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Introduction Organismal Evolution The Cell Theory

What is Microbiology? The cell theory, first put forth in the 1800’s, has
Microbiology is the study of living creatures too three main premises and states:
KINGDOM PLANTAE KINGDOM KINGDOM ANIMALIA
small to see with the naked eye. This division of biol- FUNGI
A. All living things are made up of one or more cells.
ogy includes the study of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, B. The cell is the basic unit of life.
Arthropoda
algae, viruses and other important minute creatures. Bryophyta Annelida C. All cells come from pre-existing cells. A microbe
Why Study Microbiology? can be one cell or a cluster or colony of cells that
Porifera
No living creature can separate itself from interac- Angiosperms Chlorophyta Mycota Chordata work together. Some pathogens are just infective
tion with microbes. We use them to help create Mollusca pieces of RNA or DNA.
Phaeophyta
pharmaceuticals, clean up hazardous waste, and Nematoda Echinodermata
make food products. They can also wreak havoc on Rhodophyta Pyrrophyta
all creatures by invading them and causing distur- Chrysophyta Platyhelminthes Cnidaria Koch’s Postulates
bance and infection. Understanding the way they KINGDOM PROTISTA To prove a microorganism causes disease:
function is vital to life on earth. 1. Identical microbe must be present in all individu-
Ciliophora Sarcodina Mastigophora Myxomycota
DOMAIN EUKARYA als with the same disease.
EUKARYOTES 2. Microbe must be cultured outside the body.
History of Microbiology DOMAIN BACTERIA
PROKARYOTES 3. Microbe must induce disease when given to same
1820 Deodorants used to reduce putrefaction. DOMAIN ARCHAEA species.
Sodium hypochlorite used in Parisian morgues to
reduce decay. UNIVERSAL ANCESTOR 4. Identical microbe must be isolated from newly
diseased organism.
1840 Ignaz Sammelweis, a Viennese physician,
was supervising medical students in the maternity Colony Draw blood
wards when he noticed a correlation between putre- How Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Mouse dead from anthrax
faction in autopsy and puerperal fever in pregnant Differ
women. He also noticed that some physicians found PROKARYOTES
higher rates of puerperal fever in their patients. He, Procaryotic Cell
No nucleus Flagellum Pili Culture
along with Oliver Wendell Holmes in the US, Simple membrane blood on
requested that all physicians wash their hands One chromosome Ribosomes nutrient
between patients. Few complied and many more Bacteria /bluegreen algae medium
Culture Bacterium
women died in childbirth. Small diameter / 1-5um blood on
1850 Louis Pasteur, a very bright brewer trying to No organelles nutrient
Ribosomes are 70S medium Colony
make the best beer in France, noticed that it was Capsule
Simple flagella DNA Inject into
microorganisms that fermented sugar to alcohol. Cell wall Plasma membrane Draw blood healthy mouse
When incorrect microbes were in the mixture, unde- Conjugation, transduction,
sireable products resulted. He proceeded to culture transformation peptidoglycan in cell wall
bacillus anthracis and proved it to be a causative EUKARYOTES
agent of the disease anthrax. True nucleus Mouse dead from anthrax
1860 Joseph Lister, an English surgeon, using Complex, invaginated membrane
data gathered in operating rooms and from old band- Multiple chromosomes
ages he picked up in the trash outside hospitals, pro- Algae/fungi/protozoa
posed that infections were due to “substances” found Large diameter / 10-100um Food Borne Pathogens
around patients. He began to use carbolic acid (phe- Organelles
nol) to wrap wounds and to spray the air around the Ribosomes are 70S and 80S VIRUSES PROTOZOA
patient, which killed what he called “septic germs.” 9 x 2 microtubular flagella conjugation Norwalk Entamoeba
His work went unappreciated for years. No peptidoglycan Polio Giardia
Coxsackie Toxoplasma
1890 Robert Koch, a German physician, contin- Animal Cell Mitochondria Rough endoplasmic Echovirus Cryptosporidium
ued Louis Pasteur’s work. He established that reticulum Hepatitis A Balantidium
Microfilaments
anthrax bacteria was always present in infected
blood, that the infected blood could transmit anthrax, Nucleus FUNGI HELMINTHES
Lysosome
and the bacteria was isolatable outside the animal. Nuclear pores Aspergillus Trichina
Peroxisome Taenia
1940 Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin and Plasma Trematodes
used it to cure various diseases. Along with Ernst Centrioles
membrane Nematodes
Chain and Howard Florey, he developed a produc- Micro
tion process. tubules Nucleolus BACTERIA
1950 Joshua Lederberg, Edward Tatum, and Gram Positive Genera Gram Negative Genera
Golgi Nuclear
George Beadle discovered and worked on genetic envelope Bacillus Erwinia
apparatus
recombination in bacteria. Clostridia Serratia
Cilia Chromatin Listeria Klebsiella
1960 Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod dis- Smooth Rough endoplasmic
covered and elucidated control of enzyme synthe- Proteus
endoplasmic reticulum
sis. They are credited with the Lac Operon model of Ribosomes reticulum Salmonella
genetic control of enzyme synthesis. Shigella
Plant Cell Ribosomes Mitochondria Escherichia
1980 Michael Bishop and Harold Varmus dis- Pseudomonas
cover that virus encoded oncogenes originate in Cytoplasm
eukarotic cells. Campylobacter
Plasma Yersinia
1985 Kary Mullis invents PCR, polymerase chain membrane Rough Bacteroides
reaction, a technique to amplify any DNA sequence. endoplasmic Brucella
Chloroplast
1997 Stanley Pruisher is awarded the Nobel Prize reticulum
