciding. Whereas some learning entails change implementation process (Shenge,

more action, some other forms of learning 2006).

involve more reflection. Some are concrete Negotiation, another important area

while other are abstract (Carroll, 2006). of interest in managerial psychology, is a

Organizational change involves process by which two or more individuals

sensing the current state (where we are), or parties make decisions and do not have

visioning the future state (where we are identical preferences. Organizational

going), and innovating and implementing culture refers to shared assumptions a

(how we will get there). Change is an particular group has developed to attend to

important focus area in managerial the problems of external adaptation and

psychology. It is technical or adaptive in internal integration. Managers are equally

nature. A number of forces enable change. interested in knowing organizational

These include burning platform, role culture, which relates to the way people in

models, incentives, values/identity, vision/ an organization do things in their

reframing, and external pressure (Carroll, organization. An organization’s culture is

2006, p.22). There are also some forces transferred to newcomers; therefore

that inhibit change. These include habit, organization culture, in this regard, can be

fear, lack of time, lack of resources, said to be historical in outlook (Carroll,

entitlements/power, and shared 2006).

assumptions. It is imperative for

employees to be trained to embrace

change. It is also necessary that employees

18
Some Main Issues of Managerial customer satisfaction through an integrated

Psychology that are also Considered system of tools, techniques and training

Relevant which involves the continuous

Total Quality Management (TQM): This improvement of organizational processes,

refers to the company-wide quality resulting in high quality products and

approach in supply, customer focus, services (Brocka and Brocka, 1992).

product and service quality, management The goal of TQM is to satisfy the

style, process management, organizational customer through continuous

structure and organizational culture to improvements in quality, cost, customer

achieve the common value and services, flexibility and lead time. TQM

commitment to quality. TQM also refers to aims at delighting the customer through

a total company-wide effort that improvement in quality of products and

encompasses all employees, suppliers and services, communication and attitude,

customers that seeks continuously to waste reduction, job satisfaction and cost

improve the quality of products and reduction. TQM also aims to improve

processes to meet the needs and productivity, safety. It also provides

expectations of the customers at the lowest problem solving opportunities, promote

overall cost. It also connotes a way of teamwork and strives to link all levels of

managing an organization such that the management and workers, while ensuring

quality of work the internal customers do total employee involvement. TQM also

for themselves guarantees the quality of seeks to reduce absenteeism and

work received by the external customers. grievances develop human resources. It is

TQM also means a way by which the the product of the culture of an

organization’s culture is defined and organization that drives constant

supports the continuous attainment of improvement and concern for producing

19
high-quality goods and services. Quality, control, information dissemination and

operationally defined, means reducing integration of TQM elements (tools,

errors, waste, reworks and scraps. techniques and training) (Brocka and

Organizationally, it involves knowing and Brocka, 1992).

satisfying our internal and external

customers, and working as a team. Management of Change in

Culturally, TQM is a never-ending journey Organizations: Today’s manager must

that involves, among other things, doing learn to manage the process of change.

the right things right, first time, on time This means that a manager must be able to

and every time. The key principles of diagnose problems, and plan and

TQM are highest priority, quality implement changes in ways that will be

definition, customer definition, customer accepted by members of the organization.

satisfaction, aim, communication, ethos, In order to be successful, a change must

values, mutual respect and benefit, health have two characteristics. Firstly, it must be

and safety, communication, participation a high-quality solution to the system’s

and ownership, continuous improvement, problems in terms of its technical and

performances, and investment. Techniques logical soundness. Secondary, it must be

of TQM include empowerment, employee acceptable to the members of the system.

participation and investment, creativity A change is either planned or unplanned

and innovation, management by score (Maier, 1973). Beckhard (1969) defines a

keeping (performance appraisal and planned change as organizational

feedback interview), team building and development (OD) which is an effort

manager skills development. Steps in planned organization-wide and managed

implementing TQM include culture from the top to increase organizational

assessment, executive training, quality effectiveness and health through

20
interventions in the organization’s supporting and improving the effectiveness

processes using behavioural-science of managers whilst in their roles.

knowledge. Managerial psychology accommodates,

among others, topics such as

Progressive Management: The term understanding social influence in

progressive management mean that the organizations, decision making and

handling of resources in an enterprise or organizational analysis. Other areas of

organization is such that incremental focus of managerial psychology include

results, profits and rate of development are perceptions and attitudes, cognitive style,

steadily achieved either daily, monthly or decision making, motivation, creativity,

annually. Consequently, it involves what is networking, negotiation, social influence,

today known as productive management. It group dynamics, group decision making,

also involves the high intellectual organizational culture, organizational

attributes of problem solving and decision leaning, leadership and power,

making (Eze, 1995). To succeed, organizational change, and organizational

progressive management must develop analysis. The value of managerial

enabling structures, communicate, involve psychology lies in the improved

people and be honest. It must also performance or effectiveness of managers.

institutionalize the change. This invariably translates into better

performance at the organizational level.

Managerial psychology has not yet

Conclusion developed fully in Nigeria and Africa.
Managerial psychology is the application
However, a few notable scholars and
of an understanding of behavioural
practitioners have been making effort to
psychology in human beings to executive

and managerial positions with the aim of

21
advance the sub-discipline of managerial Technology (MIT) Open

psychology in Nigeria and Africa. Courseware, Course Number

15.301 / 15.310, Fall on 17

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