Earth Science CM1 disk whose diameter is about 100,000 light years.

Other
forms of galaxies could be in elliptical and irregular
EARTH SCIENCE: UNIVERSE, SOLAR SYSTEM, AND THE
forms. which means the galaxy has no definitive shape
EARTH
or symmetry.
What is a universe? What are the different hypotheses
Solar System One of the contents of the universe is the
explaining the origin of the universe?
galaxy, and inside it, are the systems. We are included is
The Universe is composed of all time and space. It is
the Solar System. Our Solar System is about 25,000 light
made up of millions of stars and planets and enormous
years away from the center of our galaxy – we live in
clouds [nebular clouds] of gas separated by a gigantic
the suburbs of our galaxy. Astronomers believe it
space. Beyond what we see here on Earth is a vast and
formed about 4.5 billion years ago, when a massive
mysterious outer space. Approximately 15 billion years
interstellar cloud of gas and dust collapsed on itself,
ago, all the energy and matter we can observe came
giving rise to the star that anchors our solar system—
from concentrated region smaller than a coin, this
that big ball of warmth known as the sun.
began to expand and cool at an incredibly rapid rate. In
Geocentric Model. It was known to be the most
the year 1927, Georges Lemaître, the proponent of Big
predominant theory of the structure of the universe in
Bang Theory, came up with a big idea. He stated that a
the ancient world was the geocentric model. It says that
very long time ago, the universe started as just a single
the earth is at the center of the universe, and every
point. Like an inflating a balloon, he said the universe
other celestial body rotates around the earth. Greeks
stretched and expanded to get as enormous as it is now,
were strong supporters of this theory, especially the
and currently, it is still stretching. There wasn’t really
great philosophers Aristotle and Ptolemy. After the
had a big explosion but an abrupt dispersal of the
death of Ptolemy, the theory lasted for more than 2000
elements of the universe.
years unchallenged.
It is still unknown if anything has existed before the Big
Bang Theory as well as its size. Observations with the
Hubble Space Telescope and other observatories
showed that the universe is expanding at an ever-
increasing rate. Steady-state Theory states that the
universe is always expanding but maintaining a constant
average density. Because of expansion, the entire
collection of these separate space-times is denoted as Heliocentric Model. The concept that the sun is at the
the multiverse which leads to another unverified fact center of the universe, also first emerged in Ancient
called Theory of Multiverse. In principle, the other Greece. It was the Greek philosopher Aristarchus of
unconnected universes may have different Samos who proposed the theory in 3rd century BC, but
dimensionalities, physical laws, matter and energy and was not taken seriously because of the influence of the
topologies of space-time, and different, although there Aristotelian view of the universe and lack of proof of the
are a lot of possibilities and speculations to be theory at that time. The major feature of the
considered. Copernican theory can be summarized as follows: (1.)
Milky Way Galaxy Our Sun (a star) and all the planets The motion of the celestial bodies is uniform, eternal,
around it are part of a galaxy known as the Milky Way and circular or compounded of several circles. (2.) The
Galaxy. A galaxy is a large group of stars, gas, and dust center of the cosmos is the Sun. (3.) Around the Sun, in
bound together by gravity. They come in a variety of the order of Mercury, Venus, Earth and Moon, Mars,
shapes and sizes. The Milky Way is a large barred spiral Jupiter, and Saturn move in their own orbits and the
galaxy. All the stars we see in the night sky are in our stars are fixed in the sky. (4.) The earth has three
own Milky Way Galaxy. It is very difficult to count the motions; daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual
number of stars in the Milky Way from our position tilting off its axis. (5.) The retrograde motion or the
inside the galaxy. Spiral galaxies have three main backward motion of the planets is as explained by the
component parts: the bulge, the disk, and the halo. Our Earth’s motion. (6.) The distance from the Earth to the
best estimates tell us that the Milky Way is made up of Sun is small compared to the distance to the stars.
approximately 100 billion stars. These stars form a large
From the past lessons of your Science subject, there are Earth: A Habitable Planet
seven unique planets in the solar system. The terrestrial
planets closest to the sun is Mercury, followed by
Venus, Earth, and Mars. These are called as terrestrial
planets because they’re solid and rocky. After the orbit
of Mars, you’ll find the main asteroid belt, a region of
space rocks left over from the formation of the planets.
Next come the gas giants Jupiter and Saturn, which is
known for its large ring systems made of ice, rock, or
both. Farther out are the ice giants Uranus and Earth is the only place, as of now, confirmed to host life
Neptune. They are known to be the Jovian Planets. and is the only one known for sure to have liquid water
Beyond that, a host of smaller icy worlds congregate in in the surface. The following reasons why planet earth is
an enormous stretch of space called the Kuiper Belt. a unique: (1) It has liquid water; (2) Plate Tectonics; and
Perhaps the most famous resident there is Pluto. Once (3) It has atmosphere that shelters it from the worst of
considered the ninth planet, Pluto is now officially the sun’s rays. Earth is the only planet in the solar