for work on prions, "infectious proteins." Peroxisome GRAM NEGATIVE VS GRAM POSITIVE
Vacuole Nucleus Food Borne Bacterial Symptoms:
Golgi Gram Positive (Usually Produce Toxins)
apparatus Nuclear
Types of Infective Agents envelope Headache, dizziness, uncoordinated movements,
Cell numbness and exercise intolerant
Bacteria Mycoplasmas L Forms
Fungi Rickettsias Viroids wall Gram Negative (Usually Result in Infection)
Nucleolus Abdominal cramps, malaise, tenesmus, diarrhea, hem-
Viruses Spirochetes Prions
Protozoa Chlamydiae DNA/RNA Smooth endoplasmic reticulum orrhagic stool, vomiting and nausea
Plasmodesmata
1
 Microbial Genetics Replication Transcription METABOLISM
DNA Translation
DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid) is the source of most of The central premise regarding the genetic code, is that
our human characteristics. DNA, and in some cases all of the triplet codons which make up a DNA strand
Glycolysis
RNA (RiboNucleic Acid), is also the source of most are replicated (or copied) whenever a new set of This is the main mechanism by which sugars are uti-
plant, animal, and microbial characteristics. Eucaryotic instructions are needed, such as during cell division. lized in the cells of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic
DNA is often a double alpha-helix strand. Bacterial The triplet codons are transcribed (or made ready for organisms. It is also the first step of substrate level
DNA is usually a double stranded circle that twists on producing protein) onto messenger RNA (mRNA) in phosphorylation instead of oxidative phosphorylation if
itself. the nucleus of eukaryotes and the cytoplasm of prokary- fermentation is occurring (in the absence of oxygen).
otes. The mRNA codons, with the help of transfer RNA
(tRNA) in the cytoplasm, are translated into a series of glucose
Genetic Engineering amino acids that will form a protein in most cases.
The isolation, manipulation and expression of genetic Transcription Translation ATP
ADP
material is almost commonplace today. Not so com- DNA RNA Protein
mon, is our ability to alter one given characteristic of an glucose 6-phosphate
Conjugation
organism without affecting others. If the goal is to Conjugation is the sexual joining and sharing of genet-
change an area as small as one amino acid, then the ic material between appropriate mating types. Mating
action is termed site directed mutagenesis. types are F- (can only accept new genetic material), F+ fructose 6-phosphate
Cloning: (can only donate new genetic material) and Hfr (has a ATP ADP
Isolation and amplification of individual genes utilizing high frequency of donation of genetic material). The F
plasmid vectors. Used to move a gene from a complex factor is transferred last, conferring F+ or Hfr status on fructose 1,6-diphosphate
genome to a simpler one, in which it is easier to deter- an F- cell. The F+ and Hfr strains carry the tra gene on
mine the DNA and/or protein sequence or study the the plasmid which codes for the sex pilus that allows
gene’s biological function. penetration of an F- cell. A Gram negative phenome-
In Vitro Recombination: non; conjugation is the major mechanism of induced 2x glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
DNA from mitochondria, host genomes, mRNA’s drug resistance in bacterial cells.
2 P
(CDNA), or synthetic DNA is isolated and fragmented. Transformation +NAD + 2 H+
This DNA is joined to a vector at a restriction site (gen- NADH
Transformation is the one-way sharing of genetic
erated using restriction endonucleuses) using DNA lig- information between bacterial cells in a more passive 2x 1,3-diphosphoglycerate
ase. Upon transfection of this vector (plasmid) into an sense; a diffusion type of transfer. Once again, only
appropriate host cell, large amounts of the plasmid are certain cells are competent to share information, and 2 ADP
2 ATP
produced as well as the inserted DNA gene product. are capable of acquiring DNA / RNA from cells which
Most plasmid vectors are purposely disabled from being are living, dying, or dead. Streptococcus and Bacillus 2x 3-phosphoglycerate
transferred via conjugation. A standard plasmid vector are Gram positive examples that have competence fac-
for E. coli is pBR322. tors. Neisseria and Haemophilus are Gram negative
examples.
Transfection 2x 2-phosphoglycerate
The Genetic Code The transfer of genetic material from viruses to cells. A
good example is the transfer of genetic material by the
DNA is made up of four nucleic acid bases
T-even bacteriophages to and from bacteria.
ADENINE
Recombination 2x phosphoenolpyruvate
GUANINE
Genetic material is dynamic and mutates as needed to
CYTOSINE accommodate assaults or changes. Changes are intro- 2 ADP
2 ATP
THYMINE duced during transduction, transfection, transformation
RNA is also made up of four nucleic acid bases, but one and during other major and minor events. DNA / RNA 2x pyruvate
differs - thymine is replaced with uracil. also change spontaneously with both good and bad
THYMINE URACIL results for organism survival. Bases and base pairs can
These bases are arranged in triplets or codons. The be added, rearranged or removed from a given nucleic
bases must order themselves correctly to function prop- acid strand. TCA or Krebs Cycle
erly. The genetic code’s fail safe mechanism is its Transduction Pruvate Acetyl CoA
degenerative nature. Three bases in a row on a DNA or Viruses or phage attack bacterial cells, attach and insert
RNA molecule rep- RNA Synthesis / Transcription their genetic material into the cytoplasm. There are two
Oxaloacetate Citic acid
C G
resent one amino major types of transduction:
DNA
NADH
acid. This amino Lytic Transduction / Virulent Isoteric acid

