I PU Physics Simplified Notes - GSGP's

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Unit – II Chapter – 03 02. Define the terms (a) speed (b) uniform speed
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE (c) variable speed (d) average speed and (e)
instantaneous speed.
01. Define the terms (a) rest (b) motion (c)
 Speed:
distance (d) displacement. Distinguish
It is the rate of change of position of a body
between distance and displacement.
without reference to the direction.
 Rest & Motion:
A body is said to be at rest if it doesn’t changes It is a scalar quantity. SI Unit: m s 1
its position w.r.t time and its surroundings.
If s is the distance travelled by the body in
A body is said to be in motion if it changes its s
time interval t , then speed  v 
position w.r.t time and its surroundings. t
 Distance travelled:  Uniform speed:
It is the length of the actual path traversed by Speed is said to be uniform if the body travels
the body in a given interval of time. equal distances in equal intervals of time
It is a scalar quantity. SI Unit: m however the small intervals of time may be.
 Displacement:  Variable speed:
It is the shortest distance between the initial Speed is said to be variable or non-uniform if
and the final positions of a body in motion in a the body travels equal distances in unequal
specified direction. intervals of time.
It is a vector quantity. SI Unit: m  Average speed:
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When the body has variable speed, average
Distance travelled Displacement
speed is defined as the ratio of total distance
It is the length of the It is the shortest distance
actual path traversed between the initial and travelled by the body to total time taken.
the final position total distance travelled

average speed =
It depends on the path It is independent of path total time taken
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It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity

It can be zero or ve but It can be zero or ve or
s s1  s2  s3  ...
vav  
t t1  t2  t3  ...
cannot be ve ve
It cannot be less than the It cannot be more than the s1 , s2 … are the distances travelled in
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displacement distance travelled

successive time intervals t1 , t2 …
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 Instantaneous speed:  Average velocity:
It is the speed of the body at any instant. It is When the body has variable velocity, average
the ratio of distance travelled to the total time velocity is defined as the ratio of total
taken over a small interval of time. displacement of the body to total time taken.
x dx  Instantaneous velocity:
Instantaneous speed  lim 
t 0 t dt It is the velocity of a body at any instant.
03. Define the terms (a) velocity (b) uniform If dx is the small displacement in a small time
velocity (c) variable velocity (d) average interval dt , then
velocity and (e) instantaneous velocity. x dx
Instantaneous velocity  lim 
 Velocity: t 0 t dt
It is the rate of change of position of a body
04. Distinguish between speed and velocity.
with reference to the direction
Speed Velocity
or It is the rate of change It is the rate of change
of position of displacement
It is the rate of change of displacement.
It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity
1
It is a vector quantity. SI Unit: m s
It cannot be  ve It can be  ve or  ve
If s is the displacement of the body in time For a moving body, the For a moving body, the
interval t , then average speed can never average velocity can be
s be zero zero
velocity  v 
t
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05. Define the terms (a) acceleration (b) uniform
 Uniform velocity: acceleration (c) variable acceleration
Velocity of a body is said to be uniform if it  Acceleration:
moves in the same direction and travels equal
It is the rate of change of velocity of the body.
distances in equal intervals of time however
change in velocity
the small intervals may be. acceleration 
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time taken
 Variable velocity:
If the velocity of a body changes from u to v in
Velocity of a body is said to be variable if the
time interval t , then
velocity changes either in magnitude or in
v u
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direction or in both. acceleration  a 

t
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
It is a vector quantity. SI Unit: m s  2  For particle moving with constant positive
velocity
If the velocity of the body increases with time,
it is said to have acceleration.
If the velocity of the body decreases with time,

it is said to have retardation or deceleration.
 Uniform acceleration:
 For particle moving with constant negative
Acceleration of a body is said to be uniform if
velocity
its velocity changes by equal amount in equal
intervals of time however the small intervals
may be.
 Variable acceleration:
Acceleration of a body is said to be variable if
its velocity changes by equal amount in  For particle moving with constant acceleration
unequal intervals of time.
06. What are motion graphs?

Motion Graphs:
The graphs of position – time, velocity – time
and acceleration – time are called motion
 For particle moving with constant retardation
graphs.
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07. Write a note on position – time graph.
A graph of position versus time is known as
position – time graph.
 For particle at rest

 Slope of x  t graph gives the speed or velocity
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of the body.
08. Write a note on velocity – time graph.

A graph of velocity versus time is known as
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velocity – time graph.

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 For particle moving with constant positive  For particle moving with decreasing
velocity acceleration
 For particle moving with constant acceleration  For particle moving with variable velocity
starting from rest
 Slope of v  t graph gives the acceleration of
 For particle moving with constant acceleration the body.
with initial velocity  Area under v  t graph gives the distance or

the displacement of the body.
09. Write a note on acceleration – time graph.

A graph of acceleration versus time is known as
acceleration – time graph.
 For particle moving with constant retardation  For particle moving with constant acceleration
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 For particle moving with uniform increasing
 For particle moving with increasing
acceleration
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acceleration
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 For particle moving with uniform decreasing OA  u , BD  v , OD  AC  t
acceleration To derive v  u  a t
acceleration = slope of v - t graph
BC v u
a  or a
AC t
v u  a t
 For particle moving with variable acceleration
v ua t
1 2
To derive s  u t  at
2
distance travelled = area under v - t graph
10. Derive the kinematic equations using v  t  s  area of the trapezium OABD
graph.
1 1
Equations of motion from v  t graph:
s  BD  OA OD  s v  u  t
2 2
Consider a body moving with an initial velocity
But v  u  a t
u along a straight line. It is subjected to a
1 1
uniform acceleration a . s u  a t  u  t   2 u  a t  t
2 2
After a time interval t , let v be its velocity and
s be the distance travelled in this time interval.  1 
s  u  a t  t
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 2 
The v  t graph is as shown below.
1 2
su t at
2
To derive v  u  2 a s
2 2
acceleration = slope of v - t graph

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BC v u
a  or a … (1)
AC t
distance travelled = area under v - t graph

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In the graph,
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 s  area of the trapezium OABD v t v t
 dv   a dt
u 0
or  dv  a  dt
u 0
1
s   BD  OA OD
2
vu  a t 0
v t
( a is constant)
1
s v  u  t … (2) v  u  a  t  0  or v u  a t
2
Multiplying equations (1) and (2) v ua t
v  u   1 1 2
as v  u  t To derive s  u t 
2
at
t 2
a s   v2  u 2 
1
2 u along a straight line. It is subjected to a
v  u2   2 a s
uniform acceleration a .
 2

v u 2 a s
2 2
s be the distance travelled in this time interval.
11. Derive the kinematic equations, (i) v  u  a t dx
Velocity  v  or dx  v dt
dt
1 2
(ii) s  u t  v 2  u 2  2 a s by
2
at (iii)
dx   u  a t  dt
calculus method. Integrating it within the conditions of motion,
To derive v  u  a t : (i.e., when time changes from 0 to t ,
Consider a body moving with an initial velocity displacement changes from 0 to s )
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s t
 dx  u  a t  dt
0 0
After a time interval t , let v be its velocity and s t t
s be the distance travelled in this time interval.  dx  u dt   a t dt

0 0 0
dv
Acceleration  a  s t t
 dx  u  dt  a  t dt
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dt ( u and a are constants)

dv  a dt
0 0 0
t
Integrating it within the conditions of motion, t2 
 x0  u t 0  a  
s t
(i.e., when time changes from 0 to t , velocity  2 0

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changes from u to v )
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t2  12. What is relative velocity?
 s  0   u  t  0   a   0
2  Obtain the expression for the same.
Relative velocity:
1
s  u t  a t2 The velocity of one object with respect to
2
another is called relative velocity.
To derive v  u  2 a s
2 2
It is also defined as the rate of change of

relative position of one object with respect to
another.
Expression for relative velocity:
Consider two bodies A and B moving with
s be the distance travelled in this time interval.
uniform velocities v A and vB along parallel
dv
Acceleration  a 
dt straight tracks  X  axis  in the same
dv dx dv directions.  vB  vA 
a  or a v
dx dt dx
At t  0 , let the bodies are at the origin.
v dv  a dx
Integrating it within the conditions of motion,
(i.e., when displacement changes from 0 to s ,
velocity changes from u to v )
v s
 v dv   a dx
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u 0
v s At any time t , let x A and xB are the

 v dv  a  dx
u 0
( a is constant)
displacements of bodies A and B from the
origin.
v
 v2 
 2   a  x 0
s
For the object A ,
 u
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xA  vA t … (1)
1 2
v  u 2   a  s  0
2 For the object B ,
v2  u 2  2 a s xB  vB t
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… (2)
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Relative displacement of B with respect to A Distance between the two bodies remains constant.
is Therefore the position – time graphs are parallel

straight lines.
xB  xA  vB t  vA t
 When two bodies moving with unequal
xB  xA   vB  vA  t
velocities
Relative velocity of B with respect to A is
relative displacement
vBA 
time
xB  x A
vBA 
t
vBA 
 vB  vA  t
t
Distance between the two bodies changes.
vBA   vB  vA  Therefore the position – time graphs are not parallel
straight lines.
Similarly, relative velocity of A with respect to
B is The point of intersection of the graphs gives
their time of meeting and position of meeting.
vAB   vA  vB 
 When two bodies moving in opposite
 When two bodies moving in opposite
directions
directions, then
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vBA   vB  vA  and vAB   vA  vB 
Special cases:
 When two bodies moving with equal velocities
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Distance between the two bodies changes.

Therefore the position – time graphs are not parallel
straight lines.
The point of intersection of the graphs gives

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their time of meeting and position of meeting.

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Unit – IV Chapter – 04 02. Name the kinds of vectors?
MOTION IN A PLANE  Equal vectors:
Two vectors are said to be equal if they possess
01. What are scalars and vectors? Give examples.
same magnitude and same direction.
Scalars:
Scalars are the physical quantities having  Negative vectors:
magnitude only. Two vectors having same magnitude but
directed opposite are called negative vectors.
Length, mass, time, speed, work, power,
volume, density, temperature, electric current,  Unit vector:
energy, electric potential etc., Unit vector is a vector having unit magnitude in
Vectors: direction of that vector.
Vectors are the physical quantities having both In Cartesian co-ordinates iˆ , ĵ and k̂ are the
magnitude and direction. unit vectors along X  axis, Y  axis and Z 
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, axis respectively.
momentum, impulse, torque, angular
 Null vector or zero vector:
momentum, electric field, magnetic field etc.,
Null vector is a vector whose magnitude is
Tensors: zero. Its direction is arbitrary.
Tensors are the physical quantities having  Collinear vectors:
different magnitudes in different Collinear vectors are the vectors acting along
directions. the same line.
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Stress, moment of inertia etc.,  Concurrent vectors or co-initial vectors:
Representation of a vector: Concurrent vector are the vectors having the
Graphically a vector same initial point.
quantity is represented by  Coplanar vectors:

an arrow of suitable Coplanar vectors are the vectors which lie in
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length. the same plane.
The length of the arrow represents the  Like or parallel vectors:

magnitude of the vector and the arrow Like vectors are the vectors which are parallel
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head represents its direction. and having the same direction.

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 Unlike or antiparallel vectors:
Unlike vectors are the vectors which are
parallel and having opposite directions.
 Orthogonal vectors:
Let the two vectors P and Q are represented
Orthogonal vectors are the vectors which are
both in magnitude and direction by the sides
mutually perpendicular.
AB and BC of the triangle ABC .
 Position vector:
Then the third side AC represents their vector
Position vector is a vector which represents the
sum or resultant R both in magnitude and
position of a particle relative to an arbitrary
direction.
origin.
 Displacement vector: R  PQ
Displacement vector is a vector which 04. State and explain the Parallelogram law of
represents the displacement of a particle. vector addition.
 Skew vectors: Statement:
Non-parallel and non-coplanar vectors are If the two vectors acting at a point are
called skew vectors. represented by the two adjacent sides of a

parallelogram drawn from that point, then the
 Localised vectors:
diagonal passing through that point represents
The vectors whose initial points are fixed are
their vector sum.
called localised or fixed vectors.
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Consider two vectors P and Q acting at O .
 Non localised vectors:
Let  be the angle between them.
The vectors whose initial points are not fixed
are called non-localised or free vectors.
03. State and explain the Triangle law of vector

addition.
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Statement:
If two vectors are represented by the two sides
Let OA and OB represent P and Q
of a triangle taken in order, then the third side
respectively. Then the diagonal OC of the
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taken in the reverse order represents their

parallelogram OACB represents their vector
vector sum.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
sum or resultant R both in magnitude and 06. Write the properties vector addition?
direction. Properties of vector addition:

 Vector addition is commutative
R  PQ
A B  B  A
Magnitude of R is given by  Vector addition is associative
R  P 2  Q2  2 PQ cos   A  B  C  A   B  C 
 Vector addition is distributive
Direction of R is given by
 
m A B  m A m B
Q sin 
tan  
P  Q cos  07. Explain the vector subtraction of two vectors.
05. State and explain the Polygon law of vector Subtraction of a vector Q from a vector P is
addition. defined as the addition of vector  Q to the

Statement: vector P .
If a number of vectors are represented by the
sides of a polygon taken in order, then the
closing side of that polygon taken in reverse
order represents their vector sum.
Thus,  
P Q  P   Q  R
or R  P Q
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Let PQ , QS , ST and TX represent A , B ,
C and D respectively. Here AB represents P , BC represents Q and

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BD represents  Q . Hence from triangle law,

Then the closing side PX represents their
vector sum or resultant R both in magnitude AD represents the resultant P  Q both in

and direction. magnitude and direction.
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R  A B C  D R  P Q
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08. Write the properties vector subtraction? PY
P  PX2  PY2 and tan  
 Vector subtraction is non-commutative PX
A B  B  A In terms of unit vectors,
 Vector subtraction is non-associative

PX  PX i and PY  PY j
 A  B  C  A   B  C 
Hence, P  PX i  PY j
 Vector subtraction is distributive
The above form of expression for vector is
 
m A B  m Am B
called component form of a vector.
09. What is resolution of a vector? Explain. The coefficients of unit vectors are scalars and
Resolution of a vector: are called scalar components of the vector.
The process of splitting up of a vector into two
10. Explain the scalar multiplication of a vector.
or more vectors is known as resolution of a
Whenever a vector P is multiplied by a scalar
vector.
m , the resultant R is another vector whose
The vectors into which the given vector is
magnitude is m times the magnitude of P and
resolved are called components of the given
direction along P .
vector.
If a vector is resolved into two mutually Rm P and R m P
perpendicular vectors, then these vectors are

11. Explain the scalar product of two vectors.
called rectangular components of given vector.
Scalar product:
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The scalar product of two vectors is a scalar
and is defined as the product of their
magnitudes and the cosine of the angle
between the two.
From triangle law of vector addition, Scalar product of A and B is denoted by A  B .

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P  PX  PY A  B  A B cos 
PX  P cos  A and B  magnitudes of A and B

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PY  P sin    angle between A and B

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Examples: Properties of scalar product:
 Work: It is the dot product of force F and  Scalar product is commutative
displacement s . A B  B  A
W  F s  Scalar product is distributive
 Power: It is the dot product of force F and  

A B  C  A B  AC
velocity v . 12. Explain the vector product of two vectors.

P  F v Vector product:
The vector product of two vectors is a vector
 Magnetic flux: It is the dot product of magnetic
whose magnitude is equal to the product of
field B and area vector A .
the magnitudes of the two vectors and the sine
  B A
of the angle between them.
Note:
Its direction is perpendicular to plane of both
For unit vectors i , j and k vectors.
i  i  j  j  k  k  1 and i  j  j  k  k i  0 Vector product of A and B is denoted by
A B .
If A  Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ and
A  B  A B sin  n
B  Bx iˆ  By ˆj  Bz kˆ , then
A and B  magnitudes of A and B
     
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A  B  Ax Bx iˆ  iˆ  Ax By iˆ  ˆj  Ax Bz iˆ  kˆ   angle between A and B
 A B  ˆj  iˆ   A B  ˆj  ˆj   A B  ˆj  kˆ 
y x y y y z n  unit vector perpendicular to plane of A
   
 Az Bx kˆ  iˆ  Az By kˆ  ˆj  Az Bz kˆ  kˆ   and B
The direction of vector product is given by Right

A  B  Ax Bx 1  Ax By  0   Ax Bz  0  hand thumb rule or Right hand screw rule.
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 Ay Bx  0   Ay By 1  Ay Bz  0 
Right hand thumb rule
 Az Bx  0   Az By  0   Az Bz 1
Statement:
If we curl the fingers of the right hand, keeping
A  B  Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz
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the thumb erect in such a way that the fingers

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point in the direction of rotation from A to B , i j  k , j  k  i , k i  j ,

then the thumb gives the direction of A  B .  j i   k , k  j   i , i k   j
Right hand screw rule
If A  Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ
Statement:
If a right handed screw placed with its axis and B  Bx iˆ  By ˆj  Bz kˆ , then
perpendicular to the plane containing the two
vectors A and B is rotated from A to B , then      

A  B  Ax Bx iˆ  iˆ  Ax By iˆ  ˆj  Ax Bz iˆ  kˆ
the sense of advancement of the screw gives  A B  ˆj  iˆ   A B  ˆj  ˆj   A B  ˆj  kˆ 
y x y y y z

the direction of A  B .   
 Az Bx kˆ  iˆ  Az By kˆ  ˆj  Az Bz kˆ  kˆ    
 
A  B  Ax Bx  0   Ax By kˆ  Ax Bz  ˆj 
 A B  kˆ   A B  0   A B  iˆ 
y x y y y z
 A B  ˆj   A B  iˆ   A B  0 
z x z y z z
Examples:
A  B   Ay Bz  Az By  iˆ   Az Bx  Ax Bz  ˆj
 Angular momentum: It is the cross product of   Ax By  Ay Bx  kˆ
position vector r and momentum p .

The above result can be written in the form of a
L  r p
determinant as
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 Torque: It is the cross product of position
i j k
vector r and force F . A  B  Ax Ay Az
  rF Bx By Bz
 Force on a charged particle in magnetic field:

A  B  iˆ  Ay Bz  Az By   ˆj  Ax Bz  Az Bx 

F  q v B 
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 kˆ  Ax By  Ay Bx 
Note:
For unit vectors i , j and k A  B   Ay Bz  Az By  iˆ   Az Bx  Ax Bz  ˆj

  Ax By  Ay Bx  kˆ
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i i  j  j  k  k  0
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Properties of vector product: A  B   Ax  Bx  iˆ   Ay  By  ˆj   Az  Bz  kˆ
 Vector product is non-commutative
A B  B  A A  A  Ax2  Ay2  Az2
 Vector product is distributive
 
A B  C  A B  A C
13. Distinguish between scalar product and vector

product of two vectors.
Scalar product Vector product

Product is a scalar Product is a vector
A  B  A B cos  A  B  A B sin  n
Scalar product is Vector product is

maximum when the maximum when the
If  ,  and  are the angles between A and
vectors are parallel vectors are
the x , y and z axes respectively, then
perpendicular
   0
Ax  A cos 
   90
Ay  A cos 
Scalar product is zero Vector product is zero
when the vectors are when the vectors are Az  A cos 
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perpendicular parallel
14. Derive the expression for the magnitude and
Scalar product is Vector product is non- direction of resultant of two concurrent
commutative commutative coplanar forces using law of parallelogram of
forces.
Note: Statement:
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If A  Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ and The resultant of two coplanar concurrent

forces, represented by the adjacent sides of a
B  Bx iˆ  By ˆj  Bz kˆ , then
parallelogram is the diagonal of that
A  B   Ax  Bx  iˆ   Ay  By  ˆj   Az  Bz  kˆ parallelogram passing through the point of

Page 15
concurrence.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Expression for Resultant: Substituting (2) and (3) in (1),
Let P and Q are the two forces acting at O
OC 2  OA2  2  OA  AC  cos   AC 2
are represented by the sides OA and OB of
R2  P2  2  P  Q  cos   Q2
the parallelogram OACB .
Let  be the angle between them. R  P 2  Q2  2 P Q cos  … (5)
From the triangle ODC ,
CD CD
tan    … (6)
OD OA  AD
Substituting (3) and (4) in (6),
AC sin 
tan  
By the law of parallelogram of forces, the P   AC cos  
diagonal OC represents their resultant R .
Q sin 
tan   … (7)
Let  be the angle between R and P . P   Q cos  
Draw CD perpendicular to OA produced. Note:
From the triangle ODC ,  When two forces are acting along the
same line and in same direction

OC 2  OD2  DC 2
i.e.,   0 , cos   1 and sin   0

OC 2   OA  AD   DC 2
2
then R  P  Q and   0
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OC 2  OA2  2  OA  AD  AD2  DC 2 …
 When two forces are acting along the
(1) same line and in opposite direction
i.e.,   180 , cos    1 and sin   0


From the triangle ADC ,
then R  P  Q and   0
AC 2  AD2  DC 2 … (2)
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 Rmax  P  Q and Rmin  P  Q

AD
cos    AD  AC  cos  … (3)
AC  If P  Q , then    / 2
CD  If P  Q and   120 , then P  Q  R
sin    CD  AC  sin  … (4)
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AC
 If P  Q  R , then   120
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
15. Discuss the two dimensional motion of a The respective position vectors are given by
particle having uniform velocity.
r1  x1 i  y1 j and r2  x2 i  y2 j
Motion with uniform velocity:
Consider a particle moving in XY plane with  Displacement:
uniform velocity v . The displacement of the particle in time

interval t   t2  t1  is given by
The path of an object
moving with uniform AB  r  r2  r1
velocity in two
dimensions is a straight r   x2  x1  i   y2  y1  j or
line.
r  x i  y j
Its position vector r at any instant is given by
 Velocity:
r  x i y j The average velocity of the particle is given by
Where, x and y are the components of r r

vav 
t
along X and Y axes.
x y
16. Discuss the two dimensional motion of a vav  i j or
t t
particle having variable velocity.
Motion with variable velocity: vav  vx i  v y j
Consider a particle moving in XY plane along
Where, vx and v y are the components of v
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the curve as shown in figure.
along X and Y axes.
The direction of average velocity is same as

that of displacement.
The magnitude and direction of velocity is

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given by
vy
v  vx2  v y2 and tan  
vx
Let A and B be the positions of the particle at

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Acceleration:
time t1 and t 2 respectively.
The average acceleration is given by
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
v r  r0  u t 
1
aav  a t2
t 2
vx v In terms of components,

aav  i y j or
t t
1
x  x0  u x t  ax t 2 and
2
aav  ax i  a y j
1
y  y0  u y t  ay t 2
Where, a x and a y are the components of a 2
along X and Y axes. Thus, motion in a plane can be treated as two
17. Discuss the two dimensional motion of a separate simultaneous one dimensional
particle having constant acceleration. motions with constant acceleration along two
Motion with constant acceleration: perpendicular directions.
Consider a particle moving in XY plane with Note:

constant acceleration a . 1
 If r0  0 , then r u a t2
Let u and v be the velocity of the particle at 2
time t  0 and at time t respectively. In terms of components,
Let r0 and r be the position vectors and u and 1

Also, x  ux  ax t 2 and
2
v be the velocities of the particle at time t  0
1
and at time t respectively y  uy  ay t 2
2
Since the acceleration is uniform, the average
Relative velocity:
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
velocity is given by
Consider two particles A and B moving
v  u r  r0 in XY plane with velocities v A and vB
vav  
2 t
respectively.
vu   The velocity of A relative to that of B

r  r0   t
 2 
is vAB  vA  vB
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u a t u   The velocity of B relative to that of A

r  r0   t
 2 
is vBA  vB  vA
1 2
r  r0  u t  and
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at  vAB   vBA vAB  vBA

2
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
18. What is a projectile? Give examples. 19. Derive the equation for the trajectory of a
Projectile motion: projectile.
A projectile is an object that is thrown into air Consider a projectile projected from the origin
and then moves under the action of gravity O with an initial velocity u .
alone. Let  be the angle projection.
Examples:
 A bullet fired from a gun
 A cricket ball thrown into air
 A bomb dropped from an aeroplane
 A shot put or a javelin thrown by an athlete
Some definitions:
 Trajectory: The velocity of projection u can be resolved
It is the path traced by the projectile. into its rectangular components.
 Velocity of projection:  u cos   along horizontally and

It is the velocity with which the object is  u sin   along vertically
projected.
At any instant t , let x and y be the horizontal
 Angle of projection: and vertical distance covered by the projectile.
It is the angle between the direction of
Then, x   u cos  t
projection and the horizontal.
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x
 Horizontal range: t … (1)
 u cos 
It is the total horizontal distance travelled by
the projectile. 1
Using su t a t2
2
 Time of flight:
1
It is the time taken to cover the horizontal y  u sin  t   g  t2 … (2)
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2
range.
Substituting (1) in (2),
 Maximum height:
2
It is the maximum vertical distance travelled by x 1  x 
y  u sin     g   
 u cos  2  
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the projectile.
 u cos  
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 g  2 u sin 
y   tan   x   x … (3) t
 2 u cos   g
2 2
Let T be the time of flight of the projectile.

y  a x  b x2
T 2t
This is an equation to a parabola.
2 u sin 
Hence, the trajectory of a projectile is a T
g
parabola.
Expression for horizontal range:
g
a  tan  and b Let R be the horizontal range of the projectile.
2 u cos 2 
2
R  u cos  T
20. Derive the expression for (a) maximum height
(b) time of flight and (c) horizontal range of a 2 u sin 
R  u cos 
projectile. g
Expression for maximum height:
u 2 2 sin  cos 
R
Let H be the maximum height attained by the g
projectile.
u 2 sin 2
R
Using v2  u 2  2 a s g
0   u sin   2   g  H
2
Note:
 The range of the projectile is maximum

 u sin    2 g H
2 2
for   45 .