classified as a dwarf planet, along with three other system that has a large amount of liquid water. About
Kuiper Belt objects and Ceres in the asteroid belt. 70% of the surface of the Earth is covered by liquid or
frozen water. Because of this, Earth is sometimes called
Moons Approximately, 150 moons orbit planets in our “blue planet.” or “blue marble”. It is habitable because
solar system. Among the planets, moons are more it has the right distance from the sun. It is kept warm by
common in the outer reaches of the solar system known an insulating atmosphere, and it has the right chemical
as natural satellites. Mercury and Venus are moon free, ingredients for life including water and carbon. It can
Mars has two small moons called Phobos and Deimos, provide water, oxygen, useful biological products for
and Earth has just one. Meanwhile, Jupiter and Saturn human, and has suitable weather and climate. Earth,
have 79 and 62 respectively, and Uranus and Neptune Venus, and Mars may have similarities: (1) Terrestrial
have 27 and 14 moons. Even though it’s relatively small, planets have solid rocks and silicates; (2) These 3
Pluto has five moons, one of which is so close to Pluto in planets have an atmosphere; (3) They all almost have
size that some astronomers argue Pluto and this moon, the same time of rotation; (4) Earth and Mars both have
Charon, are a binary system. water; (5) They all have carbon dioxide; and (6) All have
landforms. Earth, Venus, and Mars have differences: (1)
Atmospheric conditions Most of the major planets
Venus has no water; (2) Venus doesn’t have oxygen
also have atmospheres. Earth’s is composed mainly of
while Mars has a very little amount of oxygen; and (3)
nitrogen and oxygen—key for sustaining life. The
Earth has life forms.
atmospheres on terrestrial Venus and Mars are mostly
carbon dioxide, while the thick atmospheres of Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are made primarily of
hydrogen and helium. Mercury doesn’t have an
atmosphere at all. Instead, scientists refer to its
extremely thin covering of oxygen, hydrogen, sodium,
helium, and potassium as an exosphere. Earth is the
only planet in the solar system known to harbour life.
Our planet has a molten nickeliron core which gave rise
to an extensive magnetic field, which, along with the
atmosphere, shields us from harmful radiation coming
from the Sun. In this module, you will understand why
this planet is called the “living planet.”
COSMOLOGY ➢ is the branch of science that studies
the origin, evolution and fate of the universe.
UNIVERSE ➢ is large unimaginable expanse of gas,
stars, dust clouds, and consists of planets and galaxy.
UNIVERSE VS OBSERVABLE UNIVERSE
Creation Myth *According to the Genesis of the Bible’s
Old testament, the creation of the entire cosmos
(universe) took place in six days. The biblical creation
story tells that God created the universe.
• Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and myths
which narrate that the world arose from an infinite sea
at the first rising of the sun.
• The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a
creator god Mbombo (or Bumba) who, alone in a dark
and water-covered Earth, felt an intense stomach pain
and then vomited the stars, sun, and moon.
• In India, there is the narrative that gods sacrificed
Purusha, the primal man whose head, feet, eyes, and
mind became the sky, earth, sun, and moon
respectively.
• The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam claim that a supreme being created the
universe, including man and other living organisms.
Big Bang Theory
Recall Hubble’s observation in 1929…
Z ~ distance → everything is receding from everything
else (on the whole)
→The universe is expanding (bread)
Steady State / Infinite Universe Theory
Matter is constantly created as the universe expands
Steady-state theory,
in cosmology, a view that the universe is always
expanding but maintaining a constant average density,
with matter being continuously created to form new
stars and galaxies at the same rate that old ones
become unobservable because of their increasing
distance and velocity of recession.
-Observations fit well with a flat universe (which is
exactly what inflation did… it “flattened” the curvature
of space-time!)
-This also indirectly confirms dark energy and
acceleration…
-Observations fit well with a flat universe (which is
exactly what inflation did… it “flattened” the curvature
of space-time!)
Multiverse Theory A multiverse is the theory of a
conjectured set of multiple possible universes, including
ours, which make up reality. These universes are
sometimes called parallel universes. Several different
versions have been considered. The term "multiverse"
was coined in 1895 by psychologist William James as a
philosophical concept.
Modifications of the Traditional Theory
Ages of stellar population may pose a problem to the
traditional theory of the history of the Milky Way.
Possible solution: Later accumulation of gas, possibly
due to mergers with smaller galaxies. Recently
discovered ring of stars around the Milky Way may be
the remnant of such a merger.
The Mass of the Milky Way (II) Total mass in the disk of
the Milky Way: Approx. 200 billion solar masses
Additional mass in an extended halo: Total: Approx. 1
trillion solar masses Most of the mass is not emitting
any radiation: dark matter!
The Milky Way • Our Solar System is part of the “Milky
Way” galaxy
Galaxies • Our sun is 1 of trillions of stars in the
universe. Stars are found in groups held together by
gravity. • A huge group of stars is called a galaxy.
• Our entire universe is made up of thousands of
galaxies.
• The images below show you how small we are
compared to the entire universe.
UNIVERSE - GALAXY - SOLAR SYSTEM

