Insight Into Sulfate in High-Salinity

Producers and Selection

of Scale Inhibitor
Aly A. Hamouda, SPE, Phillips Petroleum Co., Norway

Summary. Several squeeze treatments in the Ekofisk field have tested various squeeze parameters, such as the overflush vol~me
and the displacement means to maximize the scale squeeze life time, to prevent the formation of downhole scale cost-effectively. Scale
may form when incompatible waters are mixed or the physicochemical parameters of the fluid (temperature, pressure, and chemical
composition) change. This paper presents experience gained from treatment of high-salinity produced water on the Tor platform (2/4E)
in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea, which has a total-dissolved-solids (TDS) content of about 200,000 mg/L, compared with

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the typical average of about 70,000 mg/L in some other Ekofisk fields. The high-salinity water requires extra care for predicting the
scaling tendency, inhibiting scale formation, and preventing upsets in the downstream production facilities, like the oily-water treatment
system. The high content of calcium and iron ions present in the produced water makes it even more difficult to treat. Because the
scale inhibitor selected is nearly always a compromise, no one single laboratory test can determine the best scale inhibitor. This paper,
however, discusses an approach for examining the sulfate-scale-inhibition efficiency with a reference to field experience for both down-
hole and topside treatments.

Introduction
Scaling problems encountered and their severity differ among fields
and, in many cases, among wells. Scaling is usually associated with
precipitation, but precipitation does not necessarily lead to scal-
ing. The solubility data of the scale-forming minerals are there-
fore used to indicate the likelihood of scale formation. Many
variables and parameters contribute to scale formation, making lab-
oratory simulation of the field conditions difficult. Therefore, it
is essential to satisfy parameters that may influence the severity
of the scaling: the type of the scale, the scaling rate, and the inhi-
bition efficiency of the chemicals under specific conditions (tem-
perature, pressure, and pH). Each criterion is complicated and
depends on many other factors.
Chemicals for inhibiting scale should be selected carefully. To
some extent, the severity of the scale and the application in the field
(topside/downhole) dictate the type of inhibitor, the test, and the
testing parameters.
A screening test to evaluate and select a candidate inhibitor should
ideally be reproducible, should correlate with field experience, and
should be rapid. Our approach for screening and selecting scale
inhibitor for further tests and/or application in the field is discussed
in this paper.
The adsorption of scale inhibitors on different crystalline sub-
strates was shown to be the main scale-inhibition mechanism where
the required concentration of scale inhibitor is much lower than
that required to chelate or sequester the scale-forming ions. 1,2 The
adsorption process of a good inhibitor on the active site of the crystal
should be fast enough to prevent further growth.
Adsorption/desorption characteristics of scale inhibitor on reser-
voir formation rocks are important criteria when squeeze applica-
tions are considered. Several studies have been performed on the
adsorption of scale inhibitors onto formation rocks. 3-5 A mathe-
matical model 5 was recently developed to predict the squeeze life-
time from the adsorption/desorption characteristics of scale
inhibitors and its correlation to field data. Other squeeze techniques,
such as precipitation squeeze, for noncarbonate reservoirs have been
reported. 6,7
The behavior of a scale inhibitor (when squeezed) depends mainly
on the reservoir formation (property and composition) and
formation-water composition. Various factors affecting the squeeze
performance are reviewed in terms of the experience at Ekofisk.
Scale·lnhlbltor Screening Test
Scale formation requires supersaturation, nucleation, crystal growth,
and adhesion to the surfaces.
Copyright 1990 Society of Petroleum Engineers
Static precipitation tests are widely used for selecting scale inhi-
bitors. In these tests, the incompatible brines are mixed, with and
without scale inhibitor, and the efficiency of the inhibitor is esti-
mated by comparison of the compositional analysis of the scale-
forming ions in the inhibited and uninhibited solution. The static
test is useful in some applications where the sequestering mecha-
nism is essential.
No ideal scale inhibitor exists. All the inhibitors currently avail-
able have shortcomings that make them applicable only at specific
conditions. Inhibitor selection is almost always a compromise be-
tween its positive and negative characteristics. Thus, no single test
can be used to select a scale inhibitor.
Experimental
Fig. 1 is a schematic of the developed test rig. It consists of two
high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) pumps (Beck-
man Modell00A), an oven, a temperature sensor (Ptl00, 1110 Din,
inserted into Ys-in. tubing), temperature indicator, relief valve
(Nupro-SS4R3A, one swage lock) used as a backpressure controller,
and a recorder. All the tubings, valves, and fittings are SS316 with
a Ywin. OD, except for the preheating tubes, which have a Ys-in.
OD. The capillary tubing is about 6'h ft long. All the switches for
changing from one process to another are controlled from outside
the oven.
In this test, the formation water and seawater were pumped
separately into the capillary coil, where they deposited scale. Pres-
sure changes caused by scale buildup were monitored. The scaling
rate was measured as a function of the time needed to block the
capillary coil and to raise the pressure to a predetermined limit set
on the HPLC pumps. Then, in a scale-removal process, the pres-
sure was brought back to its initial level. Fig. 2 shows a typical
pressure curve for the scale formation and removal processes.
The removal process starts when the capillary coil is isolated from
the system and then backflushed with ammoniacal ethylenedi-
aminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). When the scale was removed, the
preheating tubes were backflushed and drained separately from the
remaining synthetic formation water and seawater (natural North
Sea water). The dissolver line was then reseparated, the backpres-
sure line reconnected (by a valve-controlled system), and the sys-
tem restabilized and readied for a new run. Table 1 gives the
formation water, average North Sea water, and the dissolver com-
positions.
R.sults and Discussion
This test proved to be fast and reliable as a screening test. It took
about 10 to 12 minutes (at about 212°F and -4,000 psi) to deposit
scale and to raise the pressure to a predetermined level (1,000 psi