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u 2 sin 2  u2
H Rmax 
2g g
 Velocity v at any instant t is

Expression for time of flight:
Let t be the time of ascent. v  vx2  v y2 or
Using v ua t v  u 2  g 2 t 2  2 u g t sin 

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0  u sin     g  t If v makes an angle  with horizontal,
then
g t  u sin 
vy
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tan   or
vx
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
gt
tan   tan  
u cos 
 Range is same for two angles of projection

 and 90   or 
 45 
   and  45   
 The projectile is at the same height for
two values of time t and T  t 
Rmax u 2 Let v A and vB be the velocity of the particle at

When   45 , H 

 
4 4g A and at B respectively.
u2 R The change in the velocity is

When   90 , H max 

  max
2g 2
v  vB  vA
tan  2
 y   tan   x  x v is perpendicular to r
R
i.e., the acceleration is directed towards the
Uniform circular motion:
centre of the circle and is called centripetal
The motion of a particle along the
acceleration.
circumference of the circle with uniform
speed is called uniform circular motion. The triangles ABC and HIG are similar.
v v A
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21. What is centripetal acceleration? Obtain the

expression for the same. r r
Centripetal acceleration: v v
  vA  vB  v 
The radially inward acceleration of a particle r r
executing uniform circular motion is called v
v  r
centripetal acceleration. r
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Consider a particle moving with a constant The centripetal acceleration ac of the particle
speed v around a circle of radius r from a is given by
point A to a point B in time t .
v v r
ac  ac 
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or
(as shown in the figure) t r t
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
v  r 
ac  v   v
r  t 
v2
ac 
r
If  is the angular velocity of the particle, then
 r 
2
ac   v  r 
r
ac  2 r
 Centripetal force:
The radially inward net force acting on a
particle executing uniform circular motion
is called centripetal force.
If m is the mass of the particle, then
Fc  m ac or
m v2
Fc   m 2 r
r
Examples:
 Electrostatic force of attraction between
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the nucleus and the electron in an atom
provides the necessary centripetal force
for the electron to move around the
nucleus
 Gravitational force of attraction between

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the sun and the planet provides the
necessary centripetal force for the planet
to move around the sun

Page 22
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Unit – IV Chapter – 05 F k x
LAWS OF MOTION
k  spring constant
Force:
x  change in the length of the spring
Force is defined as an external effort in the form of
Its direction is along the spring and away from
push or pull which causes the motion in the body
the object.
or opposes the motion of the body or changes the
direction of motion of the body.  Contact force
It is the force exerted by two objects on each
01. Write a note on common forces in mechanics.
other when they are in contact.
 Weight
It is the gravitational force exerted by the earth It can be resolved into two components.
on a body.  Normal force
It is given by It acts along the normal to the interface. It
is independent of the nature of the surfaces
W m g
in contact.
m  mass of the body
 Friction
g  acceleration due to gravity It acts along the tangent to the interface. It
Its direction is along the vertical and towards is dependent of the nature of the surfaces
the centre of earth. in contact.
 Tension 02. Name the fundamental forces in nature.
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It is the force exerted by the string on the There are four fundamental forces in nature.
object to which it is attached. They are

 Gravitational force
Its direction is along the string and away from
 Electromagnetic force
the object.
 Weak nuclear force
It is denoted by T .

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Strong nuclear force

 Spring force
03. What is inertia? Explain
It is the force exerted by the deformed spring
Inertia:
on the object connected to it.
It is the property of a body to retain its state or
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It is given by resist a change in its state.

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Inertia of a body is of three types. For example, a cart on a road has to be
constantly pushed to keep it in motion. A single
 Inertia of rest
push will not take it far.
It is the resistance of the body to change its
state of rest. From such observations, Aristotle concluded the
following law:
 When the bus at rest suddenly moves
forward, the passenger in it tends to fall According to Aristotelian law of motion, an
backward. external force is necessary to keep a body
 Dust particles in a carpet fall off when it is moving with uniform velocity.
beaten with a stick. However, Aristotle’s views were proved wrong
 Inertia of motion by Galileo. The opposing forces such as friction
It is the resistance of the body to change its (for solids) and viscous forces (for fluids) are
state of uniform motion. always present in the natural world. This
explains why forces by external agencies are
 When the moving bus suddenly stops, the
necessary to overcome the frictional forces to
passenger in it tends to fall forward.
keep bodies in uniform motion.
 An athlete runs a certain distance before
making a long jump. If there were no friction, no external force
would be needed to maintain the state of
 Inertia of direction
uniform motion of a body.
It is the resistance of the body to change its
direction of motion. 05. State and explain Newton’s first law of motion.
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Statement:
 A passenger is thrown to the opposite side of
Every body continues to be in the state of rest
the direction of turning of a vehicle.
or of uniform motion along a straight line,
 Mud attached to the rotating wheels of a
unless it is compelled to change that state by
vehicle is thrown out tangentially.
net external force acting on it.
04. What is Aristotle’s Fallacy? Explain.
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The first part of the law gives the principle of

According to Aristotle, the natural state of a
Inertia. i.e., a body, on its own, cannot change
body is the state of rest. Every body in motion
its state of rest or state of uniform motion
tends to slow down and comes to rest. An
along a straight line.
Page 24
external force is necessary to maintain its

motion.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
The second part of the law gives the definition Let a constant force F acts on a body of mass
of force. i.e., force is an external agency which
m moving with a velocity v in its direction.
changes the state of rest or uniform motion of
a body. Let dp is the small change in the linear
momentum of the body in the small time
Linear momentum:
interval dt .
Momentum of a body is a measure of quantity of
motion associated with it. Then from Newton’s second law,
It is measured by the product of the mass of the dp dp

F or F k
body and its velocity. dt dt
If a body of mass m moves with a velocity v , its Where, k is the proportionality constant and
momentum p is given by its value depends on the choice of unit of force.
pmv In SI units, the unit of force is so selected that

k  1.
It is a vector quantity.
In vector form, pmv F

dp
dt
 F
d
dt
mv 
SI Unit: kg m s 1 dv
 F m or F ma
dt
06. State and explain Newton’s second law of
motion. Derive the equation, F  m a . The magnitude of the force is F  m a .
SI Unit of force is newton  N 

Statement:
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The rate of change of linear momentum of a
body is directly proportional to the applied 1 newton is that constant force which when
force and the change takes place in the acting on a body of mass 1 kilogram produces
direction of the force. 2
an acceleration of 1 metre second in it.
The effect of force on a body is to change its
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07. What is (a) impulsive force and (b) impulse?

velocity and hence the momentum.
Prove impulse – momentum theorem.
Greater the force applied, greater will be the Impulsive force:
change in the velocity and hence in the Large force acting for a short interval of time is
Page 25
momentum. called an impulsive force.

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Examples:  Vehicles are provided with shock absorbers
 hitting a ball with a bat  Glassware, chinaware are wrapped in paper or
 driving a nail into a wall with a hammer straw pieces while packing
 collision between the bodies In the above applications the impulsive force or jerk
 kicking a football produced is reduced by increasing the time of
Impulse: impulse i.e., the momentum is changed slowly.
Impulse of a force is the measure of the effect 08. State and explain Newton’s third law of
of the Impulsive force. motion.
It is given by the product of the force and the Statement:
time for which the force acts. For every action there is always an equal and
opposite reaction.
impulse = force  time or
Explanation:
J  F t
Here action means the force exerted by first
It is a vector quantity. body on the second body and the reaction
means the force exerted by the second body on
SI Unit: N s or kg m s 1
the first body.
If a force F acts for a time t on a body of
mass m changes its velocity from u to v , then
J  F t  J mat
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J m
v  u  t
t
Consider the collision between the two bodies
J  m vm u A and B .
impulse  change in momentum If A exerts a force F1 on B (action), then B
This is known as impulse – momentum

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exerts a force F2 on A (reaction).

theorem.
Then, from Newton’s third law of motion,
Applications of impulse:
F1   F2
 A cricket player lowers his hands while catching
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the cricket ball

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Examples: If F1 is the force exerted by A on B (action),
 Swimming:
then
A swimmer is pushed by the water when he
change in linear momentum of B
pushes the water backwards. F1 
t
 Flying of birds:
The bird pushes the air downwards by the wings F1 
 p  p 
B B
t
and the air pushes the bird upward.
 Firing of a gun: If F2 is the force exerted by B on A
When the gun is fired, the bullet is pushed (reaction), then

forward and the gun recoils. change in linear momentum of A
F2 
 Rocket: t
A rocket pushes out the burnt gases downwards

F2 
 p  p 
A A
and the rocket is pushed upwards. t
 Walking: Then, from Newton’s third law of motion,
A person pushes the ground backwards and he
F1   F2
is pushed forward by the ground.
09. State and prove the law of conservation of  p  p     p  p 

B B A A
linear momentum: t t
Statement:
 p  p     p  p 
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B B A A
The total linear momentum of an isolated
system of interacting particles is conserved. pB  pB   pA  pA
Consider two bodies A and B constituting an
pA  pB  pA  pB
isolated system, with initial linear momenta
i.e., total final linear momentum of the isolated
p A and pB respectively.
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system is equal to its total initial linear

Let them collide for a small time t and momentum.
separate with final momenta pA and pB This proves the law of conservation of linear
respectively.
Page 27
momentum.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
m1 v1  m2 v2  m1 u1  m2 u2 11. What is (a) friction and (b) frictional force?
What is the origin of frictional forces?
m1 , m2  masses of A and B
Friction:
u1 , u2  initial velocities of A and B Friction is the property by virtue of which two
surfaces in contact oppose the relative motion
v1 , v2  final velocities of A and B
between them.
10. Discuss the apparent weight of a person in a
Frictional force is the force which opposes the
lift.
relative motion between two surfaces in
The weight felt by a person is the reaction
contact.
exerted by the surface of contact on the
person. Friction or frictional force always acts in a
direction opposite to the applied force.
 When the lift is at rest or moving uniformly:
The acceleration a  0 , then the reaction is Origin of frictional forces:
Frictional force arises due to the roughness of
Rm g
the surfaces and the molecular forces of
Hence the apparent weight is equal to actual attraction at the points of actual contact.
weight.
 When the lift is accelerating upwards:

If the acceleration of the lift is a , then the
reaction is
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R  m g  m a  m  g  a Because of the roughness of the surfaces, the
Hence the apparent weight is more than the irregularities of the two surfaces interlock
actual weight. themselves.
 When the lift if accelerating downwards: Also at the point of actual contacts, because of
If the acceleration of the lift is a , then the the molecular forces of attraction, the surfaces
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reaction is appear to be cold welded.
R  m g  m a  m  g  a Hence an opposing force is developed which

prevents the relative motion between the
Hence the apparent weight is less than the
Page 28
surfaces.
actual weight.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Frictional force depends on fS
S 
 the nature of the surfaces N
 normal reaction The value of  S depends on
 actual area of contact
 the nature of the two surfaces
There are three types of friction, namely (i.e., dry or wet, rough or smooth, soft or
 static friction hard etc.,)
 kinetic friction  material of the surfaces in contact
 rolling friction
13. State the Laws of limiting friction.
12. Write a note on static friction.  The magnitude of limiting friction between
Static friction:  f S  two bodies in contact is directly
It is the frictional force that acts between two proportional to the normal reaction
surfaces which tend to move against each between them.
other.  The direction of the limiting friction is
This static friction balances the applied force always opposite to the direction of motion.
and keeps the surfaces at rest up to a certain  The magnitude of the limiting friction is
limit. When the applied force exceeds this independent of apparent area of contact as
limit, the surfaces slide against each other. long as the normal reaction is constant.
 The magnitude of limiting friction between
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two bodies depends on the material and
the nature of the surfaces.
The maximum value of the static friction is
14. Write a note on kinetic friction.
called limiting friction  f S  .
Kinetic friction:  fK 
The limiting friction is independent of the area It is the frictional force acting between the two
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of contact but depends on the normal reaction surfaces when one surface is sliding over the
between the surfaces. other.
Coefficient of static friction:   S 

Page 29
It is the ratio of limiting value of static friction

to the normal reaction force.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Coefficient of kinetic friction:   K  Angle of repose:   
It is the ratio of kinetic friction to the normal It is the minimum angle of the inclined plane
reaction force. for which a body lying on it just begins to slide
down.
f
K  K
N 16. Write a note on rolling friction.
Limiting static friction is always greater than Rolling friction:
the kinetic friction. It is the frictional force developed when one

body rolls over another.
i.e., f S  f K and S   K
15. What is angle of friction?

Angle of friction:   
It is the angle made by the resultant of the

limiting frictional force and the normal
Consider a cylindrical body rolling on a
reaction with the normal reaction.
horizontal surface. The body and the surface
are slightly deformed at the point of contact.
Due to this deformation, an opposing force to
the motion of the body is produced. This force
is called rolling friction.
The rolling friction is given by
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N
fR  R
r
From the triangle AOC ,
N  normal reactional force
CA OB f
tan    or tan   S
OC OC N r  radius of the body
tan   S  R  coefficient of rolling friction

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Angle of friction    tan 1  S  The rolling friction is very much smaller than
the kinetic friction and static friction.
Thus, the coefficient of static friction is equal to
i.e., f R  f K  f S R  K  S
Page 30
the tangent of the angle of friction. and

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
17. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of 18. Discuss the motion of a car on a level road.
friction. What are the methods of reducing Motion of a car on a level road:
and increasing friction? Consider a car of mass m moving with a
Advantages: constant speed vmax on a circular level road of
It is necessary radius R .
 to walk
 for vehicle to move safely
 to write on paper or on board
 to count notes
 to lit a match stick
 for working of grinding stones, sand papers
 for working of brakes of automobiles
The forces acting on the car are
Disadvantages:
 Its weight m g
 It reduces the efficiency
- acting vertically downwards
 It causes wear and tear of machine parts
 It produces huge amount of heat which is  Normal reaction N of the road on the car
harmful to the machines - acting vertically upwards
Methods of reducing friction:  Frictional force f between the road and
Friction can be reduced by the tyres
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 Polishing - acting along the surface of the road
 Lubrication towards the centre of the path
 Using ball bearings or roller bearings As there is no acceleration in the vertical

 Streamlining direction,
 Selection of antifriction metals (steel)
N m g 0
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Methods of increasing friction:

mgN … (1)
Friction can be increased by
The centripetal force required for the car to go
 Sprinkling sand on slippery ground
round the curved path without skidding is
 Using synthetic tyres
Page 31
provided by the static friction f .

 Proper treading of tyres
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
2
m vmax 20. Discuss the motion of a car on a banked road:
 f
R Consider a car of mass m moving with a
constant speed vmax on a banked road of
vmax  maximum or safe velocity of the car
radius R . Let  be the angle of banking.
But f  S N
 S  coefficient of static friction
2
m vmax
 S N … (2)
R
Dividing (2) by (1),
2 The forces acting on the car are

m vmax
R  N 2
vmax 
 S or  S Its weight m g
mg N gR
- acting vertically downwards
2
vmax  S g R vmax   S g R  Normal reaction N of the road on the car
- acting normal to the road
Note:
 vmax is independent of mass m of the car.  Frictional force f between the road and
the tyres
To minimize the frictional force between the road
- acting along the surface of the road
and the tyres, the road is banked at the circular
towards the centre of the path
turns.
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19. What is banking of road? Define angle of
banking.
Banking of road:
Raising the outer edge of the road than the
inner one and making it sloppy towards the
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centre of the curve is called banking of road.
Angle of banking:
The normal reaction N and the frictional force
The angle made by the sloping width of the
f can be resolved into their rectangular
road with the horizontal is called the angle of
Page 32
banking. components as shown in the figure.

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
As there is no acceleration in the vertical R g  tan    S 
2
vmax 
direction, 1   S tan 
N cos    m g  f sin   0
R g  tan    S 
vmax  … (3)
N cos    m g  f sin 
1   S tan 
If the banked road is smooth, then  S  0 .
m g  N cos   f sin  … (1)
The centripetal force required for the car to go vmax  R g tan 
round the curved path without skidding is 2

vmax
v2
max  R g tan  or tan  
provided by the resultant of horizontal Rg
components of N and f .
Note:
2
m vmax If h is the height of the outer edge of the
 N sin   f cos  … (2)
R road and b is the width of the road,
vmax  maximum or safe velocity of the car then
h
Dividing (2) by (1), sin  
b
2
m vmax Since h b ,  is very small.
R N sin   f cos 

mg N cos   f sin  2
h vmax
sin   tan  or 
b Rg
2
vmax N sin   f cos 
 2
R g N cos   f sin  b vmax
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h
Rg
 sin  f 
N cos    
cos  N 
2
v

max  Equilibrium of a particle:
Rg  f sin   The particle is said to be in equilibrium when the
N cos  1  
 N cos   net force acting on it is zero.
f
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But  S According to the Newton’s first law, the particle is

N
either at rest or in uniform motion.
 S  coefficient of static friction
If a particle under two forces F1 and F2 is in
2
vmax  tan   S 
Page 33
equilibrium, then the vector sum of the two forces


R g 1   S tan   is zero.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
The resultant and the equilibrant together acting on
the body keep it in equilibrium.
i.e., F1  F2  0 or F1   F2
P & Q  components of R
i.e., the two forces on the particle must be equal
R  resultant of P & Q
and opposite.
R  equilibrant of P & Q
Equilibrium of a particle under three concurrent
forces F1 , F2 and F3 requires that the vector sum The condition for equilibrium of three coplanar
concurrent forces is given by
of the three forces is zero.
 Law of triangle of forces
 Lami’s theorem
21. State and explain the Law of triangle of forces:

Statement:
If three coplanar concurrent forces are
i.e., F1  F2  F3  0
represented both in magnitude and direction
Coplanar concurrent forces: by three sides of a triangle taken in order, then
Forces acting at a point and lying in the same the forces are in equilibrium.
plane are called coplanar concurrent forces.
Resultant and Equilibrant:

Resultant of a system of forces is that single force
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which produces the same effect as that produced
by the system of forces.
The individual forces in the system are called

Let three coplanar concurrent forces P , Q and
components.
R acting at O are in equilibrium.
Equilibrant is a force which is equal and opposite
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They are represented both in magnitude and

of the resultant.
direction by the sides AB , BC and CA of the
triangle ABC respectively.
From the triangle law of vector addition, AC is

Page 34
the resultant of P and Q .

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
But CA  R is the equilibrant of P and Q .
Hence, the forces P , Q and R are acting at O

are in equilibrium.
Converse of the law of triangle of forces:

Statement:
If three coplanar concurrent forces are in
Let  ,  and  are the angles opposite to P ,
equilibrium, they can be represented both in
magnitude and direction by three sides of a Q and R respectively.
triangle in order. From Lami’s theorem,

P  sin 
Q  sin 
They are represented both in magnitude and
direction by the sides AB , BC and CA of the
R  sin  ,
triangle ABC respectively. P Q R

   constant
sin  sin  sin 
Since P  AB
Q  BC
R  CA
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P Q R
   constant
AB BC CA
22. State and explain the Lami’s theorem.

Statement:
If three coplanar concurrent forces are in
equilibrium, then each force is directly
GSGPrasad
proportional to the sine of the angle between

the other two forces.

Page 35

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Unit – IV Chapter – 06 02. Write a note on force – displacement graph.
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER  A graph obtained by plotting the
01. Define work. Write the expression for the component of the applied force in the
same. Define SI unit of force. direction of displacement versus

displacement is called force – displacement
 Work is said to be done when the point of
graph. ( F  s graph)
application of force undergoes a
 If the applied force is constant, then
displacement.
F  s graph is a straight line.
 Work done by a constant force is defined as
 If the applied force is variable, then
the product of the magnitude of
F  s graph is a curve.
displacement and the component of
applied force in the direction of  The total area under F  s curve gives the
displacement. total work done by a force for a given
displacement.
 Therefore the work done by a constant
force is 03. Define kinetic energy. Give some examples.
W  F s cos  Obtain the expression for kinetic energy.
 It is the energy possessed by the body by

  angle between F and s
virtue of its motion. It is measured by the
 The work done by a force is the dot product
amount of work the body can do before
of force and displacement.
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coming to rest.
i.e., W  F s  Examples:
 It is a scalar quantity.  bullet fired from a gun
 W    M 1 L2 T  2   rotating wheel
 SI Unit: joule  J   vibrating tuning fork

GSGPrasad
 moving vehicles
Work done is said to be 1 joule , when a
 flowing water
force of 1 newton acting on a body
 moving air
Page 36
displaces it by 1 metre in its direction.

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Expression for Kinetic energy:  Consider a body of mass m moving with an
 Let a body of mass m moving with an initial initial velocity u .
velocity v is acted upon by a constant Its initial kinetic energy is
opposing force F . Let s be the distance
1
covered by the body before it comes to Ki  m u2
2
rest.
 When a constant force F acts on a body, its
 Work done by the body against this force is
velocity changes to v in travelling a
W  F s distance s .
W ma s … (1) Its final kinetic energy is
 Using, v 2  u 2  2 a s Kf 
1
m v2
2
0  v2  2 a s
Work done by the force is
1 2 W F sma s
a s v
2
 Using, v  u  2 a s
2 2
Substituting in (1)
 1  1
W   m   v2  On multiplying throughout by m,
 2  2
1 1 1
1 m v2  m u 2  m 2 a s
W m v2 2 2 2
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2
 1 1
This work done is equal to the kinetic m v2  m u 2  m a s
2 2
energy K of the body.
K f  Ki  F s
1
K  m v2
2 K  W
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04. State and prove work energy theorem for a i.e., the work done by a force on a body is
constant force. equal to the change in its kinetic energy.
 The work done by a force on a body is 05. Prove work energy theorem for a variable
Page 37
equal to the change in its kinetic energy. force.

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 Let a variable force F acts on a body of measured by the amount of work done in
mass m . It produces a small displacement changing the position or configuration of
ds in its direction.    0 
the body.
 Examples:
 The small work done by the force is
 stretched rubber band
dW  F  ds  F ds cos0
 compressed spring
dW  F ds
 stored water in a overhead tank
dv 
dW  m a ds  m ds wound spring in a watch
dt
 stretched bow and arrow
 ds 
dW  m v dv   v Expression for Gravitational Potential energy:
 dt 
 Let a body of mass m be raised vertically
 If the applied force increases the velocity of
from the ground to a height h .
the body from u to v , then the total
workdone by the force is  The force F acting on the body is equal to
the weight of the body.
v v
W   dW   m v dv i.e., F m g
u u
v  Work done by the force against the

 v2  1 1
W  m    m v2  m u 2 gravitational field is
 2 u 2 2
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W F s
W  K f  Ki
W m g h
W  K
 This work done is stored in the body as the
i.e., the work done by a force on a body is
potential energy U .
equal to the change in its kinetic energy.
U m g h
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06. Define potential energy. Give some examples.

07. State and prove law of conservation of
Obtain the expression for potential energy.
mechanical energy in case of a freely falling
 It is the energy possessed by the body by
body.
Page 38
virtue of its position or configuration. It is

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 The energy can neither be created nor be  But v12  2 g x
destroyed i.e., the total mechanical energy
1
of a system remains constant.  Kinetic energy  K  m v12
2
Freely falling body: or
 Consider a body of mass m falling freely
1
under the gravity from a height h above the  K m 2 g x or K m g x
2
ground.
 Total energy at B is
 EB  K  U or
 EB  m g x  m g  h  x  or
EB  m g x  m g h  m g x
EB  m g h … (2)
The energy is partly kinetic and partly

potential.
 At the position A :
 At the position C :
 Potential energy, U  m g h
 Potetial energy  U  0
 Kinetic energy, K  0  v  0  h  0
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 Total energy at A is
 Let v2 be the velocity at B .
EA  K  U
 But v22  2 g h
EA  0  m g h
1
Kinetic energy  K  m v22
EA  m g h … (1)  2 GSGPrasad
 The energy is purely potential. 1

or K  m2gh or
2
 At the position B :
 K m g h
 Potential energy, U  m g  h  x 
Page 39
 Total energy at C is
 Let v1 be the velocity at B .
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 EC  K  U or 09. What are elastic and inelastic collisions? Give
examples for each.
 EC  m g h  0
Define co-efficient of restitution.
 EC  m g h … (3)
Elastic collision:
 The energy is purely kinetic. The collision in which both the linear
From equations (1), (2) and (3) we have, momentum and the kinetic energy of the
system are conserved is called Elastic collision.
EA  EB  EC
Examples:
i.e., total mechanical energy of a freely falling
 Collision between atoms
body is conserved.
 Collision between sub atomic particles
08. Name different forms of energy.
Inelastic collision:
Write a note on mass – energy equivalence. The collision in which only the linear
Different forms of energy: momentum is conserved but not the kinetic

energy of the system is called inelastic
 Heat energy
collision.
 Chemical energy
 Electrical energy Examples:
 Nuclear energy  Collision between clay spheres

 Collision between electron and proton
Mass – energy equivalence:
Coefficient of restitution or resilience:
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 According to Einstein, the mass can be
The coefficient of restitution between two
transformed into energy and energy can be
colliding bodies is defined as the ratio of their
transformed into mass. One can be obtained at
the cost of the other. relative velocity after collision to their relative
velocity before collision.
 The mass – energy equivalence is
 v2  v1 
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 E  m c2 e
 u1  u2 
E  energy that appears
Where, u1 , u2 are the velocities of two bodies
m  mass that disappears
c  speed of light in vacuum before collision and v1 , v2 are their respective
Page 40
velocities after collision.