UNIVERSE- The entire universe is made of thousands of
galaxies
GALAXY - A huge group of stars held together by gravity
SOLAR SYSTEM - A system of planets & stars that are
found throughout galaxies
SOLAR SYSTEM ➢ is the gravitationally bound system
comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit around it,
either directly or indirectly
➢ it is in constant motion, with the planets and their
moons, comets, asteroids and other space objects
revolving around the Sun.
Our Solar System
The Inner Planets (Terrestrial Planets)
– Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
• Rotation- the act of rotating; a turning around as on
an axis. Astronomy. the movement or path of the earth
or a heavenly body turning on its axis.
• Revolution- movement of a planet around the sun.
TERRESTRIAL (Rocky Planets)
• made of materials with high melting points such as
silicates, iron , and nickel
• rotate slower, have thin or no atmosphere
Mercury • On Mercury you weigh only 38% of what you
weigh on Earth. • Fastest orbiting planet
• Planet nearest to the sun • One side of the planet can
be 800 degrees Fahrenheit when the other can be -280-
degree Fahrenheit at the same time.
Venus • On Venus you weigh only 91% of what you
weigh on Earth. • Venus has 90 times the pressure of
Earth • Venus has volcanoes like Earth • Rotates in the
opposite direction of Earth. • One time there were
oceans before they boiled away.
Earth • 23 hours and 56 min=1 Earth day (rotation)
• 365 days =1 Earth year (revolution) • Earth is warm
enough to keep most of its water from freezing and cold
enough to keep it’s water from boiling • Temperature is
between –13 degrees Celsius and 37 degrees Celsius
Mars • Air Pressure on Mars is the same as 30 km above
the Earth’s surface • Mars is in the form of ice.
• Evidence that water was there at one time • Volcanic
history like Earth. • It has the tallest mount of the
planets (Olympus Mons) 3x’s size of Mt. Everest.
JOVIAN (Gas Giants) • rotate faster • have thick
atmosphere
Jupiter • Largest planet in the Solar System
• Has a Great Red Spot from a storm system that is
more than 400 years old (It is larger than Earth!)
• 9 hours and 54 min=1 Jupiter day (shortest day)
• Pressure is so great it would crush a spaceship
Saturn • 2 nd Largest planet in the Solar System
• 95 times more massive than earth.
• Saturn has the largest rings of any planet, the rings are
made of icy particles. • Most moons of any planet.
Uranus • Discovered in 1781 • Uranus appears blue-
green in color • It’s axis of rotation is tilted 90 degrees
• Moons are named after Shakespearean plays and
formed from other broken moons.
Neptune • Discovered in 1846 • Neptune has visual
belts of clouds • Interior releases thermal energy to its
outer layers. • Use to be the 8th planet after Pluto until
1999.
So, the three criteria of the IAU for a full-sized planet
are: 1. It is in orbit around the Sun.
2. It has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic
equilibrium (a nearly round shape).
3. It has “cleared the neighborhood” around its orbit.
Pluto meets only two of these criteria, losing out on the
third.
PLANET BIYO is a minor planet named after a Filipino
teacher, Dr. Josette Biyo
Planet 13241 Found in the Main Asteroid Belt between
Mars and Jupiter
What Keeps Our Planets & Other Objects In Space In
Orbit?? GRAVITY & INERTIA
• Gravity – A force that pulls all objects toward each
other.
• Inertia – The tendency of an object to stay either at
rest or in motion along a straight path
So how does these 2 forces keep everything in orbit?
**Example: The picture to the right shows how inertia &
gravity work together to keep the moon orbiting the
Earth.
If inertia was stronger than gravity then objects would
stay on their straight path & fly off into space.
If gravity was stronger than inertia then objects would
crash
Inertia & gravity work together to keep the moon
orbiting the Earth. And they work together to keep
planets orbiting the sun
Other Space Objects
Comets • A comet is a small body made out of dust,
rock, gas & ice. • They are kind of like a dirty snowball
• Comets come from faraway regions of our solar
system beyond the planets
Comets are made up of different parts.
▪ The nucleus ▪ The coma ▪ The ion tail ▪ The dust tail
Asteroid • Asteroids are large pieces of space rock with
irregular shapes.
• They are also known as planetoids or minor planets
that revolves around our sun
• Most asteroids orbit the Sun in the asteroid belt
located between Mars and Jupiter. A few asteroids
approach the Sun more closely.
• Asteroids can collide with object such as Earth’s
moon, creating huge craters on the surface.
METEOROIDS METEORS & METEORITES
• Meteoroids are pieces of rock or dust that are smaller
than asteroids.
• Meteoroids are tiny particles left by an asteroid or a
comet & most meteoroids are smaller than the size of a
pebble.
• When small meteoroids enters Earth’s atmosphere,
they usually burn up & make a fiery trail as it falls, it is
then called a meteor or a “shooting star”
Earth Facts
• Meteors that land on Earth are called meteorites
•Distance from Sun: 150 million kilometers (93.2 million
miles) •Orbital period: 365.256 days •Rotational period:
23.9345 hours •Tilt of axis: 23.45 degrees
•Diameter: 12,756 kilometers (7,973 miles)
