Gwageo
The gwageo or kwago were the national civil service
Gwageo
examinations under the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties of Korea.
Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' Hangul 과거
ability of writing composition and knowledge of the Chinese Hanja 科擧
classics. The form of writing varied from literature to proposals Revised Romanization gwageo
on management of the state. Technical subjects were also tested
McCune–Reischauer kwagŏ
to appoint experts on medicine, interpretation, accounting, law
etc. These were the primary route for most people to achieve
positions in the bureaucracy.
Based on the civil service examinations of imperial China, the gwageo first arose in Unified Silla, gained
importance in Goryeo, and were the centerpiece of most education in the Joseon dynasty. The tutelage
provided at the hyanggyo, seowon, and Sungkyunkwan was aimed primarily at preparing students for the
gwageo and their subsequent career in government service. Under Joseon law, high office was closed to
those who were not children of officials of the second full rank or higher, unless the candidate had passed
the gwageo. Those who passed the higher literary examination came to monopolize all of the dynasty's
high positions of state.[1]
Contents
Silla
Goryeo
Joseon
Administration
Literary examinations
Military examination (Mugwa)
Miscellaneous examinations
Historical change
See also
References
Citations
Bibliography
Silla
The first national examinations were administered in the kingdom of Silla beginning in 788, at the
suggestion of Confucian scholar Choe Chiwon. However, due to Silla's entrenched bone rank system,
which dictated that appointments be made on the basis of birth, these examinations did not have a strong
effect on the government.
Goryeo
Under the Goryeo dynasty, the national examinations became more systematic and powerful than they
had been under Silla. However, they remained only one among several avenues to power. A man who
had reached a position of the fifth rank or higher could automatically have one son placed in a position of
rank.[2]
The examinations were established in 958, during the reign of Gwangjong as a means of breaking the
hold which a few powerful families held over the government.[3] Throughout the dynasty, they retained
this character of strengthening the throne against the aristocracy. This also took the form of aligning the
throne with the provincial elites, and the kings of Goryeo strove to extend educational opportunities to
the local elites throughout the country. In fact, any member of the yangin freeborn class was permitted to
take the examination, although the descendants of monks, criminals and cheonmin were excluded.[4]
However, over time government-run educational institutions such as the hyanggyo and Gukjagam lost
ground to private institutions like the Twelve Assemblies.[5]
The major examinations were literary, and came in two forms: a composition test (jesul eop), and a test of
classical knowledge (myeonggyeong eop). These tests were officially to be held every three years, but in
practice it was common for them to be held at other times as well.[6] The composition test came to be
viewed as more prestigious, and its successful applicants were divided into three grades. On the other
hand, successful candidates on the classical examination were not ranked. In the course of the dynasty,
some 6000 men passed the composition examination, while only about 450 passed the classics
examination.[7]
The classics examination was revised in 1344, under the reign of Chunghye, on the model of the
examination system then employed in Yuan Dynasty. The earlier system based directly on the classics
was replaced with one based on Neo-Confucian interpretations of the classics.[8]
Military examinations were established briefly under the reign of Yejong, and again in the reign of
Gongyang just before the dynasty's fall; however, for most of the dynasty, there was no military
examination and thus no educational path to military rank. This may have reflected the relative strength
of the military elites during this period.
Miscellaneous examinations (jabeop) were administered in various fields. One among these was
Buddhism; monks who passed received a special clerical title, beginning with daeseon, or "monk
designate."[9] Separate tests were administered for the Seon and Gyo sects, which dominated the
Buddhism of the Goryeo period.
Joseon
Under the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), the examinations fell under three broad categories: the literary
examinations (mun-gwa: 文科), military examinations (mugwa: 武科), and miscellaneous examinations
(japgwa: 雜科) covering topics such as medicine, geography, astronomy, and translation. As other roads
to advancement were much more closed than during the Goryeo period, the gwageo became virtually the
only pathway to a position of rank.[10]
In theory, anyone other than slaves and lowest class called chunmin (those who worked in despised
occupations such as butchers) could take gwageo examinations, but in reality only yangban who had the
luxury of spending much of their childhood and early adulthood studying could hope to pass the exam. In
the case of literary administration, children of remarried women, concubines, and officials who were
dismissed for corruption were excluded from taking the exam. Gwageo examinations were very
important not only for an individual but for his family because a yangban family that did not produce a
government official for four generations lost their status as yangban.