448 SPE Production Engineering, November 1990

 PRESSURE~------------------_,

o
70 _INJECTION OF SW AND FW
n
t 60
-'> INJECTION OF SCALE
REMOVAL

r-------------- ----------------..
I OVEN
CHART SPEED - 500 mmlh

! 50

1
40

30

SW SEA WATO
i 20
FW FOItMATJON WATER i
S.D.S. SCAU DISSOLVING SOLUTION
P.H.C. PWlHUllNG COIL ! 10
!
T.I. TEMPDIAlVRE tNDICATOR
P.L.U. PRUSUltf LIMIT UNrT
C.C. CA....LARY COLUMN
R. IICNrDU t ______________________________ _
24 22 20 18 14 om
-TIME

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Fig. 1-Scallng dynamic rig-flow diagram. Fig. 2-Typical chart read-out-dynamlc scaling rig.

above the flowing pressure). A reproducibility of about 8 ±2 % was where 11G=change of the free energy formation, Fs=saturation
achieved with this approach. Fig. 3 demonstrates the precision of ratio, n = number of lattice ion molecules per nucleus, T=absolut~
the method and shows the common ion effect tested at various ion- temperature, K=Boltzmann's constant representing shape, and
ic strengths on the scaling rate, which is not unexpected. This pre- 1/;=constant representing the surface area. The nucleation condi-
cision resulted mainly from the use of the same capillary column tion can be satisfied by increasing the saturation ratio sufficiently
and the developed arrangement for the scale-removal process. past 1.0 that nuclei have n>nc (critical) or by introducing a seed
The solution used for scale removal is the ammoniacal EDTA, 8 crystal for which n is already > nco In our approach, the first op-
known for its high chelation affinity toward calcium, strontium, tion was selected. A supersaturation condition with respect to sul-
and barium. During the scale-removal process, the system was iso- fate minerals was satisfied upon mixing of the two waters. It was
lated and the capillary coil was backflushed with EDTA for sever- also found that the chosen synthetic formation-water composition
al reasons. First, this technique eliminates the possibility of further (Table 1) gave reproducible results in this system. Moreover, it
scale formation and completely blocks the capillary coil when the
remaining formation water/seawater front is mixed. Second, scale-
removal efficiency decreased when the test was performed at high
B.T. (minI
temperature (about 212°F) and pressure of about 5,000 psig. This
was attributed to the decomposition of EDTA at this temperature 120
and pressure. Metcalf 9 reported a successful use of EDTA as a
chelant in boiler water-treatment systems up to 1,375 psig (upper
limits). Venezky and Rudzinsky, IO in their work to develop an an-
alytical method for monitoring the EDTA concentration in a boiler
water-treatment system, reported that - 50% of the EDTA was
*
decomposed after 1 hours at 4IOoF and 250 psig.
IJ =IONIC STRENGTH
The composition of the formation water was based on several 90
factors. From the classic nucleation theory standpoint,
11G= -nKT In Fs+n* 1/;,