•Mean density: 5.515 g/cc •Mean surface temperature:
15°C •Atmospheric pressure: 1.013 bars
•Atmosphere composition: 77% N, 21% O and 2% other.
•Crustal rocks: Mid-ocean ridge basalt, andesites,
granites, sandstones, shales, limestones, metamorphic.
•Magnetic field
•Plate tectonics •Hydrosphere •Biosphere
Age of the Earth -Estimated age for the Earth and the
rest of the solar system is about 4.55 billion years
comes from Lead isotope measurements.
-The oldest Earth rocks: 3.8 to 3.9 billion years
-Oldest Earth minerals (zircons): 4.2 billion years
-Oldest Moon rocks: 4.44 billion years
Lesson 1 Earth’s Support of Life
Living It Up Copyright
What do living things need to survive?
• Earth is covered in living things.
• What do organisms need to survive?
• The basic necessities of life are air, water, a source of
energy, and a habitat to live in.
How do Earth and the sun interact to support life on
Earth? • During photosynthesis, plants use the sun’s
energy, carbon dioxide, and water to produce oxygen
and glucose.
• Plants form the foundation of many food chains. Some
animals eat plants to gain energy. Other animals eat
these animals.
• In this way, energy from the sun is passed from plants
to other organisms.
• Earth’s rotation allows most regions of Earth to
receive sunlight regularly.
• Regular sunlight allows plants to grow in almost all
places on Earth.
• Earth's rotation also protects areas on Earth from
temperature extremes.
• Earth’s distance from the sun also protects it from
temperature extremes.
• If Earth were closer to the sun, it might be like Venus,
which is too hot to support life. If it were farther away,
it might be like Mars, which is too cold to support life.
• Earth’s temperatures range from below 0 °C (32 °F) to
above 38 °C (100 °F), allowing life to survive in the
coldest and hottest places on Earth. •
Which planet is too hot to support life. Which planet is
too cold?
Water, Water Everywhere
What is unique about Earth’s water?
• How did Earth get so much water?
• As early Earth cooled, it released steam and other
gases into the air. The steam formed clouds, water fell
to Earth as rain, and Earth’s oceans began.
• Also, icy comets and meteors impacted Earth and
added water to Earth’s oceans.
• How did Earth come to accumulate so much water on
its surface?
 • One type of solar radiation that can harm life is
ultraviolet radiation. It can damage the genetic material
• Earth is unique in the solar system because it contains
in organisms. • Earth has a protective ozone layer that
water in the solid, liquid, and gas states. Most of the
blocks most ultraviolet radiation before it reaches
water is in liquid form.
Earth's surface. • Each molecule of ozone is made up of
• Liquid water is essential to life because cells need
three oxygen atoms. Some human-made chemicals
liquid water in order to perform life processes.
have damaged the ozone layer.
• Water remains a liquid on Earth because surface
temperatures generally stay above the freezing point How does Earth’s atmosphere support life?
and below the boiling point of water. • What is the greenhouse effect? How does the ozone
layer protect living organisms?
Extremophiles • Extremophiles are organisms that live
in extreme environments. • The Antarctic has ice-
covered lakes and cold, dry valleys, but life can still be
found there. • A type of worm called a nematode
survives in the cold by producing antifreeze in its cells.
• The presence of extremophiles on Earth makes it
seem possible for life to exist in the extreme conditions
on other planets
Security Blanket How does Earth’s atmosphere support
life? • An atmosphere is a mixture of gases that
surround a planet, moon, or other space object.
• Some space objects have atmospheres, and some do
not. It often depends on the strength of the object’s
gravity.
• The gravity of Earth and Venus is strong enough to
hold atmospheres in place. The gravity of Mercury and
the Moon is too weak to hold atmospheres.
• Earth’s atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen
and oxygen. It also has traces of carbon dioxide and
other gases.
• Plants and some single-celled organisms use carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis.
• Plants, animals, and most other organisms use oxygen
to perform cell processes.
• Earth’s atmosphere was originally just hydrogen and
helium. These gases, being very light, escaped into
space. • Volcanoes released water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and ammonia into the atmosphere. Solar
energy broke ammonia apart into nitrogen and
hydrogen. • Bacteria used carbon dioxide to perform
photosynthesis, releasing oxygen into the atmosphere.
• As the sun’s radiation reaches Earth, some of it is
reflected back into space, some is absorbed by
atmospheric gases, and some is absorbed by Earth’s
surface. • Earth's surface then radiates energy, which is
absorbed and re-radiated by atmospheric gases through
a process called the greenhouse effect.
• The greenhouse effect keeps Earth warmer than it
would be if Earth had no atmosphere.
Earth Science CM2
EARTH’S AND SUBSYSTEM MINERALS AND ROCKS
Subsystems of the Earth
The four subsystems of the Earth are:
1. Atmosphere – it is the gaseous layer above the Earth’s
surface, primarily composed of 78% nitrogen and 21%