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 For a perfectly elastic collision, e  1 m1  u12  v12  m2  v22  u22 

 For a perfectly inelastic collision, e  0 m1  u1  v1  m2  v2  u2 

 For all other collisions, 0  e  1
m1  u1  v1   u1  v1  m2  v2  u2   v2  u2 
 
10. Obtain the expressions for the velocities of two m1  u1  v1  m2  v2  u2 
bodies after one dimensional elastic collision.
 Consider two bodies A and B of masses m1  u1  v1    v2  u2  … (4)

and m2 moving along a straight line with
 From (4),
velocities u1 and u2 respectively  u1  u2 
 v2  u1  u2  v1
collide elastically.
… (5)
 After collision, let their velocity changes to v1
 Substituting in (1),
and v2 respectively. As the collision is perfectly
 m1 u1  m2 u2  m1 v1  m2  u1  u2  v1 
elastic, both linear momentum and the kinetic
energy are conserved.
 m1 u1  m2 u2  m1 v1  m2 u1  m2 u2  m2 v1
 From law of conservation of linear momentum,
 m1 u1  m2 u1  m2 u2  m2 u2  m1 v1  m2 v1
 m1 u1  m2 u2  m1 v1  m2 v2 … (1)
 u1  m1  m2   2 m2 u2  v1  m1  m2 
 m1 u1  m1 v1  m2 v2  m2 u2
u1  m1  m2   2 m2 u2
 v1 
m1  u1  v1   m2  v2  u2 
… (6)
 … (2)  m1  m2 
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 From law of conservation of kinetic energy,  Similarly,

1 1 1 1
m1 u12  m2 u22  m1 v12  m2 v22 u2  m2  m1   2 m1 u1
 v2  … (7)
2 2 2 2  m1  m2 
1 1 1 1
 m1 u12  m1 v12  m2 v22  m2 u22 11. Obtain the expressions for the loss of kinetic
2 2 2 2
energy in one dimensional inelastic collision.
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m1  u12  v12   m2  v22  u22 

1 1
 Consider a body A of mass m1 moving with a
2 2
velocity u1 collides inelastically with another
 m1  u12  v12   m2  v22  u22  … (3)
body B at rest.
Page 41
 Dividing (3) by (2),

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
After collision, they move together with the If the body B is moving with a velocity u2 , then
same velocity v . As the collision is perfectly the loss in the kinetic energy is given by
inelastic, only linear momentum is conserved
m m u  u 
2
and not the kinetic energy. K  1 2 1 2

2  m1  m2 
From law of conservation of linear momentum,
12. Define power. Write the expression for the
m1 u1   m1  m2  v … (1)
same. Define the SI unit of power.
m1 u1 Power is the rate of doing work.

v … (2)
 m1  m2 
If a work W is done in time t , then
Loss of kinetic energy is
W F s
P or P or P  F  v
K  K1  K2 t t
1 1 Thus, the power is the dot product of force and

K  m1 u12   m1  m2  v 2
2 2 velocity.
Substituting for v from (2), It is a scalar quantity.
SI Unit: watt W 
2
1 1  m1 u1 
K  m1 u12   m1  m2   
2 2   m1  m2   The power is said to be 1 watt when 1 joule
1 1 m12 u12 of work is done in time 1 second .

K  m1 u12 
2 2  m1  m2 
The practical unit of power is
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1  m1  horse power  hp  .
K  m1 u12 1  
2   m1  m2  
1 hp  746 W
1  m  m2  m1 
K  m1 u12  1  13. Obtain the expression for the potential energy
2  m1  m2 
of a spring.
GSGPrasad
m1 m2 u12
K  Consider a block of mass m attached to one
2  m1  m2 
end of a very light spring having force constant
It is always positive. Hence there is always loss k . The other end of the spring is fixed to a rigid
of kinetic energy in perfectly inelastic collision. support. The block is placed on a frictionless
Page 42
horizontal surface. (as shown in figure)

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
A force is said to be conservative if the work
done by the force is independent of path taken
and depends only on the initial and final states.
Examples:
The restoring force F developed in the spring  Gravitational force
when the block is displaced through a distance  Electrostatic force
x is  Magnetic force
F k x  Elastic force
Therefore the work done W in stretching a Non – conservative forces:
spring through a distance x against the A force is said to be non - conservative if the
restoring force is work done by the force is dependent of path

taken.
x
W    F dx Examples:
0
x x
 Frictional force
W      k x  dx   k x dx  Electromagnetic induction
0 0
 Viscous force
x
x  2
x  2
W  k    k   0  Air resistance
 2 0 2 
Conservative force Non-conservative force
1
W  k x2 Work done is Work done is dependent
2
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independent of path of path taken
This work done is stored as the potential energy
taken
U in the spring.
Net work done in a Net work done in a
1 round trip is zero round trip is not zero
U  k x2
2
Work done is Work done is not
GSGPrasad
14. Define conservative and non-conservative completely recoverable completely recoverable

force. Give examples.
15. Write a note on elastic collision in two
Distinguish between conservative and non-
dimensions.
conservative forces.
Page 43
Conservative forces:
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Consider two bodies A and B of masses m1 1 1 1 1
m1 u12  m2 u22  m1 v12  m2 v22
and m2 moving along a straight line with 2 2 2 2
velocities u1 and u2 respectively  u1  u2  m1 u12  m2 u22  m1 v12  m2 v22 … (3)
collide elastically. From equations (1), (2) and (3) and knowing any
one of the parameters, (i.e., v1 , v2 , 1 and 2 )
the other three can be calculated.
16. Write a note on inelastic collision in two

dimensions.
Consider a body A of mass m1 is moving with

After collision, the bodies move in different velocity u1 making an angle 1 with X  axis.
directions with velocities v1 and v2 making an
It collides inelastically with another body B of
angles 1 and 2 respectively with X  axis .
mass m2 moving with velocity u2 along X 
(as shown in figure)
axis. (as shown in figure)
Where, 1  angle of scattering
After collision, they stick and move together
2  angle of recoil with a velocity v making an angle 2 with X 
As the collision is perfectly elastic, both linear axis.

momentum and the kinetic energy are As the collision is perfectly inelastic, only linear
conserved. momentum is conserved and not the kinetic
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From law of conservation of linear momentum; energy.
X and Y  components of linear momentum

must be conserved.
m1 u1  m2 u2  m1 v1 cos 1  m2 v2 cos 2 … (1)

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0  m1 v1 sin 1  m2 v2 sin 2 … (2)
(since there is no initial velocity along Y  axis)
From law of conservation of kinetic energy; From law of conservation of linear momentum;
Page 44
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
X and Y  components of linear momentum
must be conserved.
m1 u1 cos 1  m2 u2   m1  m2  v cos 2 … (1)
m1 u1 sin 1   m1  m2  v sin 2 … (2)
Knowing m1 , m2 , u1 , u2 and 1 , we can
calculate v and 2 using equations (1) and (2).
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GSGPrasad
Page 45
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Unit – V Chapter – 07 Rigid body
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL
 A rigid body is one which does not change
MOTION
its size and shape under the action of
01. What is meant by (a) a particle (b) a system (c) forces.
internal forces (d) external forces (e) extended The distance between any two pairs of
body (f) rigid body? particles do not change.
Particle 02. What is centre of mass? Write the expression
 It is defined as an object whose mass is for the centre of mass of two particle system.
finite but its size and internal structure can Discuss the result.
be neglected. Centre of mass of a body
System  The centre of mass of a body is defined as
 It is a collection of a very large number of a point at which the entire mass of the
particles which mutually interact with one body is assumed to be concentrated for
another. describing its translatory motion.
Internal forces Centre of mass of a system of particles
 It is the mutual forces exerted by the  It is that single point which moves in the
particles of a system on one another. same way in which a single particle having
the total mass of the system and acted
It does not change the velocity of an object.
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upon by the same external force would
External forces
move.
 It is the force exerted on an object by an
Centre of mass of a system of two particles
external agency.
It changes the velocity of an object. GSGPrasad
Extended body
 It is a body whose mass is distributed in

space.
 Consider two particles of masses m1 and
Page 46
m2 situated along a straight line (along

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
X  axis). They are at distances x1 and x2 m1 x1  m2 x2  0
respectively from the origin O .
m1 x2
 (Numerically)
 Let C be the centre of mass of the system m2 x1
and is at a distance X from the origin. i.e., the distance of the particle from the
Then, centre of mass of two particle system is
m1 x1  m2 x2 inversely proportional to its mass or the

X … (1)
m1  m2 centre of mass is closer to particle of
heavier mass.
If M  m1  m2 is the total mass of the
system, then from (1),  When the coordinates of the particles are
 x1, y1  and  x2 , y2  , then

m x  m2 x2
X 1 1 … (2) The coordinates of their centre of mass are
M
Note: m1 x1  m2 x2
X or
 When the two particles have same mass m1  m2
i.e., m1  m2  m , then
m1 x1  m2 x2
X
m x1  m x2 M
X
mm m1 y1  m2 y2
Y or
m  x1  x2  m1  m2
X
2m
m1 y1  m2 y2
Y
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X
 x1  x2  M
2 03. Write the expression for the centre of mass of
Thus, for two particles of equal mass, the n particle system. Discuss the results.
centre of mass lies exactly midway Centre of mass of a system of n particles

between them.
 Consider a system of n particles situated
GSGPrasad
 When the centre of mass of two particles is along a line. Let m1 , m2 , m3 ... mn be the
taken as the origin of the coordinate system,
masses of the particles situated at x1 , x2 ,
then
x3 ... xn respectively from the origin.
m x  m2 x2
Page 47
X 1 1 0
m1  m2  Then the position of the centre of mass is
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
m1 x1  m2 x2  m3 x3  ...  mn xn  Considering the rigid body is made up of
X
m1  m2  m3  ...  mn small elements of mass dm instead of
n particles, the position of centre of mass is

m i xi
1 n given by
X i 1
n or X  mi xi
m
M i 1
1
R  r dm
i
i 1
M
n
M   mi  total mass of the system  The X , Y and Z coordinates of centre of
i 1
mass of the system are given by
Centre of mass of a system of n particles in
1
space X
M  x dm
 Consider a system of n particles situated in 1
space.
Y
M  y dm
Then the position of the centre of mass is 1
n
Z
M  z dm
1
R
M
m
i 1
i ri
 The vector expression of centre of mass is
 The X , Y and Z coordinates of centre of 1

mass of the system are given by
R
M  r dm
1 n  If the centre of mass lies at the origin, then
X
M
 mi xi
R  x, y, z   0
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i 1
n
1
Y
M
m
i 1
i yi
 r dm  0
Z
1
m
n
i zi
or  x dm   y dm   z dm  0
M i 1
 Centre of mass of a system may or may not
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Centre of mass of a rigid body

lie inside the system.
 In case of a rigid body, there is a continuous
04. Find the centre of mass of (a) a uniform rod
distribution of matter i.e., the particles are
and (b) triangular lamina.
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not separable.
Centre of mass of a uniform rod:
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 Consider a thin uniform rod of length L ,  Consider an element of thickness dx at a
held along the X  axis as shown in the distance x from the origin.
figure. The mass of the element is
M
dm  dx
L
 If X is the distance of centre of mass of the

Let the origin O be at the geometric centre rod from the origin, then
of the rod.
L
1
 On account of reflection symmetry, for every
X
M  x dm
0
element of mass dm of the rod at x , there

L L
1 M 1
is an element of the same mass dm located X
M 0 x L dx  L 0 x dx
at  x .
L
1  x2 
Therefore, net contribution of each such pair X  
L  2 0
element to the integral  x dm is zero.
1  L2 
X  0
i.e.,  x dm  0 
L2 
The point for which integral itself is zero is L
X
the centre of mass. 2
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Hence, the centre of mass of thin uniform i.e., the centre of mass of thin rod lies
rod coincides with its geometric centre. midway between its ends A and B .
 For all homogeneous bodies of regular  Hence, the centre of mass of thin uniform
shape, their centre of mass coincides with rod coincides with its geometric centre.
their geometric centre. Centre of mass of a uniform triangular lamina:
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OR
 The triangular lamina LMN may be
 Consider a thin uniform rod AB of length subdivided into narrow strips each parallel
L and mass M , held along the X  axis as to the base MN as shown in figure.
shown in the figure.
Page 49
Let its end A be at the origin O .

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Solid cylinder Centre of axis of cylinder
Point of intersection of
Triangular lamina
medians
Square lamina
Point of intersection of
Rectangular lamina
diagonals
parallelogram lamina
 By reflection symmetry, each strip has its
Cone On the axis at a point
centre of mass at its midpoint. If we join the
3 / 4
th
of height from the
Pyramid
midpoint of all the strips we get the median apex
LP .
05. What do you mean by rotational motion of a
The centre of mass of the triangle lamina as a
rigid body? Define (a) radius vector (b) angular
whole therefore, has to lie on the median
displacement (c) angular velocity and (d)
LP .
angular acceleration.
Similarly, we can argue that it lies on the
Rigid body rotation
median MQ and NR .
 When a rigid body rotates, all the particles of
 This means the centre of mass lies on the
the body describe circles about a line called
point of concurrence of the medians, i.e. on
axis of rotation. The particles lying on the
the centroid G of the triangle.
axis of rotation remains at rest and other
Position of centre of mass of homogeneous bodies particles rotate with constant angular
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of regular shape: velocities.
Body Position of centre of mass
Some definitions
Hollow sphere Centre of the sphere
Solid sphere Centre of the sphere
Circular ring Centre of the ring
Circular disc Centre of the disc
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Thin rod Midpoint of rod Radius vector:  r 

Rectangular box Point of intersection of
 It is the line joining the axis of rotation and
Cubical box diagonals
the rotating particle.
Page 50
Hollow Cylinder Centre of axis of cylinder

OP  r  radius vector
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Angular displacement:    

t
 It is the angle covered by the radius vector
Angular acceleration:   
in a given time interval.
 SI Unit: rad  It is the rate of change of angular velocity.
 If 1 and 2 are the angular velocities of

POQ    angular displacement
the body at two intervals of time t1 and t2 ,
 The angular displacement is positive for
then
anticlockwise rotation and negative for
clockwise rotation. 2  1

t2  t1
Angular velocity:  
 It is a vector quantity. Its direction is same
 It is the rate of change of angular
as that of angular velocity.
displacement.
 SI Unit: rad s  2
 If  is the angular displacement in time t ,
then, angular velocity  is given by 06. Obtain the relation between the linear and
angular quantities.


t  Let a rigid body
describes an arc PQ  s
 SI Unit: rad s 1
in time t producing an
 It is a vector quantity. Its direction is given
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angular displacement  .
by Right hand rule.
 Then, the linear displacement of the particle
 If the fingers of the right hand is
curl in the direction of
sr 
rotation, the thumb gives the
direction of angular velocity.  The linear velocity of the particle is
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Instantaneous angular velocity: s r

v 
t t
 If  is the angular displacement in time
vr 
t , then instantaneous angular velocity is
Page 51
given by
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 The linear velocity of the particle is along the  On integrating the equation (1) within the
tangent to the arc. above limits,
 If the angular velocity of the body changes  t
from 1 and 2 in time interval t , its linear

 d     dt
0 0
velocity changes from v1 and v2 .  t
The linear acceleration of the particle is

 d     dt
0 0
v2  v1 r 2  r 1 

  t 0
t
a  0
t t
r  2  1 
  0    t  0
a
t
  0   t … (2)
ar 
1
To derive   0 t   t2 :
07. Derive the three equations of rotational 2
motion.  By definition,
 Consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed d


axis with constant angular acceleration  . dt
Let d    dt … (3)
0  initial angular velocity at t  0  At t  0 ,   0 and at t  t ,   
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  final angular velocity after time t  On integrating the equation (3) within the
  angular displacement after time t above limits,
 t
To derive   0   t :
 d     dt
0 0
 By definition,
 t
d  d      t  dt
GSGPrasad
 0
dt 0 0

d    dt
t t
… (1)
 d     dt    t dt
0
0
0 0
 At t  0 ,   0 and at t  t ,   
Page 52
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
t2 
t
2  02  2   … (6)
0  0 t 0    
 t
 2 0 08. What is moment of a force? Explain.
t2  Moment of a force or Torque:   

  0     0
  0   t  0  
2 
 Moment of a force (torque) about an axis is
1
  0 t   t2 … (4) the rotational effect produced by the force
2
about that axis.
To derive 2  02  2   :
 It is measured by the product of the force
 By definition, and the perpendicular distance between the
d d d axis of rotation and the line of action of

  
dt d  dt force.
d i.e., F r
 
d
 The vector expression of torque or moment
 d   d … (5) of force is
 At t  0 ,   0 and   0   rF
At t  t ,    and   
  r F sin  n
 On integrating the equation (5) within the
  angle between r and F
above limits,
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  n  unit vector along 
  d    d
0 0
 
  d    d
0 0 GSGPrasad

 2 
 2     0

  0

1 2
  02       0 
Page 53
2
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Note:   angle between r and p
 By convention, anticlockwise moment is taken
n  unit vector along L
as positive and clockwise moment is taken as
 Angular momentum is a vector quantity.
negative.
Its direction is same as that of the angular
 Work done in rotating a particle through a
velocity.
small angle d is
 SI Unit: kg m2 s 1
dW   d 
Relation between angular momentum and
 Power associated with the torque is
torque:
P
 We have,
09. What is angular momentum? Explain.
L  r p
 Angular momentum of a rotating particle
about a given axis is the moment of the dL d r p

 
momentum of the particle about that axis. dt dt
 It is measured by the product of linear dL dr dp

  pr
momentum of the particle and the dt dt dt
perpendicular distance of the particle from
But pmv and
the axis of rotation.
L pr dp
i.e., F
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dt
dL
  vm v  r  F
dt
dL
dt

 m vv   
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 The vector expression of angular

momentum is
dL
dt
 0  vv  0 
L  r p
dL
Page 54

L  r p sin  n dt
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 Thus, the torque acting on a particle is equal 11. Compare the linear and rotational motion.
to the rate of change of its angular Linear motion Rotational motion
momentum.
Displacement x Angular displacement 
10. State and explain the conditions for
Linear velocity v Angular velocity 
equilibrium of rigid bodies.
Linear acceleration a Angular acceleration 
 A rigid body is said to be in equilibrium, if the
net external force and net external torque Mass m Moment of inertia I
acting on it does not change its translational

Force F Torque 
and rotational state of the body.
Linear momentum Angular momentum
Conditions for equilibrium:
pmv LI 
 For equilibrium of a body, following two
conditions are to be satisfied. F ma I 
 The vector sum of all the forces acting dp dL

F 
on the body must be zero. dt dt
i.e., F  0 Work W  F  s Work W    d 
This ensures translational equilibrium. Power P  F  v Power P    
A body is said to be in translational Kinetic energy Kinetic energy

equilibrium, if it remains at rest or 1 1
EK  m v2 EK  I 2
2 2
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moving with constant velocity.
p2 L2
 The vector sum of all the torques acting EK  EK 
2m 2I
on the body must be zero.
Equations of motion Equations of motion
i.e.,   0
v  v0  a t   0   t
This ensures rotational equilibrium.
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1 2 1
A body is said to be in rotational x  v0 t  at   0 t   t2
2 2
equilibrium, if it does not rotate or rotate
v 2  v02  2 a x 2  02  2  
with constant angular velocity.
Page 55
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
12. Define moment of inertia and obtain the n
I   mi ri 2
expression for the same. i 1
Moment of Inertia  The moment of inertia of a body depends on
 It is the inertia for rotational motion.  mass of the body

 axis of rotation
 The moment of inertia of a body about an
 distribution of mass about the axis
axis is the property of a body by virtue of
which it is unable to change its state of rest Radius of gyration:
or uniform rotational motion without the  It is the perpendicular distance between the
help of an external torque. axis of rotation and the point where the
entire mass of the body is assumed to be
 Moment of inertia of a particle about an
concentrated to have the same moment of
axis is measured by the product of mass m
inertia as the entire body.
of the particle and the square of its distance
r from the axis of rotation.
I  m r2

2
SI Unit: kg m
 The moment of inertia of a rigid body is the

sum of the moments of inertia of all the
particles of the rigid body.
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 If M is the mass of the body and K is the
radius of gyration, then
I  M K2
 Radius of gyration of a body about an axis is

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the square root of mean of the squares of

the perpendicular distances of the particles
from the given axis.
I  m1 r12  m2 r22  m3 r32  ...  mn rn2
Page 56
r12  r22  r32  ...

K
n
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Radius of gyration depends on the axis of
rotation.
Moment of inertia of few regular bodies
Thin rod
 The MI of a thin rod of length L and mass M

about an axis passing through the centre and  The MI of a circular ring of radius R and mass
perpendicular to the length of rod is M about a tangent parallel to the plane is
1 3
I M L2 I M R2
12 2
 The MI of a circular ring of radius R and mass

Circular ring:
M about an axis along the diameter is
 The MI of a circular ring of radius R and mass
1
M about an axis passing through the centre I M R2
2
and perpendicular to the plane is
Solid sphere:
I  M R2

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The MI of a solid sphere of
radius R and mass M about an
axis passing through its
diameter is
2
I M R2
5
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 The MI of a circular ring of radius R and mass  The MI of a solid sphere of

M about a tangent perpendicular to the plane radius R and mass M about
is a tangent parallel to its
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diameter is
I  2 M R2
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
7  The MI of a circular disc of radius R and mass
I M R2
5 M about an axis along the diameter is
Cylindrical rod: 1
I M R2
 The MI of a cylindrical rod of length L , radius 4
R and mass M about an axis passing through  The MI of a circular disc of radius R and mass
the centre and perpendicular to the length of M about a tangent parallel to its diameter is
rod is
5
I M R2
 L2 R 2  4
I M  
 12 4  13. State and explain perpendicular axis theorem
and parallel axis theorem.
Parallel axes theorem:

Statement:
Moment of inertia of a rigid body about any
axis is equal to the sum of the moment of
 The MI of a cylindrical rod of length inertia about a parallel axis through the centre
L , radius R and mass M about of mass of the body and the product of the
an axis passing through the centre mass of the body and the square of the
and parallel to the length of rod is perpendicular distance between the two axes.
1
I M R2
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2
Circular disc:
 The MI of a circular disc of radius R and mass i.e., I  IC  M r 2
M about an axis passing through the centre I  MI about any parallel axis PQ
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and perpendicular to the plane is

I C  MI about an axis AB passing through
1 centre of mass C
I M R2
2 r  perpendicular distance between AB and
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PQ
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
M  mass of the body 1
EK  m v2
2
Perpendicular axes theorem:
Statement: 1 1
EK  m  r   EK  m r 2 2
2
Moment of inertia of a plane lamina about an 2 2

axis perpendicular to its plane is equal to the The kinetic energy of the rigid body is
sum of the moments of inertia of the lamina n
1
about any two mutually perpendicular axes in EK   mi ri 2 2
i 1 2
its plane which intersect the first axis at a point
1 n
in the lamina. EK   mi ri 2 2
2 i 1
1
EK  I 2
2
n
I   mi ri 2  moment of inertia of the body
i 1
i.e., I Z  I X  IY Note:
I X  MI of lamina about X  axis The total kinetic energy of an object in pure

rolling is
IY  MI of lamina about Y  axis
I Z  MI of lamina about Z  axis 1 1
EK  M v 2  I 2
2 2
(This law is applicable to planar bodies only)
M  mass of the body
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14. Derive an expression for the kinetic energy of a
v  speed of the centre of mass
rolling body.
  angular speed of the body
Kinetic energy of rotation: I  moment of inertia of the body about the
Consider a particle of mass m at a distance r axis of rotation
from the axis of rotation.
Also,
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Its linear speed is

1  K2 
vr  EK  M v 2 1  2 
2  R 
The kinetic energy of the particle is given by
K  radius of gyration
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R  radius of the body

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
15. State and explain the principle of conservation Ballet dancer use the principle of law of
of angular momentum with an example. conservation of angular momentum to vary her
rotational speed.
Statement:
In the absence of external torque, the net
angular momentum of the system is
conserved.
dL
We have, ext 
dt
If no external torque on the body, ext  0 .

