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Civil Engineering 2022
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6th Issue
Contents Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
 Page 1086-1099
Armor Layer Uniformity and Thickness in Stationary Conditions with Steady Uniform Flow
Cahyono Ikhsan, Ariva S. Permana, Arlendenovega S. Negara
 Page 1100-1114
Analysis of Pedestrian Performance by Integrating both Quantitative and Qualitative Factors
Neil Andrew I. Meneses, Jocelyn S. Buluran
 Page 1115-1135
Properties of Concrete Produced using Surface Modified Polyethylene Terephthalate Fibres
Michael M. Mwonga, Charles Kabubo, Naftary Gathimba
 Page 1136-1156
Impact of Climate Change on Crops Productivity Using MODIS-NDVI Time Series
Zainab K. Jabal, Thair S. Khayyun, Imzahim A. Alwan
 Page 1157-1166
A Study on Linear Shrinkage Behavior of Peat Soil Stabilized with Eco-Processed Pozzolan (EPP)
Mohamad S. Sulaiman, Habib M. Mohamad, Anis A. Suhaimi
 Page 1167-1177
Land Procurement for Public Interest Against Destroyed Land: Natural Events and Legal Certainty
Embun Sari, Muhammad Yamin, Hasim Purba, Rosnidar Sembiring
 Page 1178-1193
Predicting the Inelastic Response of Base Isolated Structures Utilizing Regression Analysis and Artificial Neural Network
Mohammad Al-Rawashdeh, Isam Yousef, Mohammad Al-Nawaiseh
 Page 1194-1204
An Optimal Cost Estimation Practices of Fuzzy AHP for Building Construction Projects in Libya
Walid Alfaggi, Sepanta Naimi
 Page 1205-1226
Shear Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Beam Using Wire Mesh–Epoxy Composite
Mustafa Al-Bazoon, Abdulkhaliq Jaafer, Haidar Haidar, Abbas Dawood
 Page 1227-1239
Mechanical Properties of Eco-friendly Concrete Made with Sugarcane Bagasse Ash
Tareg Abdalla Abdalla, David O. Koteng, Stanley M. Shitote, M. Matallah

6th Issue
Contents Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
 Page 1240-1256
Slenderness in Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete Long Beams
Ravpreet Kaur, Harvinder Singh
 Page 1257-1267
Asphalt Elasticity Modulus Comparison Using Modified Laboratory LWD Against UMMATA Method
Lucky Caroles
 Page 1268-1287
Three-Dimensional Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis of Base Isolated Cylindrical Steel Tank
Abdellali Saria, Mohamed Djermane, Nasser Dine Hadj-Djelloul
 Page 1288-1303
Usage of EB-CFRP for Improved Flexural Capacity of Unbonded Post-Tensioned Concrete Members Exposed to
Partially Damaged Strands
Hayder Qays Abbas, Alaa Hussein Al‐Zuhairi
 Page 1304-1315
Life Cycle Assessment in Road Pavement Infrastructures: A Review
Bruno Guida Gouveia, Marina Donato, Marcelino Aurelio Vieira da Silva

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Available online at www.CivileJournal.org

(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
Armor Layer Uniformity and Thickness in Stationary

Conditions with Steady Uniform Flow
Cahyono Ikhsan 1* , Ariva S. Permana 2 , Arlendenovega S. Negara 1

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Jawa Tengah, 57126, Indonesia.
2
Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology, Ladkrabang, 10520, Thailand.
Received 11 February 2022; Revised 20 May 2022; Accepted 24 May 2022; Published 01 June 2022
Abstract
The continuous movement of riverbed particles due to turbulent flow determines the stability of non-cohesive riverbeds
and banks during riverbed and bank erosion and sedimentation. This study emulated the stable channel design by deriving
the low maintenance cost of the channel through bed protection by an armor layer. The study investigated the effects of
shear stress and grain size uniformity to determine the minimum non-cohesive armor layer thickness for the stability of
riverbeds under steady uniform flow conditions. Experiments were conducted with four different discharges, five armor
material gradations, and five bed-slope variations in a full-scale flume. We observed and recorded the behaviors of the five
gradations of armor materials for given discharges and bed slopes. Eighty data points were recorded and analyzed. The
hydraulic analysis of the flow along with the soil mechanics analysis of the armor materials was done. The soil mechanic
analysis was particularly focused on the uniformity coefficient of the armor layer, C u, to derive the armor layer equation.
However, for the manageability of the study, we set the limit of the C u between 3.0 and 6.0. From the viewpoint of non-
erodibility, a wider Cu value indicated a thinner armor layer. Variables that govern the armor layer thickness and the layer
thickness itself were derived and proposed. The variables, namely Cu, shear stress (t0 and tc), and mean diameter of the bed
load and armor materials (Db50 and Da50). Our results show that these variables governed the thickness of the armor layer,
and this is expected to contribute to the design of stable natural channels, which can minimize the cost of irrigation canal
maintenance and development.
Keywords: Flow Shear Stress; Armor Layer Thickness and Uniformity; Bed Material Grain Size; Flume; Experiment.
1. Introduction
This study was inspired by the high costs of river maintenance as well as irrigation canal development and
maintenance due to erosion and sedimentation. The channel bed and bank erosions have forced us to implement the
lined channels, which generated substantial maintenance costs compared to the maintenance-free costs of unlined stable
channels [1]. However, in natural conditions, these stable channels were rarely achieved since the channels and rivers
were dynamic over time [2, 3]. Therefore, a free or low-cost maintenance channel would be needed. From this
background, the study was carried out through the exploration of locally available, free, and abundant armor materials.
The results were expected to artificially simulate the stable channels by preventing erosion from occurring. While the
challenge was there, there were few studies on the estimation of armor layer thickness under stationary conditions, for
example, studies by [4-6] and outdated. This gap has led to the necessity of responding to the challenge we identified
through laboratory experiments. The approach of this study was to connect the shear stress on the bed surface, sediment
transport rate, and uniformity of the grain size toward the design of the size of the armor layer. Calculating for the
* Corresponding author: cahyonoikhsan@staff.uns.ac.id