oxygen. Other gases like argon, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, ozone, and other inert gases made the
remaining 1%. The atmosphere supports life because
animals and oxygen, and plants need both carbon dioxide
and oxygen. In addition, the atmosphere supports life
indirectly by regulating climate. Air acts as both a blanket
and a filter, retaining heat at night and shielding from
direct solar radiation during the day.
2. Biosphere – the zone of Earth where all forms of life
exist: in the sea, on land, and in water. It is sometimes
called as the large ecosystem. This is the zone that life
inhabits. Biosphere is a very thin layer of the earth’s
surface.
3. Geosphere – the solid Earth, consisting of the entire
planet from the center of the core to the outer crust. It
includes the core, mantle, and crust of the Earth.
4. Hydrosphere – the water part of the Earth which
circulates among oceans, continents, glaciers, and
atmosphere. Oceans cover 71% of the Earth and contain
97.5% of its water.
MINERALS
are the building blocks of rocks. Mineralogists use the
criteria to determine whether a material is classified as a
mineral or not.
Characteristics of Minerals
1. naturally occurring- a product of Earth’s natural
processes
2. inorganic- it must be product of Earth’s physical
processes.
3. homogeneous solid- minerals should have definite
volume and rigid shape
4. definite chemical composition—represented by a
chemical formula
5. orderly crystalline structure atoms of minerals are
arranged in an orderly and repeating pattern
Properties of Minerals
To identify minerals, mineralogists observe the following
properties:
a. Color - mineral’s color may change depending on the
surface.
b. Streak - color of mineral in powdered form.
c. Hardness - minerals resistance to scratching
d. Cleavage - mineral’s resistance to being broken and
fracture
e. Crystalline structure or habit
f. Diaphaneity/amount of transparency - ability to allow
light to pass through it. This is affected by chemical
makeup of the mineral sample.
g. Luster - how light is reflected off a surface
h. Tenacity - describes the minerals reaction to stress.
Brittleness- a mineral turns into powder
Malleability a mineral can be flattened by pounding with a
hammer.
Ductility- A mineral can be stretched into wire.
Flexible but inelastic-Minerals are bent but they remain in
the new position.
Flexible and elastic- Minerals are bent, and they bring
back to their original position.
Sectility- ability of minerals to be sliced by a knife.
ROCKS is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals
sometime with nonmineral solid particles. It is categorized
by the minerals included, its chemical composition and the
way in which it is formed.
Classification of Rocks
Igneous rocks or magmatic rocks are formed through the
cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Igneous rock
can be classified into:
Intrusive igneous rocks. This type of igneous rock is
formed from solidification of magma below the surface
They have large crystals of minerals that formed overtime
through slow process of crystallization in a magma.
Granite, diorite, gabbro, pegmatite, and peridotite are
example of this type of rock.
Extrusive igneous rocks. This type of igneous rock is
formed through faster rate of solidification of lava on the
surface of Earth. They can become glassy in appearance
due to less crystallization or vesicular like Scoria, due to
the air that was trapped inside when they solidified and
formed on the surface of the earth. Other examples of this
type of rock are andesite, basalt, dacite, obsidian, pumice,
rhyolite and tuff.
Sedimentary rock is formed by the deposition and
cementation of mineral or organic particles on the floor of
oceans and other bodies of water at the Earth surface.
Sedimentary rocks can be classified into clastic, chemical
and organic. Clastic sedimentary rock. It is formed from
the mechanical weathering debris of rocks. Examples are
breccia, conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and shale.
Chemical sedimentary rock. It is formed when dissolved
materials precipitate from solution. Examples of these are
rock salt, iron ore, chert, flint, some dolomites. Organic
sedimentary rock. Formed from the build-up of plant or
animal debris.
Metamorphic rock forms from existing rock types called THE EARTH SUBSYSTEMS
“parent rock” in the process called metamorphism, which Biosphere Hydrosphere Geosphere Atmosphere
means change in form. The original rock which can be an
Energy - The Earth system is powered by one external
igneous, sedimentary or another metamorphic rock is
source: The Sun and two internal ones:
subjected to heat and pressure, causing a profound
-radioactive decay
chemical or physical change. Metamorphic rocks can be
-gravitational energy (heat still being lost from planetary
further classified into:
formation).
Foliated metamorphic rocks. Formed through pressure
Cycles - Material in the Earth system is continually recycled
due to compression of rocks that create bands called
in numerous overlapping cycles.
foliation. Examples are gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate.
Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks. It has no foliation or The Rock Cycle
bands. Examples of this type are hornfels, marble,
quartzite, and novaculite.

