CHAPTER XII I

TAPIOCA, ARROWROOT, AND SAGO

STARCHES: PRODUCTIO N
BY DOUGLA S A . CORBISHLE Y
ResearchDepartment,IndustrialStarchandFoodProductsDivision,NationalStarchand
ChemicalCorporation,Bridgewater,New Jersey
AND
WILLIA M MILLE R
TapiocaAssociates,
Inc., Wilton, Connecticut

I. Manufactur e of Tapioca Starch 469

1. Historica l Background and Botanical Nomenclatur
e 469
2. Cassava Root Production and Compositio n 470
3. Tapioc a Starch Manufacture 472
II . Arrowroo t Starch 476
III . Sag o Starch 477
IV . Reference s 478

I . MANUFACTUR E OF TAPIOC A STARCH

1. Historical Background and Botanical Nomenclature

Starch is available from large tuberous roots of a plant which thrives in most
equatorial regions between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
This plant is known by many names such as Ubi kettella or kaspe in Indonesia ,
manioca,rumu , or yucca i n Spanish America, mandioca or Aipim i n Brazil,
manioc in Madagasca r and French-speakin g Africa, tapioca in India and Malay-
sia, and cassav a and sometime s cassada in English-speaking regions of Africa,
Thailand, and Ceylon.
The cassav a plant has been classified as ManihotutilissimaPohl of the family
Euphorbiaceae . Th e name Manihot esculentais being increasingl y adopted.
Cassav a is the term usually applied in Europe and in the United States to the
roots of the plant, whereas, tapioca is the name given the processe d products of
cassava . The word tapioca is derived from tipioca, the Tupi Indian name for the
meal which settles out of the liquid expresse d from rasped tubers and made into
pellets and then called triiocet (7). The cassava plant was first believed to have
been cultivated i n the tropical regions of North and South America. Th e roots
4 69 STARCH , 2nd ed.
Copyrigh t © 1984 by Academic Press , Inc.
All rightsof reproductio
n in any form reserved .
ISBN 0-12-746270-8
4 70 DOUGLA S A . CORBISHLE Y AN D WILLIA M MILLE R

from the plant are an important carbohydrate food source in many regions of the
tropics.

2. Cassava Root Production and Compositio n

There are hundreds of commercial varieties of cassav a i n various equatorial
regions . These varieties fal l int o two main categories : Manihot palmataand
Manihotaipi,or bitter and swee t cassava . The distinctio n between the varieties is
dependen t upon the content of cyanohydrin leading to hydrogen cyanide. Sweet
or nontoxic roots contain less than 50 mg of evolvable HC N per kilogram of
fresh root matter, whereas the bitter varieties can contain up to 250 mg, or more,
of evolvable HCN per kilogram of fresh root. *'Sweet" cassav a root varieties are
cultivated for human consumption , whereas th e "bitter" cassav a root varieties
are cultivated for industrial purposes . The latter roots tend to have higher starch
contents . During the starch manufacturing process , the hydroge n cyanide content
is reduced to acceptable levels.
In many regions cassava i s grown i n poor soil that is no longer suitable for
other crops.Fertile sandy-cla y or sandy-loa m soils are preferred, but cassav a will
not tolerate wet, marshy soil or standing water. Cassava,like all plants yielding
carbohydrates , has high nutrient requirements . Hence, soil is exhauste d rapidly
unless fertilized or crops ar e rotated on i t (/) . Cassava can be cultivated as a
single crop or in conjunction with crops such as corn and other vegetables .
The cassav a plant is a semi-shrubber y perennial that grows under cultivation to
a height of 2-4 m. The leaves are large and palmate, ordinarily with 5-7 lobes,
borne on a long slender petiole. Th e roots or tubers radiate from the stem just
below the surface of the ground. Feeder roots growing vertically from the stem
and from the storage roots penetrate the soil to a depth of 50-100 cm, and this
capacity of the cassav a plant to obtain nourishmen t at some distance below the
surface helps in understandin g it s growth on inferior soils (/) .
The cassav a plant is propogate d vegetativel y by cuttings taken from the lower
stems of plants which are 9-10 months old. The cuttings should be at least 20 cm
in length and contain a minimum of four nodules. Th e usual method i s fla t
planting, by hand, 5-10 cm below the soil surface in rows about 120 cm apart
(4,000 plants/acre, 10,00 0 plants/hectare). Tim e o f planting i s affected b y
weather conditions , and in general, the best root yields occur if planting takes
place at the beginning of a rainy, humid weather period. The plant produces best
with abundant rainfall; however, i t can be grown a t annual rainfall levels of
20-200 in.
Young plants do not require much cultivation. Durin g the first few months,
weeds should be removed once or twice and hoeing may be necessar y to preserve
the subsoi l moisture. Some herbicides have been used, but in most countries the
cost of chemicals cannot be justified. Th e plant responds well t o fertilizer; but
 XIII . TAPIOCA , ARROWROOT , AN D SAGO STARCHE S 47 1