When writing the examination, candidates had to record the names and positions of their four great-
grandfathers. The higher literary examination was restricted to those who either were already in a
position of rank, or who had already passed the lower examination. The miscellaneous examinations
were looked down upon by the yangban, and were generally restricted to the chungin class of hereditary
technical workers. Criteria for the military examination varied, but over time it became open even to
members of the lowest class (the cheonmin).[11]
The gwageo provided a basis for various forms of regionalism. Due to the strength of regional factions in
Joseon Dynasty politics, scholars from out-of-favor factions often did not bother to take the examination
at all. In addition, for much of the dynasty candidates from Hamgyong were forbidden to attempt the
gwageo. In the late Joseon Dynasty, an increasing percentage of successful candidates came from the
northern province of Pyongan, and the small county of Chŏngju came to produce more successful
candidates than any other county.
Administration
The gwageo were originally administered every three years; these regular examinations were known as
the singnyeonsi (식년시). However, the singnyeonsi became less important over time, and an increasing
percentage of candidates took the gwageo on special occasions. These included the alseongsi (visitation
examinations), which were administered when the king visited the Shrine of Confucius at the
Seonggyungwan royal academy, the jeunggwangsi (augmented examinations) held during national
celebrations, and the byeolsi (special examinations) held on other special occasions.[12] However, these
special examinations were usually limited to the literary and military examinations. Over the course of
the dynasty, a total of 581 irregular examinations were held, in comparison to 163 of the triennial
singneonsi examinations.
The literary and military examinations were administered in three stages: an initial qualifying test (chosi)
administered in the provinces, a second examination (hoesi) conducted in the capital (in which the
qualifying candidates were selected), and a third examination (jeonsi) in the presence of the king, in
which the successful candidates were ranked in order. Each stage was norm-referenced, with a set
number of successful applicants. The candidate who received the highest score (jangwon) in the literary
examination was given a post of the 6th junior (jong) rank.[13] If the jangwon was already employed in a
position of rank, he was raised 4 levels.[14] The candidate with second and third highest scores were
given a post of the 7th junior rank. The rest were not guaranteed a post, but had to wait until one became
vacant. The miscellaneous examinations had only the first two stages; their candidates were not ranked.
Testing procedures were a frequent flashpoint of controversy, with various factions vying for control of
the examination criteria. In particular, the question of whether the first phase of the higher examination
should be oral or written became a hot topic of debate in early Joseon.
Literary examinations
The literary examination was divided into a lower and higher examination. In turn, in the lower literary
examination some candidates applied for a "classics licentiate" (or saengwon) and others for a "literary
licentiate" (or jinsa). After passing these lower examinations (saengjin-gwa), they could proceed to the
higher examination. This lower examination may have originated in the entrance examinations for the
Gukjagam of Goryeo.[15]
In the lower examination, the literary licentiate tested compositional skill in various forms of Chinese
poetry and prose, including shi poetry, fu rhyming prose, piao documentary prose, and ts'e problem-
essays.[16] The classics licentiate tested knowledge of the Four Books and Five Classics from an
orthodox Neo-Confucian interpretation. From each regular administration of the test, a total of 100
successful candidates were selected for each licentiate. These were drawn from a pool of 600 (for each
licentiate), of which 200 were chosen from the capital and 400 were apportioned from the various
provinces.[17]
The higher literary examination was administered every three years, and a total of 33 successful
candidates were selected from a pool of 240. These 240, in turn, were sent from the Seonggyungwan
(50), the capital (40), and the Eight Provinces (the number sent from each province varied, with
Hwanghae and Yeongan sending only 10 while Gyeongsang sent 30).[18] Each of the first two of the
higher examination was in turn divided into three parts: in the first section, the candidates showed their
understanding of the Confucian canon, in the second part they demonstrated their ability to compose in
various literary forms, and in the last portion they wrote a problem-essay which was intended to show
their political aptitude.[19]
Over the course of the Joseon Dynasty, a total of 14,620 men passed the literary examination. The
triennial singneonsi passed roughly 41% of these; the remainder passed in the course of irregular
examinations.[20] This proportion shifted over time; as the dynasty progressed, the irregular examinations
became increasingly important.[21] This may in part have been because the number of candidates in
triennial examinations was fixed, while the number in the irregular examinations was not fixed.