TABLE 1-MATERIAL COMPOSITION

Synthetic Formation Water'

60
Ion mg/L
Sa 250
Sr 500
Ca 3,000
CI 2,624

North Sea Water

Na 10,890 30
K 460
Mg 1,368
Ca
Sr
450
8
.
Sa 0.1 jI =1.5m NaCI lI=I.5m NaCI
CI 20,500
S04 2,870
- - - - - - jI=O
HCO a 145

Scale Dissolver 400 1200 2000 ppm

Ammoniacal EDTA-10% wtlvol EDTA dissolved in distilled

and de-ionized water and 10 vol% concentrated ammonia
solution (analytical grade).
Fig. 3-Effect of Ba 2 +, SO~-, and Ionic strength on block-
• Synthetic materials are of analytical grade. Ing time •

SPE Production Engineering, November 1990 449

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a b

c d

Fig. 4- (a) BaSO.; (b) (Ba,Sr)SO.; (c) (Ba,Sr,Ca)SO.; (d) the eHect of scale Inhibitor on the crystal shape (Ba,Sr,Ca)SO •.

was predicted to produce twice as much deposits as earlier relatively-

high-scale wells at Ekofisk, without consideration of the common
• •T. (.... ,
_._._--c.··
----- - . Ir··
ion effect, which would markedly increase the supersaturation level. --lOOO,.,..C.++.I_...."Sr++

It---'~'-
The solubilities of calcium sulfate and carbonate decrease at
elevated temperatures. For calcium sulfate, transitions between di-
hydrate, hemihydrate, and anhydride make it even more compli-
35
" f
f
.........
f

cated to predict. 11 In limestone/dolomite reservoirs, gypsum scale :' . ;. .--_.------

either may be formed at the wellbores of production wells by the ,
f
I
~.
, .- . , , - -
dissolution of anhydride or may increase the sulfate concentration .5 / /-' -
,,
f
/
/
~

,
in the produced fluids which may contain high concentrations of
12.5 ~V
barium and strontium, which, in tum, give rise to sulfate scaling.
The tendency for barium sulfate to form a metastable
supersaturation 12 solution delays precipitation. This scale often
will deposit at a later stage than calculated on the basis of solution
ionic products. 13 In the dynamic test, the turbulence during the
1000

Fig. 5-EHect of calcium and strontium Ion concentration on

mixing of the formation water and seawater will perhaps prevent
the formation of a metastable supersaturation solution. 14
Fig. 4 illustrates the effect of calcium and strontium on the mor-
phology ·and size of the barium sulfate crystals . Fisher IS reported
that the change in morphology and size of the precipitated barium
sulfate was influenced by the initial electrolyte composition, pH,
temperature, and the presence of foreign ions. Liu et al. 16 report-
ed that the barium sulfate dendritic crystals invariably form at higher
barium and sulfate ion concentrations. The crystal morphology,
however, generally is sensitive to experimental factors. The den-
dritic form is shown clearly in Fig. 4a and to a lesser extent in Fig.
4b, where 500-ppm strontium ion was present. Weintritt and
Cowan 13 noted that strontium ion occurred as substituted ion and
2000 3000
fOMCONe.
---e;++.Sr++
-
blocking time.
not as a mechanical mixture oftwo separate mineral species. Even
though strontium ions can modify or control barium sulfate forms,
they apparently cannot modify the habit of barium sulfate that has
already precipitated . This may indicate that the dendritic form in
Fig. 4b appeared before the deposition of strontium sulfate. The
concentration of the used ion(s) and the test parameters were kept
at the selected test levels. Fig. 5 depicts the effect of strontium and
calcium ions on the barium sulfate scaling rate. Strontium ions
showed a larger effect on the scaling rate than calcium ions. It seems,
however, that the presence of strontium and calcium altered the

450 SPE Production Engineering, November 1990

 90
AI PMOSI'NONATE (ACID V _ , .
',I'NOSI'NONATE (ACID V _ I ANO CITRIC ACID.
10 CI.I.£IID OF POLYACRYLATEIPMOSPIIONATE AND H£DP.