T A
acid can be made, In lytic transduction, phage nucleic acid takes over and
NAD+
A T
destroys bacterial DNA after 100-300 complete phage CO2
however, with several Malate

C G
are made. Krebs Cycle NAD+
combinations of
three bases, as long A mRNA T A
Lysogenic Transduction / Temperate NADH
H2O Fumarate
C
Ketogluteric acid
Prophage DNA / RNA is inserted into the bacteria and
U C G
as the order of the FADH 2 CO2

G A
integrated into the host chromosome. The prophage
T A
first two remains the NAD+
encodes a repressor that blocks virus replication. Succinate
same. FAD
C G G
Succinyl CoA
Without the repressor the virus replicates and the cell NADH
Example: The mRNA
G C C
lyses. If this repressor does not work, the cycle
codons for yeast ATP ADP
A A
becomes lytic.
T
Proline are:
A U T
CCU

G C C
CCC Energy Generation - Electron Transport Chain
C G G
CCA Oxidative Phosphorylation
A
CCG
U T
C

T A
C=Cytosine

A T
U=Uracil C1
a - CU Outside

G C
A=Adenine

T A
G=Guanine (Fe-S) Q (Fe-S) Q (Fe-S) a2 - CU Mitochondrial
Inner

G C
Any one of them can FMN Membrane

RNA Polymerase
T A
form Proline, one of b FAD Inside
20 amino acids in the

T A
64 possible triplet NADH Succinate 1/ 2 0
H20 2
sequences.
ADP ATP

2
 MICROBIAL DIFFERENTATION TYPES OF MICROBIAL METABOLISM
Microbes live very diverse existences. Several are described below.