When the dancer rotates with her arms
dL stretched, the moment of inertia is high and
 0
dt hence her angular velocity is low.
or L  constant
This is the law of conservation of angular

momentum.
Also, LI 
I  moment of inertia
  angular velocity When the dancer folds her arms closer, the
From law of conservation of angular moment of inertia decreases and hence her
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momentum, angular velocity increases i.e., she starts
L  I   constant or spinning much faster than earlier.
I1 1  I 2 2  Diver:
When a diver jumps from a spring board, he
It follows from the above equation that as I
curls his body. Thus the moment of inertia of
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decreases  will increase and vice versa.

his body decreases and hence the angular
Illustrations: velocity increases. He then performs
 Ballet dancer: somersaults.
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I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
AB is the perpendicular distance (arm of the
couple) between the forces. C is a point on
AB about which the body can rotate.
The moment of a couple about C is
  F  AC  F  BC
  F   AC  BC 
As he about to reach the water, he stretches his
arms and legs. This increases the moment of   F  AB
inertia and he strikes the water with low speed.
Note:
16. What is couple? Explain.  Moment of a couple depends only on the
Couple: force and the arm of the couple.

Two equal unlike non collinear parallel forces  Moment of a couple is independent of the
acting on a body constitute a couple. point about which the body rotates.
The rotational effect of a couple is called 17. Discuss the motion of centre of mass.
moment of a couple.
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Motion of centre of mass:
It is measured by the product of one of the The position vector of a centre of mass of
forces forming the couple and the particles is given by
perpendicular distance between the forces
m1 r1  m2 r2  m3 r3  ...
(arm of the couple). R
M
Consider two equal unlike parallel forces F M  total mass of the system
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and F acting on a body at A and B

M R  m1 r1  m2 r2  m3 r3  ... … (1)
respectively constitute a couple.
Differentiating (1) with respect to t ,
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I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
dR dr dr dr Equation (6) states that, the centre of mass of a
M  m1 1  m2 2  m3 3  ... … (2)
dt dt dt dt system of particles moves as if the entire mass
is concentrated at the centre of mass and all
M v  m1 v1  m2 v2  m3 v3  ... … (3)
the external forces are applied at that point.
Where, v1 , v2 , v3 … are the velocity of the Linear momentum of a system of particles:
particles at any instant t and v is the velocity Consider a system of particles with masses m1 ,
of centre of mass at that time. m2 , m3 ... moving with velocities v1 , v2 , v3 …

Differentiating (3) with respect to t , respectively.
dv dv dv dv The linear momentum of the system of

M  m1 1  m2 2  m3 3  ...
dt dt dt dt particles is the vector sum of linear momenta
of all the individual particles of the system.
M a  m1 a1  m2 a2  m3 a3  ... … (4)
p  p1  p2  p3  ... … (1)
Where, a1 , a2 , a3 … are the acceleration of the
If M is the total mass of the system of particles
particles at any instant t and a is the
acceleration of centre of mass at that time. concentrated at the centre of mass and v is the
velocity of centre of mass, then
m1 a1  m2 a2  m3 a3  ...
a
M pM v … (2)
From (4), The total linear momentum of the system of
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particles is equal to the product total mass of
M a  F1  F2  F3  ... … (5)
the system and the velocity of its centre of
Therefore, the vector sum of all the forces mass.
acting on the particles is equal to product of
Differentiating (2) with respect to t ,
the total mass of a system of particles and the
acceleration of its centre of mass. dp dv
M
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dt dt
M a  Fext … (6)
dp
M a
Fext  net external force on the system dt
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dp
 Fext … (3)
dt
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
This is the statement of Newton’s second law Where, c1 , c2 and c3 are constants.
extended to a system of particles.
Torque and angular momentum of a system of
In an isolated system, the vector sum of particles:
external forces acting on a system of particles is The total angular momentum of a system of
zero. particles about a given point is the vector sum
Hence from (3), of angular momenta of individual particles

about the same point.
dp
0
dt For a system of n particles,
or p  constant … (4) L  L1  L2  L3  ...  Ln
Thus, when the total external force acting on a

 
n n
system of particles is zero, the total linear L   Li   ri  pi

i 1 i 1
momentum of the system is constant.
This is the law of conservation of the total dL


linear momentum of a system of particles.
dt
From (4), d n 
   Li 
dt  i 1 
p  constant
M v  constant
n
d Li

dt
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i 1
v  constant … (5)
n
Thus, when the total external force on the    i
i1
system is zero, the velocity of the centre of
mass remains constant. According to Newton’s third law of motion, the
internal forces between a pair of particles are
If px , p y and pz are the components of total
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equal and opposite and hence they do not

linear momentum p along x , y and z axes contribute to the internal torque.
respectively, then n
    i  ext
px  c1 , p y  c2 and pz  c3
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i1
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
dL
or ext 
dt
Thus, the net external torque acting on a

system of particles is equal to the rate of
change of total angular momentum of the
system.
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GSGPrasad
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I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Unit – VI Chapter – 08 If a planet moves from A to B in a given
GRAVITATION interval of time and from C to D in the same
interval, then the areas ASB and CSD will be
01. State and explain Kepler’s laws of planetary
equal.
motion.
First law (Law of orbits):
All the planets revolve around the sun in
elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus.
The planet P revolves around the sun in an

elliptical orbit. An ellipse has two foci S and
The planet moves faster when it is closer to the
S  , the sun remains at one focus S .
sun (perihelion) and moves slower when it is
away from the sun (aphelion).
Third law (Law of periods):

The square of the period of revolution of any
planet around the sun is directly proportional
to the cube of the semi major axis of its
elliptical orbit.
The longest chord AD  2 a is called major If T is the period of revolution of the planet
axis and the shortest chord BC  2 b is called and a is the semi major axis of its elliptical
minor axis. The lengths OA  OD  a and orbit, then
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OB  OC  b are called semi major axis and T 2  a3
semi minor axis respectively.
02. State and explain Newton’s law of gravitation.
The position D of the planet nearest to the Hence define universal gravitational constant.
sun is called perihelion and the position A of Newton’s law of gravitation:
the planet farthest to the sun is called aphelion. Statement:
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Second law (Law of areas): Every body in the universe attracts every other
The line drawn from the sun to any planet body with a force which is directly proportional
sweeps out equal areas of space in equal to the product of their masses and is inversely
Page 65
intervals. proportional to the square of the distance

between them.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Explanation: The dimensions of G are 3 in length,  1 in
Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 mass and  2 in time.
separated by a distance r . Let F be the
Vector form of law of gravitation:
gravitational force of attraction between them.
In vector form, Newton’s law of gravitation can
be expressed as
m1 m2
F12  G r12
r2
From Newton’s law of gravitation,
F12  gravitational force on m1 due to m2
1
F  m1 m2 and F 2
r r  separation between m1 and m2
m1 m2 m1 m2 r12  unit vector from m1 to m2

or F  or F G
r2 r2 G  gravitational constant
Where, G is a constant called universal m1 m2
Similarly, F21  G r21
gravitational constant. r2
G  6.67 1011 N m2 kg  2 But r21   r12 Hence, F21   F12
m1 m2 Thus the gravitational force acting between two

We have F G
r2 bodies forms action and reaction pair. As the
When m1  m2  1, r  1 then F  G . forces directed towards the centre of the
bodies, the gravitational force is a central force.
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Thus the universal gravitational constant is
defined as the force between two bodies of 03. Obtain the relation between g and G .
unit masses separated by a unit distance. Relation between g and G :

Acceleration of a freely falling body due to the
SI Unit: N m2 kg  2
earth’s gravitational attraction is called
Dimensional formula of G : acceleration due to gravity or gravitational
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2
m1 m2 Fr acceleration. It is denoted by g .
We have F  G or G
r2 m1 m2
Consider a body of mass m on the surface of
 M L T   L 
1 1 2 2
G   
the earth of mass M and radius R .
  M 1 L3 T  2 
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 M   M 
1 1
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Then,
GM
g ... (1)
R2
Let g h be the acceleration
due to gravity at a height h
According to the Newton’s law of gravitation, from the surface of the
the force of attraction acting on the body due earth. Then,
to the earth is GM
gh  ... (2)
 R  h
2
mM
F G
R2 Dividing equation (2) by equation (1),
But the force F with which the body is
GM
attracted by the earth is called its weight.  R  h
2
gh R2
 
 R  h
2
g GM
mM
i.e., F  m g or mg G 2 R2
R
GM  R2 
g gh  g  2
... (3)
R2   R  h  
04. Compare g and G .
The above equation holds good when h is in
g G comparable to R .
Its value is 9.81 m s  2 Its value is
When h  R , and using binomial theorem,
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11 2
on the earth 6.67 10 2
N m kg
 2 h
Value varies with place Value remains same g h  g 1  ... (4)
 R 
It is a vector quantity It is a scalar quantity
The above equation holds good when h  R .
SI Unit: m s  2 SI Unit: N m2 kg  2
From equations (3) and (4), it follows that the
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05. Derive an expression for acceleration due to acceleration due to gravity decreases with the
gravity at an altitude h above the surface of increase in height.
the earth. 06. Derive an expression for acceleration due to
Let g be the acceleration due to gravity on the
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gravity at a depth d below the surface of the

surface of the earth of radius R and mass M . earth.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Let g be the acceleration due to gravity on the The value of acceleration due to gravity
surface of the earth of radius R and mass M . increases with the latitude due to the rotation
Then, of the earth.
GM If g is the acceleration due to gravity at the

g ... (1)
R2
poles of the earth and g  at a latitude  , then
If  is the mean density of the earth, then
g  g  R 2 cos2 
M  Volume  Density
R  radius of the earth
4
M   R3    angular velocity
3
of the earth
Substituting in (1),
Note:
G 4
g  2   R3 
R 3  g is maximum at poles    90  
and is
4 minimum at the equator    0  

g G R ... (2)
3  Earth is bulged at the equator. This also leads
Let g d be the acceleration due to gravity at a to a decrease of g from pole to the equator
depth d from the surface of the earth. Then, 08. Define: (a) Gravitational field (b) Intensity of
4 gravitational field. Obtain the expression for
gd  G   R  d   ... (3)
3 intensity of gravitational field.
Dividing equation (3) by equation (2), Gravitational field:
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4 The space around a body within which its
 R  d  
gd

G
3 
R  d  gravitational force of attraction is experienced
g 4 R
G R by the other body is called gravitational field.
3
Gravitational field intensity:
 d
g d  g 1   ... (4)
 R The gravitational field intensity at a point in
the gravitational field is defined as the force
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From equation (4), it follows that the

acceleration due to gravity decreases with the experienced by a body of unit mass at that
increase in depth. point.

F
07. Write a note on variation of acceleration due i.e., E
Page 68
m
to gravity with latitude.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
From Newton’s law of gravitation, GM m
F
x2
GM m
F
r2 The small work done in moving the body
through a small distance dx to the point B is
F GM
E  2
m r GM m
dW  F dx  dx
Note: x2
 Gravitational field intensity is a vector quantity The total work done in bringing the body from
F infinity  x    to the point P  x  r  is

 E
m r r
GM m
W   dW   dx
The direction of E is same as that of F  
x2
 Its SI unit is N kg 1 r
1
W G M m x dx
 E    M 0 L1 T  2 
2
 
r
 The gravitational field intensity decreases as the  1
W  G M m  
distance increases and it becomes zero at  x 
infinity
1 1  GM m
W G M m   
09. Define gravitational potential energy and r  r
obtain an expression for the same.
By definition, this work done is the gravitational
Gravitational potential energy:
potential energy U of the body.
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The gravitational potential energy of a body at
GM m
a point is defined as the amount of work done U  
r
in bringing a body from infinity to that point in
the gravitational field. Note:
 The negative sign indicates that the potential
Consider a body of mass m at a point A
energy is due to the gravitational force of
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distant x from the centre of the earth of mass

attraction between the earth and the body
M and radius R .
 As the distance of the body from the earth
The gravitational force of attraction on the
increases, its gravitational potential energy
body at the point A is
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increases
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 Maximum gravitational potential energy is zero Its initial total energy at the surface of the
at infinite distance from the earth earth is
 When a body of mass m is moved from a point Ei  Ki  Ui

at distance r1 to a point at distance r2 , then the
1 GM m
Ei  m ve2  ... (1)
change in the potential energy is 2 R
1 1 ve  escape velocity
U   G M m   
 r2 r1 
For escaping from the earth’s attraction, the
Gravitational potential: object should be effectively at infinity where its
The gravitational potential at a point is defined kinetic energy is zero and its potential energy is
as the gravitational potential energy per unit maximum which is equal to zero.
mass.
Its final total energy at infinity is
The gravitational potential at a point due to the
Ef  K f U f  0
earth is
From the principle of conservation of energy,
U GM
V or V  Ei  E f
m r
Note:
1 GM m
m ve2  0
 The gravitational potential is a scalar quantity 2 R
 It is always negative
1 GM m
 Its SI unit is J kg 1 m ve2 
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2 R
 V    M 0 L2T  2  2G M
ve2 
R
10. Define escape velocity and obtain an
expression for the same. 2G M
ve  … (1)
Escape velocity: R
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It is the minimum velocity with which a body GM GM

But g  or g R
must be projected in order that it may just R2 R
escape the gravitational field of the earth.
ve  2 g R … (2)
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Consider a body of mass m on the surface of

If  is the mean density of the earth, then
the earth of mass M and radius R .
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
4 Moon is the only natural satellite of the earth.
M  R3 
3
Its time period of revolution is about 27.3 days
2G 4 which is also roughly equal to the rotational
ve    R3 
R 3 period of the moon about its own axis.
8   G R2 Artificial satellites:
ve  … (3)
3 Man made satellites that are placed in the
specified orbits and are made to revolve
Note:
around the earth are known as artificial
 For earth, g  9.8 m s  2 and R  6.4 106 m
satellites.
ve  2 g R Many countries including India to launch
artificial earth satellites for practical use in fields
ve  2  9.8  6.4 106  11.2 103 m s 1
like telecommunication, geophysics and
1
ve  11.2 km s meteorology.
 In actual practice, the value of escape velocity is  The first artificial satellite, Sputnik-I was put
slightly greater than the above calculated value into orbit by Russia on 04.06.1957
because of air resistance  India entered space age on 19.04.1975 by
 It is independent of the mass of the body putting in orbit its first satellite Aryabhatta and
continues to launch more and more
 It depends on the mass and radius of the planet
sophisticated satellites like INSAT-1A, INSAT-1B,

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It is independent of the angle of projection
INSAT-2B, IRS-1C, INSAT-2D etc.,
11. Write a note on satellites.
12. Define orbital velocity and obtain an
A satellite is a heavenly body revolving around
expression for the same.
the planet.
Orbital velocity of earth satellite:
There are two types of satellites namely Orbital velocity of a satellite is the velocity
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 Natural satellites with which the satellite moves in the orbit

 Artificial satellites around the earth.
Natural satellites: Consider a satellite of mass m at a height h

The celestial bodies which revolve around a from the surface of the earth of mass M and
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planet are known as natural satellites. radius R .

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Let vo be its orbital velocity in its orbit of radius vo  g R ... (5)
r   R  h .
 For earth, g  9.8 m s  2 and R  6.4 106 m
The gravitational force of attraction on the
vo  g R
satellite is
GM m vo  9.8  6.4 106  7.92 103 m s 1

FG  ... (1)
 R  h
2
vo  7.92 km s 1
The centripetal force required by the satellite to
 It is independent of the mass of the satellite
keep in its orbit is
 It decreases with the increase in the radius of
m vo2
FC  ... (2)
 R  h the orbit
 It depends on the mass and radius of the planet

The centripetal force is provided by
gravitational force of attraction on the satellite.  ve  2 vo
Therefore  Hence, the escape velocity of a body from the
FC  FG earth’s surface is 2 times its velocity in a

circular orbit just above the earth’s surface.
2
mv GM m
o

 R  h   R  h 2 13. Obtain an expression for the total energy of a
satellite.
GM Consider a satellite of mass m revolving around
vo2 
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 R  h the earth of mass M in an orbit of radius r .
GM Let vo be its orbital velocity.

vo  ... (3)
 R  h The potential energy of the satellite is
GM GM m
But g  or G M  g R2 U 
R2 r
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g R2 The kinetic energy of the satellite is

vo  ... (4)
 R  h 1
K m vo2
 When the satellite revolves close to the surface 2
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of the earth, then h  0 . Then

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
1 G M   GM 2r r
K m   vo   T 2r
2  r   r  GM GM
r
1 GM m
K
2 r 4 2 r 3
T ... (2)
GM
Total energy of the satellite is
E U  K GM
But g  or G M  g R2
R2
GM m 1 GM m
E  and r   R  h 
r 2 r
G M m 1 4 2  R  h 
3
E 1   T ... (3)
r  2 g R2
1 GM m 
E When the satellite revolves close to the earth,
2 r
then h  0 .
The total energy of the satellite is negative
4 2 R 4  3.142  6.4 106
which indicates that the satellite is bound to T 
g 9.8
the earth.
T  5078 s  84.6 min  1 hr 24.6 min
14. Obtain an expression for the time period of
revolution of a satellite.  If the earth is the sphere of mean density  ,
It is the time taken by the satellite to complete 4
then M   R3 
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one revolution around the earth. 3
Consider a satellite of mass m revolving around Substituting in equation (2),
the earth of mass M in an orbit of radius r .
4 2  R  h 
3
Let vo be its orbital velocity. T

4
G  R3 
It is given by 3
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2r 3  R  h
3
T ... (1) T ... (4)
vo  G R3
But vo 
GM  Height of a satellite above the earth’s surface:
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r
The period of revolution of a satellite is given by
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
The reaction of the floor of the lift on the
4 2  R  h 
3
T man is
g R2
R  m  g  a
4 2  R  h 
3
T  2
g R2 When the lift is falling freely, a  g
T 2 g R2 Hence R  0
 R  h 
3
4 2
i.e., a man in a freely falling lift feels
1 weightlessness.
T 2 g R2  3
 R  h  
  
 4 
2
At the centre of the earth
At the centre of the earth, g  0 .
1
T 2 g R2  3
Hence the weight of the body is zero at the
h  R
 4 
2
centre of the earth.
 Angular momentum of a satellite:  At null points in space
The angular momentum L of a satellite of At null points in space, the gravitational
mass m having orbital velocity vo in an orbit of force due to various masses cancel out. As
g  0 at these points, effective weight of
radius r  R  h is given by
the body is zero.
L  m vo  R  h 
 Inside a spacecraft
GM The acceleration of the spacecraft in an
L  m  R  h
 R  h
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orbit of radius r is
L  G M m2  R  h  a
vo2 G M
 2
r r
15. What is weightlessness?
M  mass of earth
A body is said to be in a state of weightlessness
Force on the astronaut is
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when the reaction of the supporting surface is

zero or its apparent weight is zero. GM m
F ma
r2
A body can be in the state of weightlessness
under the following circumstances. The gravitational force on the astronaut of
Page 74
mass m is
 In a freely falling lift
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
1
GM m
Fg   864002  0.0098  64002  3
r2 h   6400
 4  3.142 
If R is the reaction of the floor of the
h  42330  6400
spacecraft on the astronaut, then
h  35930 km
Fg  R  F
Necessary conditions for a geostationary

GM m GM m
2
R satellite:
r r2
For a satellite to be geostationary,
R0
i.e., an astronaut in a spacecraft feels  Its period of revolution should be 24 hr
weightlessness.  Its sense of rotation should be from west to
16. Write a note on geostationary satellites. east
A satellite which revolves around the earth in  Its orbital plane should coincide with the
its equatorial plane with the same angular equatorial plane
speed and in the same direction as the earth
 It should revolve at a height nearly 36000 km
rotates about its own axis is called a
above the earth’s surface
geostationary satellite or synchronous
satellite. Uses of geostationary satellite:
 In communicating radio, TV and telephone
Height of a geostationary satellite:
signals across the world
The height of a satellite above the earth’s
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surface is given by  In studying upper regions of the atmosphere
1  In forecasting weather
T 2 g R2  3
h  R
 4  2
  In studying meteorites
For geostationary satellite,  In studying solar radiations and cosmic rays

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T  24 hr  86400 s , R  6400 km ,  In determining the exact shape and dimensions

of the earth
2 2
g  9.8 m s  0.0098 km s
17. Write a note on polar satellites.
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I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
A satellite that revolves in a polar orbit is The bar AB of length L has two small lead
called a polar satellite. spheres each of mass m attached at its ends.
The bar is suspended from a rigid support by a
A polar orbit is one whose plane is
fine wire.
perpendicular to the equatorial plane of the
earth. Two large lead spheres S1 and S 2 each of mass
A polar orbit passes over north and south poles M are brought close to the small ones but on
of the earth and has a smaller radius of about opposite sides as shown.
500 km to 800 km . The big spheres attract the nearby small ones
by equal and opposite force F . These two
Its period of revolution is about 100 min ,
forces constitute a deflecting torque d given
depending on its height above the earth.
by
As the earth rotates about its axis, the polar
satellite successively passes across the GM m
d  F  AB or d  L
d2
different parts of earth’s surface. Thus over a
period of 24 hr , it scans the entire surface of d  distance between centres of big and the
the earth. small spheres
Due to this deflecting torque d , the wire gets

Uses of polar satellite:
 In weather and environment monitoring twisted and the restoring torque  r is
 In spying work for military purposes developed in the wire which opposes the
deflecting torque.
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 To study topography of earth, moon, venus and
mars If  is the angle of twist and  is the couple per
unit twist of the wire, then
18. Describe Cavendish experiment to determine
the gravitational constant? r   
At equilibrium, d  r
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GM m  d2 
L    or G
d2 LM m
Measuring  and knowing  , G can be

Page 76
calculated.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Unit – VII Chapter – 09 02. Define the terms stress and describe the
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS different types of stress.
Stress:
01. Define the terms deforming force, elasticity
Stress is a restoring force developed per unit
and plasticity. What are perfectly elastic and
area in a deformed body.
perfectly bodies? Give examples.
Deforming force: But this internal restoring force is equal and
A force which changes the size and shape of a opposite of the applied deforming force.
body is called a deforming force. If F is the deforming force acting on a body
Elasticity: over an area A , then
It is the property of a body due to which it
F
stress 
regains its original size and shape when the A
deforming force is removed.
It is a scalar quantity.
Plasticity:
SI Unit: N m 2
It is the property of a body due to which it does
not regain its original size and shape when the There are three types of stress.
deforming force is removed. Normal or longitudinal stress:
Perfectly elastic body: It is the restoring force developed
A body which regains its original condition fully per unit area of cross section of a
on the removal of deforming force is called body subjected to a force acting
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perfectly elastic body. along its length.
E.g.; Quartz fibre The effect of longitudinal stress is

to change the length of a body.
Perfectly plastic body:
A body which does not regain its original Volume or compression stress:
condition fully on the removal of deforming It is the restoring force
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force is called perfectly plastic body. developed per unit area of

cross section of a body
E.g.; Paraffin wax
subjected to a force acting
In reality no body is perfectly elastic or
normally on the entire surface
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perfectly plastic. of a body.

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
The effect of compression stress is to change Volume or bulk strain:
the volume of a body. It is the ratio of change in volume due to the
stress to the original volume.
Shearing or tangential stress:
It is the restoring force developed per unit area If V is the original volume of a body and V is
of cross section of a body subjected to a force the increase in its volume due to a stress, then
acting tangential to the surface of a body.
change in volume V
bulk strain  
The effect of tangential original volume V
stress is to change the
Shear strain:
shape of a body.
It is the angular displacement of a reference
03. Define the terms strain and describe the line on the surface of a body on which
different types of strain. tangential stress acting on it.
Strain:
x
Strain is the fractional change in the shear strain  tan  
h
dimensions of a body.
Where x is the displacement of reference line
It is a measure of deformation produced and h is the height of the surface.
in a body.
04. Define the following terms (a) elastic limit (b)
change in dimension permanent set (c) plastic deformation and (d)
strain 
original dimension fracture point
It is a dimensionless quantity. Elastic limit:
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The maximum stress upto which a material
There are three types of strain.
exhibits the property of elasticity is called
Longitudinal or tensile strain:
elastic limit.
It is the ratio of change in length due to the
If the deforming force exceeds the elastic limit,
stress to the original length.
the body acquires a permanent set or
If L is the original length of a wire and L is
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deformation and is said to be overstrained.

the increase in its length due to a stress, then
Permanent set:
change in length L
longitudinal strain   When a wire is stretched more, then it has
original length L
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permanent strain even when the stress is zero.