Military examination (Mugwa)
The military examination selected 190 candidates in the first stage, of whom 28 were allowed to pass the
second stage.[22] Of these, 70 came from the capital and the remainder from the various provinces, with
Gyeongsang contributing 30, Chungcheong and Jeolla contributing 25, and the remaining provinces 10
candidates each.[19]
The military examinations tested a mixture of military and literary criteria. The first stage of the test was
a practical test of various military skills, focused on Korean archery but the second stage, in which the
successful applicants were selected, was an oral examination of applicants' knowledge of the Confucian
canon and certain classics of military thought. Of importance were Sun Tzu's Art of War, as well as
Hanbizi and Wutzu.[23] The third stage, in which the candidates were ranked, was again based on
practical military skills. These include horsemanship, and mounted archery. The story of Yi Sunshin
failing the Mugwa the first time due to falling off his horse during this phase, at which point he applied a
hasty tourniquet using willow branches, and finishing his mounted archery portion is well known.
Miscellaneous examinations
The miscellaneous examinations, or japgwa, were divided into four parts: translation, medicine, natural
science (astrology, geography, and others), and recordkeeping. These examinations were overseen by the
government office which employed specialists in the field. They were closely connected to the Sahak
royal technical academies, which were overseen by the same offices.
In the case of translation, the languages tested were the four which the Joseon court maintained
translators in: contemporary Chinese, Mongolian, Jurchen/Manchu, and Japanese. This examination was
overseen by the Office of Translators, which maintained translators in the capital and in the major border-
ports and cities. At the first level, 45 candidates were accepted in spoken Chinese and 4 in each of the
other languages; the second level selected 13 successful applicants in Chinese and 2 in each of the other
languages.[24]
The medical examination selected 18 finalists, narrowed to 9 successful applicants in the second round.
These were then given positions in the Bureau of Medicine, which sent some of them to the palace and
others to each provincial division down to the hyeon level.[25]
Those who passed the japgwa were originally given a crimson certificate, the same color obtained by
those who passed the literary examination. However, pressure from the yangban eventually changed this
color to white, signifying a lower level of achievement and entitling the bearer to a position of lower
rank. Those who passed this examination became known as chungin.
Historical change
The gwageo were supplemented in the reign of Jungjong of Joseon (1506-1544), at the suggestion of the
high official Jo Gwang-jo. The supplementary examination was called an "examination for the learned
and the virtuous" (hyeollanggwa). This was an abbreviated examination, held in the presence of the king.
The candidates had to be recommended by their local magistrate as men of the highest integrity.[26]
The gwageo system became increasingly corrupt in the later years of the Joseon Dynasty. Scholars who
were unable to pass the examination began to form a class of disaffected yangban; notable among these
was early 19th-century rebel leader Hong Gyeong-nae.[27] Many of the later Silhak scholars also turned
away from state service.
The gwageo were finally abolished in the Gabo Reforms of 1894, along with legal class discrimination
and the old rank system.[28] However, the tradition continues in the form of university entrance
examinations and civil service examinations in modern-day South Korea.
See also
Imperial examination
Education in the Joseon Dynasty
History of education
List of Korea-related topics
Republic of Korea public service examinations
References
Citations
1. SNUERI, p. 108.
2. SNUERI, pp. 63-64
3. Lee (1984), pp. 104-105.
4. Lee (1984), p. 118; SNUERI, p.
5. Lee (1984), p. 129.
6. SNUERI, p. 63
7. Lee (1984), p. 118
8. SNUERI, p. 62
9. Lee (1984), p. 133.
10. Byeon (1996), pp. 277-278.
11. Lee (1984), p. 219
12. These translations are taken from Lee (1984), p. 181.
13. Lee (1984), p. 181.
14. Byeon (1999), p. 278.
15. SNUERI, p. 109.
16. Lee (1984), p. 180.
17. These figures are given by SNUERI, but Byeon (1996, p. 278) says that the total number
from the provinces was 700.
18. SNUERI, p. 107
19. SNUERI, loc. cit.
20. SNUERI, p. 112.
21. Lee (1984), p.
22. SNUERI, p. 110. Byeon (1996, p. 279) gives 200 for the initial stage, but agrees with 28 for
the second stage.
23. SNUERI, p. 110-111.
24. SNUEI, p. 111.
25. SNUERI, p. 104
26. Lee (1984), p. 205.
27. Lee (1984), p. 254)
28. Lee (1984), p. 291.
Bibliography
Lee, Ki-baik (1984). A New History of Korea.
SNUERI (Seoul National University Educational Research Institute). 한국교육사.
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