Earth as a SYSTEM The Hydrologic (Water) Cycle

SYSTEM -A set of interconnected components that are
interacting to form a unified whole.
EXAMPLE of system- ECOSYSTEM. (Organisms are
interrelated and interacting)
Two Types of Systems
1.Closed System: Energy may enter and leave, but matter
does not.
2.Open System: System and its surroundings freely
exchange both matter and energy.

The Earth system is essentially a CLOSED SYSTEM.

A closed system is a system in which there is only an
exchange of heat or energy and no exchange of matter.
The Earth receives energy from the sun and returns some
of this energy to space.
Components or subsystems of the Earth system
Biosphere - Includes all life forms on Earth Biosphere
-It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest,
from mangroves to coral reefs, and from the plankton-rich
ocean surface to the deep sea.
Hydrosphere - Dynamic mass of water that is continuously
on the move
1. About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water
(hydrosphere) and much of it is in the form of ocean
water.
2. Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the
form of ice, and the remaining one-third 1/3 is present in
streams, lakes, and groundwater.
Hydrologic Cycle
Condensation, Precipitation, Evaporation, Transpiration,
Infiltration, Surface Runoff.
Atmosphere - The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer
that envelopes the lithosphere.
-The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen
(N), 21% oxygen (O2),0.9%argon, and trace amount of
other gases.
•It has an atmosphere which is a blanket of air that
surrounds our Earth.
•Protects life on Earth...no other planet has this.
•Held in place by gravity.
•The atmosphere consists of layers of gases that surround
the Earth.
•The 2 most abundance gases found throughout all the
layers are oxygen and nitrogen.
•The earth is divided into 5 atmospheric layers
•Air Pressure = force of air pressing down on Earth or
weight of air
•Closer to Earth = higher air pressure
•Higher up=less air pressure
•There are 5 distinct layers with different properties
•They change with the increase in altitude (height)
TROPOSPHERE The troposphere is the layer closest to the
surface of Earth. Nearly all life and all weather occur in this
layer. This is where the clouds are located and airplanes fly
at within this layer. In this layer, the higher up from Earth’s
surface you go, the colder it gets. In other words, as
altitude increases temperature decreases. The peak of Mt.
Everest is near the top of this layer.
STRATOSPHERE The stratosphere starts out as a cold layer.
However, the ozone warms up the upper region of this
layer by absorbing the UV rays heat. The ozone layer
absorbs harmful UV rays and protects the living organisms
on earth from them. Military planes can fly here.
What is the Ozone Layer?
•A protective layer in the stratosphere that blocks harmful
UV rays.
•However, it allows good sun rays through to heat up our
Earth
•Without it, we would burnup.
MESOSPHERE The mesosphere is the middle layer. It’s the
coldest layer of the atmosphere that protects earth from
meteoroids.. The meteoroids usually burn up in this layer.
THERMOSPHERE Temperatures in the thermosphere are
very high, more than 2000 degrees Fahrenheit. (This is the
hottest layer) and where space begins. The International
Space Station orbits Earth in this layer.
EXOSPHERE The exosphere is the farthest layer extending
from the thermosphere into outer space. This layer is cold.
It gradually blends into outer space.
Geosphere - the Solid Earth extends from the surface to
the center
LITHOSPHERE - The lithosphere includes the crust and the
upper part of the mantle.
Layers of the Earth
-CRUST (continental & oceanic)
-MANTLE (upper &lower)
-CORE (outer &inner)
CRUST-It’s the light and very thin outer skin of the Earth.
-The outermost layer where energy and mineral resources
are derived.

Different elements that compose the Earth’s CRUST

Oxygen - 46.60
Silicon 27.72
Aluminum - 8.13
Iron - 5.00
Calcium - 3.63 Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a mineral to
Sodium - 2.83 abrasion or scratching.
Potassium - 2.59
Magnesium - 2.09 Because micas have weak chemical bonds in one
Titanium - 0.40 direction... (Cleavage Plane ->)
Hydrogen - 0.14
Rock cycle - is one means of viewing many of the
MANTLE-Less dense layer-Made up of silicate rocks, interrelationships in geology.
mostly made of the element’s silicon, oxygen, iron and
magnesium.
CORE -Denser layer-the Earth’s magnetic field-strengthens
the idea that the Earth’s outer core is molten/liquid.

Minerals and Rocks Minerals and Rocks

Granite Rock
-quartz (mineral) Hornblende (mineral) Feldspar (mineral)
- The term aggregate implies that the minerals are found
together as a mixture in which the properties of the
individual minerals are retained.

Cubic crystals (pyrite)

(Quartz) - Hexagonal crystals With pyramidal
- shaped ends
When igneous rocks are exposed at the surface, they will
- The crystal form is the external expression of a mineral's
undergo weathering, a process which slowly disintegrates
orderly internal arrangement of atoms.
and decomposes rock.
- Luster is the appearance or quality of light reflected from
The rock fragments are picked up and transported by
the surface of a mineral.
erosional agents, such as running water...
-Galena -Metallic Luster -Nonmetallic Luster -Fluorite
Eventually these particles and dissolved substances, called
Color is not always a useful diagnostic property. For
sediment, are deposited.
example, slight impurities in the mineral quartz give it a
variety of colors. Next, the sediments undergo a process called lithification,
- Crystal Quartz (colorless) meaning "conversion to rock," either by compaction or by
-Citrine (brownish-yellow quartz) cementation as percolating water coats the sediment with
– Amethyst (purple quartz) -Smoky quartz (gray to black) mineral matter, and gradually cements the particles
together.
Streak is the color of a mineral in its powdered form
and is obtained by rubbing a mineral across a piece of Any rocks subjected to strong compressional forces and/or
unglazed porcelain called a streak Plate. high temperatures change to metamorphic rocks.