70

~ 60
¥
II! 50
li
II.
II.
III
40
""
30

20

10

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0
9 15
ppm (W/VI

Fig. 7-Efflclency of various scale Inhibitors as a function of

concentration.

TABLE 2-PRODUCED-WATER COMPOSITION

OF TOR WELLS E7 AND E10 AND AVERAGE
COMPOSITION OF PRODUCED WATER FROM EKOFISK

Well E7 Well E10 Ekofisk

Ion (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
Na 32,600 26,900 21,937
Ca 18,200 59,300 3,390
Mg 1,490 5,900 374
Ca 45.5 443 130
Fe 3.3 314 5.5
Sr 1,610 1,350 600
K 473 5,860 197
CI 89,600 171,000 39,902
S04 14 34 17
HC0 3 121 20,000 421

120~----------------------------------,

110

100
90

i 10
70
60

50
40
30
20

2 20 25 3. 53 13 .. M toe 111 123 UI 143 153 158 171 1ft 21J 252
DAYS

c Fig. 8-Scale squeeze on Well 2/4 E-10, May 25, 1985.

Fig. 6-Calclum/lron phosphate scale; (a) 20 wt%; (b) 30 wtlMl;

and (c) 6 wtlMl Iron content.
morphology of the deposited crystals (Fig. 4c). More work is needed
in this area to establish the mechanism that led to the change in
the scaling rate in a dynamic system.
Various types of scale inhibitors were tested at 21rF and 4 ,000
psi and at different pH values. Most of the scale inhibitors tested
have performed satisfactorily at pH 5 and 6. At pH 4, however,
the performance of these chemicals varied greatly. The acid ver-
sion of the phosphonate scale inhibitor tested seems to perform better
than the neutral version. This may result because scale-inhibitor
efficiency depends on the ionization constants of the active group
and hence is related to its molecular structure, and the solution com-
position and ionic strength. Thus, increasing the pH (up to 6 in
this work) increases the ionization of the anionic functional groups
and hence the affmity toward the crystal surface. 17 Consequent-
ly, better growth inhibition results. It also experienced a better per-
formance of a low-molecular-weight polyacrylate that perhaps has
retarded the crystal growth. 18,19

SPE Production Engineering, November 1990 451

 450.--------------------------------------, 240
220
400
200
350 180

300 I 160

i 250
140 60
120
140
100 "-
200
80 20
150 MIN.
EFFECTIVE CONC.
60 0
100 40
DAYS SINCE SQUEEZE
MIN.
EFFECTIVE
20
CONe.

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~ff~#t$!~!t~/tll~/~
o 4 11 18 32 39 44 51 56 94 113 120 134 141 lU 155162 170116 DAYS
DAY5

Fig. 9-Scale squeeze on Well 2/4 E-10, May 26, 1986. Fig. 10-Scale squeeze on Tor Well E-7.