Then wire is said to have permanent set.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Plastic deformation: F
Y A
When a wire is stretched too much, then it has L
L
permanent strain even when the stress is zero.
This behavior of the material is called plastic Where F is the nomal force on an area A , L
deformation. is the increase in length and L is the original

length.
Fracture point:
The stretched wire breaks for certain applied Bulk modulus:
stress is fracture point. It is the ratio of volume stress to volume strain.
05. State and explain Hooke’s law. volume stress

Bulk modulus 
Define modulus of elasticity and write its
volume strain
dimensional formula. F
B A
Hooke’s law: V
V
Within the elastic limit, stress is directly
proportional to the strain. Where F is the nomal force on an area A ,
V is the change in volume and V is the
i.e., stress  strain
original volume.
stress
or  constant  E
strain Rigidity modulus:
It is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain.
E  modulus of elasticity
shear stress
Modulus of elasticity is a constant for the Rigidity modulus 
shear strain
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material of the body.
Modulus of elasticity: F F
 A  A
Modulus of elasticity is the ratio of stress to  x
h
strain.
tangential stress
Rigidity modulus =
There are three types of modulii of elasticity. tangential strain
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Young’s modulus: F F
n A  A
It is the ratio of longitudinal stress to
 x
h
longitudinal strain.
Where F is the tangential force on an area A ,
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longitudinal stress
Young ' s modulus 
longitudinal strain  is the angle of shear.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
06. Explain an experiment to determine Young’s proportional to the strain upto point A ,
modulus of the material wire under stretching. obeying Hooke’s law.
Consider one end of a string of length L and
radius r fixed rigidly to the support.
When a load F  m g is applied
to the other end of the string, the

length of the string increases by a
small amount L .
L
longitudinal strain 
L
Stress corresponding to the point A is called
F mg proportional limit.
longitudinal stress  
A  r2
When the stress increased beyond A , for a
longitudinal stress small stress change, there is a large strain up to
Young ' s modulus 
longitudinal strain the point B so that stress is directly
proportional to strain.
mg
 r2 mgL
Y  Y But on removal of load, the wire is still regain
L  r 2 L
its original condition, when applied load is less
L
than certain limit. This limit is called elasticity
If d is the diameter of the wire, then
limit (point B ). Metals show elasticity
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4mg L behaviour.
Y
 d 2 L
If stress is increased beyond B , strain further
07. Draw the stress verses strain graph for a increase rapidly and if load is removed wire
metallic wire stretched upto the fracture point does not regain its original length i.e., the stain
and explain the important features in it. produced in the wire is permanent and it is said
GSGPrasad
Stress and strain curve for metallic wire is as to have permanent set. Such a deformation is
shown in figure. called is plastic deformation.
When a metal wire is stretched, for small value As stress increased further (beyond C ) large
Page 80
of load the elongation produced is proportional strain is produced and wire breaks at E which
to the load. Hence stress is directly is known as fracture point.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Unit – VII Chapter – 10 at the point O along AO . Then surface
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS exerts an equal reaction R on the liquid
01. What are fluids? Give their characteristics. along OB .
A fluid is a substance that can flow. The reaction R has horizontal component
Both liquids and gases are fluids. R cos  and vertical component R sin  .
 The atoms or molecules are arranged in a The horizontal component R cos  would
random manner cause the liquid to flow. But the liquid is
 It doesn’t have definite shape of its own at rest, the force R cos  must be zero.
 It cannot withstand tangential stress As R  0 , cos   0 or   90 .
 It can withstand normal stress Hence, a liquid always exerts normal force
 It doesn’t have rigidity modulus on the surface in contact with it.
 It has bulk modulus Pressure

The thrust exerted by the liquid at rest on a
A liquid is incompressible and has a
unit area of the surface in contact with it is
definite volume and a free surface of its
called pressure of the liquid.
own.
If a force F acts normally over a flat area A ,
A gas is compressible and doesn’t have a
then the pressure P is
definite volume and a free surface of its
own. F
P
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A
02. Define thrust and pressure of a liquid.
If the force is not distributed uniformly, then
Thrust
The total force exerted by a liquid on any F dF
P  lim 
A0 A dA
surface in contact with it is called thrust.
This force acts perpendicular to the surface. Pressure of a liquid is a scalar quantity,
GSGPrasad
because fluid pressure at a particular

Consider a liquid at rest in a vessel.
point has the same magnitude in all
Consider a point O on the bottom of the
directions. This shows that a definite
vessel. Suppose the liquid exerts a force
direction is not associated with fluid
Page 81
F making an angle  with the horizontal

pressure.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Practical applications: or m Ah
 A bsharp knife cuts better than a blunt one The pressure P exerted by the liquid on
 Railway tracks are laid on concrete sleepers bottom of the vessel is
 Pins and nails are made to have pointed force F

P 
ends area of bottom A
 Buildings have wide foundations Ahg

P or P g h
2 A
S.I unit: N m or Pa
Pressure at a point in a liquid is directly
The fluid pressure at a point is said to be 1 Pa
proportional to
2
if a force of 1 N acts normally on 1 m area
 depth h of the point and
osurrounding that point.
 density  of liquid
2
1 Pa  1 N m
04. State and prove Pascal’s law. Explain how
1 atm  1.013 105 Pa Pascal’s law is applied in a hydraulic lift?
Pascal’s law:
1 bar  105 Pa
For a confined, static liquid, pressure applied at
1 torr  pressure of 1 mm of mercury any point in the liquid is transmitted equally
and undiminished in all directions throughout
1 torr  133 Pa
the liquid.
03. Derive an expression for pressure exerted by a
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Consider a small element ABC  DEF in the
liquid column.
form of a right angled isosceles prism inside the
Consider a cylindrical jar filled with a
fluid at rest. (as shown in the figure)
homogeneous liquid of density  to a height h .
The element is so small that all its parts are at
Total thrust on the base
the same depth from the liquid surface and
of the jar is equal to
GSGPrasad
hence the effect of gravity is same for all its

weight of the liquid.
points.
i.e., F m g
Suppose the fluid exerts pressure Pa , Pb and
But m V 
Pc on the faces BEFC , ADFC and ADBE
Page 82
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
respectively and the corresponding normal Hence, the pressure exerted is same in all
forces are Fa , Fb and Fc . directions in a fluid at rest.
Let Aa , Ab and Ac be the respective areas. Some of the applications of Pascal’s law are
 Hydraulic pressure
 Hydraulic brakes
 Hydraulic lift
05. Explain how Pascal’s law is applied in a

hydraulic lift?
When a small force is applied over a piston of
As the element is in equilibrium with the small area of cross section, a large some
remaining fluid, the fluid force should balance appears over a piston of larger area of cross
in all directions. section due to transmission of pressure.
Along horizontal, Fb sin   Fc and It is used to lift the automobile.
Along vertical, Fb cos   Fa
From geometry of figure,
Ab sin   Ac and Ab cos   Aa
From the above equations,
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Fb sin  Fc Fb Fc At piston M , the force F1 acts over area A1 .
  
Ab sin  Ac Ab Ac
F1
The pressure on the piston M is, P1 
 Pb  Pc … (1) A1
Fb cos  Fa Fb Fa At piston N , the force F2 acts over area A2 .

  
Ab cos  Aa Ab Aa
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F2
The pressure on the piston N is, P2 
 Pb  Pa … (2) A2
From (1) and (2), From Pascal’s law, P1  P2

Page 83
Pa  Pb  Pc
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
F1 F2 A  Since A2  A1 , then F2  F1 .
 or F2  F1  2 
A1 A2  A1  Thus a small force applied on the smaller piston
Since A2  A1 , then F2  F1 . appears as a large force in the larger piston.
Thus a small force applied on the smaller piston

appears as a large force in the larger piston.
06. Explain how Pascal’s law is applied in a

hydraulic brakes?
When a small force is applied over a piston of
small area of cross section, a large some
appears over a piston of larger area of cross
section due to transmission of pressure.
It is used to lift the automobile.
At piston M , the force F1 acts over area A1 . 07. State Stokes law. Show that terminal velocity
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of a sphere falling through a viscous medium is
F
The pressure on the piston M is, P1  1 proportional to square of its radius.
A1
08. Describe different types of flow of fluids. State
At piston N , the force F2 acts over area A2 . and explain equation of continuity.
09. Explain Bernoulli’s principle. Explain the
F
The pressure on the piston N is, P2  2
GSGPrasad
A2 Bernoulli’s equation for the flow of an ideal

fluid in stream line motion.
From Pascal’s law, P1  P2
10. Explain any two applications of Bernoulli’s
F1 F2 A  principle.
 F2  F1  2 
Page 84
or
A1 A2  A1 
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Unit – VII Chapter – 11 03. What is a thermometer? Explain its principle.
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER The branch of physics that deals with the
measurement of temperature is called
01. Explain the concept of heat and temperature.
thermometry.
Heat is a form of energy. It produces the
sensation of hotness. A device used to measure the temperature of a
body is called a thermometer.
A body becomes hotter when it gains heat
energy and becomes colder when it gives out A thermometer makes use of some
heat energy. thermometric property of a substance which
changes linearly with temperature.
Total kinetic energy of all the molecules of the
body by virtue of their translational, Thermometric properties of different
vibrational and rotational motion is called substances and the corresponding
thermal energy. thermometers are as follws
Temperature is a measure of degree of hotness Mercury thermometer:

or coldness of a body. Length of mercury column in a capillary
Temperature of a body may be defined as that Constant volume gas thermometer:

property of a body from which we know Pressure of a gas at constant volume
whether the body is in thermal equilibrium Constant presure gas thermometer:
with another body or not. Volume of a gas at constant pressure
Heat is the cause and temperature is its effect. Platinum resistance thermometer:
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02. Distinguish between heat and temperature. Electrical resistance of a metallic wire
Heat Temperature Thermocouple thermometer:
It is the form of energy It is the degree of
Thermoelectrical emf
which produces the hotness or coldness of
Pyrometer:
senation of hotness the body
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It is the cause It is the effect Radiated power
It is measured in It is measured in 04. Describe different temperature scales

calorie  cal  or kelvin  K  commonly used. Write the relation between
joule  J  temperatures on different scales.

Page 85
The commonly used temperature scales are

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Celcius scale:
On this scale, the lower fixed point is taken as
0 C and the upper fixed point is taken as
100 C .
The interval between two fixed points is divided
into 100 equal parts and each part is called
1 C .
Fahrenheit scale:
On this scale, the lower fixed point is taken as To convert the temperature from one scale to
32  F and the upper fixed point is taken as another, the following relation is used.
212  F . temperature on one scale  LFP

UFP  LFP
temperature on other scale  LFP
into 180 equal parts and each part is called 
UFP  LFP
1 F .
If TC , TF , TR and TK are the temperatures on
Reaumur scale: Celcius, Farenheit, Reaumur and Kelvin scales
On this scale, the lower fixed point is taken as respectively, then

0 R and the upper fixed point is taken as
TC  0 T  32 TR  0 TK  273

 F  
80 R . 100  0 212  32 80  0 373  273
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The interval between two fixed points is divided TC TF  32 TR TK  273
or   
into 80 equal parts and each part is called 100 180 80 100
1 R . TC TF  32 TR TK  273
or   
Kelvin scale: 5 9 4 5
On this scale, the lower fixed point is taken as 05. State and explain Boyle’s law.
GSGPrasad
273 K and the upper fixed point is taken as

Statement:
373 K .
At constant temperature, the volume of a
given mass of gas is inversely proportional to
into 100 equal parts and each part is called
its pressure.
Page 86
1K.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
V
1  t 
i.e., or PV K Vt  V0 1  
P  273.15 
K  proportionality constant 07. State and explain Gay Lussac’s law.
Statement:
If P1 and V1 are the initial pressure and volume
At constant volume, the pressure of a given
and P2 and V2 are their final values, then from
mass of gas is directly proportional to its
Boyle’s law absolute temperature.
P1 V1  P2 V2 P
i.e., P  T or K
06. State and explain Charles’ law. T
Statement: K  proportionality constant
At constant pressure, the volume of a given
If P1 and T1 are the initial pressure and
temperature and P2 and T2 are their final
absolute temperature.
values, then from Gay Lussac’s law
V
i.e., V  T or K P1 P2
T 
T1 T2
K  proportionality constant
If V1 and T1 are the initial volume and mass of gas increases or decreases by
temperature and V2 and T2 are their final 1/ 273.15 of its pressure at 0 C for every
values, then from Charles’ law
1 C rise or fall of temperature.
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V1 V2
 If P0 and Pt are the pressure of a given mass of
T1 T2
gas at 0 C and t C respectively, then
At constant pressure, the volume of a given
mass of gas increases or decreases by  t 
Pt  P0 1  
 273.15 
1/ 273.15 of its volume at 0 C for every
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1 C rise or fall of temperature. 08. Derive perfect or ideal gas equation.

It gives the relation between its pressure P ,
If V0 and Vt are the volumes of a given mass of
volume V and the absolute temperature T of
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 
gas at 0 C and t C respectively, then an ideal gas.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
For n mol of an ideal gas, mass of gas with temperature at constant
pressure is given by
PV n RT
 t 
R  universal gas constant Vt  V0 1  
 273 
R  8.31 J mol 1 K 1
A graph of volume against temperature is as
According to Boyle’s law, for a given mass of a shown below.
gas at constant temperature,
1
V
P
According to Charles’ law, for a given mass of

gas at constant pressure,
V T At  273 C , the volume of a given mass of gas
tends to become zero. Therefore the

Combining the above two laws,
temperature  273 C is the lowest possible
T PV
V or  constant temperature and it is known as absolute zero
P T
temperature.
For 1 mol of a gas, the constant has same value

Taking the temperature  273 C as the lowest
for all gases and is called universal gas constant
and is denoted by R . Hence, fixed point, a new scale of temperature was
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developed and it is called absolute scale of
PV
R or PV RT temperature or Kelvin scale of temperature.
T
In the new scale, absolute zero is equal to
For n mol of an ideal gas,
 273 C .
PV n RT
The unit of absolute scale of temperature has
This is perfect or ideal gas equation.
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the same unit as that of Celsius scale.

09. What is absolute zero and absolute scale of
i.e., 1 K  1 C
temperature?
Gases expand on heating and contract on The two scales differ only in their origin.
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cooling. The variation of volume of a given

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
If T is the temperature on the absolute scale T  rise in temperature
and t is the temperature on Celsius scale, then
SI unit:  C 1 or K 1
T  t  273
12. Define co-efficient of superficial expansion.
10. What is thermal expansion? What are the Write the expression for it.
different types of thermal expansion? Co-efficient of superficial expansion:
The increase in the size of a body when it is It is defined as the ratio of increase in area to
heated is called thermal expansion. original area of the metal sheet per degree rise
Different types of thermal expansion are in its temperature.
Linear expansion: A

It is the increase in the length of a metal rod on A T
heating.   co-efficient of superficial expansion

Superficial expansion: A  increase in the area of the metal sheet
It is the increase in the surface area of a metal
A  original area of the metal sheet
sheet on heating.
T  rise in temperature
Cubical expansion:
1
It is the increase in the volume of a metal block SI unit:  C 1 or K
on heating. Co-efficient of cubical expansion:
11. Define co-efficient of linear expansion. Write It is defined as the ratio of increase in volume
the expression for it. to original volume of the metal block per
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Co-efficient of linear expansion: degree rise in its temperature.
It is defined as the ratio of increase in length to
V

original length of the metal rod per degree rise V T
in its temperature.
  co-efficient of cubical expansion
l
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 V  increase in the volume of the metal

l T
cube
  co-efficient of linear expansion
V  original volume of the metal cube
l  increase in the length of the rod
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T  rise in temperature
l  original length of the rod
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
SI unit:  C 1 or K 1 (Since  is very small compared to 1 )
Also A2  A1 1    … (2)
13. Show that   1/ T for an ideal gas.
For an ideal gas, On comparing (1) and (2),
PV n RT … (1) 2
At constant pressure, Relation between  and  :
P V  n R T … (2) Consider a rectangular metal block having

length a1 , breadth b1 and thickness c1 initially.
V is the increase in volume for the rise of
temperature T Initial volume of the block, V1  a1 b1 c1
Dividing (2) by (1), Let the temperature is increased by 1 K
P V n R T V T Final volume of the block is,

  
PV n RT V T
V2  a1 1     b1 1     c1 1   
V 1 1
  or 
V T T V2  a1 b1 c1 1   
3
T
Hence, for an ideal gas, the co-efficient of
V2  V1 1  3   … (3)
volume expansion decreases with the increase
in temperature. (Since  is very small compared to 1 )
14. Derive the relation between  ,  and  . Also V2  V1 1    … (4)
Relation between  and  :
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On comparing (3) and (4),
Consider a rectangular metal sheet having
 3
length a1 and breadth b1 initially.
  
Initial area of the sheet, A1  a1 b1 Thus,   or  :  :   1: 2 : 3
1 2 3
Let the temperature is increased by 1 K 15. Discuss the anomalous expansion of water.
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Give its practical importance.

Final area of the sheet is,
Almost all liquids expand on being heated but
A2  a1 1     b1 1   
water behaves in a peculiar manner.
A2  a1 b1 1   
2
When the water at 0 C is heated, its volume

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A2  A1 1  2   … (1) decreases and hence its density increases, until

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
its temperature reaches 4 C . Above 4 C , The specific heat of a substance is defined as
the volume increases and hence its density the amount of heat energy required to increase
the temperature of unit mass of the substance
deceases. Thus water at 4 C has the
by 1 K or 1 C .
maximum density.
SI Unit : J kg 1 K 1
This anomalous expansion of water has a
Thermal capacity:
favourable effect on aquatic life.
The thermal capacity of a substance is defined

Since the density of water is maximum at 4 C ,
as the amount of heat energy required to
water at the bottom of the lake remains at increase the temperature of whole mass of the
4 C even it freezes at the top surface. This substance by 1 K or 1 C .
allows the marine animals to remain alive and
SI Unit : J K 1
move freely near the bottom.
Thermal capacity of a substance of mass
If water did not have this property, lakes and
m and specific heat c is equal to m c .
ponds would freeze from bottom up, which
would destroy entire aquatic and plant life. Thus, the specific heat of a substance can also
be defined as the thermal capacity per unit
16. Define (a) specific heat and (b) thermal
mass of the substance.
capacity of a substance.
Specific heat: Specific heat of gases:
For a given material, the amount of heat There are two specific heats of a gase, namely
 specific heat at constant volume  cV 
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required to raise its temperature is directly
proportional to  specific heat at constant pressure  cP 
 its mass
Specific heat at constant volume is defined as
 increase in its temperature
the amount of heat energy required to raise
If Q is the amount of heat energy required to the temperature of unit mass of gas by 1 K
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raise the temperature of a substance of mass keeping its volume constant.

m from T1 to T2 , then
Specific heat at constant pressure is defined as
Q  m T2  T1   Q  m T the amount of heat energy required to raise
Q  c m T the temperature of unit mass of gas by 1 K
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c  specific heat of a substance keeping its pressure constant.

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
When the gas is heated at constant volume, the energy and the cold substance gains that heat
entire amount of heat energy supplied to the energy.
gas is utilised in increasing its internal energy This exchange of heat energy takes place until
(temperature). they attain the thermal equilibrium.
However, at constant pressure, the amount of At thermal equilibrium,
heat energy supplied to the gas is utilised in
heat lost  heat gained
increasing its internal energy and also to do
work against the external pressure. Let a hot substance of mass m1 of specific heat
As a result, more heat energy is required to c1 at temperature T1 is mixed with a cold

raise the temperature of unit mass of gas substance of mass m2 of specific heat c2 at
through 1 K at constant pressure than at
temperature T2 are mixed together.
constant volume.
Let T be the temperature of the mixture at
i.e., cP is always greater than cV . thermal equilibrium, then
Instead of unit mass, if 1 mol is considered, the m1 c1 T1  T   m2 c2 T  T2 

corresponding specific heats are called molar
Calorimeter:
specific heats and are denoted by CP and CV .
It is a device used for the measuring the heat
i.e., CP  M cP and CV  M cV energy.
M  molecular weight of the substance 18. What is change of state of a substance?
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CP  CV  R - Mayer’s equation Explain.
The transition of a substance from one state to
17. What is calroimetry? State and explain the
another is called a change of state.
principle of calorimetry.
Calorimetry: The common changes of state are,
Calorimetry is a technique of measuring heat  Melting of a solid
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energy.
solid  
heat
 liquid
Its basic principle is the law of conservation of
 Vaporisation of a liquid
heat energy.
liquid  
heat
 vapour
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When a hot substance is mixed with the cold

substance, hot substance looses the heat  Consensation of vapour
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
vapour  
cool
 liquid 20. Define the following terms: (a) latent heat (b)
latent heat of fusion and (c) latent heat of
 Freezing of a liquid
vapourisation.
liquid  
cool
 solid
Latent heat:
19. Define the following terms: (a) melting (b) It is the amount of heat required to convert
fusion (c) melting point (d) boiling point (e) unit mass of the substance from its one state
sublimation to another without the change in temperature.
Melting: Latent heat of fusion:
The change of state from solid to liquid is It is the amount of heat required to convert
called melting. unit mass of a solid into its liquid at its melting
Fusion: point without the change in temperature.
The change of state from liquid to soild is Latent heat of vapourisation:
called fusion. It is the amount of heat required to convert
Melting point: unit mass of a liquid into its vapour at its
The temperatue at which solid and the liquid boiling point without the change in
are in thermal equilibrium is called melting temperature.
point.
Note:
The melting point at standard atmospheric  Latent heat of fusion of ice
pressure is called its normal melting point.  3.36 105 J kg 1
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Boiling point:  Latent heat of vapourisation of water
The temperatue at which liquid and the vapour  22.6 105 J kg 1
are in thermal equilibrium is called boiling
21. What is the effect of pressure on melting point
point.
of substance? What is regelation? Explain.
The boiling point at standard atmospheric The melting point of a solid that expand on
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pressure is called its normal boiling point. melting will increase with the increase in
Sublimation: pressure.
The change of state from solid to vapour e.g.: paraffin wax, phosphorous, sulphur
without passing through the liquid state is
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called sublimation.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
The melting point of a solid that contract on  At 1 atm pressure, the boiling point of water is
melting will decrease with the increase in
100 C . At 2 atm pressure, the boiling point
pressure.
of water is 128 C .
e.g.: ice, bismuth cast iron
 Pressure inside a pressure cooker is increased
Regelation:
much above the atmospheric pressure.
The phenomenon in which ice melts when
This increases the boiling point. Hence the
pressure is increased and again freezes when
vegetables are cooked inside the pressure
pressure is removed is called regelation.
cooker in a shorter time.
Take a slab of ice and support it on two wooden
 The atomospheric pressure at mountains is
blocks. Take a metallic wire and attach two
much lower than that at plains. Hence the
heavy weights at its ends. Put the wire over the
water boils at a temperature much lower than
slab. (as shown in figure)
100 C . Therefore cooking is difficult at
mountains.
22. What are the three modes of transfer of heat?

Explain.
There are three methods of heat transmission,
It is seen that the wire gradually cuts its way namely
through the ice without cutting into two
 Conduction
pieces.
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It is the process of transmission of heat in a
Just below the wire, ice melts at a lower body, without the actual movement of its
temperature due to increase in pressure. particles.
When the wire has passed, water above it
Solids are heated by the process of
freezes again. Thus the wire passes through the
conduction.
slab and the slab does not split.
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 Convection
Note:
It is the process of transmission of heat in a
 The boiling point of a liquid increases with the
medium, with the actual movement of its
increase in pressure.
particles.
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It is possible in fluids (liquids and gases)

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 Radiation Isothermal surface:
It is the process of transmission of heat Any surface of a rod whose all points are at the
without the aid of any intervening medium. same temperature is known as isothermal
surface.
We receive heat from the sun by this
process. The direction of heat flow is
perpendicular to isothermal surface

Conduction and convection are slow
processes while radiation is a very fast Temperature gradient:
process. The difference in temperature per unit

distance in a substance at a steady state is
23. What do you mean by (a) variable state and (b)
called temperature gradient.
steady state (c) isothermal surface? Define
temperature gradient. Temperature gradient is a constant along the
Consider a metal rod MN heated at one end rod.
M . Heat flows from hot end M to the cold If T1 and T2 are the temperature of two
end N by conduction.
isothermal surfaces separated by a distance d ,
then
T1  T2
temperature gradient 
d
SI Unit: K m1
Variable state:
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The rod is said to be in the variable state, when 24. What is thermal conductivity? State the laws
the temperature of every cross section of the of thermal conductivity.
rod increases with time. The ability of a conductor to transfer heat is

known as its thermal conductivity.
Steady state:
The rod is said to be in the steady state, when Consider a rectangular block of some material
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the temperature of every cross section of the of cross sectional area A and thickness d .
rod becomes constant but the temperature at Let the two surfaces are maintained at steady
different points along the rod have different temperatures T1 and T2 respectively.
values.
Page 95
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Note:
 K is infinite for perfect conductor and is zero
for perfect insulator.
Q K A T1  T2 
 
t d
Q T1  T2 

t  d 
 
The amount of heat Q conducted is  K A
directly proportional to Q
 H  heat current
t
 area of cross section  A 
 temperature difference T1  T2  The flow of heat per unit time is called
heat current.
 time for which heat conducted  t 
SI Unit: J s 1 or W
and is inversely proportional to
 d 
 separation between the surfaces  d     RH  thermal resistance
 K A 
A T1  T2  t The ratio of temperature difference
i.e., Q
d
between the ends of the conductor to the
K A T1  T2  t heat current through it is called thermal

or Q
d resistance.
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K  coefficient of thermal conductivity SI Unit: K W 1
When, A  1 m2 , T1  T2   1 K , t 1 s & 25. Write a note on sea breeze and land breeze.
d  1 m then QK. The specific heat of water is greater than that of

soil. So during the day time, the air above the
The coefficient of thermal conductivity of a
land is heated faster than air above the sea.
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material is defined as the amount of heat

flowing per second through a unit cube, when The air above the land expands and rises. Its
the temperature difference between the two place is taken up by the colder air from sea.
faces is 1 K . This is called sea breeze.