When rocks in a high temperature metamorphic

environment are subjected to directional forces, they are
easily folded.
Earth Science CM3
IMPORTANT MINERALS TO SOCIETY ORE MINERALS
EARTH RESOURCES
Important Minerals in the Society
Without minerals, society would not function as the way you
it now. In small scale up to what you’re using right now, there
are a lot of these minerals you are actually using. From the
laptop or phone while watching or listening, to the breeze of
your electric fan or air conditioning unit to the food that you
have taken. Let us see more of these minerals and their uses.
For oral health, professionals used Titanium which is a strong
but a light metal that is used for teeth transplant. Examples
are gypsum in plaster cast, and alloys like stainless steel that
primarily composed of iron, chromium and carbon in their
tools.
In households, we use toothpaste that contains fluoride from
fluorite mineral. Face powder contains talc [the softest
mineral]. Going to the kitchen, salts are commonly used to
enhance the flavor of our food. Utensils like casserole are
made of aluminum [a light and durable metal], and stainless
wares that contains mostly of iron, chromium and carbon.
With regards to devices, minerals such as silicon, silver and
gold are used. Copper [Cu] is the mostly used electrical wiring
because it is cheap.
In construction, you could build skyscrapers up to 50 stories
high because of durable minerals like iron steel [a
combination of iron and carbon] and concrete [limestone,
lime and chalk]. They also use glass made mainly of quartz
and silica. Floors are made up of granite and marbles.
Aluminum is for the frames, panels and windows.
Power plants use minerals to provide us electricity and
energy. In nuclear power plant, radioactive minerals like
Uranium which is used as nuclear reactor. Moreover, coals
are burned up to generate electricity. Furthermore, batteries
for electric cars need minerals like nickel, copper, and lithium.
In agriculture and gardening, we used organic and inorganic
fertilizers for the plants grow healthy. These minerals include
Nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. For the acidity of the
soil, we use lime.
In the pharmaceutical industry, they make supplements and
medicine that contain many minerals that keep us strong and
healthy like Calcium, Magnesium and Zinc.
Contrary to the advantages of this minerals, these could also
harm us. Talc products could have a mineral called “asbestos”
that can trigger cancer which is why some cosmetic
companies discontinue using it. Power plants like nuclear
power plants uses radioactive minerals produces radioactive
waste. Burning of coals releases tons of carbon dioxide and
other harmful gases that contributes to the global warming.
Wastes of the factories eventually go to the bodies of water
and affects the creatures them permanently.
Ore Minerals- Location and Processes
Mining is the process of mineral extraction from a rock seam
or ore. Ore Mineral is a natural rock or sediment containing
one or more valuable mineral. The minerals can range from
precious metals and iron to gemstones and quartz. A lot of
technologies are now at use to make mining easier. These
mining industries are helping the economy of the country and
also delivers bad effects in the environment.
Methods of Mining:
1. Surface Mining – is used to extract ore minerals located
near the surface of the earth. The soil and rocks that covered
the ores are removed through explosives and blasting.
Blasting is a controlled use of explosives and gas exposure to
break rocks. Surface mining could be:
o Open-pit mining - This is the most common type of surface
mining. Open pit means a big hole (or pit) in the ground. The
pit in mine is created by blasting with explosives and drilling.
It is used to mine gravel and sand and even rock.
2. Strip mining – This mining type involves the removal of a
thin strip of overburden (earth or soil) above a desired
deposit, dumping the removed overburden behind the
deposit, extracting the desired deposit, creating a second,
parallel strip in the same manner, and depositing the waste
materials from that second (new) strip onto the first strip.
3. Dredging – This is the process of mining materials from the
bottom of a body of water, like in rivers, lakes, and oceans.
b. Underground mining – is used to extract the rocks,
minerals and other precious stories that can be found
beneath the earth’s surface. In underground mining, miners
should create a tunnel so they can reach the ore minerals.
More explosives and blasting devices are involved which
makes it more expensive and dangerous as compared to
surface mining.
Mineral processing is the process of extracting minerals from
the ore, refining them, and preparing these minerals for use.
The primary steps involved in processing minerals include:
1st. Sampling – is the removal of a portion which represents a
whole needed for the analysis of this material.
2nd. Analysis – is important to evaluate the valuable
component in an ore. This includes chemical, mineral and
particle size analysis.
3rd. Comminution – is the process where the valuable
components of the ore are separated through crushing and
grinding. This process begins by crushing the ores to a
particular size and finishes it by grinding the ores into a
powder form.
4th. Concentration – involves the separation of the valuable
minerals from the raw materials
5th. Dewatering – uses the concentration to convert it to
usable minerals. This involves filtration and sedimentation of
the suspension and drying of the solid materials harvested
from this suspension
Earth Energy Resources and Human Activities
Fossil fuels are the remnants of plants and animals that died
millions of years ago. These provide most of the energy
support in transportation, electricity, and industries. They are
natural and finite resources that are very abundant and has a
cheaper cost production compare to other resources present
on Earth. These are considered as Non-Renewable
Resources. There are three types of fossil fuels formation:
coal, oil, and natural gas
1. Coal- It is a primary fossil fuel present on Earth. Coal
resources are found where forest trees, plants and marshes
existed before being buried and compressed millions of years
ago. The combustion of coal releases air pollutants such as
acid raininducing sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides (NOx), and
mercury. The mining process can also be very damaging to
the environment, often resulting in the destruction of
vegetation and top-soil. Philippines uses approximately 50%
coal resource to produce energy and electricity . There are
four major ranks of coal.
Anthracite - hard, brittle, and black lustrous coal, often