again, i n most countries, fertilizers ar e not used except on some commercial

plantations .
Particularly, i n some regions, the cassav a plant may be subject to attack by
various diseases . A major effort has been put forward to select varieties that are
diseas e resistant.Viru s diseases , such as mosaic,the brown streak and leaf curl
of tobacco, ma y attack th e leaves, stems, an d branches. Common bacterial
diseases , such as Phytomonas manihotisin Brazil, Bacteriumcassava in Africa,
and Bacteriumsolanacearum in Java, may attack the roots, stems, or leaves.
Mycoses attack the roots, stems,or leaves . Some insects , such as locusts, beetles
and ants, affect th e plant directly; and some others, such as aphids, affect the
plant indirectly b y the transfer of virus. Rats, goats, and wild pigs ar e most
troublesom e i n areas adjacent to forests (7).
Crop yields vary depending on agricultural practices and soil conditions . The
length of tim e for manioc roots t o reach full maturity varies with climate. I n
Brazil, the growing period can vary from 1 0 to 1 8 months. Th e yield of roots
usually varies from 5 to 20 tons/acre (12 to 48 tons/hectare) , with some yields as
high as 60 tons/hectare .
Harvesting of roots is a manual operation, although many mechanica l devices
have been trie d over th e years. Th e mechanical devices, such a s plows and
chisels , have not been successfu l due t o high root damage and the number of
roots left in the ground. The day before harvesting , the plant tops are cut 40-60
cm above the ground. Selecte d top material can be used for next year's planting.
The roots are usually pulled slowly from the ground by hand. Depending on the
soil type, a simple lifting device or a hoe may be used to assist root removal.
Tubers are cut from the stems and must be used within 48 h of harvest to prevent
loss of starch owing to enzymic change s and rot. Ideally, roots are used within 24
h of harvest. Th e chemical compositio n of cassava roots differs depending on
variety, soil type, climate, and age of the root. A typical root analysis would
indicate 70% moisture,24% starch, 2% fiber, 1 % protein, and 3% fats, miner-
als, and sugar. Young roots, under 1 0 months, have a low starch content; but
roots over 24 months are woody and difficult t o handle.
Starch, extracted from the cassav a root and dried, i s known by many names
dependin g on geographica l location. Names such as Cassava , Mandioca, Manioc
and Tapioca, followed b y the word flour or starch, ar e common. Sliced roots
(chips) dried in the sun for 2-3 days are called gaplek or raspa de mandioca . The
milled product (gaplek meal) i s used as an animal fodder and in some starch
consumin g industries such as alcohol production.
An important product, farinha de mandioca , in the diet of many persons living
in Latin America comes from peeled roots which are grated or ground to a pulp,
toasted slowly, and dried. Gari, a normal dietary componen t of many Africans,
is made by fermenting the grated tubers then toasting and drying the product (7).
4 72 DOUGLA S A . CORBISHLE Y AN D WILLIA M MILLE R