Media
TSP broth The Conversion Of Energy Unusual Lifestyles
Typical media used for general culturing, it has all of the
Photoautotroph Psychrophiles:
nutrients most bacteria require. It is a uniform light
brown. Uses light energy to convert CO2 and H2O to organic Cold-tolerant bacteria like listeria create serious prob-
Blood agar compounds. lems in foods. Cold treatment often slows the growth of
Agar, supplemented with sheep red blood cells, is one Example: Green algae normal bacteria, but not the growth of psychrophiles.
of the most common media used to plate bacteria. Photoheterotroph Extreme halophiles:
Blood agar is used to diagnose strep throat. Throat Uses light energy to convert organic carbon to useful
Can live in water with extreme salinity (up to 20%).
swabs are streaked onto blood agar to test for the pres- organic compounds.
Example: Purple or green bacteria Membrane bound bacteriorhodopsin uses light to pump
ence of beta-hemolytic streptococci. These bacteria out H+ ions. Bacteriorhodopsin imparts a pink color to
release hemolysis that lyse the red blood cells contained Chemoautotroph
Uses energy from H2S, NH3, and iron to convert CO2 to halophiles.
in the agar.
useful organic compounds. Thermoacidophiles:
Selective media
An example is media with bile salts and bright green dye. Example: Phototrophic /Nitrobacter These bacteria are tolerant of temperatures up to 80 C.
This selects for gram-negative organisms because gram- Chemoheterotroph They also prefer a pH range of 1- 4. They can be found
positive bacteria will not grow under these conditions. Uses organic molecules as a source of energy and car- in geysers and hot springs.
Differential media bon. Saprobes live off dead matter and parasites live off Methanogens:
Hektoen’s agar allows the visualization of Escherichia host body fluids.
Anaerobic decomposers, these bacteria use hydrogen to
coli because it contains lactose which is fermented to acid Example: Myxococcus
reduce carbon dioxide to methane in swamps and cattle
by E. coli and not used by many other enteric bacteria. intestines.
Enrichment media Spore formers:
Normal broth or agar is enriched with an unusual nutri- Nitrogen Usage
Nitrogen fixation Bacteria like Clostridium often encyst or form
ent that the bacteria being studied requires for growth.
Selenite, for example, is used to select for Salmonella Cyanobacteria can “fix,”or make available, atmos- endospores to protect themselves from drying out or
cultures. pheric nitrogen. Most living creatures cannot use from excessive heat or cold. These spores are very
atmospheric nitrogen to make protein. They must have resistant to harsh conditions due to their thick cell walls.
a source of organically bound nitrogen, nitrogen
Stains oxides or ammonia.
Simple stain N2———NH3 Microbes Used In Foods
A basic dye is used to color the sample. Nitrogen conversion Saccharomyces cerevisiae (A) Yeast: used in bread,
Acid-fast stain Nitrosomonas can convert ammonia (NH3) to the more
useable form, NO2. Several other chemoautotrophic beer and wine making, varieties of this organism and
Mycobacteria retain a carbolfuchsin red after an acid related genera are vitally important to these industries.
alcohol wash. A methylene blue counterstain is used to bacteria can do this as well.
NH3——NO2 Saccharomyces carlsbergensis (Yeast): used in
stain non-acid fast organisms blue.
Negative stain Denitrifying to atmospheric nitrogen lager beer making.
A dye with a negative stain is used to color the back- Pseudomonas species can denitrify NO2 or NO3 to Saccharomyces rouxii (Yeast): used to make soy
ground of a slide since the bacteria will not take up a atmospheric nitrogen. As facultative anaerobes, this sauce.
negatively charged stain. allows them to use the oxygen for more efficient ener- Lactococcus lactis (B) Bacteria: producer of bac-
Gram stain gy production.
teriocins, metabolites which kill other bacteria,especial-
Crystal violet, iodine, alcohol, and safranin red are ly sporeformers like Clostridia botulinum. These cocci
used. Gram positive bacteria retain the crystal violet protect the public from botulism in dried sausage that is
stain and appear purple-blue. Gram-negative bacteria Oxygen Use
Obligate aerobes lower in nitrate.
lose the blue color and pick up the red of the safranin
counterstain. These organisms must have a continual source of oxy- Leuconostoc mesenteroides Bacteria: creates
gen. They often have long generation times. One lactic acid for the fermentation of sauerkraut.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis generation can take up to Acetobacter and Gluconobacter (C) species
Microscopes one week on agar. bacteria: used in the production of vinegar.
Microaerophilic or microbes Penicillium roqueforti (D) and species of fungi:
The Light Microscope These organisms need small amounts of oxygen and
Our ability to differentiate between types of microbes cheeses, roquefort dressing.
higher concentrations of CO2; high oxygen concentra-
improved dramatically with the advent of the compound Eremothecium ashbyi
tion inhibits growth. Certain strains of Streptococcus
(two lense) light microscope. A slide is made of select- sanginosus, Streptococcus mitis, Streptococcus mutans Used to make the B-vitamin riboflavin.
ed microorganisms, stained and viewed on the stage. are examples.
The objectives are located on a turning turret below the Facultative anaerobes
oculars, allowing selection of different magnifications These organisms prefer a small amount of O2, but can
as light passes through. A D
live without it. They use anaerobic glycolysis in the
The Dark-field Microscope - There is a limit to absence of oxygen.
the resolution of the compound light microscope, and Obligate anaerobes
when an object is too small or thin to be seen in the light These organisms lack key molecules in the electron
microscope, it can sometimes be viewed using a dark- transport system and do not reduce oxygen. They will
field microscope. There is a special light condenser that either die in the presence of oxygen or produce toxins.
produces a hollow cone of light. Microbes appear white Clostridia and Bacteroides are examples.
against a black background.
B
The Phase Contrast Microscope - This allows
small, dense particles like internal organelles to be Electron microscope Light microscope
viewed without staining. In other microscopes, organ-
isms and organelles must be stained for viewing. Electron gun
Magnetic
condenser Ocular
The Electron Microscope lens lens
Transmission Electron Microscopy
TEM has a resolution of greater than 1 nm and allows Aperture
Magnetic
the viewing of organelles, subcellular components and objective Specimen
Objective
even macromolecules. Tissue sections of 0.1 um or less lens lens C
are best viewed in a vacuum processed slide. Uranyl Magnetic
intermediate Aperture Specimen
acetate is used as a negative stain and freeze-etching is lens
a common technique.
Condenser
Scanning Electron Microscope - SEM has the Magnetic lens
ability to display the surface of an object using electrons projection Aperture
as a fine probe. lens Light source
Final image