referred to as hard coal.
bituminous coal - has a high heating value for coal used in
electricity generation.
subbituminous coal - has a higher heating value than lignite.
lignite - least concentration of carbon.
2. Oil- Most of the oil that we are using today started forming
millions of years ago. Oil is an organic material, mostly algae,
which was buried in mud at the bottom of the sea and lakes.
Once extracted, crude oil is processed in oil refineries to
create fuel oil, gasoline, liquefied petroleum gas, and other
nonfuel products such as pesticides, fertilizers,
pharmaceuticals, and plastics.
It is used mainly for the production of transportation fuels
and petroleum-based products. Philippines imports crude oil
and petroleum from Saudi Arabia and Russia.
3. Natural gas- It is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas
with the mixture of methane. It is the Earth’s cleanest fossil
fuel and is odorless and colorless in its natural state but still
responsible for greenhouse effect. This came from
sedimentary rock formation underwent high pressure. The
Philippines’ main source of energy is the Malampaya natural
gas field which is located at Palawan Island.
How are fossil fuels formed?
After millions of years underground, the remains of
prehistoric plants and animals [the compounds] that make up
plankton and plants turn into fossil fuels. The sediments
change into rock as the temperature and pressure increase.
Thus, plant and animal remain were altered and slowly
changed into crude oil and natural gas.
Nuclear power plants use heat produced during nuclear
fission to heat water. The heat produced during nuclear
fission in the reactor core is used to boil water into steam,
which turns the blades of a steam turbine. As the turbine
blades turn, they drive generators that make electricity.
Geothermal energy is the heat that comes from the sub-
surface of the earth. It is contained in the rocks and fluids
beneath the earth's crust and can be found as far down to the
earth's hot molten rock, magma.
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is
harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as
solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal energy, solar
architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial
photosynthesis.
Wind energy is a form of solar energy. Wind energy (or wind
power) describes the process by which wind is used to
generate electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy
in the wind into mechanical power. A generator can convert
mechanical power into electricity. Some of the most recent
developments are the Bangui Wind Farm, Burgos Wind Farm,
and Caparispisan Wind Farm in Ilocos Norte.
_________________________________________________
The Philippines' top mineral exports are copper, gold and
nickel. Other target minerals include quartz, mica, iron,
gypsum, feldspar, chromite, calcite and sulphur. Some target
non-metallic minerals are sand and gravel, limestone, marble,
clay and other quarry materials -Lexology, Mining of the Phil
Most copper is used in electrical equipment such as wiring
and motors. This is because it conducts both heat and
electricity very well, and can be drawn into wires. It also has
uses in construction (for example roofing and plumbing), and
industrial machinery (such as heat exchangers).
COPPER - It is used in building construction, electronic
products, equipment, machinery, and alloys.
•Antimicrobial Copper
The major gold producing areas in Philippines are districts of -The most important use of lithium is in rechargeable
Baguio and Paracale located on the Island of Luzon and batteries for mobile phones, laptops, digital cameras and
Marasa, and the locations in Mindanao such as Surigao and electric vehicles.
Masbate. Gold in Philippines exist as placer and lode deposits,
ZINC -Zinc is currently the fourth most widely consumed
which attracts all mines of all different sizes.
metal in the world.
GOLD -It has strong anticorrosive properties and bonds well with
-Gold conducts electricity, does not tarnish, is very easy to other metals.
work, it is malleable and ductile, has a wonderful color and a
POTASH - is primarily used as a fertilizer to support plant
brilliant luster.
growth, increase crop yield and disease resistance, and
- Gold is used in jewelry and arts; dentistry and medicine;
enhance water preservation
medallions and coins; ingots as a store of value.
-small amount of gold is used in almost every sophisticated
electronic device. This includes cell phones, calculators,
personal digital assistants, GPS units, and other small Environmental Impacts of Mineral Consumption, Mining and
electronic devices. Processing
-A crown made from dental gold alloy
-Surface Mining
-Gold is used as drug
- open pits like Bingham Canyon near Salt Lake (or Helena,
PLATINUM -Platinum is rare and expensive mineral. MT)
-It is much rarer than Gold. Bingham Canyon open pit Cu sulfide mine, Utah The World’s
-Platinum is widely used as a catalyst for chemical reactions. largest hole in the ground
-Platinum is used in jewelry, decoration and dental work.
-It ruptures weathered barrier and exposes the interior to the
The metal and its alloys are also used electrical contacts, fine environment.
resistance wires and medical/laboratory instruments.
-Sub-surface mining
Alloy - of platinum and cobalt is used to produce strong - less impact on site, but still exposes ore to water
permanent magnets.
-materials are relatively toxic when exposed at the surface
Iron Ore - is the source of iron for the world's iron and steel
*water > weathering, solution >toxic metals + sulfuric acid
industries.
into surface & groundwater environment
-radioactive iron -black iron oxide -prussian blue
-Est. 550,000 abandoned mines in USA contaminate 19,000
SLIVER -Silver has many uses in our modern day lives
rivers and streams
-Traditionally used for jewelry and silverware
-Silver is the best thermal and electrical conductor of all the -Collapse of old excavations poses a serious threat as well
metals.
- Acidic and Fe-rich water from an abandoned sub-surface
COBALT tunnel pours into Beartrap Greek, which flows into prime
trout waters of the Blackfoot River, Montara
-Cobalt is a bluish-white, lustrous, hard, brittle metal.
-It is ferromagnetic.
-Cobalt is used in alloys for aircraft engine parts and in alloys
with corrosion/wear resistant uses.
-Cobalt is widely used in batteries and in electroplating.
-Cobalt salts are used to impart blue and green colors in glass
and ceramics.

-Radioactive 60Co is used in the treatment of cancer.

-Bauxite the principal source of the popular metal aluminum.

LITIHUM

-Lithium is the lightest metal and the least dense solid

element.