3. Tapioca Starch Manufacture

Manufacturing plants for cassav a starch are located close to root growing areas
to minimize root transport costs and, more importantly, to enable the processin g
of tubers in the shortest time.
The roots ar e delivered t o th e factory an d stored i n wooden o r concrete
bunkers. Bunker filling and emptying must be closely supervise d to insure that
the roots that are harveste d first are consume d first. Th e roots are usually deliv-
ered to a washing station by a belt conveyor.After washing, the outer skin, or
corky portion is removed. Th e inner part of the peel, or cortex, i s not removed
becaus e it has starch recoverable in modern processes . Th e washer is usually a
U-shaped trough with paddles that carry the roots to the peeler. The peeler can be
an integral part of th e washer or a separate unit. Th e roots ar e peeled by the
abrasion of one against another and against the walls and paddles of the washing
and peeling device.
To recover the starch, all cell walls must be ruptured. This has been accom-
plished,at times, by mild fermentation of the roots, then grinding them to a pulp
with starch recovered by screening and washing,or by centrifugation . Th e fer-
mentation process does not give good starch yields, and the quality of the starch
is generally inferior.
For high quality starch production, th e washed roots ar e chopped first into
slices of 30-50 mm and conveye d to a disintegratin g (rasping) device. A vari-
able-spee d conveyor i s used t o control th e supply of ra w material. Efficient
disintegratio n i s necessary t o achieve high starch yield. Thi s function can be
accomplishe d in one or two stages dependin g on the efficienc y of the machinery.
The rasping device i s an impacting machine with high peripheral speed. After
rasping, th e hydrogen cyanide i n the roots i s set fre e and dissolve d i n wash
water. Reaction of the acid with iron may lead to the formation of ferrocyanide,
which gives a bluish color. Therefore, the rasp and other machinery and piping
coming i n contact with the starch are made of stainless steel or other resistant
materials.
After disintegratio n of the pulp, it is washed on screen s where fiber remains on
the screen and starch passe s through. Screens ar e often i n the form of rotating
cones , angled or trough shaped (Figs. 1 and 2). I n all cases,counter current
washing is needed (2, 5). Washed fiber can be used as a fertilizer or presse d and
dried for cattle feed. A general starch process is shown in Figure 3.
Crude starch milk leaves the fiber washing stage at a concentratio n of about 3°
Be (54 kg starch/m3) and passe s through a degritting screen , where small foreign
matter is removed, and then on to continuou s centrifuges where starch is sepa-
rated from remaining fine fiber and solubles . Th e starch is discharge d through
nozzles i n the bowl periphery, while the light fraction (frui t water) containing
fine fiber and soluble materials is discharge d through conical discs with the help
 XIII . TAPIOCA , ARROWROOT , AN D SAGO STARCHE S 4 7 3

FIG. 1.—Conical rotating screen starch extractor (2).

of a centripetal pump. Clean wash water i s introduced b y nozzles near the

collecte d starch. The fresh water displace s the impure water which is moved to
the fiber washer and root washing section s (2). The starch may be reslurried and
recentrifuge d for further purification (Fig. 4).
In each centrifuge operation, starch i s washed counter/currently wit h water
containing 0.05% sulfur dioxide. Use of sulfur dioxide i s essentia l t o control
microbial action in the starch water separatio n proces s (2). The starch-containing
stream leaves the purification process as a slurry at 38-42% solids and is de-
watered in a continuou s vacuum filter or batch-operate d basket-type centrifuge.
The moisture content of the starch cake from a vacuum filter i s 40-45% and
32-37% from a basket centrifuge . The dewatered starch cake is screw conveye d
to the dryers which may be drum, belt, tunnel, or flash types. The most common
is flash (pneumatic) drying. Air is drawn through a heater (steam coils or direct
474 DOUGLAS A . CORBISHLE Y AN D WILLIA M MILLE R

Fio. 2.—Fiber washing screen (3, courtesy of Dorr-Oliver, Inc., Stamford, Connecticut.)