Field Experience
Topside. Ekofisk Platform Bravo. Calcium phosphate precipita-
tion occurred when scale inhibitor was injected into a flowline of
Well 2/4 B6. The analytical results obtained from both X-ray diffrac-
tion and X-ray fluorescence showed a phosphate/calcium ratio of
about 1.68. This corresponds to the thermodynamically stable
hydroxylapatite,20 perhaps because of the presence of excess phos-
phorous compounds (impurity) in the inhibitor. 19 When tested with
the test rig, this scale inhibitor showed an inhibition efficiency of
about 60%. Thus, the importance of the kinetics of the adsorption
of scale inhibitors onto the formed crystal surface as one possible
mechanism may be realized. The presence of iron from 6 to 30
wt% was seen in the recovered scale, but the areas where iron was
present were more porous (see Fig. 6). Some deformed (round)
crystals (Fig. 6c) may adsorb the inhibitor onto the crystal surfaces.
However, when the scale inhibitor was changed to a 3: I phospho-
nate/polyacrylate blend with Dequest 2060TM, > 90% inhibition
efficiency was obtained under the same testing parameters without
calcium phosphate deposition. This probably results from its low-
er pH and the synergism between the polyacrylate and phosphonate.
High-Salinity Water on Tor Platform. Tor produced water has
a TDS of about 200,000 ppm, calcium ion concentration of about
40,000 ppm, and more than 140 ppm iron. The high TDS, dispersed
solid particles, and use of water-dispersible corrosion inhibitor in
almost a continuous basis (by chemical-injection valve) have greatly
enhanced the stability of the sheared oil droplets in the continuous
phase (water) in the oily-water treatment (OWT) system. The
particle-count-distribution analysis reveals that about 44 and 20%
of the oil particles ranged from 2.5 to 3.2 and from 3.2 to 4 J-tm,
respectively. Therefore, additives (polyelectrolyte) must be used
to aid the separation of the dispersed oil. The high-iron-content for-
mation and exposure to the air within the OWT system greatly af-
fected the system's efficiency in separating the oil from the water
and, consequently, increased the oil discharged to the sea. The con-
tribution of iron to the oil/water separation problem is probably
caused by two mechanisms. First, ferrous ion [possibly present as
iron (II) hydrogen carbonate] in the produced water is converted
into insoluble iron (ill) oxide (hydrous ferric oxide):
4Fe(HC0 3h<L)+02(g) - - 2Fe203(s)+4H20+8C02(g)·
The hydrous ferric oxide has the affinity to adsorb the sludge-
forming dispersed oil particles. This sludge will then adhere to the
OWT system walls and desorb oil to the flowing water. Second,
the iron affected the scale-inhibition efficiency and perhaps increased
the suspended scale particles, mainly sulfate (Ba, Sr, Ca) S04 in
the formed sludge. To treat such a produced water, a low-pH scale
inhibitor blended with an iron sequestering agent was used.
The OWT performance was improved once the injection rate of
the scale inhibitor and the polyelectrolyte used in the OWT system
were optimized.
We also investigated the effect of the iron content (at 300 ppm)
and the iron sequestering agents on the performance of the scale
inhibitors. Fig. 7 shows the effect of iron sequestering agents, citric
acid, and HEDP (l-hydroxyethylidene-l-diphosphonic acid) on the
scale inhibitors' performances at various concentrations. Scale in-
hibitors used in this investigation were the acid version of phos-

300
280 1---- I // 2 r;:===lJC===l,I r------,
260
240
COMBINED

,/
/ I C.C03
IHlililililimujliljl!
BaS04 e.C03 RaS04 SrS04 I
II~:~}I'COM·:'I,;~~;'~:~·U I
220 1.5
/
200
180
,/'//
! 160

..i 140
120 ,//
100 ,/
80 / 0.5
/
60

...... ... ... .

--------.-~-~~~-.-~=~~~::-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.
40
~

01Em .. ..
20 .; .... ..; CD ..,. II) cD
'" ..
0

O~~==~~~==~~~~--------------~
TEST SEP. FLOW LINE BMS
."
~:~~ RIC
TEST SEP. FLOW LINE BMS

Fig. 11-Predicted BaS0 4 scale (Well E-10) at bottom hole Fig. 12-Predlcted scale In Well E-7 at bottomhole tempera-
temperature at different locations. ture at different locations.