http://dx.doi.org/10.28991/CEJ-2022-08-06-01
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee C.E.J, Tehran, Iran. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
development of the armor layer is crucial for many reasons since it affects the hydraulic roughness, local availability of
bedload, bed permeability, and physical conditions for aquatic organisms [7]. This development can be conducted by
introducing locally available and almost cost-free materials, as previously stated, to prevent erosion in the canals via the
use of armor layers. Gathering, combining, and assessing existing sediment transport formulas, we performed
experiments to understand the phenomena and searched for a simple, yet reliable, armor layer thickness. The experiments
led to a simple formula for figuring out the thickness of the armor layer. The diameter of the riverbed sediment, the
shear stress, and the armor materials are the variables in the formula.
Continuous movements of non-cohesive riverbed materials induce erosion and sedimentation of river channels,
namely riverbeds and their banks, under certain conditions. This continuous movement causes river channel instability
due to erosion and deposition of the bed materials. According to Abrahams et al. [8] and Yang and Molinas [9], the total
sediment transport, 𝑇𝑠 , namely bed and suspended loads, can be expressed in terms of a few governing variables as 𝑇𝑠 =
𝑓(𝜌, 𝑤, 𝑄 −1 ) in which 𝜌 represents density of water, w indicates the flow width, and 𝑄 is the river discharge. Erosion or
deposition can be predicted by observing the 𝑇𝑠 against the total load under the flow regime in which a predominant
flow exists and changes in river morphology in a short period are absent. If the current 𝑇𝑠 at a certain section of the river
is significantly less than the total load under a flow regime, an erosion process is expected to occur. Theoretically, for
non-cohesive riverbeds and banks, the equilibrium state of a natural river can be reached. However, the achievement of
such an equilibrium state might be observed for only a short period as the variables that determine the equilibrium
change over time. We can distinguish between the equilibrium state of a river, the so-called river regime, and a stable
riverbed and banks for non-cohesive riverbeds and bank materials. At equilibrium, the riverbed and banks are normally
in a stable condition. One of the indications of a stable condition is the lack of erosion, thus, no sediment transport
occurs. In such a case, the bed materials are motionless and remain in their original position despite being under shear
stress due to flows. In the same situation, we can also expect that the armor layer grains are motionless and mutually
strengthened.
In this study, the armor layer is a type of non-cohesive, naturally shaped material made of gravel of certain sizes that
are located on the riverbed in a static position, and the bedload layer is a type of riverbed material that is always actively
moving due to river flows. The bedload entrainment develops due to the existing bed shear stress, which is expressed in
𝜏 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑠, and when it exceeds the critical bed shear stress, as 𝜏𝑐 = 𝜃 ∗ (𝑠𝑔 − 1)𝜌𝑔𝑑50 in which ρ represents water
density, g is the gravitational acceleration, ℎ = water depth, 𝑆 ≅ slope of riverbed, 𝜃 ∗ is Shields factor, 𝑠𝑔 indicates the
specific gravity of the river bed material, and 𝑑50 represents median particle size of the riverbed material. Therefore,
when the riverbed materials are subject to shear stress and are not tightly bound, i.e., they are non-cohesive and not
protected by the armor layer, the bed materials are eroded, transported, and washed away by the flow. The riverbed
sediment would remain in a static state in which its critical shear stress is larger than its bed shear stress. The armor
layer structure then protrudes on the riverbed toward the flow, thus blocking the motion of the bedload that passes over
it. This process causes an increase in resistance flow, which has an impact on the movement of the bedload into the
armor's space. The study was aimed at understanding the behavior of static armor against the flow-generated shear stress
for its uniformity, thickness, and erodibility based on results from hydraulic laboratory experiments given various flow
discharges under steady uniform flow and a given composition of the riverbed materials. The study limits the focus only
on steady and uniform flow, as the existing supporting equipment was unavailable for non-steady non-uniform flow. It
was realized that in the real world, the river flows rarely occurred in steady and uniform states. However, we can still
argue that at a certain point in a short time, the river flows could be steady and uniform flow. For this reason, the study
is still purposeful and useful. Older and more recent relevant studies, which underlie our study, were scrutinized and
properly referenced, particularly concerning three issues: (1) layers of the armor, (2) bed shear stress, and (3) uniformity
of the armor materials.
1.1. Armor Layers

Bed armoring often develops in a gravel-bed channel with a varied grain size distribution. A streambed could change
its grain size composition and particle arrangement due to kinematic sieving, preferential transport, or spontaneous
percolation to form various types of surface structures. Zhang et al. [10] show that the bed armoring consists of two
processes: surface coarsening and particle clustering. The surface coarsening developed at an earlier stage with low bed
shear stress than did the particle clustering at relatively high shear stress. A study by Bettes and Frangipane [5, 11]
revealed that a layer of static armor develops when a flow works in a non-uniform riverbed material, and the finest
sediment fraction is washed away. This progressive decrease in riverbed materials leaves a fraction of the sediment layer
intact and static because of its capability to resist flow-generated shear stress, thus providing sediment input to the flow.
Studies concerning static armor with sediment-free input at a uniform and constant discharge have also been done [5,
12]. Proffitt [13] also asserted that the armor layer protects the substratum layer from bed erosion for a given uniformity
of armor layer. Parker et al. [14] discussed grain size characteristics in the substrate layer by analysing the amount of
sediment transported at a single grain size. Shen and Lu [6] developed a method for predicting the distribution of armor
layers. Then, Parker et al. [14] explained the armor layer for each grain fraction and the average diameter of the grains.
1087
Wilcock [15] revealed that the formation of the armor layer must be based on the differences in shear stress that occur
in the sand and gravel fractions. Wilcock and Crowe [15] further developed a relationship between the bedload and the
armor layer in addition to the substrate, which is reflected in the overall grain size distribution, including the presence
of sand grains that fill the gravel during sediment transport.
Curran and Wilcock [16] conducted flume experiments with large discharge intensities and measured the transported
bedload and the amount of bedload left at the bottom. The sediment system in the riverbed consists of three layers of
forming components, i.e., the surface, substrate, and bedload layers. Parker et al. [14], Wilcock [17], Wilcock and Crowe
[15] discussed the surface grain size characteristics. The equation arranged by Parker et al. [9] discussed grain sizes in
the substrate. The method proposed by Bakke et al. [18] describes the dependency of armor layer development in surface
and substrate layers on the proportions in the mixture of gravel and sand. The combined methods of Wilcock [19] and
Bakke et al. [18] were used to measure bottom sediments and the results can be used to calibrate the sediment transport
equation. Tan and Curran [20] investigated the formation of armoring clusters. The resulting armor layer structure was
a mixture of gravel and sand, which was sorted periodically. Mrokowska and Rowinski [21] stated that the most intensive
sediment transport is expected before the discharge peak due to the peak of bedload is most likely around the peak of
bed shear stress, provided sediment is available. It seems that the armored bed is destroyed in the region of increased
shear velocity. The studies described above support the findings of the current study. The current study was expected to
complement an existing study. Based on this premise, our study focused on the effect of shear stress and uniformity of
grain size on the thickness of the static armor layer.
1.2. Shear Stress and Transport Rate