gas or oil fired burner), where the temperature is raised to about 150°. The dried
starch (12-14% moisture) i s separated from the moist air in cyclone s and then
ground and sifted.
The equilibrium moisture for tapioca starch at 60% relative humidity and 21°
is 12.5%. I t will have a slurry pH of 5-6 and an ash of less than 0.15%. A high
ash value would be indicative of poor washing of the starch.
 XIII . TAPIOCA , ARROWROOT , AN D SAGO STARCHE S 4 7 5

Retained fiber i s measured b y th e amount held on a 200-mesh screen. It s

volume settling from screen washing is indicative of the amount passed . Various
levels can be tolerated depending on the intended use of the starch. For starch
destined for the food industry and certain dextrin applications , 0.2% fiber i s a
maximum tolerable level. Hig h pulp content can indicate improper disintegra-
tion, poor fiber washing, poor starch purification, an d poor starch sifting. A t
times, the content s of the material in the settling cylinder may contain gelatinize d
starch. Acid digestio n of the fiber should then be used in its analytical determina-
tion.
The viscosity of tapioca starch depends on plant variety, growth area, time of
harvest, ag e o f roots, soil fertility , an d rainfall durin g th e growing period.
Manufacturing practices used i n making the starch are also important.
"Acid factor," a measure d characteristi c of tapioca starch, not often needed
with other starches, i s th e number of milliliters o f 0. 1 M hydrochloric acid
solution required to raise the pH of a 25 g slurry in 50 mL of distilled water to
3.0.

CRUDE WATER

| 818 0 kg I

2500 kg 5680 kg

I S0 2 PLANT I

I DRYIN GI

ONE TON WASHING I FIN EI FIRST I SECOND I

FRESH H PEELING I EXTRACTIO N i I SCREENIN G | SEP. I SEP . t iDEWATERINGl
ROOTS
t
T ■— r
L 22 0 kg ,
220 0 kg

335 0 kg

567 0 kg

FIG. 3.—Wate r useage an d basic manufacturing operations for tapioca starch production (2 ,
courtes
y of Alfa-Laval, Tumba, Sweden).
476 DOUGLAS A . CORBISHLE Y AN D WILLIA M MILLE R

Feed of starch milk

- H * - Outle t for effluen t

• Separator bow l
Nozzle ■

Hollow spindle

, Outle t for concentrate d

starch milk

Inlet for wash water

Pump for washwater

FIG. 4.—Continuous centrifugal starch separator and concentrato r used i n separating,washing,

and concentratin
g the feed from the fiber washing stage (2, courtesy of Alfa-Laval, Tumba, Sweden.

II . ARROWROO T STARC H

Arrowroot starch i s obtained fro m th e root of th e tropical plant Maranta

arundinacea,a perennial that grows 2-5 f t (60-150 cm) high with oval lanceo-
late leaves and white oval flowers arranged in clusters . The plant has cylindrical
elongated roots about l-in.(2.5 cm) thick and 8-18 in. (20-45 cm) long with pale
brown scales at each joint. The plant is propagate d from root cuttings or seeds
. In
some areas, the plant grows as a weed and is harvested as an alternate crop.
Roots can be harveste d after 6-12 months dependin g on the growing area and
country. Th e roots can contain more than 20% starch, or which 17-18% i s
extractable i n equipment of the type used to extract tapioca starch. Arrowroot
requires more washing than does manioc root. The outer skin of the root must be
thoroughly removed or the starch retains a bitter flavor an d a yellow color.
Arrowroot starch granules are somewha t larger (15-70 μπι) than tapioca starch
granules (5-15 μπι) (5).
Arrowroot starch is produced mainly in Brazil, China, and on the Island of St.
 XIII . TAPIOCA , ARROWROOT , AN D SAGO STARCHE S 4 7 7

Vincent i n the West Indies. St . Vincent currently exports about 800 tons of
arrowroot starch per year.