452 SPE Production Engineering, November 1990

phonate (Dequest 2060) and its blend with citric acid and HEDP,
respectively. Performance drastically decreased in both cases over
the unmixed phosphonate inhibitors (acid version) with those iron
sequestering agents. The performance reduction was more
pronounced, however, for the citric acid than for HEDP at inhibitor
concentrations of 20 ppm.
Downhole. Scale inhibitors are squeezed to prevent downhole scal-
ing and formation damage. The returned scale inhibitor will pro-
vide continuous inhibition during production. The three main
mechanisms by which the squeezed scale inhibitor work are ad-
sorption onto the formation rock surfaces, formation of a sparing-
ly soluble salt, and fluid leakoff. 21
The success of a squeeze job is judged by its effective lifetime.
Inhibitor concentration, overflush volume, shut-in time, water pro-
duction rate, water composition, minimum effective concentration
of the returned chemical, the mechanism by which the applied scale
inhibitor works, and the squeeze t~chnique affect the squeeze
lifetime.
This section reviews the squeeze jobs carried out on Tor (for high-
salinity-water producers). So far, the phosphonate type of scale in-
hibitors have been used at Ekofisk.
Of the factors affecting squeeze lifetime, assessing the chemical
performance in relation to the water composition was found to be
essential. This factor is very detrimental to the squeeze lifetime.
The squeeze technique selected is also very important.
The work at Ekofisk was aimed at better understanding the chem-
ical behavior to maximize the squeeze lifetime and to minimize the
treatment cost. Squeeze lifetime is determined by the minimum ef-
fective returned concentration. Although the minimum effective con-
centration is currently under investigation, the squeeze lifetime is
defined here as the time after which the returned phosphonate con-
centration is constantly below 5 ppm (the widely used concentra-
tion as a minimum protection limit).
The phosphonate was analyzed with the inductive coupled plas-
ma technique at a 177.5-nm wavelength. Standard molybdenum salt
was added to the samples to correct for the aspirated volume caused
by high and various densities in produced-water samples, which
caused fluctuation in the aspiration rates. Molybdenum was chos-
en because it was not detected at the O.I-ppm level (detection limit)
in the produced water and it did not interfere with the measurements.
Three main factors affecting squeeze lifetime are the perform-
ance of different phosphonates, the overflush volume, and the
squeeze technique. The nitrogen "atomization" squeeze technique
was tested and compared with the conventional technique (using
seawater). This technique was used successfully to squeeze corro-
sion inhibitors; therefore, it was selected for use with scale inhibitor.
Table 2 gives the water composition of the two wells from Tor
field (Wells 2/4 E7 and EIO) and the average water composition
at Ekofisk.
To determine the overflush volumes for comparison, the ratio
between the net.overflush and the production perforation intervals,
F o ' is used. The net overflush is the volume of the casing and the
tubing subtracted from the total overflush volume.
Cas. History
Case 1. Well EIO was squeezed with a phosphonate scale inhibitor
(neutral version). Two consecutive squeezes are shown in Figs. 8
and 9. In these squeezes the inhibitor concentration (12% in sea-
water) and Fo (II ±4 bbl/ft) were kept constant.
Figs. 8 and 9 show that the concentration profile ofthe returned
chemical is reasonably consistent. The concentration peaks occurred
in similar corresponding times. The squeeze lifetimes were about
the same (155 ± 15 days). A calculated material balance (until 5 ppm
was measured) showed that about 14% of the squeezed scale inhi-
bitor was returned. However, 5 ppm was monitored for almost a
year. These two squeezes were then used as a background for fur-
ther work.
SPE Production Engineering, November 1990
600,-----------------------------------,
500
400
200
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Fig. 13-Scale squeeze on Well 2/4 E-10 using nitrogen atomi-
zation technique.
Case 2. Well E7 was scale squeezed (for the first time in Jan. 1988)
with the acid version ofthe phosphonate scale inhibitor. The same
concentration was used as for Case 1.
Fig. 10 shows the concentration profile of the returned scale in-
hibitor. The squeeze lifetime (as defined here) has lasted for about
90 days. The concentration of the returned scale inhibitor has been
maintained at about 5 ppm. This well was drifted recently (March
1989) and no scale was found more than 1 year after the start of
the squeeze.
This well was squeezed with scale inhibitor after evidence of scale
formation in the downhole safety valve. Analysis of the downhole
deposits revealed that barium sulfate was the predominant type of
scale. Theoretical scale prediction from the formation-water com-
position indicated the predominancy of the carbonate scale. After
the downhole samples were taken, the discrepancy was explained.
Figs. 11 and 12 demonstrate the difference of the predicted scale
concentration from downhole, flowline, and test separator samples.
Although the downhole sampling is costly to perform frequently
and requires a large fluid volume from low water producers, know-
ing the background of the compositional analysis is essential when
safety is a concern and/or severe scale is expected or experienced.
The combined chemical analysis ofthe total dissolved ions and the
suspended solids taken from different locations demonstrate the seri-
ousness of the downhole scaling.
Case 3. Well EIO was squeezed with the nitrogen atomization tech-
nique. The initial inhibitor concentration was about 50% in sea-
water, and F o -25 bbl/ft. Fig. 13, which gives the concentration
profile of the returned scale inhibitor, shows that an average con-
centration of about 20 ppm was maintained for more than 300 days
and still is well above the 5-ppm limit. The squeeze job took place
in Jan. 1988. The calculated material balance showed that about
32 % of the scale inhibitor was returned by April 1989.
The returned-inhibitor concentration profiles showed that the main
mechanisms involved were leakoff and the formation of a sparing-
ly soluble salt. These two mechanisms were indicated by the sud-
den peaks and the consistently low concentration of the scale
inhibitor over a long time, respectively. Some of the sharp peaks,
particularly in Fig. 10, may have been caused by sampling/analyt-
ical errors and/or production fluctuation. On the other hand, the
consistency ofthe peaks and the shape shown in Figs. 8 and 9 may
be from reservoir fracture(s). Well EIO was squeezed with the neu-
tralized form of phosphonate in a limestone reservoir having ex-
tremely high calcium ion content. However, great caution was taken
before these chemicals were applied. The success of using neutral-
ized phosphonate may be contributed to the relatively low pH of
the downhole formation water (about 4.5), the high calcium con-
tent in the formation water, and presence of fractures in the
reservoir.
453