Berni et al. [22] found that the equilibrium time associated with a decreased sediment rate in the process of armor
layer formation is influenced by four parameters, i.e., the Reynolds number, the non-dimensional median grain diameter,
the ratio of the basic shear stress of the channel to the critical shear stress, and the ratio of width to the depth of flow.
The research was carried out by collecting laboratory data to study the sediment transport rates without an upstream
sediment supply under steady-flow conditions. Wilcock and Crowe [15] found that the content of sand strongly
influences the rate of coarse grain/gravel transport and the total sediment transport rate. In mixed conditions of sand and
gravel, the increase in the rate of coarse grain transport will grow rapidly with sand contents in the range of 15% to 27%.
The grain sizes of the riverbed materials varied with the sand content. However, the results of laboratory experiments
demonstrate that minimal or no effects of the surface roughening process occurred with changes in the flow rate and the
rate of transport of the grain material. Wilcock [19] developed empirical, but practical methods, to estimate the amount
of gravel and sand transported separately, knowing only the shear stress of gravel or sand riverbed. This estimation is
important, particularly because of its practical applications for predicting the movement of riverbed materials, given the
limited available information.
In addition to sediment transport models of separation of sand and gravel riverbed materials, Wilcock and Crowe
[15] presented a transport model for mixed sand/gravel sediments. This model uses the full-size distribution of the layers,
including sand, and incorporates the nonlinear effect of sand content on gravel transport rates that were not included in
the previous model. Sediments with fine material or sand tend to form a relatively coarse median grain size of riverbed
materials. The sediment supply regime provides first-order control on bedload transport rates, which are significantly
influenced by mobile sediment over the flow and bed surface texture [23]. It shows evidence that cycles of degradation
and aggradation occurred due to sediment feed upstream, bed composition, bed topography, and the rate and texture of
sediment output. Transport rates of bedload usually show wide fluctuations, even under steady flow conditions. The
group variance of transport rate is controlled simply by the sampling duration and its mean rate [24].
1.3. Coefficient of Uniformity (𝑪𝒖 )

The coefficient of uniformity of the sediment samples is one of the significant parameters in determining the armor
layer. According to the sediment classification criteria of the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), the coefficient
of uniformity indicates a range of sediment grain diameter sizes that can be obtained from the grain-size curve. If the Cu
value is large, the grain size range is wide. The width of Cu shows that the grain sizes of the sediment vary, and therefore,
how well it is well graded. However, if the Cu value is small or quantitatively the value of Cu is less than 4, the grain
size is more uniform and poorly graded. Based on USCS, the uniformity coefficient is in which D 60 indicates a designated
diameter in which 60% of the sample passed the gradation analysis. Similarly, D 10 means 10% of the sample or finer
material passed a specific diameter in the gradation analysis. The Cu with the ratio of D60 and D10 is normally used as a
gradation of embankment material. Therefore, it is not suitable for the armor layer, which is continuously under shear
stress. Limerinos [25] proposed a modified Cu for the river bed materials resulting from experiments on bed roughness
with natural materials or river bed materials. The Cu could be defined as 𝐶𝑢 = 𝐷84 /𝐷16 .
In our experiments, the range of the Cu value decreased and therefore, the bed roughness became larger, which
resulted in a steeper bed slope for the same flow rate. Based on USCS criteria, Limerinos [25], other studies, and physical
1088
observations from our laboratory, we proposed a Cu value Cu=D84/D16. For the river bed materials, a narrow range of Cu
is preferred, indicating the diameters of upper and lower limits are close to one another, and the riverbed materials are
approximately uniform. Based on this condition, the thickness of the armor layer would be smaller. However, since this
finding was uncertain, it was decided to do experiments using seven Cu values with a range from 3.0 to 6.0.
1.4. Measuring System and Accuracy

During the experiment, we measured all variables i.e. hydraulics and sediment materials by using a metric system.
The accuracy applied for the measurements depends on the object measured, for example, for the size of sediments,
armor layer, and hydraulic variables we used one significant figure with the accuracy of 0.1 mm. For the water depth,
the accuracy was 0.1 cm. The flow discharge also adopts one significant figure with the accuracy of 0.1 liters per second
(l/s) during the flow discharge calibration process. However, for the calculation, two digits of accuracy for all variables
were adopted.
2. Methodology
2.1. Experimental Arrangement
We carried out the experiments on a full-scale hydraulic model of the flume, armor size as well as hydraulic
parameters of Reynolds Number and Froude Number, and therefore, there were no scale effects of model-prototype on
the results of the experiments. The experiments were conducted in a hydraulics laboratory using a plexiglass sediment
recirculating flume 0.60 m wide, 10 m long, and 0.45 m high. The method of the experiment is schematically shown in
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Flowchart of the Method of Experiment
The flume was specifically designed to examine various sediment transport phenomena with variations of the bed
slope, as depicted in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The flume setup
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The experiment employed a full-scale flume and used a digital point gauge (Figure 3-a), current meter (Figure 3-b),
and sediment traps (Figure 3-c). The flow speed was measured by using the current meter at the middle position of the
flume and above the base surface at 0.20h, 0.50h, and 0.85h, where h is the depth of flow. The velocity was averaged
from the velocities of flows at these depths, and consecutively the discharge was calculated.
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 3. (a) Point gauge for channel bed elevation measurements, (b) velocity measurements, (c) sediments trap
The experiment was run with four different discharges of steady uniform flow, five groups of material gradations,
and five bed-slope variations. Therefore, the total number of runs was 100. The bed slopes of the channel in this study
were 1.0%, 1.4%, 1.8%, 2.2%, and 2.6%. The bed slope variations were controlled by adjusting a regulator that was
attached to a hydraulic jack in the experimental apparatus. Discharge variations of 25, 30, 40, and 45 L/s were adopted
for the flow rates in the flume. Our experiments were bound by the discharge capacity of the flume for which the
maximum value was about 70 L/s. We could, therefore, in practice, only run the experiments with discharges between
10 and 60 L/s. By this limitation, the experiment was conducted with the initial discharge set at 20 L/s in the hope that
this rate would generate an incipient discharge. However, with the initial discharge of Q = 20 L/s, the average depth of
water in the flume was only 5–6 cm, which generated maximum shear stress, 𝜏𝑜 = 9.5 𝑁/𝑚2 , which was small.
Concurrently, the critical shear stress of the sediment was 15 N/m2. The initial discharge of 20 L/s did not generate bed
sediment motion and was not considered an incipient discharge was not used. The discharge was then increased using
an arbitrary incremental discrete value of 5 to 10 L/s. With a 5 L/s incremental discharge, the initial discharge was
increased to 25 L/s. The theoretical incipient discharge was computed by assuming the initial motion of the bed sediment
by equalizing the critical shear stress of the bed sediment and the shear stress generated by flow. Then, the incipient
discharge was calculated. The incipient discharge was computed using the following series of equations.
The critical depth that generates the motion of the sediment is computed using the Equation 1:
𝜃 ∗ (𝑆𝑔 −1)𝑑50
ℎ= (1)
𝑆
The incipient discharge was estimated using the Manning formula, provided that the flow depth is given by the
Equation 2:
𝑏ℎ
𝑄1 = 𝑅0.67 𝑆 0.5 (2)
𝑛
From Equations 1 and 2 for a rectangular channel width of b = 0.6 m, S = 0.02, and n = 0.008, specific gravity of the
sediment Sg = 1.65, and d50 = 3.0 mm, the incipient discharge rate was found to be 21 L/s. At this discharge rate, the bed
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sediment began to move. Based on this incipient discharge, the initial discharge of the experiment was taken to be 25
L/s with increment discharge of 5 to 10 L/s. The discharge rates in the experiment were 25, 30, 40, and 45 L/s.
The riverbed materials for the armor layer were grouped into five categories based on their mean diameter (D50),
with mean diameter (D50) of (1) M1 of 90 mm, (2) M2 (D50 = 23 mm), (3) M3 (D50 = 42 mm), (4) M4 (D50 = 15
mm), and (5) M5 (D50 = 59 mm). The gradation of the M1 to M5 materials is shown in Figure 4. For the armor itself,
each piece of gravel of the same size group was represented by different color to observe the hydraulic behavior of the
individual gravel groups.
Figure 4. Gradation of Five River Bed Materials (M1-M5)
2.2. Measurements of Variables