3
 REPRODUCTION OF FUNGI FERMENTATION (Anaerobic) THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Glucose + Other electron acceptors Pyruvate
Homolactic Acid Fermentation
Asexual Adaptive
Pyruvate Lactic acid
Blastospores: B cells
Yeast can reproduce by fission, sporulation or budding. Found in Lactobacilli / Streptococci
B cells, plasma cells or B lymphocytes create and
Budding, or blastospore formation is the most common Alcoholic Fermentation secrete antibody. Antibodies are protinaceous mole-
method. A piece of the mother cell surface bubbles out Pyruvate ETOH cules that mirror the stimulating antigen.
and enlarges, producing a “bud.” B cells have 2 functions:
Chlamydospores: Found in Yeast
1. Antibody formation 2. Memory
Resting spores found in old dry cultures, they are pro- Mixed Acid Fermentation
duced when the hyphae swell and create a thick wall There are 5 major types of antibody:IgG, IgA, IgD, IgE,
Pyruvate OAA Succinic acid IgM.
around themselves.
Arthrospores: Pyruvate Acetyl CoA ETOH T cells
When hyphae break apart, tube-shaped thick spores, Pyruvate Acetyl CoA Acetic acid Are responsible for all antigens or microbes that pass
called arthrospores are formed. Pryuvate Formic acid H2 + CO2 through the innate system and do not require an anti-
Conidiospores: Pyruvate Lactic acid body response. Fungal pathogens are often an example
Formed on conidiophores or stalks, they are pinched off Found in Enteric bacteria (E. coli, e.g.) of invaders that stimulate T cells. T cells also seek out
and sent into the surrounding environment. and destroy virus- infected cells.
Sporangiospores: Butylene Glycol Fermentation Null cells
Formed in a sporangium, a sac like an ascus but larger. Pyruvate Acetoin 2,3 Butylene glycol These function in coordination with B and T cells to
Spore lands in Found in Enterobacter / Bacillus mediate defenses. They can be distinguished from B
viable location
Released spores and T cells, by a large cytoplasmic granule seen under
Germination Propionic Acid Fermentation
the microscope. They help out cells from the innate sys-
Pyruvate OAA Succinic Methylmalonyl-CoA
tem as well as B and T cells.
2-Propionic Acid
Found in Veillonella / Propionibacterium
Asexual Colony growth Innate
spore-bearing Butyric Acid / Butanol / Acetone
structure Fermentation The innate system includes protection against non-
Sexual Pyruvate Acetyl CoA Acetic Acid ETOH specific invaders. There are 4 major aspects to this
Basidiospores: Pyruvate Crotonyl CoA Butyryl CoA protection.
Characterized as clinging to the end of a basidium in a 1. Barriers 2. Residents
Butanol or Butyric acid
type of fungi called basidiomycetes, these are found in Digestive juices Commensal bacteria
Pyruvate Acetyl CoA Acetoacetyl Body temperature
the common mushroom (Agricaris campestris), in
bracketts, puffballs and other large fungi. Acetone Isopropyl alcohol Intact skin
Ascospores:
Characterized by the sac they develop in, the ascus, 3. Protective cells 4. Soluble factors
these are usually found in a larger structure called an ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION WITH Macrophages Interferons
ascocarp. Ascomycetes are the fungal division in which INORGANIC IONS Monocytes Interleukins
ascospores are found. Sulfate Reducers Natural killer cells Tumor necrosis factor
Zygospores: Neutrophils Lytic enzymes
A zygospore is formed from the fusion of two “mating” Desulfovibrio / Desulfotomaculum
Obligate anaerobes, they turn sulfate into sulfide. Eosinophils