Page 96
SI Unit: J s 1 m1 K 1 or W m1 K 1

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Experiments shows that the thermal radiation
are electromagnetic radiation having frequency
lesser than that of light.
Properties of thermal radiation:
 They are electromagnetic waves
 They are transverse in nature

During the night, the air above the land gets
 They travel through vacuum with the velocity of
cooled faster than air above the sea.
light
The air above the sea expands and rises. Its
 They travel along straight lines
place is taken up by the colder air from land.
 They undergoes reflection and refraction
This is called land breeze.
 They exhibit interference, diffraction and
polarization
 It doesn’t affect the medium through which it

passes
 Its wavelength ranges from 800 nm to
40000 nm
26. What is thermal radiation? Give its important  When a body absorbs it, it becomes hot
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properties.
 It obeys inverse square law
The thermal energy radiated by a hot body is
27. State and explain Newton’s law of cooling.
called radiant energy or thermal radiation.
Derive the relation, loge T  T0    K t  C .
Every body above 0 K emits thermal radiation
Newton’s law of cooling:
continuously.
The rate of cooling of a body is directly
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E.g.: radiation emitted by red-hot iron

proportional to the excess temperature of the
light from a filament lamp
body over its surroundings, when the
When the thermal radiation incident on a body, temperature difference is small.
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a part of it is absorbed and the temperature of

the body increases.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
If T and T0 are the temperatures of the body dT  k 
  K dt K  
and the surroundings respectively, then T  T0   m c
dQ On integrating on both sides,

  T  T0 
dt
dT
dQ  T  T    K  dt
  k T  T0  0
dt
loge T  T0    K t  C
k  cooling constant
Cooling constant k depends on the area and The graph of
nature of the surface of the body. loge T  T0  versus t is
Let m be the mass and c be the specific heat a straight line which
of the body at temperature T . verifies Newton’s law of

cooling.
Let T0 be the temperature of the surroundings.
The graph of T versus t is a curve.
If the temperature of the body falls by small
It clearly shows
amount dT in time dt , then the amount of
that the rate of
heat lost is
cooling is higher
dQ  m c dT
initially and then
Rate of loss of heat is given by decreases as the

temperature of the
dQ dT
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mc … (1) body decreases.
dt dt
28. Define (a) reflectance (b) absorptance and (c)
From Newton’s law of cooling,
transmittance. How are they related?
dQ
  k T  T0  … (2) Reflectance:
dt
It is the fraction of the incident energy
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Using (1) in (2), reflected by the body.

dT
mc  k T  T0  Absorptance:
dt
It is the fraction of the incident energy
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dT k absorbed by the body.

 dt
T  T0  mc
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Transmittance: Emissivity of a surface is the ratio of emissive
It is the fraction of the incident energy power of a body to the emissive power of black
transmitted by the body. body at the same temperature.
Let Q be the amount of radiant energy The total amount of thermal energy radiated by
incident on the body. Suppose the part R is a body depends on the surface area, its
reflected, A is absorbed and T is transmitted. temperature and its nature.
Then, R  AT  Q 30. What is a black body? How can it be realised in

practice?
Dividing on both sides by Q ,
Black body:
R A T A perfectly black body is one, which absorbs all
  1
Q Q Q the radiation falling on it and capable of
r  a  t 1 emitting absorbed radiation when heated.
reflectance  absorptance  transmittance  1 A black body is a perfect absorber as well as

perfect emitter.
29. Define (a) absorptive power (b) emissive
power and (c) emissivity. A surface coated with lampblack is a close
Absorptive power: approximation to a perfectly black body.
Absorptive power or absorptivity is the ratio of Fery’s black body:

the amount of thermal radiation absorbed by It consists of a double walled, hollow metallic
the body to the total amount of radiation sphere with a fine hole. Its inner surface is
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incident on it in a given interval of time. coated with lampblack and outer surface is
Absorptivity depends on the nature of the polished.
surface. A polished surface is a poor absorber.

Absorptive power of the blackbody is 1 .
Emissive power:
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The emissive power of a body at a given The space between the walls is evacuated to
temperature is the total energy radiated per minimise the loss of heat due to convection. A
second per unit area. pointed projection is fixed opposite to the hole
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Emissivity: to prevent the direct reflection.

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
When a radiation enters through hole, it suffers   Stefan’s constant
multiple reflections on the inner wall and finally
  5.672 10 8 W m 2 K  4
it is absorbed.
Note:
When it is used as a radiator, the sphere is
 Stefan’s law is true only for black body. If the
heated suitably. It starts emitting the absorbed
body is not a perfectly black body, then
radiation.
E  e  T4
31. State and explain Kirchhoff’s law.
Kirchhoff’s law: e  emissivity of the body
At any given temperature, for any wavelength,
 If the black body at temperature T is
the ratio of the emissive power to the
surrounded by another blackbody at
absorptive power of any body is a constant and
temperature T0 , then
is equal to the emissive power of the
blackbody. E   T 4  T04 
If e and a are the emissive and absorptive


For other bodies, E  e  T 4  T04 
power of a body for a wavelength  , then
33. Explain the distribution of energy in the black
e
 E body spectrum.
a
The distribution of energy among the different
But E  1  e  a wavelengths of the thermal radiation of black
body is as shown in the graph given below.
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Hence, good emitters are good absorbers.
32. State and explain Stefan’s law.

Stefan’s law:
The total energy radiated per second per unit
area of a perfectly black body is directional to GSGPrasad
the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
If E is the energy radiated per second per unit

area of a perfectly black body at a temperature Experimental results:
T , then  At a given temperature, the black body emits
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E T4 or E   T4 continuous range of wavelengths

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 The energy distribution is non-uniform. For a Each quantum carries a definite amount of
particular wavelength  m , energy emitted is energy given by, E  h f
maximum h  Planck’s constant

f  frequency of the radiation
 Energy for a given wavelength increases with
increase in temperature 36. What is greenhouse effect? Explain.
It is the phenomenon which keeps the earth’s
 The wavelength  m of the most intense
surface warm at night.
radiation decreases with the increase in
temperature The radiation from the sun heats up the earth.
Due to its lower temperature, the earth re-
 The area under the curve represents the total
radiates it mostly in the IR region. These IR
energy emitted for a given temperature and is
radiations cannot pass through the lower
proportional to fourth power of absolute
atmosphere. They get reflected back by gas
temperature
molecules and low lying clouds. These reflected
34. State and explain Wein’s displacement law.
radiations helps to keep earth warm at night.
Wein’s displacement law:
The wavelength of the most intense radiation
is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature of the body.
1
i.e.,  m  or m T  constant  b
T
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b  Wein’s constant
b  2.889 10 3 m K
 Wein’s displacement law is used to determine
the temperature of heavenly bodies such as
Sun, Moon, stars etc
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35. State and explain Planck’s law.

Planck’s law:
The emission or absorption of radiation is not a
Page 101
continuous process. It takes place in discrete

units known as quanta or photon.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Unit – VIII Chapter – 12  Thermodynamic variables:
THERMODYNAMICS The quantities like pressure, volume and
temperature which determine the
01. What is thermodynamics? Define commonly
thermodynamic state of a system are called
used terms in thermodynamics.
thermodynamic variables.
It is a branch of Physics that deals with the
conversion of heat into mechanical work and  Thermodynamic state:
vice versa. The condition of a system determined by
its thermodynamic variables is called
Some definitions:
thermodynamic state.
 Thermodynamic system:
An assembly of very large number of  Equation of state:
particles having certain values of pressure, The mathematical relation between the
volume and temperature is called pressure, volume and temperature of a
thermodynamic system. thermodynamic system is called its
equation of state.
 Surroundings or Environment:
Everything outside the system which can  Thermodynamic equilibrium:
have a direct effect on the system is called A system is said to be in thermodynamic
its surroundings. equilibrium, if the thermodynamic
variables of the system do not change with
 Open system:
time.
An open system is one in which the matter
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as well as energy may be exchanged with  Mechanical equilibrium:
the surroundings. The system is said to be in mechanical
equilibrium if there is no unbalanced force
 Closed system:
in its interior or between the system and
A closed system is one in which only energy
surroundings.
may be exchanged with the surroundings
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and not the matter.  Thermal equilibrium:

The system is said to be in thermal
 Isolated closed system:
equilibrium if the temperature of every
In an isolated closed system is one in which
part of the system and the surroundings is
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no matter and energy are exchanged with

same.
the surroundings.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 Chemical equilibrium: 02. State and explain zeroth law of
The system is said to be in chemical thermodynamics.
equilibrium if the chemical composition is Statement:
same throughout the system. If two systems A and B are separately in
thermal equilibrium with a third system C ,
 Heat:
then A and B are also in thermal equilibrium
Heat is the energy transferred between a
with each other.
system and its surroundings because of
temperature difference only without the Two systems A and B are separated by an
involvement of mechanical forces. adiabatic wall (through which heat does not
flow). They are separated from system C by a
 External work:
diathermic wall (through which heat can flow).
Work is said to be done if there is a transfer
The systems A , B and C will reach thermal
of energy between a system and its
equilibrium separately.
surroundings under the influence of
mechanical forces but without difference of Thus if two systems A and B are separately in
temperature. thermal equilibrium with C , then
TA  TC and TB  TC
 Internal energy:
Internal energy is the sum of kinetic and This shows that TA  TB i.e., the systems A
potential energies of the particles of the and B are also in thermal equilibrium with
system. each other.
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It is denoted by U . The zeroth law introduces a concept of
Sign convention: temperature.
 Heat absorbed by a system is positive. Temperature of a body is that physical quantity
Heat given out by a system is negative. which has the same value for all the systems
 Work done by a system is positive. which are in thermal equilibrium with each
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Work done on a system is negative. other.
 The increase in internal energy of a system 03. What is an indicator diagram? What is its
is positive. importance?
Page 103
The decrease in internal energy of a system Find the expression for the work done during
is negative. the expansion of gas.

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
A graphical representation of the state of the Consider n mole of an ideal gas contained in a
system with the help of two thermodynamic cylinder of cross sectional area A having
variables is called an indicator diagram. conducting walls and provided with frictionless
movable piston. Let P be the pressure of the
A graph drawn between the pressure P and
gas.
volume V of a gas under thermodynamic
process is called P  V diagram. Let the gas expand isothermally from the initial
The area under the P V diagram is state  P1 , V1  to the final state  P2 , V2  .
numerically equal to the work done by the The total work done will be
system or on the system.
V2
Expression for the work done: Wiso   P dV

V1
Consider an ideal gas contained in a cylinder of
cross sectional area A and provided with For n mole of an ideal gas,
frictionless movable piston. Let P be the n RT

PV  n RT or P
pressure of the gas. V
Force exerted by the gas on the piston is V2

n RT
F  P A
 Wiso  
V1
V
dV
Work done by the gas when the piston moves V2

1
through a small distance dx is Wiso  n R T 
V1
V
dV
dW  F  dx  P  A  dx
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Wiso  n R T ln V V2
V
dW  P  dV dV  change in volume 1
The total work done by the gas when its volume Wiso  n R T ln V2  ln V1 
increases from V1 to V2 will be
V 
V2 Wiso  n R T ln  2 
W   P dV  V1 
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V1
V 
04. Derive the expression for the work done in an Wiso  2.303 n R T log  2 
isothermal process.  V1 
An isothermal process is one in which the For isothermal process,

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pressure and volume of the system change but V2 P1

P1 V1  P2 V2 or 
the temperature remains constant. V1 P2
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
P 1 
K V1  K V2 
  1   1
 Wiso  2.303 n R T log  1  Wadi 

 P2   1  
05. Derive the expression for the work done in an For adiabatic process,
adiabatic process. K  P1 V1  P2 V2

An adiabatic process is one in which the
1 
P1 V1 V1  P2 V2 V2 
  1   1
pressure, volume and temperature of the  Wadi 
 1  
system change but there is no exchange of
heat between the system and surroundings. 1
Wadi   P1 V1  P2 V2 
 1
Consider n mole of an ideal gas contained in a
cylinder of cross sectional area A having For n mole of an ideal gas,
insulating walls and provided with frictionless P1 V1  n R T1 and P2 V2  n R T2
movable piston. Let P be the pressure of the
1
gas.  Wadi   n R T1  n R T2 
 1
Let the gas expand adiabatically from the initial
nR
state  P1 , V1 , T1`  to the final state  P2 ,V2 , T2  . Wadi  T1  T2 
 1
The total work done will be Note:
V2  Work done in an isobaric process:
Wadi   P dV
An isobaric process is one in which the
V1
pressure of the system remains constant.
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For an adiabatic change,
In such a process, the work done by n mole of
PV  K or P  K V  gas when its state changes from  P,V1 , T1  to
V2 V2  P,V2 , T2  is
 Wadi   K V 
dV  K  V 
dV
V1 V1 W  P V2  V1  or W  P T2  T1  GSGPrasad

V2
 V  1  Work done in an isochoric process:
Wadi K  
    1V1 An isochoric process is one in which the
volume of the system remains constant.
K    1
V2  V1 
  1
Wadi 
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  1   When the volume of a system remains constant,

work done by the system is zero. W 0
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
06. State and explain first law of thermodynamics. From the first law of thermodynamics,
Statement:
dQ  dU  dW
In a thermodynamic process, the net heat
dQ  amount of heat given to the system
absorbed by the system is equal to the sum of
the increase in the internal energy of the dU  increase in the internal energy
system and the external work done by it. dW  external work done by the system
If dQ is the amount of heat given to a system, Application of first law:

 For Isothermal process:
dU is the increase in the internal energy and
It is a process in which the temperature
dW is the external work done by the system,
remains constant.
then
Since the temperature remains constant,
dQ  dU  dW
the change in the internal energy dU  0 .
The first law of thermodynamics is based on the
From first law of thermodynamics,
law of conservation of energy.
dQ  dU  dW
Sign convention:
dQ  0  dW
 When heat is absorbed by a system, dQ is
taken as positive. dQ  dW
When heat is rejected by a system, dQ is
i.e., the entire heat absorbed by the system
taken as negative is converted into external work.
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When work is done by a system, dW is  Boiling of liquid
taken as positive  Melting of ice or wax
When work is done on a system, dW is
 Adiabatic process:
taken as negative
It is a process in which no heat enters or
 When the internal energy increases, dU is leaves the system.
taken as positive
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Since no heat is supplied to the system, the

When the internal energy decreases, dU is amount of heat supplied, dQ  0 .
taken as negative
07. Write a note on application of first law of
Page 106
dQ  dU  dW
thermodynamics to different processes.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
0  dU  dW  Isobaric process:
It is a process in which the pressure
dU   dW
remains constant.
i.e., the change in the internal energy is
In an isobaric process, none of the
equal to the external work done.
quantities dQ , dU and dW is zero. But
When the work is done by the system,
work done dW  P dV , where dV is the
internal energy decreases by an amount
increase in the volume.
equal to the work done by it.
When the work is done on the system,
internal energy increases by an amount dQ  dU  dW
equal to the work done on it. dQ  dU  P dV

 Bursting of an automobile tube inflated
For 1 mol of an ideal gas,
with air
 Propagation of sound waves in a gas dQ  CP dT ,
 Isochoric process: dU  CV dT and

It is a process in which the volume remains
dW  P dV  R dT
constant.
Since the volume remains constant, the  CP dT  CV dT  R dT
work done dW  0 .
CP  CV  R
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CP  CV  R - Mayer’s equation
dQ  dU  dW
 Heating of liquid at atmospheric
dQ  dU  0
pressure
dQ  dU  Heating of gas at constant pressure
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i.e., the entire heat absorbed by the system  Cyclic process:

is utilised in increasing the internal energy In a cyclic process, the system undergoes a
of the system. series of changes and finally returns to the
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 Boiling of liquid initial state.
 Melting of solid into liquid

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Hence the change in the internal energy, 09. What is a heat engine? Explain its working
dU  0 . principle. Define its efficiency.
A heat engine is a machine that continuously
converts heat energy into mechanical work.
dQ  dU  dW
The essential parts of any heat engine are the
dQ  0  dW
 source of heat (a hot body)
dQ  dW
 sink of heat (a cold body)
i.e., the entire heat absorbed by the system  working substance
is converted into external work.
In a heat engine, the working substance absorbs
08. Distinguish between isothermal and adiabatic heat from the source. A part of it is converted
process. into external work and the remaining is
Isothermal process Adiabatic process rejected into the sink. Finally, it returns to its
Temperature remains Temperature does not initial state.
constant remains constant
Since the working substance attains its initial
Exchange of heat No exchange of heat
state, the change in its internal energy is zero.
The system is thermally The system is thermally
conducting to the insulated Thus by performing the same cycle over and
from the
surroundings over, work can be extracted continuously.
surroundings
The changes occur The changes occur Efficiency of heat engine:
slowly quickly It is defined as the ratio of heat converted into
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No change in the There is a change in the work in a complete cycle to the total heat
internal energy internal energy absorbed from the source.
Specific heat becomes Specific heat becomes
infinite zero
The equation of state is The equation of state is
P V  constant P V   constant
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Slope of P  V graph is Slope of P  V graph is

comparatively small comparatively large Let Q1 be the amount of heat absorbed by the
Work done is Work done is
working substance from the source and Q2 be
V 
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nR
Wiso  n R T ln  2  Wadi  T1  T2  the heat rejected to the sink.
 V1   1
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Then, heat converted into work is temperature T2 and absorbs heat from the
W  Q1  Q2 working substance.
 Working substance
work done
efficiency 
heat absorbed It is an ideal gas taken in a cylinder fitted
with a smooth and frictionless piston. The
W Q1  Q2 Q2
  or   1 walls of the cylinder are perfectly non-
Q1 Q1 Q1
conducting and the base of the cylinder is
If T1 and T2 are the temperature of the source perfectly conducting.
and the sink respectively, it can be shown that  Insulating stand
T2 It is a perfectly non-conducting stand.
  1
T1
It follows from the above expression that the

greater the difference in temperature of the
source and the sink, greater will be the
efficiency.
10. Write a note on working of a Carnot’s engine.

It is an ideal heat engine. It was an idea of Sadi
11. Derive the expression for efficiency of a
Carnot. It is a hypothetical engine free from all
Carnot’s engine in terms of heat and
losses.
temperature.
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The essential parts of Carnot’s heat engine are Carnot’s cycle:
Carnot’s cycle is a sequence of four reversible
 Source
operations on the working substance.
It is a hot body of infinite thermal capacity.
It is maintained at higher temperature T1 Stage – 1:
and supplies heat to the working Isothermal expansion

GSGPrasad
substance. The cylinder containing the working substance

at temperature T1 is placed on the source. The
 Sink
gas is allowed to expand isothermally.
It is a cold body of infinite thermal
Page 109
It is represented by the curve AB .

capacity. It is maintained at lower
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
If Q1 is the amount of heat absorbed from the Stage – 3:
source and W1 is the work done by the gas in Isothermal compression

The cylinder is then placed on the sink. The gas
isothermal expansion, then
is compressed isothermally. During this process
V 
W1  Q1  n R T1 ln  2  … (1) the gas rejects an amount of heat Q2 to the
 V1 
sink.
W1  Q1  area ABGEA
It is represented by the curve CD .
If W3 is the work done on the gas in isothermal
compression, then
V 
W3  Q2  n R T2 ln  3  … (3)
 V4 
W3  Q2  area CHFDC
Stage – 4:
Adiabatic compression
The cylinder is then placed on the stand and is
Stage – 2: compressed adiabatically till it returns to its
Adiabatic expansion initial state.
The cylinder is removed from the source and It is represented by the curve DA .
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placed on the stand. The gas is allowed to
If W4 is the work done on the gas in adiabatic
expand adiabatically till its temperature falls to
compression, then
T2 .
n R T1  T2 
It is represented by the curve BC . W4  … (4)
 1
If W2 is the work done by the gas in adiabatic
W4  area DFEAD
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expansion, then
Net work done by the gas per cycle is
n R T1  T2 
W2  … (2) W  W1  W2   W3  W4 
 1
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W2  area BCHGB W  W1  W3  W2  W4

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
W   Q1  Q2  On dividing (5) by (6),
Also, T1 V21 T2 V31 V2 V3

 or 
T1 V11 T2 V41 V1 V4
W  area ABGEA  area BCHGB
 area CHFDC  area DFEAD T2
Hence,   1 
T1
W  area ABCDA
Thus, efficiency of a Carnot’s engine depends
The closed loop ABCDA represents the
only on the temperatures of the source and the
reversible Carnot’s cycle.
sink and is independent of the nature of the
The area within the loop represents the net working substance.
amount of work done by the gas in one cycle.
12. With a neat labelled diagram explain the
Efficiency of Carnot’s engine: working of a refrigerator.
It is defined as the ratio of the net work done Define co-efficient of performance.
per cycle by the engine to the amount of heat A refrigerator is a machine which transfers
absorbed per cycle by the working substance heat from a cold environment into a warm
from the source. environment.
net work done It is a heat engine working in the reverse order.

efficiency 
heat absorbed It is also known as heat pump.
W Q1  Q2 Q2
  or   1
Q1 Q1 Q1
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V 
n R T2 ln  3 
  1  V4 
V 
n R T1 ln  2 
 V1 
In a refrigerator, the working substance absorbs
For adiabatic expansion,
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a certain amount of heat Q2 from the cold
T1 V21  T2 V31 … (5) body at lower temperature T2 with an amount
of work W is done on it.

For adiabatic compression,
Page 111
It rejects an amount of heat Q1 to the hot body

T1 V11  T2 V41 … (6)
at higher temperature T1 .
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Co-efficient of performance: Clausius statement
It is defined as the ratio of amount of heat No process is possible whose sole result is the
removed per cycle to the work done by the transfer of heat from a colder object to a
external agency to remove it. hotter object.
Let Q2 be the amount of heat extracted by the This is applicable to a refrigerator. It indicates
working substance from the cold reservoir and that a working substance can absorb heat from
W be the work done on it. a cold body only if the work is done on it. If no
external work is done, the refrigerator will not
The heat released to the hot reservoir is
work.
Q1  Q2  W or W  Q1  Q2
According to the second law,
heat removed  The efficiency of the heat engine can never
coefficient of performance 
work done be unity
Q2 Q2  The coefficient of performance of a

 
W Q1  Q2 refrigerator can never be infinite
1 1 1 14. State the limitations of first law and second

  
Q1 T1 T1  T2
1 1 law of thermodynamics.
Q2 T2 T2
Limitations of first law:
T2 1   It does not indicate the direction of

 or 
T1  T2  transfer of heat
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13. State and explain the second law of  It does not tell anything about the
thermodynamics. conditions under which heat can be
Kelvin – Planck Statement: converted into mechanical work
No process is possible whose sole result is the
 It does not indicate the extent to which
absorption of heat from a reservoir and the
heat energy can be converted into
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complete conversion of the heat into work.

mechanical work
This is applicable to a heat engine. It indicates
Limitations of second law:
that a working substance cannot convert all the
 It cannot be proved directly
heat absorbed from the source into mechanical
Page 112
 It is applicable to cyclic process only

work. It must reject some heat to the sink.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Unit – IX Chapter – 13 At constant pressure, the volume of a given
KINETIC THEORY mass of gas increases or decreases by
01. State and explain Boyle’s law. 1/ 273.15 of its volume at 0 C for every
Statement: 1 C rise or fall of temperature.

At constant temperature, the volume of a
If V0 and Vt are the volumes of a given mass of
given mass of gas is inversely proportional to
its pressure. gas at 0 C and t C respectively, then
1  t 
i.e., V or PV K Vt  V0 1  
P  273.15 
K  proportionality constant 03. State and explain Gay Lussac’s law.