III . SAG O STARC H

Starch from the stems of palms has been mainly a product of local importance
throughou t the mainland and islands of Southeas t Asia, i n parts of Melanesia,
certain islands of Micronesia, and various areas of tropical South America. It s
production i s confined t o the humid tropics and swampy areas of tropical rain
forests subject t o frequent drenching downpours of rai n (4), Although quite a
number of tropical areas of the world can grow sago palms and some fourteen
specie s belonging t o eight genera have been used and to various degrees ex-
ploited, only Metroxylonand Arengain the Eastern Hemisphere and Mauritia in
the Western Hemisphere ar e of major importance as palm starch sources . Th e
principal growing areas where there exists also moderate commercia l sago starch
production are Sarawak (where there are modern refineries at Sibu, Sabah, and
Brunei) and New Guinea. I n Papua, New Guinea, particularly along the Sepik
River and its branches , where swampland s extend over a thousan d square miles,
great growths of Metroxylonsaguoccur. This area commerciall y surveyed by the
Australians and later the Japanese , represents a large source of sago starch.
The Metroxylonpalms have large pinnate leaves,a stout erect trunk and reach
a height of 30-50 feet (9-15 m) at maturity. Suckers grow from the base of the
main stem and are used for propagation.I n the wild, trees grow i n clumps in
fresh water swamps . At maturity, in about 15 years, each trunk produces a large
terminal inflorescenc e after which the tree dies. For commercia l starch produc-
tion, trees of 8 years or older are usually cut.
Native production of sago starch consist s of simple felling of the tree and a
long strip of "bark " pried off to expos e the pith containing the starch. The pith
(5) i s scrapped out and kneaded wit h water by hand, or trampled by foot, t o
loose n th e starch which i s washed away t o settle out of the water as a white
precipitate.Much of the sago starch produced locally in Southeas t Asia is con-
sumed for subsistence , usually i n the form of small baked cakes.
Ethnobotanica l information suggest s a gradual replacemen t of ancient starch
technolog y by higher levels of food production based on more develope d agri-
cultural systems ; and most everywhere that sago starch is produced , the produc-
tion of rice, much preferred as a food, i s encroaching .
Commercial production of sago starch follows the same basic production line
as used by natives. Thus, cut palm trunks are transporte d to mills where they are
split into sections ; the pith is rasped out, and the starch is kneaded out with water
mechanically , but often by trampling, for 30 min. Frequently this first starch
removal is done at local village sites, and the crude starch brought to the com-
mercial plant for purification. Crud e starch at the factory is slurried with water
4 78 DOUGLA S A . CORBISHLE Y AN D WILLIA M MILLE R

and sieved t o remove coarse fiber; and the starch is removed and washed on a
rotary filter , befor e dryin g wit h hot air . On e trun k wil l hav e 600-800 l b
(270-360 kg) of pith yielding 200-400 l b (90-180 kg) of sago starch, with an
average of 40% starch i n the pith. Th e extracted starch i s compose d of large
granules 20-60 μπι i n diameter (6).
The historical and principal industrial uses of sago starch are as textile sizings
and adhesives . I n sago-producing areas of Sarawak, Subah, and Indonesi a where
cash economic s operate, sago represents a cheap, locally available foodstuff.
However, th e preference for rice as a food and its adaptability t o fresh water
swamp lands has resulted in its encroachment , and rice now dominates as a crop
for both food and industrial purposes .

IV . REFERENCE S

(/) M . Grace, '*Processing of Cassava,' * Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Rome, Italy , 1970.
(2) Technical Bulletin, "Th e Alfa-Laval Manioc Starch Process, " Bulletin No. T B 40324E2, Alfa
Laval, Tumba, Sweden.
(3) "Processing o f Cassava Roots int o Cassava Starch," Technical Bulletin, Dorr-Oliver, Inc. ,
Stamford, Connecticut.
(4) For an excellen t review see: K . Ruddle, D . Johnson,P. K . Townsend and J. D . Rees, "Pal m
Sago, A Tropical Starch from Marginal Lands," East-West Center, University Press of
Hawaii, Honolulu, 1978.
(5) R . M . Johnson and W . D . Raymond, Colonial Plant Animal Prod.(Gt . Brit. ) 6, No. 1 , 20
(1957); Econ.Bot., 11 , 326 (1957).
(6) O . B. Wurzburg, Econ. Bot., 6 , 211 (1952).