types of hyphae. It is almost double the size of the adja-
cent cell. It becomes thick-walled and is characteristic SO4 + H2 S + H2O. Granulocytes
of the division zygomycetes, an example of which is
common black bread mold or Rhizopus stolonifer. Nitrate Reducers
Oospores: Escherichia / Micrococcus / Rhizobium / Bacillus /
Enterobacter Stem cell
These result from the fertilization of an oogonium by an IMMUNE
antheridium when the fungi is in a vegetative cycle. These are facultative anaerobes, microbes that can use CELLS
nitrate as a final electron acceptor instead of oxygen- Lymphoid
Opposite mating types (+ and -)
- mating type like aerobic respiration. They can survive using aerobic Neutrophils precursors
+ mating type
respiration as well as fermentative means. This is also
Fusion of cells Haploid Myeloid
known as denitrification. precursors
Unfused nuclei vegetative Bursa
cells NO3 + H2 N2 + H2O Thymus
Growth of hyphae equivalent
and spore-forming Fusion of Methane Bacteria
structures nuclei
Methane bacteria are found in the digestive systems of Basophils
2n nucleus
Diploid sexual ruminating animals such as cows or deer.
Fusion of nuclei to spore Monocytes
form diploid (2n) CO2 + H2 CH4 + H2O
spore-forming cell Meiosis B cells C cells
Meiosis
Haploid (n)
Release of nucleus Medical Mycology
haploid spores Cell
Fungi are divided into two forms: yeast and molds. Eosinophils mediated
Germination Haploid Germination Yeasts are single-celled, round and small (4 um in Macrophages Antibodies immunity
hyphae diameter)when compared to molds (hyphae can be 5
Formation of
n n haploid hyphae n n n
um long and 3-4 um wide).
U.S.$4.95 / CAN.$7.50
Authors: Heather MacLean Walters, MA, MS, PhD
PHOTOSYNTHESIS / Mike Roner, PhD
Edited by: Randy Brooks, PhD
RESPIRATION / FERMENTATION
The respiration equation is really the photosynthesis ISBN-13: 978-142320290-5
equation backwards under aerobic conditions. Oxygen ISBN-10: 142320290-2
is either the electron donor or acceptor, depending upon
which direction you look. Usually, fermentation is res-
piration under anaerobic conditions. While there are Molds are usually multicellular and characterized by
exceptions to every rule, this is a basic way to look at the long filamentous structures called hyphae. These
use of carbohydrates for energy generation in the cell. hyphae can be coenocytic (no cross-walls) or septate hundreds of titles at Customer Hotline #
PHOTOSYNTHESIS (having cross-walls). The hyphae extend themselves quickstudy.com 1.800.230.9522
CO2 + H2O Glucose + O2 and intertwine into a mat called a mycelium, in which Note to Student: Due to its condensed format,
use this QuickStudy ® guide as a Biology

Uses energy they share chemical information and nutrients. guide, but not as a replacement for assigned
class work.
Dimorphic forms are an unusual combination of the All rights reserved. No part of this publication
RESPIRATION (Aerobic) two (molds and yeasts). This dimorphism allows them
may be reproduced or transmitted in any form,
or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
Assuming Oxidate Phosphoration to exist as either type when conditions merit and is
including photocopy, recording, or any infor-
mation storage and retrieval system, without
Glucose + O2 CO2 + H2O advantageous from a survivability and virulence written permission from the publisher.
©2000, 2002, 2003 BarCharts, Inc. 1106
Animal & Plant cell images provided by
Yields energy standpoint. Molecular Expressions - microscopy.fsu.edu