For every experiment, for each group of material, gravel and sand were mixed and then evenly distributed along the
channel at a thickness of 15 cm, while at the downstream end of the channel a sediment trap box was installed to catch
the flushed materials. Furthermore, the slope of the channel was adjusted and the flow rate was set. Observations of flow
conditions were conducted until steady uniform flow conditions were achieved. Measurements and observations of water
level elevations in each experiment were carried out as controls for the bottom slope of the sediment.
In each run, the behavior and variables were recorded when steady uniform flow conditions were achieved, at this
time, the flow depths were the same at any position along the flume. The measurements at every run included the flow
velocity, water temperature, water level profile, and amount of transported bottom sediment. Measurement of flow
velocity was done by installing a current meter in the middle of the flume at three vertical locations, namely 0.2, 0.4,
and 0.8 of water depth (h), after which the depth of flow and captured sediments were measured accordingly. The
sediments accumulated in the sediment traps were collected at 2 min intervals, weighed, and recorded. Sediment traps
are tools used to catch sand that moves out via the downstream channel. The run for each dataset continued until the
sediment captured in the sediment traps was 0% of the transported sediment. At the final stage of each run, sediment
was taken from the flume and a sieve analysis was performed to yield a grain gradation profile of armor, substrate, and
bedload layers.
3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Shear Stress
We run the experiment with four data sets of discharges (Q1 to Q4), four data sets of bed slope (S1 to S4), and five
data sets of materials (M1 to M5). We have, therefore, 80 sets of results. For these 80 sets of results we computed the
Froude number (Fr), and bed shear stress (τ). We also measured the flow velocity (U), and flow depth (h). Each data
sets for the experiment is denoted by 𝑀𝑖 𝑄𝑗 𝑆𝑘 where i = 1 to 5, j = 1 to 4, and k = 1 to 4. Table 1 shows an example of
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the running combinations of material groups, namely the M1, with four (4) discharge data sets (Q1–4) and five (5)
different bed slopes (S1–5) with corresponding shear stress 𝜏𝑜 . For all flow rates, it was found that the experiments were
under steady uniform (Q is constant), and flow is sub-critical (𝐹𝑟 < 1.0).
Table 1. Measured and computed variables for M1, Q1–4, and S1–5 data sets
Discharge Q Bed slope Flow velocity U Flow depth h Froude Number Shear stress
Running
(l/s) S (m/s) (m) Fr τo (N/m2)
M1Q1S1 25 0.010 0.529 0.080 0.597 7.830
M1Q1S2 25 0.014 0.604 0.070 0.705 9.610
M1Q1S3 25 0.018 0.660 0.065 0.797 11.478
M1Q1S4 25 0.022 0.701 0.060 0.878 12.949
M1Q1S5 25 0.026 0.729 0.055 0.951 14.028
M1Q2S1 30 0.010 0.562 0.090 0.598 12.500
M1Q2S2 30 0.014 0.626 0.080 0.706 13.000
M1Q2S3 30 0.018 0.685 0.075 0.799 13.244
M1Q2S4 30 0.022 0.730 0.070 0.881 15.107
M1Q2S5 30 0.026 0.762 0.065 0.955 16.579
M1Q3S1 40 0.010 0.621 0.110 0.598 13.800
M1Q3S2 40 0.014 0.701 0.100 0.708 14.700
M1Q3S3 40 0.018 0.754 0.090 0.802 15.892
M1Q3S4 40 0.022 0.809 0.085 0.886 18.345
M1Q3S5 40 0.026 0.852 0.080 0.962 20.405
M1Q4S1 45 0.010 0.648 0.120 0.597 14.300
M1Q4S2 45 0.014 0.735 0.110 0.708 15.107
M1Q4S3 45 0.018 0.795 0.100 0.803 17.658
M1Q4S4 45 0.022 0.834 0.090 0.887 19.424
M1Q4S5 45 0.026 0.906 0.085 0.964 21.680
The runs of the other four riverbed material groups (M2–M5) were carried out similarly, but the outputs are not
presented here. From these 80 datasets we observed in our experiments, 20 datasets are presented. They resulted from
corresponding sediment discharges, 𝑄𝑠 , as shown in Figure 3. Regression lines were also produced to obtain the critical
shear stress, which is the intercept of 𝜏𝑜 when the sediment discharge, 𝑄𝑠 was equal to zero.
From Figure 5, it can be observed that the critical shear stress for Group 1 riverbed material (M1) under four
discharge variations (Q1 to Q4) and five different bed slopes (S1 to S5) converge towards the value of ≅ 3.0 N/m2.
Equalizing the critical shear stress, τc, of Shields [26] and the reference bed shear stress, τ0, resulted in the minimum
gravel bed diameter shown in Equation 3 for the armor layer. This process is summarized in Table 2.
𝑐 
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑔(𝑠−1) (3)
Table 2. Critical shear stress (τc) and corresponding ds for the group of M1 Q(1-4), S(1-5)
Critical Shear Stress, 𝝉𝒄 Sediment diameter, ds

Group Equation
N/m2 mm
M1Q1S(1-5) 3.022 0.118
M1Q2S(1-5) 3.051 0.119
M1Q3S(1-5) 3.018 0.118
M1Q4S(1-5) 3.039 0.119
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Figure 5. A correlation between bed shear stress and bedload transport
From Table 2 and also exhibited in Figure 5, for group 1 (M1) of armor materials, for all groups of inflow discharges
(Q1 to Q4), and all groups of riverbed slopes (S1 to S5), the critical shear stresses at the river bed, where no bed materials
were transported (Qs = 0) were between 3.018 and 3.051 N/m2, these values correspond to the minimum sediment
diameter of 0.118 mm. With this minimum diameter of bed material, the river bed erosion would not take place. Thus,
the minimum diameter of armor is theoretically around this size. For practicality, an armor layer could be designed with
the minimum diameter of that size where the tractive force generated by flow is less than the critical shear stress of the
armor layer. The armor materials could be originated from any locally available sands or gravel quarry and should
undergo gradation analysis by setting the minimum diameter. The thickness of the armor layer could be determined by
considering other factors.
3.2. Bed Load Sediment Transport