Statement:
If P1 and V1 are the initial pressure and volume
and P2 and V2 are their final values, then from mass of gas is directly proportional to its
Boyle’s law absolute temperature.
P1 V1  P2 V2 i.e., P  T or
P
K
T
02. State and explain Charles’ law.
Statement: K  proportionality constant
At constant pressure, the volume of a given If P1 and T1 are the initial pressure and
temperature and P2 and T2 are their final
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absolute temperature.
values, then from Gay Lussac’s law
V
i.e., V  T or K P1 P2
T 
T1 T2
K  proportionality constant
If V1 and T1 are the initial volume and mass of gas increases or decreases by
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temperature and V2 and T2 are their final 1/ 273.15 of its pressure at 0 C for every
values, then from Charles’ law 1 C rise or fall of temperature.
V1 V2
 If P0 and Pt are the pressure of a given mass of
Page 113
T1 T2
gas at 0 C and t C respectively, then
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 t  PV n RT
Pt  P0 1  
 273.15  This is perfect or ideal gas equation.
04. Derive perfect or ideal gas equation. Note:

It gives the relation between its pressure P , m
 n
M
volume V and the absolute temperature T of
m  mass of the gas
an ideal gas.
M  atomic or molecular mass of the gas
 An ideal gas is one which obeys the gas laws and
PV n RT PV n RT at all temperatures and
R  universal gas constant pressures.
R  8.31 J mol 1 K 1  Ideal gas equation is derived based on the

following assumptions
According to Boyle’s law, for a given mass of a
 Size of the gas molecules is negligibly
gas at constant temperature,
small
1  There is no intermolecular force of
V
P attraction amongst the molecules of the gas
According to Charles’ law, for a given mass of
 At low pressures and high temperatures, the
gas at constant pressure,
real gases like hydrogen, oxygen, helium,
V T nitrogen almost behave like an ideal gas.
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Combining the above two laws,  Universal gas constant is defined as the work
T PV done by or on a gas per mol per kelvin

V or  constant
P T  For 1 mol of a gas at STP,
For 1 mol of a gas, the constant has same value P0 V0
R
for all gases and is called universal gas constant T0
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and is denoted by R . Hence, 1.013 105  22.4  10 3

R
273.15
PV
R or PV RT R  8.31 J mol 1 K 1
T
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 Boltzmann’s constant,
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
R 8.31 In the above cases, we note that the behavior of
k   1.38 10 23 J K 1
N A 6.023 10 23
real gas approaches the ideal gas behavior for
low pressures and high temperatures.
05. Show graphically, the deviations of real gases
from ideal behavior. 06. Mention the assumptions of kinetic theory of
 A graph of  PV / nT  versus P for gases.
different temperatures  A gas consists of large number of identical

molecules which are rigid and elastic
spheres
 Their size is negligible compared with

average distance between the molecules
 They are in a state of continuous random

motion, moving in all directions with all
 A graph of P versus V for different
possible velocities
temperatures
 During their random motion, they collide
with one another and with the walls of
container
 They make perfectly elastic collisions with

each other and with the walls of container
which is almost instantaneous
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 They exert no force on each other except
during collisions
 A graph of T versus V for different
pressures  Between collisions, they travel in straight
lines with constant speed GSGPrasad
 They obey Newton’s laws of motion and

the density remains uniform throughout
the gas
07. Derive an expression for pressure of an ideal

Page 115
gas.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
The gas exerts pressure due to the continuous In small time interval t , the molecules which
collisions of its molecules with the walls of the lie in the volume  A vx t  only hit the wall.
container. On average, half of such molecules are moving
Consider an ideal gas enclosed in a cubical towards the wall and other half are moving
container. Let the sides of the cube are parallel away from the wall.
to the coordinate axes as shown in figure. The number of molecules hitting the wall in
time t
1
 A vx t n
2
Total momentum transferred to the wall in

time t is
1
Let m be the mass of each molecule and n be p  A vx t n  2 m vx
2
the number of gas molecules per unit volume.
p  n m vx2 A t
A molecule moving with velocity v , v , v 
x y z
Force exerted on the wall is
hits the wall of area A , perpendicular to the
x  axis . p n m vx2 A t
F   n m vx2 A
t t
As the collision is perfectly elastic, it rebounds
Pressure on the wall is
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with the same velocity.
F n m vx2 A
 
The velocity after collision is  vx , v y , vz . P 
A A
 n m vx2
The change in momentum of the molecule As the molecules move with different velocities,
  m vx  m vx   2 m vx vx2 is replaced by its average value vx2 . Hence GSGPrasad
By the conservation of momentum, the P  n m vx2

momentum imparted to the wall in each
As the gas is isotropic, the molecular velocities
collision  2 m vx are almost equally distributed in different
Page 116
directions. By symmetry,
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 
1 2 2 2 1 kinetic energy of per unit volume of the gas
vx2  v y2  vz2  vx  vx  vx  v 2
3 3 molecules.
v 2  mean square velocity of the molecules 09. Using Boyle’s law and Charles’ law, deduce the
1 ideal gas equation.

Hence, P  n m v2
3 Consider 1 mol of an ideal gas occupying a
1 volume V1 at pressure P1 and temperature T1 .

Also, P   v2   density of gas
3
Keeping the pressure constant at P1 , let the
08. Show that the pressure exerted by a gas is
temperature of the gas is increased to T2 . If V 
equal to two thirds of the average translational
is the volume of the gas, then from Charles’ law
kinetic energy per unit volume of the gas
molecules. V  T2
 … (1)
According to the kinetic theory of gases, the V1 T1
pressure exerted by a gas of density  and rms

Keeping the temperature constant at T2 , let the
velocity v is
pressure of the gas is increased to P2 . If V2 is
1
P  v2 the volume, then from Boyle’s law
3
V2 P1
Mass per unit volume of the gas    … (2)
V  P2
Average translational kinetic energy of per unit
Multiplying (1) and (2),
volume of the gas is
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V  V2 T2 P1 P1 V1 P2 V2
1    or 
K   v2 V1 V  T1 P2 T1 T2
2
1 PV PV
 v2 P 2  constant or R
P 3
   T T
K 1  v2 K 3
2 R  universal gas constant
GSGPrasad
2 R  8.31 J mol 1 K 1
P  K
3
PV RT - ideal gas equation
Hence, the pressure exerted by a gas is equal
Page 117

to two thirds of the average translational
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
PV n RT From (1) and (2),
10. Show that the average kinetic energy of a gas 2

K  R T
molecule is directly proportional to the 3
temperature of the gas. 3
K RT … (3)
Consider 1 mol of an ideal gas. 2
Let P , V , T and M be the pressure, volume, The average kinetic energy per molecule is
temperature and molecular mass of the gas
K
respectively. K N A  Avagadro number
NA
The density of the gas is
3 R
K T
M 2 NA

V
3
K kT … (4)
According to kinetic theory of gases, the 2
pressure exerted by the gas is
R
k  Boltzmann’s constant
1 NA
P  v2
3
Thus, the average kinetic energy per molecule
v  average velocity of gas molecules is proportional to the absolute temperature of
the gas. It is independent of pressure, volume
1 M 2 1
P v or P V  M v2 and nature of ideal gas.
3 V 3
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2 1 1 3
P V   M v2 K M v2  R T
3 2 2 2
1 3RT
But M v2  K v2 
2 M
K  average kinetic energy of 1 mol of gas 3RT

vrms  v 2  i.e., vrms  T
GSGPrasad
M
2
PV  K … (1) Thus, faster the motion of the molecules of the
3
gas, higher will be the kinetic energy and hence
The ideal gas equation for 1 mol of gas is
Page 118
higher will be the temperature of the gas.

PV RT … (2)
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Hence, the temperature of a gas is the measure independent translational motions and hence
of the average kinetic energy of its molecules. its degrees of freedom are 3 .
This is kinetic interpretation of temperature.
Here, N  1 , k  0
At T  0 , vrms  0
f 3 N k
Hence, absolute temperature is defined as that
f  3 1  0
temperature at which molecular motion is zero.
f 3
11. What are degrees of freedom of a gas
molecule? Find the degrees of freedom of (a) Diatomic gas:
monoatomic gas (b) diatomic gas and (c) A molecule of diatomic gas like H 2 , N 2 , O2 ,
triatomic gas. CO etc., consists of two atoms. It can have 3

Degrees of freedom: independent translational motions and 2
The number of independent co-ordinates independent rotational motions. Hence its
required to describe the configuration of a degrees of freedom are 5 .
system completely is called degrees of Here, N  2 , k  1
freedom.
f 3 N k
or
The degrees of freedom of a molecule are f  3 2 1
defined as the number of independent ways in
f 5
which a molecule can store energy.
Triatomic gas:
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The number of degrees of freedom of the
A molecule of triatomic gas like H 2O , SO2
system is
etc., consists of three atoms.
f 3 N k
If the molecule is non-linear it can have 3
N  number of particles in the system independent translational motions and 3
k  number of independent relations independent rotational motions. Hence its
GSGPrasad
between the particles degrees of freedom are 6 .
Monatomic gas: Here, N  3 , k  3

A molecule of monatomic gas like He , Ne ,
f 3 N k
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Ar etc., consists of one atom. It can have 3

f  3 3  3 or f 6
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
If the molecule is linear it can have 3 m  mass of the gas molecule
independent translational motions and 2 k  Boltzmann’s constant
independent rotational motions. Hence its T  absolute temperature of gas
degrees of freedom are 5 .
If vx2 , v y2 and vz2 are the components of mean
Here, N  3 , k  2
square velocity of gas molecule along three
f  3 3  2 or f 7 coordinate axes, then
12. State and prove the law of equipartition of v 2  vx2  vy2  vz2
energy.
Law of equipartition of energy: 1
2
 3

m vx2  v y2  vz2  k T
2
The total energy of dynamical system in
thermal equilibrium is equally distributed 1 1 1 3
m vx2  m v y2  m vz2  k T
among its various degrees of freedom and the 2 2 2 2
average energy distributed per molecule per As the molecular motion is random, there is no
degree of freedom being constant and is equal preferred direction of motion. So the average
to  k T / 2  . kinetic energy of each molecule along each of
the three axes is the same. Hence
k  Boltzmann’s constant
T  absolute temperature of gas 1 1 1
m vx2  m v y2  m vz2
2 2 2
Proof:
From the above equations,
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Consider 1 mol of monoatomic gas in thermal
equilibrium at temperature T . Each atom has 1 1 1 1

m vx2  m v y2  m vz2  k T
2 2 2 2
3 degrees of freedom due to 3 independent
translational motions. Thus, the average kinetic energy per molecule
According to the kinetic theory of gases, the per degree of freedom is  k T / 2  . GSGPrasad
average translational kinetic energy of a gas This is called the law of equipartition of energy.
molecule is given by
1 3
m v2  k T
2 2
Page 120
v 2  mean square velocity of molecule

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Unit – X Chapter – 14  2 
OSCILLATIONS f (t  T )  cos  (t  T ) 
 T 
01. What are periodic functions? Give examples.  2 2 
f (t  T )  cos  t T
Show that the cosine function is periodic.  T T 
Periodic function:  2 
f (t  T )  cos  t  2
Any function which repeats itself after a  T 
regular interval of time is called periodic 2
 
f (t  T )  cos  2   t
function.  T 
i.e., f t  T   f t  Since cos  2     cos 
2
 f  t  T   cos
Examples for Periodic function:
t
 Sine and cosine functions of fixed time T
period T (or frequency f ). f t  T   f t 
 2 
f (t )  cos   t   cos  t This shows that f  t  repeats itself after time
 T 
period T and hence it is a periodic function.
 2 
f (t )  sin   t   sin  t In general, periodic functions can be written as
 T 
 The linear combination of sine and cosine  2n 
f n  t   sin  t and
functions is also a periodic function with a  T 
period T .
 2n 
f n  t   cos  t
f  t   C sin   t   D cos   t   T 
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or
f  t   A sin   t   02. What is simple harmonic motion? Give

examples. Write the characteristics of SHM.
Where, A  C 2  D2 and
Simple harmonic motion (SHM):
D
1
  tan   A particle is said to have SHM, if it moves to
C
and fro about the mean position such that its
GSGPrasad
To show the cosine function is periodic:

acceleration is always directed towards the
 2 
Consider f (t )  cos  t ... (1) mean position and the magnitude of
 T 
acceleration is directly proportional to the
Replacing by t by (t  T ) in equation (1), we
Page 121
displacement from the mean position.

have
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Examples of SHM: Let  be its angular velocity.
 Vibrations of a stretched string
 Motion of the bob of a simple pendulum
 Oscillations of a loaded spiral spring
 Vibrations of the prongs of a tuning fork
 Oscillations of cork floating on water
Characteristics:
 The body moves to and fro about the mean
Draw PN , a perpendicular from the particle P
position
to the diameter YOY  . The point N is called
 The motion of the body is periodic
projection of P on the diameter.
 Acceleration of the body is directly
When the particle moves from X to Y on the
proportional to its displacement
circle, its projection N moves from O to Y .
 Acceleration is always directed towards the
As the particle moves from Y to X  , its
mean position
projection N moves from Y to O .
 The force producing the motion is always
directed towards the mean position Similarly, when the particle moves from X  to
 The velocity of the body is maximum at the X via Y  , its projection N moves from O to
equilibrium position and zero at extreme Y  and then from Y  to O .
positions This means, as the particle goes along a circular
 The acceleration of the body is maximum at
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path, the foot of the perpendicular N moves in
the extreme positions and zero at a straight line, to and fro about O i.e., the
equilibrium position straight line motion of N is simple harmonic.
03. Explain how the simple harmonic motion can 04. Derive the equation for simple harmonic
be represented as projection of uniform motion.
circular motion. Consider a particle P executing uniform
GSGPrasad
The simple harmonic motion can be circular motion in a circle of radius A .

represented as the projection of uniform
Let  be its angular velocity.
circular motion along a diameter of the circle.
Let a particle P starting from X rotates
Page 122
Consider a particle P executing uniform

through an angle  in time t .
circular motion in a circle of radius A .
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
05. Define the characteristics of simple harmonic
motion.
 Period: T 
It is the time taken to complete one

oscillation.
SI Unit: s
Then angular velocity of particle,
 Frequency:  f 

 or t It is the number of oscillations made in one
t
second.
The displacement y of the foot of the
SI Unit: s 1 or cps or Hz
perpendicular from P is given by
The frequency f and period T are related
y  ON
to each other by f  1/ T 
From  OPN ,
le
 Displacement:  y 
ON y
sin    sin   It is the distance of the particle from the
OP A
mean position at any instant.
y  A sin 
SI Unit: m
y  A sin   t 
 Linear displacement:
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If  is the phase constant or initial phase or When the body executes oscillatory motion
epoch, then along a straight line, its displacement from

the mean position at any instant is called
y  A sin   t  
its linear displacement.
This is the displacement equation of SHM.
The rate of change of linear displacement is GSGPrasad
Note: called linear velocity.

When the projection is taken on X  axis ,
 Angular displacement:
then the displacement x on the X  axis is
When the body executes oscillatory motion
given by
along an arc of a circle about a point, the
Page 123
x  A cos   t   angle described by the line joining the body

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
and the point, with the vertical at any From equation (1),
instant is called its angular displacement.
y
sin   t  
The rate of change of angular displacement A
is called angular velocity. Substituting in equation (2),
 Cycle:
A2  y 2
2
 y
It is one complete to and fro motion about v  A  1    v A
 A A2
the mean position.
v   A2  y 2 … (3)
 Amplitude:  A 
It is the maximum displacement of the Acceleration of a particle in SHM:
vibrating body on either side of the The acceleration of a particle executing SHM at
equilibrium position. any instant is the rate of change of its velocity

at that instant.
SI Unit: m
The acceleration of the particle at any instant
06. Derive an expression for velocity and
t is
acceleration of a particle in SHM.
dv
Velocity of a particle in SHM: a But v  A  cos   t 
The velocity of a particle executing SHM at any dt
instant is the rate of change of its displacement d

a  A  cos  t 
at that instant. dt 
a   2 A sin  t 
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The displacement of a particle executing SHM
at any instant t is given by
a   2 y
y  A sin   t  ... (1)
The negative sign indicates that the
The velocity of the particle at any instant t is acceleration is always directed towards the
dy d mean position.
  A sin   t 
GSGPrasad
v
dt dt 
Note:
v  A  cos   t   When the particle is at the mean position
 y  0 , the velocity is maximum and the

v  A  1  sin 2   t 
Page 124
... (2)
acceleration is zero.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
vmax   A   velocity amplitude 1 y
T  T  2
f a
 When the particle is at extreme position
 y   A , the velocity is zero and the displacement

T  2
acceleration is maximum. acceleration
amax   2 A  acceleration amplitude 08. Explain force law in SHM.

Acceleration of a particle executing SHM is
given by
a   2 y
From Newton’s second law, the force F acting

on a particle of mass m executing SHM is
F  ma
F   m 2 y
F k y … (1)
Where, k  m 2 ... (2)
The negative sign indicates that force is always

07. Derive the expression for the time period and
directed towards the mean position (the force
frequency of a particle executing SHM.
and displacement are oppositely directed)
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The magnitude of acceleration of a particle
Equation (1) is called force law for SHM.
executing SHM is given by
a SHM is the motion executed by a particle
a  2 y  2 
y subjected to a force, which is proportional to
negative of the displacement of the particle.
a a
   2 f 
GSGPrasad
y y From equation (2),
1 a k  m 2 k  force constant
 f 
2 y
k k
2   
Page 125
1 acceleration m m
f 
2  displacement
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
k 1
2 f  U k y2 But k  m 2
m 2
When a block of mass m attached to a spring of 1

U m 2 y 2
force constant k is made to oscillate, then the 2
frequency and the period of oscillation is given Kinetic energy:

by It is due to virtue of its motion.
1 k m Kinetic energy of the particle of mass m when

f  and T  2
2 m k its displacement is y is
09. Obtain an expression for potential energy and 1

K m v2
kinetic energy of a body executing SHM. 2
Potential energy: Where, v is the velocity of the particle at a
It is due to virtue of its position. displacement y .
According to force law in SHM,

But v   A2  y 2
F k y
m 2  A2  y 2 
1
K
The work done dW in displacing a particle 2
through dy against the restoring force F is
Total energy:
dW   F dy  dW  k y dy It is the sum of potential and kinetic energy of

the particle.
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The total work done W in displacing the
particle from 0 to y is E U  K
m 2 y 2  m 2  A2  y 2 
y y 1 1
W   dW  W   k y dy E
2 2
0 0
1
 y2
y
 y2 0   y2  E m 2  y 2  A2  y 2 
W k  k   k   2
GSGPrasad
2 0  2 2 2
1
E m 2 A2
1 2
W k y2
2 Total mechanical energy is independent of
Page 126
This work done is stored as the potential energy time. Thus the total mechanical energy is
U of the particle at displacement y . Hence, conserved.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
The variation of potential energy U , kinetic  The energy of the particle continuously
energy K and the total energy E with the interchanges between kinetic energy and
time and displacement is as shown in the the potential energy but the total energy
figure. remains same.
10. Obtain an expression for the period of

oscillation of a loaded spiral spring.
Consider a block of mass m attached to one
end of a light spring having force constant k .
The other end of the spring is fixed to a rigid

support. The block is placed on a frictionless
horizontal surface. (as shown in figure)
Note:
 Potential energy is maximum at the
extreme positions and zero at the mean
position.
 Kinetic energy is maximum at the mean When the block is pulled on one side and
position and zero at the extreme released, it executes SHM about mean position.
positions. The restoring force F acting on the block at
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 When the particle is at the mean position any instant t , when its displaced through a
 y  0 , then distance x is
U 0 and K
1
m 2 A2 F k x
2
From Newton’s second law,
The total energy is purely kinetic.
F ma  mak x
GSGPrasad
 When the particle is at extreme position
 y   A , the acceleration is maximum. But a   2 x
K 0 and U
1
m 2 A2  m   2 x    k x
Page 127
2
The total energy is purely potential.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
k k  If two springs of spring constants k1 and
2   
m m k2 are connected in series, then the
spring constant for the combination is

2 k

T m 1 1 1
 
kS k1 k2
Then the period of oscillation is given by
Then the period of oscillation is given by
m
T 2 … (1)
k m
T 2
kS
Note:
 Thus the time period is larger for larger When the springs are connected in series,
m and smaller k . then the period of oscillation increases.
 Let l be the extension in the spring  If two springs of spring constants k1 and
when a block of mass m is suspended k2 are connected in parallel, then the
from a light spring of force constant k . spring constant for the combination is
If the block is pulled slightly downward kP  k1  k2

and released, it executes SHM about Then the period of oscillation is given by
mean position.
m
T 2
Then restoring force due to the spring is kP
equal to weight of the block.
When the springs are connected in
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m l parallel, then the period of oscillation
k l  m g  
k g decreases.
Then the period of oscillation is given by 11. Obtain an expression for the period of
m oscillation of a simple pendulum.

T 2
k A simple pendulum is a point mass suspended
GSGPrasad
l from a rigid support by a light inextensible

T 2 … (2)
g string.
Page 128
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
- perpendicular to the string i.e., along the
tangent to the arc along which the bob
moves
This component, restore the bob towards its
mean position and serves as restoring force F .
F   m g sin 
Let m be the mass of the bob and l be the
When  is small, sin   
length of the pendulum.
In the mean position, the string is vertical.  F m g 

When the bob is pulled aside and released, it Linear displacement, x  l 
executes SHM along the arc as shown in the
x mgx
figure.   F 
l l
Let B be the position of the bob at any instant
But F  m a
t . Let  be the angular displacement and x be
mgx
the linear displacement of the bob. ma
l
There are two forces acting on the bob.
gx
a … (1)
 Weight m g of the bob l
- acting vertically downwards Since  g / l  is a constant for a given pendulum
 Tension T in the string at a given place, then a   x
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- acting towards the point of suspension Hence the motion of the bob is SHM.
The weight m g can be resolved into its The period of oscillation of simple pendulum is
rectangular components; given by
 m g cos  displacement x
T 2 2
GSGPrasad
- in line with the string and opposite to T acceleration a

The net radial force T  m g cos  causes From (1),
the bob to move along the circular arc x l
 (Considering only magnitude)
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a g
 m g sin 
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
l If the damping forces are small, the oscillations
T 2
g still remain approximately periodic.
The frequency of oscillation of simple The damping forces are velocity dependent.
pendulum is given by (viscous forces, air drag etc.,)
1 g
f 
2 l
Second’s pendulum:
A simple pendulum whose time period is two
second is called second’s pendulum.
The frequency of damped oscillator is
12. What are undamped and damped oscillations?
1 k b2
Explain. f 
2 m 4 m2
Undamped oscillations:
The oscillations whose amplitude remains m  mass of the body
constant with time are called undamped k  force constant
oscillations. b  damping coefficient
Such oscillations occur if frictional forces are The damping coefficient is positive and depends
absent. on the characteristics of the medium and size
and shape of the oscillating body.
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If the damping forces are small, then b  0 .
k
f  f
m
Damped oscillations:
Thus, the frequency of oscillation is almost
The oscillations whose amplitude goes on
equal to natural frequency.
decreasing with time are called Damped
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oscillations. The amplitude of damped oscillator is
bt
In real oscillating systems, frictional forces are 
A  A0 e 2m
always present that dissipate the energy

Page 130
continuously. The amplitude decreases exponentially with

time.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
13. What are free and forced oscillations? Explain. Examples:
Give examples.  Oscillations of table top when a stem of
Free oscillations: excited tuning fork is pressed against the
When the body is set into oscillations, it table top.
oscillates with a definite frequency.  Vibrations of a string of violin when a
The frequency depends on the mass violinist draws the bow against the strings.
distribution, elastic constants of the body. 14. What is resonance? Explain. Give examples.
In the absence of external forces, these Resonance:
oscillations are called free oscillations and the The phenomenon in which the amplitude of
corresponding frequency is called natural oscillation attains the maximum value when
frequency. the applied frequency is equal to the natural

frequency of the oscillator is called resonance.
Examples:
 oscillations of bob of a simple pendulum The frequency at which resonance takes place
is called resonant frequency.
 vibrations of a stretched string
 oscillations of a loaded spiral spring Examples:
 The paper rider placed on stretched string of
The frequency with which a body oscillates
a sonometer flies off due to the resonant
when left to itself is called its natural
oscillations of the string set by the vibrating
frequency.
tuning fork
The oscillations of a body, oscillating with its
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 The loud sound is heard due to resonant
natural frequency are called free oscillations.
oscillations of the air column set by the
Forced oscillations and Resonance: vibrating tuning fork
When an external periodic force is applied on a
15. Illustration the free, forced and resonant
body, the body will not oscillate with its natural
vibrations.
frequency, but oscillates with the frequency of
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Consider a set of five simple pendulums of

external periodic force. Such oscillations are
different lengths suspended from a common
called forced oscillations.
horizontal string as shown in the figure.
An induced oscillation of a body due to an
The pendulums (1) and (4) have the same
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external periodic force is called forced

lengths and the others have different lengths.
oscillation.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
If pendulum (1) is set into oscillations, the

energy from this gets transferred to the other
pendulums through the connecting string.
The connecting string carries the driving force

whose frequency is equal to the frequency of
pendulum (1).
The oscillations of pendulum (1) are free

oscillations.
The pendulum (4) has the same length as that

as pendulum (1) and hence its frequency of
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oscillation is same as that of pendulum (1). Its
oscillations are resonant oscillations.
The pendulums (2), (3) and (5) have different

lengths and hence their frequencies of
oscillations are different from that of pendulum
(1). Their oscillations are forced oscillations.
GSGPrasad
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I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Unit – X Chapter – 15 It is the time required to set up one complete
WAVES wave.
01. Distinguish between mechanical and Frequency:

electromagnetic waves. It is equal to the number of vibrations made by
Mechanical Waves Electromagnetic Waves the particle in one second as the wave passes
They require material They do not require through it.
medium for material medium for It is the number of waves produced in one
propagation propagation second.
Their velocity depends Their velocity depends
Wave velocity:
on the elasticity and on the permeability and
It is the distance travelled by the wave in one
density of the medium permittivity of the
second.
medium
Wavelength:
Their velocity is Their velocity is
It is the distance between any two consecutive
comparatively less comparatively very high
particles of the medium, which are in phase.
They may be They are transverse
longitudinal or waves only It is the distance travelled by the wave in its
transverse waves periodic time.
e.g., Water waves, e.g., Light waves, Angular wave number:
Sound waves, Radio waves, Heat waves It is 2  times the number of waves that can
Seismic waves etc., etc.,
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be accommodated in unit length.
It is also called as propagation constant.