Author
Aly A. Hamouda Is a specialist In chem-
Ical treatment and environment at Phil-
lips Petroleum Co. Norway and is a
professor at Rogaland Regional C. He
previously worked at the Marine Chemis-
try Dept. (organic geochemistry) at Oslo
u: and was a lecturer at the Environmen-
tal. Studies Dept. at the Higher lnst. of
Technology, Libya. He holds a PhD
degree from the Imperial C. of Science
. and Technology, London U.
When the nitrogen atomization technique was used, a constant
higher returned-inhibitor concentration (at about 20 ppm) was ob-
tained for about 1 year. In the two squeezes performed earlier, the
concentration dropped below 20 ppm after about 120 days (Figs.
8 and 9). The same scale inhibitor in almost the same amount was
used, but the initial concentration in the atomized liquid was about
50% in seawater.
The lower effective limit of the scale inhibitor that provides the
protection in this well is under investigation because it contains high
iron content, which will eventually reduce inhibition efficiency.
The success of this nitrogen squeeze technique, although not fully
understood, might be attributable to a greater inhibitor distribution
on the rock surface. Although nitrogen atomization is about twice
as expensive as the conventional technique, it is considered to be
cost-effective.
Conclusions
1. The dynamic test developed discriminates efficiently betwe_en
scale inhibitors and is in general agreement with their performance
in the field.
2. Testing scale-inhibitor parameters based on a high degree of
supersaturation with respect to the scale-forming minerals rather
than simulating formation-water composition in addition to other
parameters-such as pH, pressure, and temperature-seems to
correlate with field experience.
3. The squeeze lifetime should be evaluated for individual cases
by frequent tubing drift with simultaneous monitoring of the returned
scale inhibitor to establish the minimum effective scale inhibitor.
4. Overflush does not seem to influence squeeze lifetime greatly.
5. Nitrogen atomization gave a longer squeeze lifetime than the
conventional squeeze technique with seawater. It _was also -shown
to be a cost-effective treatment.
6. Using downhole samples and combining the composition of
the suspended solids may better indicate the scaling tendency and
the seriousness of the scale, especially for high-salinity water.
· 7. Scale-inhibitor efficiency is reduced in the presence of iron,
so the effective concentration should be adjusted to obtain the re-
quired inhibition. ·
8. The presence of high iron content reduces OWT efficiency.
9. Citric acid and HEDP used as iron sequestering agents under
the· testing conditions influenced the scale-inhibitor performance.
Acknowledgments
I thank Phillips Petroleum Co., Fina Exploration Norway Inc.,
Norsk Agip A/S, Norsk Hydro a.s, Elf Aquitaine Norge A/S, To-
tal Marine Norsk A/S, and Statoil a.s for permission to publish this
paper. I also thank M. Mohn at Rogaland Research Inst. in Norway
for assistance in carrying out some experiments.
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Sl Metric Conversion Factors
bbl X 1.589 873 E-01 m3
ft X 3.048* E-01 m
op . CF-32)/1.8 oc
in. x 2.54* E+OO em
psi x .6.894 757 E+OO kPa
·conversion factor is exact. SPEPE
Original SPE manuscript received for review Oct. 9, 1989. Paper accepted for publication
Jan. 26, 1990. Revised manuscript received April12, 1990. Paper {SPE 19764) first present·
ad at the 1989 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in San Antonio, Oct.
8-11.
SPE Production Engineering, November 1990