Bedload transport plays an important role in shaping the longitudinal profile of a stream channel [24]. Bedload
sediment transport is a certain structure of sediment transport, which involves sand, gravel, or coarser particles saltating
or rolling along the streambed [24]. The reasons why bedload transports difficult to predict: the mix of fast and slow
processes, non-equilibrium and noise-driven processes, the varying temporal and spatial scales dependent on flow
conditions, the heterogeneity of materials and flow conditions, nonlinearity, threshold effects, poor knowledge of initial
and boundary conditions, and scale effects between laboratory and field conditions [24]. Bedload transport rates are
completely parameterized concerning the size of the bedload. That is, rather than specifying a size distribution for each
rate, reliance is placed on a representative particle size derived from an aggregated sample of the bedload, or an
extrapolation that is dependent upon the size distribution of a textural facies in the local bed material [27]. Our
experiments demonstrate two phases of sediment transport, namely, riverbed erosion followed by an equilibrium phase
during which no further erosion occurred. The riverbed erosion phase was the initial phase characterized by the
movement of the bed load grains from the bottom until either of two conditions were satisfied: (1) the maximum value
of transported bottom grain was achieved or (2) the present shear stress did not exceed the critical shear stress of the
remaining riverbed sediment. The equilibrium phase was the final phase. It shows a gradual decrease in the movement
of the transported riverbed grains. Therefore, a stable riverbed surface was created. In the experiments, if this condition
was achieved, the flow was then stopped. It appears that the grains left on the bottom surface consisted of gravel and
various sand types. However, the amount of gravel was more predominant with grains arranged in a relatively uniform
cluster, as depicted in Figure 6.
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Figure 6. The final results of each run of the data set in the experiment yielded a protective coating on the channel bed
The armor layer had a grain gradation that tended to be homogeneous in size with an average diameter that was
larger than the substrate layer. The presence of bed grains in the space of the armor layer began with gravel blocking
the movement of the bed grains that passed above it. Therefore, those grains entered gravel cavities and remained under
shelter in such locations. An exchange between the bed grains in the cavity results in interlocking action. Small diameter
grains were not observed. According to an identical experiment conducted by Wang et al. [28], some clusters structures
and linear structure was developed after the complete coarsening of the bed. Those bed conditions would significantly
increase the stability of the bed, provide a large impact on the bed load transport, and change bed composition [29]
The process of transporting sediment is the displacement of granular sedimentary material by the flow of water in a
river section. Transport occurs in the direction of the flow so that it can be seen whether or not under certain conditions
equilibrium, erosion, and deposition conditions would exist. When the sediment transport is under a state of erosion and
deposition, bed sediment movement occurs in rolling, sliding, and jumping actions. Figure 7 shows the weight of
sediment measured at 2 min intervals for a run of one data set, the M1Q1S1 experiment. The flow is stopped when
sediment is no longer transported by the flow.
Figure 7. Weight of transported sediment
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As shown in Figure 7, the maximum quantity of sediment transported occurred in the 42nd min for 0.448 kg, while
no more sediment was transported after 390 min. It could be explained that after 42 min, the layer of sediment materials
was interlocked in such a way that the existing shear stress did not exceed the critical shear stress of the remaining
sediment layer. In this case, the armoring process began. Figure 7 shows an identical result to the experiment conducted
by Wang et al. [29] that the formation and reestablishment of the bed load transport rate in the static armor layer increased
from zero to its peak before decaying.
This result is also similar to that of Proffitt [13] concerning the formation of an armor layer on a channel bed. The
channel bed material used in this experiment was a non-uniform material under constant sub-critical steady uniform
flow conditions. The duration of the experiment was between 24 and 90 h. The process of forming the armor layer, in
general, is related to the movement of the bottom sediment in which the amount of sediment transported in the first hour
reaches its maximum, which can be as much as 50% of the total transported sediment. Our experiment also presents
results similar to those of Henderson [30] in which the formation of an armor layer on a channel surface occurred rapidly.
This formation was indicated by the presence of transported sediments that had reached the maximum amount.
The sediment left on the bottom consisted mainly of gravel-type materials with larger diameter grains with cavity
formation between the constituent grains. The structure of the layer always prevented the movement of the grains that
passed over it. At this stage, a large sediment size was quite visible on the bottom surface. The position of the long axis
of sediment grains was arranged in a position perpendicular to the flow direction, thus forming a network. This condition
had a positive effect on the formation of a surface protective layer. Other observations showed that the position of the
sediment grains was more stable. They did not move and were able to protect the surrounding grains. The movement of
the grains above the riverbed layer by rolling, sliding, and jumping was determined by the shape of the grains, but some
would remain and occupy positions between the cavities of the protective layer structure while the rest would continue
to move until they found the right position among the larger grain cavities. Streambed topography adjusts to the reduction
in sediment supply not only through surface coarsening but also through a decrease in change of bed surface cluster and
streambed mobility [7].
3.3. The Thickness of the Static Armor Layer: The Main Finding of the Study
To accomplish the objectives of this study, we observed that the mean grain diameter of the armor layer (D a50), the
mean grain diameter of the bed layer (Db50), bed shear stress (𝜏𝑜 ), critical shear stress (𝜏𝑐 ), and grain size uniformity
(Cu). Based on previous studies and our observations during the experiments, the primary governing variables that
influence the armor layer thickness are 𝜏𝑜 and 𝐶𝑢 . If 𝐶𝑢 = 1, the armor layer gradation was uniform, and the minimum
grain size diameter of the armor could be approximated by Equation 3, and the thickness (𝑡𝑎 ) could be practically taken
as 3 to 5 times that of the armor diameter. However, if 𝐶𝑢 > 1, the thickness of the armor layer must follow the governing
variables. The parameter, 𝑡𝑎 , is expressed as a function of some governing variables as shown in Equation 4.
𝑡𝑎 = 𝑓(𝐷𝑎 50, 𝐷𝑏 50, 𝐶𝑢 , 𝜏) (4)
The variables can be expressed in dimensionless for as shown by Equation 5:

𝑡𝑎 𝐷𝑎50 𝜏0
𝑓′ = ( , , , 𝐶𝑢 ) (5)
𝐷𝑎50 𝐷𝑏50 𝜏𝑐
From Equation 5, it is seen that all components of 𝑓 ′ were positive and could be expressed as showing a correlation
between the armor layer thickness and the remaining parameters, as shown by Equation 6:
𝐷 𝜏
𝑡𝑎 = 𝐾 (𝐷𝑎50 ) (𝜏0 ) 𝐶𝑢 𝐷𝑎50 (6)
𝑏50 𝑐
A coefficient K was introduced for the safety of the armor layer in addition to minimizing the cost of the materials
in a permanent artificial lined channel, such as concrete, masonry, and others. In our experiments, we found that the
optimal K values were between 1.5 and 2.5. Equation 6 yielded a reliable armor layer thickness for the bed protection
of our common natural rivers. If the mean diameter of bed load sediment was smaller than the mean diameter of the
armor material, it presented a thicker armor layer. This is sensible as the protected grain size was smaller at smaller
critical shear stress, 𝜏𝑐 , against the existing shear stress, 𝜏𝑜 . The ratio between shear stress generated by flow and critical
shear stress of the armor was also reasonable as the armor must be resistant to the shear stress, 𝜏𝑜 . The uniformity
coefficient of the armor materials, 𝐶𝑢 , can be used to directly determine the thickness of the armor layer. An ideal armor
layer occurs when 𝐶𝑢 is close to 1.0 or the armor materials are uniform. Thus, a larger 𝐶𝑢 the value indicates more
heterogenous grain sizes of the armor materials and yields a thicker armor layer. This situation is realistic and practical.
Another practical aspect of Equation 6 is its simplicity and capability to adjust to local conditions after the introduction
of a K coefficient. Equations 4 and 5 that lead to the derivation of the thickness of the armor layer can be considered the
primary findings of the study.
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Twenty random data points were selected in our samples with single discharge to corroborate the plausibility and
reliability of Equation 6, as shown in Table 3.
Table 3. The armor layer thickness, which is based on random data points in the study for Equation 6
Armor Mean Mean Diameter of Shear Stress Critical Shear Stress Coefficient of the Uniformity Armor
Diameter, 𝑫𝒂𝟓𝟎 Riverbed Sediment, (generated by of the Riverbed of the armor material,𝑪𝒖 Thickness, 𝒕𝒂
in mm 𝑫𝒃𝟓𝟎 in mm Flow), 𝝉𝒐 in N/m2 sediment, 𝝉𝒄 in N/m2 (Dimensionless) in mm
51.0 2.4 16.18 15.49 4.71 103.2
54.0 2.3 16.18 14.96 4.50 111.9
56.7 2.3 16.18 14.75 4.32 116.0
59.7 2.3 16.18 14.63 4.37 125.6
62.3 2.3 16.18 14.45 4.15 127.8
56.2 2.5 16.18 16.01 4.05 91.6
56.8 2.4 16.18 15.53 3.86 93.7
61.9 2.4 16.18 15.35 3.73 101.0
69.5 2.4 16.18 15.25 3.61 111.2
69.5 2.2 16.18 13.89 3.23 120.0
59.8 2.6 16.18 16.53 3.61 81.4
63.8 2.5 16.18 16.14 3.46 87.4
66.0 2.2 16.18 14.23 3.36 112.9
67.5 2.0 16.18 12.54 3.27 144.9
69.9 2.01 16.18 12.82 3.07 134.8
65.3 2.61 16.18 16.66 3.27 79.4
68.2 2.56 16.18 16.30 3.27 86.5
70.0 2.27 16.18 14.49 3.19 109.7
71.8 2.16 16.18 13.74 3.22 126.5
74.3 2.17 16.18 13.87 3.14 125.3
The safety factor against bed erosion, K = 1, yielded a reasonable thickness of the armor of 80 to 140 mm for an
average diameter of the armor of 50 to 70 mm. The K coefficient can vary depending on local conditions.
To ascertain the uniformity of designed armor materials, we examined the average of the coefficient of uniformity,
which was determined as 𝐶𝑢 = 𝐷90 ⁄𝐷16 . Its standard deviation shows an average value of 𝐶𝑢 , 3.5, with a standard
deviation of 0.7, and a range of 2.9 (with the maximum and minimum values of 5.3 and 2.4, respectively). The armor
materials used in the experiment varied with a relatively narrow standard deviation. With 80 data points, it is safe to say
that the designed armor materials are sufficient to support the results.
The exact comparison of the armor layer thickness could not be carried out since we could not find the references
for river bed protection. While the works of Griffith [1], Curran and Wilcock [16], and Wilcock & DeTemple [17] that
we referred, to have indeed given some insights on the armor layer for riverbed protection including the estimate of
armor size, and in such a case we have a similar approach to the armor size, which is bed shear stress generated by flow,
on the other hand, they did not provide an explicit estimation on the thickness of the armor layer. There were some
studies on armor for example [31, 32], but the studies were largely for the armor of the breakwater. However, a study
by Escarameia (1999) [33] given an estimate of armor layer thickness as shown in the Equation 7:
0.037 𝑈 2
𝐷𝑛 = (𝑆𝑔 −1)
(7)
where, 𝐷𝑛 is armor layer thickness, 𝑈 is average flow velocity, and 𝑆𝑔 is specific gravity of the armor material. It seems
that the derivation of Equation 7 was largely based on the empirical method, even though the primary approach was the
same, which is bed shear stress.
The implication of this finding is mainly in the way we view the design of stable channels: (1) the hydraulically
stable channels are seen not only from the perspective of the absence of erosion in the channel but also from no
sedimentation. This situation needs a balance between no-erosion and no-sedimentation states. The no-erosion state can
be simply achieved by controlling the permissible flow velocity, but too small a flow velocity may lead to the
sedimentation process in the channel. These two situations are undesirable, and certainly difficult to accomplish as it is
theoretically a point rather than a range of values, as illustrated in Figure 8 (2) we may need our irrigation channels to
be hydraulically stable, as we wish to minimize the maintenance costs. We design the channel by using the principles
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of the design of a stable channel. However, we cannot always accomplish it, since many factors contribute and some of
them are beyond our control (3) If a hydraulically stable channel could not be accomplished because of the
uncontrollable factors, we should look into any possible solutions, such as armor layers, revetments, ripraps and the
likes (3) the armor layers as proposed by this study can be developed by utilizing locally available sands and gravels.
Figure 8. Two States in Design Stable Channel
As an epilog to this study, the practical equation for determining the armor layer thickness may hopefully contribute
to theoretical and practical practice, particularly in the sediment transport field and to river engineering in general.
4. Conclusions
Our experimental study was initially inspired by the high costs of irrigation canal maintenance as well as flood
control channel development and maintenance due to erosion and sedimentation in the canals. It attempts to reduce such
costs to an affordable level. This development can be done by introducing locally available and almost cost-free
materials to prevent erosion in the canals via the use of armor layers. Gathering, combining, and assessing existing
sediment transport formulas, we performed experiments to understand the phenomena and searched for a simple, yet
reliable, armor layer thickness. The key findings of this study are (1) the development of a formula for designing the
thickness of the armor layer in which the variables are riverbed sediment diameter, shear stress, and armor materials.
This formula is represented in Equation 6. (2) During the experiment, we confirmed the role of riverbed shear stress in
the sediment transport phenomena, as the sediment transport formula requires only a few variables. (3) Based on the
observations of the bed material's behavior, we assert that the approach of stable channel design principles should not
be based only on a non-erosion state but also on a non-sedimentation state. While we assert that both states must be
taken into account, as the hydraulically stable channel implies non-erosion and non-sedimentation states, the
conventional theory of design of stable channels should be revisited.
The conventional principles of the design of stable channels were fundamentally founded on several parameters: (a)
the channel regime theory, which is based on the empirical concept in which the equilibrium state of the river’s hydraulic
variables has certain correlations; (b) the tractive force methods, which consider bed erosion due to the flow-generated
tractive force exceeding the critical shear stress of river bed materials; and (c) the sediment transport optimization
principle, which assumes quasi-equal quantities of sediment along the river for a certain uniform discharge (see studies
by Bettes and Frangipane [11]; Eaton and Millar [34], and Ackers and White [35]. However, we should take note of the
limitations of the study, in which the experiment was basically based on steady and uniform flow, and therefore other
effects might not be taken into account. This limitation might be a challenge and an arena for future research, and thus
possible unanswered questions can be addressed. Our findings also show a consistent result with the current theory of
sediment transport optimization as exhibited by [8, 22, 36], and the results show that riverbed erosion could be prevented
by protecting the bed materials from flow-generated shear stress. It is tantamount to a lined channel but with the
provision of locally available and low-cost armor materials that would correct shear stress-induced damage and become
material groups for the armor. Our study combined the tractive force method with the sediment transport optimization
principle. Since the principles of this study are in line with the design of stable channels, it is safe to say that the study's
results could add to and improve current theory and practice in designing stable channels.
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5. Declarations
5.1. Author Contributions
Preliminary idea, C.I.; conceptualization, C.I. and A.S.P.; methodology, C.I., and A.S.N.; formal analysis, C.I.,
A.S.P., and A.S.N.; writing—original draft preparation, C.I., A.S.N., and A.S.P.; writing—review and editing, A.S.P.;
visualization, C.I., and A.S.P.; supervision and project administration, C.I.; funding, C.I. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
5.2. Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
5.3. Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
5.4. Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107428.
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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
Analysis of Pedestrian Performance by Integrating both Quantitative