02. Define the characteristics of a wave.
Amplitude: Phase:
It is the maximum displacement of any particle It is the fraction of the time period that has
of the medium from its equilibrium position elapsed since the particle last passed through GSGPrasad
when the wave passes through the medium. its mean position in the positive direction.
Period: Phase difference:
It is the time taken by the particle of the Phase difference between any two particles in
a wave determines how far one particle leads
Page 133
medium to complete one to and fro motion as

the wave passes through it. the other or lags behind the other.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
2
phase difference   path difference They can travel in solids, They can travel in solids

liquids and gases only
Particle velocity:
It is the rate of change of displacement of a The medium must The medium must
particle. possess bulk modulus possess rigidity modulus

for the propagation of for the propagation of
Particle acceleration:
these waves these waves
It is the rate of change of velocity of a particle.
They can’t be polarised They can be polarised
03. Derive the relation between velocity, e.g., Sound waves e.g., Waves on a string
wavelength and frequency of a wave.
Consider a wave of wavelength  , frequency
05. Mention the characteristics of a progressive
f propagating with a velocity v .
mechanical wave.
By definition,  It propagates in forward direction with a
distance travelled by the wave finite velocity
wave velocity =
time taken
 It transports energy
But wavelength  is the distance travelled by
 The particles of the medium execute SHM
the wave in its time period T .
with same amplitude and frequency

v or v f 
T  The particles of the medium pass through
04. Give the differences between longitudinal and their mean position one after the other
transverse waves.
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 They undergo reflection, refraction,
Longitudinal waves Transverse waves interference, diffraction etc.,
The particles of the
The particles of the
medium vibrate  There will be equal changes in pressure,
medium vibrate parallel
perpendicular to the strain and density at all points of the
to the direction of
direction of propagation medium
propagation of the wave
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of the wave 06. What is a progressive wave? Obtain the

They propagate by They propagate by expression for a progressive wave propagating
creating a series of creating a series of along the positive X  axis.
alternate rarefactions alternate crests and It is a continuous propagating disturbance.
Page 134
and compressions troughs

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
It is formed due to the continuous vibration of 2
Where, k  is called propagation constant.
the particle of the medium with a change of 
phase from particle to particle.
Note:
 When the wave is propagating along the
negative X  axis, then

y  a sin   t  k x 
 Different forms of equation of a
progressive wave:
Consider a particle at O vibrating simple
y  a sin   t  k x 
harmonically. Its displacement at any instant t
 x
is given by y  a sin   t  
 v
y  a sin   t 
 x
y  a sin 2  f  t  
a  amplitude   angular frequency  v
The wave is propagating with a velocity v along  t x

y  a sin 2    
the positive X  axis. T  
2
Let P be a point at a distance x from O . y  a sin v t  x

The displacement of the particle at P at any 07. Define the intensity of a wave.
instant t is given by State and explain the principle of superposition
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y  a sin   t   of waves.
Intensity of a wave:
Where  is the phase difference between the
Intensity of a wave is defined as amount of
particles at O and P .
energy transferred per second through unit
2 area perpendicular to the direction of
But  x

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propagation of the wave.
 2  It is given by
y  a sin   t  x
  
I  2 2 f 2 a 2  v
y  a sin   t  k x 
Page 135
f  frequency of the wave

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
a  amplitude of the wave Sound waves with frequencies above the
  density of the medium audible range are called ultrasonic waves.
v  velocity of the wave Properties of sound waves:
Principle of superposition of waves:  They are longitudinal mechanical waves
When two or more waves of the same kind  They require material medium for
meet at a point in the medium, they are said to propagation
be superposed.
 They propagate by creating a series of
Statement:
alternate compressions and rarefactions
When two or more waves of same type are
 They cause the sensation of hearing
superposed at a point, the net displacement of
the particle of the medium at that point is the  They transport energy from one region to
vector sum of the individual displacements. another
 Their velocity in a medium depends on

y  y1  y2  y3  ...
temperature
y  net displacement
 They travel with different speeds in
y1 , y2 , y3  individual displacements different media (least in gases and
08. What is sound? maximum in solids)
Write the properties of sound.  Their speed in a medium depends on the

Sound: elasticity and density of the medium
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Sound is a form of energy and it produces the
 They undergo reflection, refraction and
sensation of hearing. It is produced due to
total internal reflection
mechanical vibrations and propagates as
 They exhibit the phenomena of
longitudinal mechanical waves.
interference and diffraction
The human ear is sensitive to sound waves
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 They cannot be polarised

whose frequency ranges from 20 Hz to
20000 Hz . This range is called audible  They obey inverse square law
frequency range of human ear. 09. Write Newton’s formula for speed of sound in
Page 136
Sound waves with frequencies below the a gas. Discuss Laplace correction and arrive at
audible range are called infrasonic waves. the formula modified by him.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Newton’s formula:   1.293 kg m 3
Newton showed that the velocity of
Substituting in (2), v  280 m s 1
longitudinal waves (sound) in a gaseous
medium is given by This is about 16% less than the experimental
v
K
… (1)

value, v  332 m s 1 .

Newton – Laplace formula:
K  Bulk modulus   density of gas
According to Laplace, changes in pressure and
Newton assumed that the changes in pressure volume due to the propagation of sound wave
and volume of a gas, when the sound waves in a gas take place under adiabatic conditions.
propagating through it take place under This is because air is a bad conductor of heat
isothermal conditions. and the changes are very rapid and there is no
Under isothermal conditions, time for equalization of temperature.
P V  constant Under adiabatic conditions,
 CP 
Differentiating both sides, we get P V   constant   
 CV 
P dV  V dP  0
Differentiating both sides, we get
V dP
P dV   V dP  P P  V 1 dV  V  dP  0
dV
P  V 1 dV   V  dP
dP
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P  K  Bulk modulus of gas
dV
V  dP
V  P   1
V dV
Hence equation (1) can be written as
V  V 1 dP V dP
 P 
P dV dV
v … (2)

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dP
 P  K  Bulk modulus of gas
The above equation is called Newton’s formula dV
for the velocity of sound in a gas. V
Hence equation (1) can be written as
At NTP , for air
Page 137
P
P  101.3 103 Pa v … (3)

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
The above equation is called Newton - Laplace P
or  constant
formula for the velocity of sound in a gas. 
At NTP , for air Hence, the velocity of sound in a gaseous

medium is independent of pressure provided its
P  101.3 103 Pa
temperature remains constant.
  1.293 kg m 3   1.41
Effect of temperature:
Substituting in (3), From gas equation,
v  332 m s 1 PV RT
Where, P is the pressure, V is the volume of a

This value is in good agreement with
given mass m of gas at temperature T and R
experimental value.
is universal gas constant.
10. Discuss the effect of pressure, temperature &
If  is the density of the gas, then
humidity on the velocity of the sound through
air. m m
V or P RT
The velocity of sound in a gas is given by  
P P RT  RT
v or  or v
  m m
Since  , R and m are constants,

  ratio of specific heats of gas (constant)
v T
P  pressure of gas   density of gas
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Hence, the velocity of sound in a gaseous
Effect of pressure:
medium is directly proportional to square root
At constant temperature,
of its absolute temperature.
P V  constant
Effect density:
Where, P is the pressure and V is the volume At constant pressure,
GSGPrasad
of a given mass m of gas.

1
v
If  is the density of the gas, then 
m Hence, the velocity of sound in a gaseous

m
V P    constant
Page 138
or
  medium is inversely proportional to square
root of its density.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
If M is the molecular weight of the gas, then amplitude and slightly different frequencies,
1 travelling along the same direction are
v
M superposed.
Hence, the velocity of sound in a gaseous Beat period:

medium is inversely proportional to square The time interval between two successive
root of its molecular weight. maxima is called beat period.
Effect of humidity: Beat frequency:

Under the same conditions of temperature and The number of beats heard per second is called
pressure, density of water vapour is lesser than beat frequency.
that of dry air. It is equal to the difference in frequencies
Thus the presence of moisture will decrease the between the two waves.
density of dry air. 1
i.e., f B  f1 f 2 or fB 
TB
Hence, the velocity of sound in a gaseous
medium increases with the increase in its Theory of beats:
moisture. Consider two sound waves of same amplitude

a and slightly different frequencies f1 and f 2
Effect of wind:
travelling along a line the same direction.
Wind helps in drifting a medium containing
sound waves. The wind adds its velocity They are represented by
vectorially to that of the sound waves in it. y1  a sin 2  f1 t
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The resultant velocity of sound is
y2  a sin 2  f 2 t
v  vw cos 
When these two waves superpose in the
v  velocity of sound
medium, the resultant wave is given by
vw  velocity of wind
y  y1  y2
  angle between v and vw
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y  a sin 2  f1 t  a sin 2  f 2 t
11. What are beats? Give the theory of beats.
Beats: f f  f f 
y  2 a sin 2  t  1 2  cos 2  t  1 2 
It is the periodic rise and fall in the intensity of  2   2 
Page 139
sound when two sound waves of same y  A sin 2  f t … (1)

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
f f  12. What is Doppler effect? Derive an expression
Where, A  2 a cos 2  t  1 2 
 2  for the apparent frequency when the source,
listener and medium are moving in the same
f f
and f  1 2 direction.
2
Doppler effect:
The amplitude is a function of time and the
The apparent change in the frequency of sound
frequency is the arithmetic mean of the
as heard by the listener due to the relative
frequencies of component waves.
motion between the source and the listener is
A is maximum   2 a  , when known as Doppler effect.
f f  Expression for the apparent frequency:

2 t  1 2   n  , n  0, 1, 2, 3 ...
 2  (General case)
Consider a source S emitting sound of
n
t frequency f and wavelength  .
 f1  f 2 
Thus, the resultant amplitude and hence the Let the waves propagating with a constant
intensity of sound is maximum at, velocity v in the medium along the X  axis.
Then, v  f 
1 2
t  0, , , ...
 f1  f 2   f1  f 2  When both the listener and the source are at
The time interval between two successive rest with respect to the surroundings, f is
maxima or beat period is called the true frequency and  is called the
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true wavelength.
1
TB 
 f1  f 2  Let the source, listener and the medium move
along the X  axis with velocity vS , vL and vW
Therefore, beat frequency is
respectively as shown in the figure below.
1
fB   f B   f1  f 2 
GSGPrasad
TB
Hence, the beat frequency is the difference

between the frequencies of the component
waves.
Page 140
In one second,
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Distance travelled by the source  SS   vS The above expression is for the general case
where the source, listener and the medium are
Distance travelled by the wave  SP  v
all moving in the direction of sound waves.
However, due to the motion of the medium, the
When the medium is at rest, vW  0 .
wave travels an additional distance PP  vW .
The number of waves emitted in one second is f

 v  vL  f
 v  vS 
f and these f waves will be contained in a
distance S P . Sign convention:
 v is always considered to be positive.

Therefore, the apparent wavelength of waves
due to the motion of source and the medium is  vS , vL and vW are considered to be
positive when they are in the direction of
S P  SP  PP  SS  
   v , otherwise they are considered to be
f f
negative.
 
 v  vW  vS  … (1) 13. Write an expression for the apparent
f
frequency for the general case and hence
Since the listener is also moving in the direction
obtain the expression for the apparent
of the source, the velocity of the waves with
frequency for different cases.
respect to the moving listener is v .
 Source moving towards a stationary
v   v  vW  vL  … (2) listener
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Therefore, the apparent frequency of the sound
as heard by the moving listener is
v
f

… (3)
Consider, f
 v  vL  f
 v  vS 
Substituting (1) and (2) in (3),
GSGPrasad
Here, vL  0 and vS is positive

f
 v  vW  vL 
 v  vW  vS  v
Therefore, f f … (1)
f
 v  vS 
 v  vW  vL 
Page 141
f f …(4) The apparent frequency increases.

 v  vW  vS 
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 Source moving away from a stationary
Consider, f
 v  vL  f
listener  v  vS 
Here, vS  0 and vL is positive
f
 v  vL  f
Therefore, … (4)
v
Consider, f
 v  vL  f
 v  vS  The apparent frequency decreases.
Here, vL  0 and vS is negative  Source and listener moving towards each

other
v
 v  vS 
The apparent frequency decreases.
 Listener moving towards a stationary

Consider, f
 v  vL  f
source  v  vS 
Here, vS is positive and vL is negative
Therefore, f
 v  vL  f … (5)
 v  vS 
Consider, f
 v  vL  f
 v  vS  The apparent frequency increases.
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 Source and listener moving away from each
Here, vS  0 and vL is negative
other
f
 v  vL  f
Therefore, … (3)
v
The apparent frequency increases.

 v  vL 
GSGPrasad
 Listener moving away from a stationary Consider, f f

 v  vS 
source
Here, vS is negative and vL is positive
 v  vL 
Page 142

 v  vS 
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
The apparent frequency decreases.  It is used in radar systems in tracking and
 Source approaching the listener and the estimating the speed of rockets, satellites
listener moving away from the source etc.,
 It is used in estimating the speed of distant

planets, stars and other celestial bodies
Red shift and Blue shift:
Consider, f
 v  vL  f
When the distant star recedes from the earth
 v  vS  with a high velocity, then the frequency of the
Here, vS is positive and vL is positive light emitted by the star decreases and hence
the wavelength increases.
Therefore, f
 v  vL  f … (7)
 v  vS  Thus, the spectral lines of the star are shifted
towards the red end of the spectrum. This is
 Listener approaching the source and the
called red shift.
source moving away from the listener
Similarly, when the distant star approaches the
earth with a high velocity, then the frequency
of the light emitted by the star increases and
hence the wavelength decreases.
Consider, f
 v  vL  f
 v  vS  Thus, the spectral lines of the star are shifted
towards the blue end of the spectrum. This is
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Here, vS is negative and vL is negative
called blue shift.
Therefore, f
 v  vL  f … (8) 15. What is a stationary wave?
 v  vS 
Derive the expression for the same.
14. Write the applications of Doppler effect.
Stationary waves:
What is red shift and blue shift? Explain.
When two identical progressive waves
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Applications:
traveling in a medium along a straight line in
 It is used in determining the speed of
opposite directions superpose, the resultant
Aeroplane, submarine etc.,
waveform appears to be a stationary pattern.
 It is used in police radar system in Such a wave is called stationary or standing
Page 143
estimating the speed of vehicles wave.

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
A is maximum   2 a  , when
2
xn n  0, 1, 2 ...

Theory of stationary waves:

xn
Consider two identical progressive waves 2
having the amplitude a , angular frequency 
Such positions are called antinodes.
and wavelength  travelling along a line in
opposite directions.
A is minimum   0  , when
2 
x   2 n  1
They are represented by
n  0, 1, 2 ...
 2
y1  a sin   t  k x 

x   2 n  1
y2  a sin   t  k x  4
Such positions are called nodes.
When these two waves superpose in the
medium, the resultant wave is given by
y  y1  y2
y  a sin   t  k x   a sin   t  k x 
y  a sin   t  k x   sin   t  k x  16. Mention the characteristics of a stationary

wave.
y  2 a cos  k x  sin   t 
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 It is localised.
y  A sin   t   At nodes, the particles are permanently at

rest
This is the equation of a stationary wave.
 At antinodes, the particles vibrate with
Where, A  2 a cos  k x  is the amplitude of
maximum amplitude
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the resultant wave which depends on the

 All particles in the medium except those at
distance x from the origin.
the nodes execute simple harmonic motion
A  2 a cos  k x 
 The amplitude of vibration gradually
Page 144
2   increases from zero at the nodes to

A  2 a cos  x
   maximum at the antinodes
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
 The velocity of particles of the medium There is a phase All the particles in a loop
gradually increases from zero at the nodes difference between are in phase
to maximum at the antinodes particles
All the particles pass All the particles in a loop
 All the particles in a loop are in phase
through their mean pass through their mean
 The phase difference between particles in
position with the same position with different
neighbouring loops is 
velocity velocity
 The wavelength of stationary wave is same Different particles All the particles in a loop
as that of component waves reach their extreme reach their extreme
 There is no flow of energy across any positions at different positions at the same
section of the medium instants instant

It is represented by It is represented by
17. Give the differences between progressive and
y  a sin   t  k x  y  2 a cos  k x  sin   t 
stationary waves.
Progressive wave Stationary wave

18. Discuss different modes of vibration produced
It is formed due to It is formed due to in a closed pipe.
continuous vibration superposition of two Consider a closed pipe of length L . Let v be
of the particles of the identical progressive the velocity of sound in air.
medium with a change waves travelling in
The air column in a closed pipe vibrates in such
of phase from particle opposite directions along
a way that always antinode is formed at the
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to particle a straight line
open end and node is formed at the closed
The wave travels with The wave is localized
end.
a definite velocity
First mode:
It transports energy It does not transport
In the first or fundamental mode
energy
of vibration, the entire length of
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No particle is Particles at the nodes are

the pipe comprises of half a
permanently at rest in permanently at rest
loop.
the medium
The amplitude is same The amplitude is not same Let 1 be the wavelength and f1
Page 145
for all particles for all particles be the fundamental frequency.

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
1  1  From equations (1), (2) and (3), it follows that
L   or 1  4 L
22
f1 : f 2 : f3  1: 3: 5
v v
f1  or f1  … (1) Thus in case of a closed pipe, the frequencies
1 4L
of the overtones is odd harmonics of the
Second mode: fundamental.
In the second mode of
Note:
vibration, the entire length of
 Only odd harmonics are present in the
the pipe comprises of one and
vibrations of air column in a closed pipe
half loop.
i.e. even harmonics are absent
Let  2 be the wavelength and
 The first overtone is third harmonic; the
f 2 be the frequency of first
second overtone is the fifth harmonic etc.,
overtone.
19. Discuss different modes of vibration produced
3  2  4L in an open pipe.
L   or 2 
2 2  3 Consider an open pipe of length L . Let v be
v v  v  the velocity of sound in air.
f2   or f2  3   … (2)
2 4 L  4 L 
3 The air column in an open pipe vibrates in such
a way that always antinodes are formed at the
Third mode:
open ends.
In the third mode of vibration,
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the entire length of the pipe First mode:
comprises of two and half loop. In the first or fundamental mode

of vibration, the entire length of
the pipe comprises of one loop.
f3 be the frequency of second
Let 1 be the wavelength and f1
overtone.
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be the fundamental frequency.

5  3  4L
L   or 3   
2 2 5 L 1  1  or 1  2 L
2
v v  v 
f3   f3  5 
Page 146
or  … (3) v v
3 4 L  4 L  f1  or f1  … (1)
5 1 2L
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Second mode: Thus in case of an open pipe, the frequencies
In the second mode of of the overtones is natural harmonics of the
vibration, the entire length of fundamental.
the pipe comprises of two
Note:
loops.
 All the harmonics are present in the
Let  2 be the wavelength and vibrations of air column in an open pipe
f 2 be the frequency of first  The first overtone is second harmonic; the

overtone. second overtone is the third harmonic
etc.,
  2L
L2 2 or 2 
 2  2 20. Discuss different modes of vibration on a
stretched string.
v v  v 
f2   or f2  2   … (2) Consider a uniform string of length L stretched
2 2 L  2 L 
2 between two fixed points A and B . Let M be
the mass of the string.
Third mode:
In the third mode of vibration, Then its linear density is given by
the entire length of the pipe
m   M / L
comprises of three loops.
If the wire is plucked at its centre, a transverse
wave is set up in the string travels in both
f 3 be the frequency of second
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directions with a velocity
overtone.
T
v
  2L m
L3 3 or 3 
 2 3
The wave is reflected at the fixed ends A and
v v  v  B.
f3   or f3  3   … (3)
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3 2 L 2 L The reflected wave superpose over the

3
incident wave giving rise to a stationary wave.
From equations (1), (2) and (3), it follows that
Nodes are formed at the two fixed ends of the
f1 : f 2 : f3  1: 2 : 3
Page 147
string and an antinode in the middle as shown

in the fig.
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
3 T
f3  … (3)
2L m
The frequency of vibration of the string for the
The string is said to vibrate in its fundamental nth mode is given by
mode and the frequency of vibration is called n T

fn  … (4)
fundamental frequency f1 . 2L m
If 1 is the wavelength then, From equations (1), (2), (3) and (4), it follows
that

L 1 or 1  2 L
2 f1 : f 2 : f3 : ... : f n  1: 2 : 3: ... : n
v 1 T Hence all the harmonics are present in the

f1  or f1  … (1)
1 2L m vibrations of a stretched string.
In the second mode of vibration, it is observed 21. State the laws of vibration of stretched strings.
that the string vibrates with two loops. The fundamental frequency of vibration of a
stretched string is given by
1 T
f1 
2L m
L  length of the string

If  2 is the wavelength then,
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T  tension in the string
 2L
L2 2 or 2 
2 2 m  linear density of the string
Law of Length:
v 2 T
f2  or f2  … (2)
2 2L m The fundamental frequency of vibration of a
stretched string is inversely proportional to its
Similarly for third mode,
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length L provided the tension T and its linear

density m are constant.
1
i.e., f 
Page 148
when T and m are constant

I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
Law of Tension:
The fundamental frequency of vibration of a
stretched string is directly proportional to
square root of its tension T provided its
length L and its linear density m are
constant.
i.e., f  T
when L and m are constant
Law of mass:
The fundamental frequency of vibration of a
stretched string is inversely proportional to
square root of its linear density m provided
the tension T and its length L are constant.
1
i.e., f 
m
when T and L are constant
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GSGPrasad
Page 149
I PUC PHYSICS NOTES
For reduced syllabus
Unit No. Chapter No. Topic No. of hours Weightage of marks
01 Physical world 01 01
I
02 Units and measurement 04 05
03 Motion in a straight line 05 07

II
04 Motion in a plane 12 15
III 05 Laws of motion 05 06
IV 06 Work, energy and power 11 14
V 07 System of particles and rigid body 06 08
VI 08 Gravitation 04 05
09 Mechanical properties of solids 03 04
VII 10 Mechanical properties of fluids 05 06
11 Thermal properties of matter 05 06
VIII 12 Thermodynamics 05 06
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IX 13 Kinetic theory 05 06
14 Oscillations 08 10
X
15 Waves 05 06
TOTAL 84 105 GSGPrasad

Page 150
I PUC PHYSICS
NOTES
Page 151 GSGPrasad phygsgp@gmail.com

I PUC PHYSICS
NOTES
Page 152 GSGPrasad phygsgp@gmail.com

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I PUC PHYSICS NOTES

 Displacement:  Variable speed:

specified direction. intervals of time.

It is a vector quantity. SI Unit: m  Average speed:

the final position total distance travelled

It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity

displacement distance travelled

direction or in both. acceleration  a 

If the velocity of the body decreases with time,

unequal intervals of time.

06. What are motion graphs?

 For particle at rest

08. Write a note on velocity – time graph.

velocity – time graph.

starting from rest

 Slope of v  t graph gives the acceleration of

 For particle moving with constant acceleration the body.

with initial velocity  Area under v  t graph gives the distance or

09. Write a note on acceleration – time graph.

acceleration = slope of v - t graph

acceleration = slope of v - t graph

distance travelled = area under v - t graph

Multiplying equations (1) and (2) v ua t

After a time interval t , let v be its velocity and

Consider a body moving with an initial velocity displacement changes from 0 to s )

After a time interval t , let v be its velocity and s t t

s be the distance travelled in this time interval.  dx  u dt   a t dt

dt ( u and a are constants)

(i.e., when time changes from 0 to t , velocity  2 0

It is also defined as the rate of change of

v s At any time t , let x A and xB are the

is Therefore the position – time graphs are parallel

Relative velocity of B with respect to A is

Distance between the two bodies changes.

The point of intersection of the graphs gives

their time of meeting and position of meeting.

Vectors: direction of that vector.

Graphically a vector same initial point.

quantity is represented by  Coplanar vectors:

length. the same plane.

The length of the arrow represents the  Like or parallel vectors:

head represents its direction. and having the same direction.

 Displacement vector: R  PQ

 Skew vectors: Statement:

called skew vectors. represented by the two adjacent sides of a

03. State and explain the Triangle law of vector

taken in the reverse order represents their

direction. Properties of vector addition:

addition. defined as the addition of vector  Q to the

C and D respectively. Here AB represents P , BC represents Q and

BD represents  Q . Hence from triangle law,

vector sum or resultant R both in magnitude AD represents the resultant P  Q both in

A B  B  A In terms of unit vectors,

 Vector subtraction is non-associative

If a vector is resolved into two mutually Rm P and R m P

perpendicular vectors, then these vectors are

From triangle law of vector addition, Scalar product of A and B is denoted by A  B .

PX  P cos  A and B  magnitudes of A and B

PY  P sin    angle between A and B

 Work: It is the dot product of force F and  Scalar product is commutative

W  F s  Scalar product is distributive

 Power: It is the dot product of force F and  

velocity v . 12. Explain the vector product of two vectors.

i  i  j  j  k  k  1 and i  j  j  k  k i  0 Vector product of A and B is denoted by

I PU Physics Simplified Notes - GSGP's

I PU Physics Simplified Notes - GSGP's