and Qualitative Factors
Neil Andrew I. Meneses 1* , Jocelyn S. Buluran 1

1
School of Civil, Environmental, and Geological Engineering, Mapúa University, Intramuros, Manila, Philippines.
Received 12 March 2022; Revised 24 May 2022; Accepted 28 May 2022; Published 01 June 2022
Abstract
The importance of non-motorized movements, explicitly walking, and its corresponding impact on social, economic, and
environmental aspects has always been overlooked due to the convenience brought by motorized vehicles. An automobile-
dependent society mirrors the rise and worsening of several transportation problems, such as road-wide traffic congestion,
massive fuel consumption, and excessive CO2 emissions. In response to these aggravating situations and in support of
various national and international calls, the main objective of this study was to extract the significant factors influencing
the pedestrian level of service and walkability and to subsequently develop a predictive mathematical model for evaluating
pedestrian conditions. Factors influencing the pedestrian level of service and walkability were initially identified through
an extensive review and evaluation of existing studies, literature, and other relevant resources. A cause-and-effect analysis
was used to develop an Ishikawa Diagram tackling pedestrian performance. The finalized factors were incorporated into
the development of the Pedestrian Performance Assessment Questionnaire (PPAQ), which was utilized for data acquisition.
Survey responses were then subjected to factor analysis after satisfying several tests for assumptions and suitability to
extract the root causes influencing pedestrian performance. The validated root causes were then integrated to form the
Pedestrian Performance Audit Tool (PPAT), a tool used in evaluating pedestrian areas in Tarlac City, Philippines. Data
was analyzed through ordinal regression analysis to develop the multi-objective pedestrian performance prediction model.
Results showed that there are six critical predictors of pedestrian performance unified in the final mathematical model:
Pedestrian Space (PS), Official’s Intervention (OI), Ambiance (A), Vibrance (V), Street Vendors (SV), and Trash Bins
(TB), and is the most significant contribution of the study. The model's validity was ascertained through a confusion matrix,
which resulted in an acceptable rating. The comparison between calculated and perceived values together with the use of
odds ratios served as the basis for the interpretation of some of the key results and findings. Finally, recommendations
were also presented which can be a basis for the development of sustainable programs and interventions for the
improvement of the pedestrian system.
Keywords: Pedestrian Level of Service; Walkability; Ishikawa Diagram; Multivariate Factorial Analysis; Ordinal Regression Analysis.
1. Introduction
The efficiency and convenience brought by motorized vehicles have always been incomparable. Since most of the
people living today already considered those as a necessity more than a want, the immeasurable number of motorized
vehicles actively existing has brought a variety of harmful consequences, including road wide traffic congestion, massive
fuel consumption, tremendous increase in accident rates, and excessive CO 2 emission. The drastic deterioration of the
quality of life brought by these occurrences has led civil societies to identify and implement a more sustainable mobility
approach [1]. An integral approach, which starts by shifting from car-centric planning to more sustainable-oriented
strategies that can provide simultaneous societal, economic, and environmental gains [2].
* Corresponding author: menesesneilandrew@gmail.com

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Nowadays, non-motorized movement, specifically walking, has always been envisioned to be a long-term
sustainable solution to alleviate the transportation problems mentioned earlier [2, 3]. Several studies have shown how
walking can improve the quality of life by exploring the potential impacts of improved pedestrian facilities and levels
of service [2]. Pedestrian Level of Service (PLOS) has been widely used in the prioritization of these improvement
modifications as it measures the level of safety and comfort given by a pedestrian facility [4]. Generally, several
methodologies are used in evaluating PLOS, specifically depending on the context but mainly focused on the objective
calculation of quantitative components including pedestrian flow, pedestrian space, and pedestrian density [1, 5].
However, contrary to the improved facilities and infrastructure, it is still a challenge for the transportation industry to
encourage people to walk due to inconsistencies and lack of prioritization of the actual needs of the pedestrian system
[6].
Traditional transportation planning tends to undervalue the importance of considering walkability, precisely the
qualitative characteristics of walking as perceived by pedestrians [7, 8]. In fact, several studies proved that those factors
could also contribute to the pedestrian level of service [8], and can actually be the key answer that may potentially
encourage individuals to use it [9]. In the analysis of Amprasi et al. (2022), comparing micro-simulated PLOS to user
perception, the study led to an interesting result: contrary to the high level of service calculated through simulation
models, a significant number of pedestrian users still feel uncomfortable and unsafe. Thus, improving pedestrian safety
with synchronous consideration of walkability can play a significant role since PLOS can also be characterized by
several subjective indicators [1, 10]. Furthermore, an increase in walkability can encourage individuals, including the
vulnerable, to use pedestrian facilities, particularly for shorter-distance travel, and can also increase the use of public
transportation for longer-distance travel [11].
Existing literature and studies have revealed a wide range of influencing factors when the objective and subjective
dimensions of the pedestrian level of service being calculated and perceived are taken into account [12, 13]. Apparently,
few studies on pedestrian performance analysis have considered dealing with techniques that delineate and condense
those numerous factors before developing mathematical models. Likewise, the majority of the improvement
interventions only focused on the factors associated with facility development and geometric design without an explicit
attempt to thoroughly consider the factors aligned with its governing policies and management provisions, the interaction
between the road and pedestrian users, and the natural and built environment. Thus, those approaches' improvement
measures may somehow have insignificant effects, especially in encouraging people to walk.
The results of these studies can vary among developed and developing countries as one of the general considerations
is the geographic location and the perception of its constituents [9]. The Philippines, as a third-world country that focuses
mainly on its developmental perspective, has been lacking published studies that tackle the significance of non-
motorized transport and its potential contribution to the national and local context. Authorities of several first-class
component cities in the country, including Tarlac City, now make efforts to provide sustainable solutions as they severely
experience a variety of the afore-mentioned problems. Tarlac City is located in Central Luzon, Philippines with an
overall population of 342,493 across all 76 barangays based on the 2015 survey of PSA [14]. From the past years, Tarlac
City has been focusing more on car-centric planning since the area is considered as a transportation hub connecting the
northern and southern portions of the island.
In support to several national and international callings, this research study also aims to recognize the significant
role of pedestrian mobility, particularly in addressing the world's pressing issues. This study provided a holistic and
multi-objective approach in tackling the pedestrian level of service and walkability by integrating walking’s social,
economic, environmental, and political role as general influencing factors under consideration. Above all, the main focus
of this study was to develop a multi-objective pedestrian performance prediction model for evaluating existing
pedestrian conditions that incorporates both the quantitative and qualitative factors that directly and indirectly influence
the pedestrian level of service and walkability. Since there is a need to consider numerous underlying factors explicitly,
the study also provided a comprehensive and systematic approach by applying combinations of statistical techniques
and several validation and reliability tests. Identified influencing factors were categorized into four major aspects –
Infrastructure and Facilities, Management and Policies, User Interaction and Movement, and the Environment. In order
to develop the model, several assessment and audit tools were devised and validated for the data acquisition. The
acquired information was subjected to two-fold statistical tests through factor analysis and ordinal regression analysis.
The developed predictive mathematical model not only predicts the performance of the pedestrian system, but also
provides an avenue to identify the key predictors that profoundly influence its performance. Lastly, this study's results
and findings can help authorities to determine the priority of actions and establish long-term policies and initiatives for
their respective governing areas.
2. Statement of the Problem

The main objective of this research study is to develop a multi-objective pedestrian performance prediction model
in evaluating pedestrian performance utilizing multivariate factorial analysis and ordinal regression analysis.
Specifically, this study aims to address the following:
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 Identify factors affecting pedestrian level of service and walkability through the evaluation of various published
research literatures, studies, guidebooks, manuals, and other established concepts.
 Develop an Ishikawa Diagram in classifying factors influencing pedestrian performance categorized in terms of
the following major aspect: Infrastructure & Facilities, Management & Policies, User’s Interaction & Movement,
and Environment.
 Analyze assessment survey results to extract the significant factors (root causes) influencing pedestrian
performance utilizing multivariate factorial analysis.
 Develop a multi-objective pedestrian performance prediction model in evaluating pedestrian performance utilizing
ordinal regression analysis.
 Assess the effectiveness of the developed predictive mathematical model by evaluating existing pedestrian system
of Tarlac City, Philippines.
 Provide recommendations and improvement measures to the Local Government of Tarlac to potentially and
significantly increase the performance level of the city’s existing pedestrian condition.
3. Materials and Methods

This section chronologically presents the study's methodology, illustrating the different phases and their
corresponding steps to provide a detailed discussion on the procedures of gathering and analyzing pertinent data to fulfill
each research objective. The study engaged in a five (5) phased method covering a fifteen (15) step process in extracting
the root causes that significantly influence pedestrian performance and subsequently developing a predictive
mathematical model. This approach allowed the study to have a deeper understanding of the underlying causes that
significantly influences pedestrian performance, leading to the identification of critical-to-quality parameters that may
elevate the performance of its current state. The study's conceptual framework is presented by the diagram shown in
Figure 1.
PHASE I: Determination and Classification of PHASE II: Delineation and Condensation of

Pedestrian Performance Factors Pedestrian Performance Factors
1. Review of literature and 2. Review of existing guidebooks, 6. Development of the 7. Administer an actual survey using the
studies relative to the factors standardized procedures, and other Pedestrian Performance Pedestrian Performance Assessment
influencing pedestrian level relevant concepts in assessing pedestrian Assessment Questionnaire Questionnaire (PPAQ)
Pedestrian Performance Influencing
of service and walkability level of service and walkability (PPAQ)
6.1. Develop the Pedestrian 8. Organization of the assessment survey

Performance Assessment responses
Factors
3. Evaluation of the reviewed literature, studies, standardized procedures, and Questionnaire (PPAQ) using
other existing established concepts the identified pedestrian
performance influencing factors
9. Analyze assessment survey responses
6.2. Test for Validity and utilizing Multivariate Factorial Analysis
4. Preliminary organization and 5. Development of a Pedestrian Reliability of the
Root Causes
classification of the identified Performance Ishikawa Diagram developed Pedestrian 9.1. Test for Suitability for Factor Analysis
pedestrian performance utilizing Cause-and-Effect Performance Assessment
influencing factors Analysis Questionnaire (PPAQ) 9.2 Selection and Application of Methods for
Factor Extraction
PHASE V: Pedestrian PHASE IV: Assessment of the Developed PHASE III: Development of a Multi-Objective Pedestrian
Performance Predictive Mathematical Model thru Performance Prediction Model
Improvement Measures Performance Evaluation of Pedestrian System
11. Assessment of 10. Development of Pedestrian

pedestrian areas using the Performance Audit Tool (PPAT) using
14. Comparison of the Predicted and Pedestrian Performance the extracted root causes influencing
Observed Pedestrian Performance utilizing Audit Tool (PPAT) pedestrian performance
Key Predictors
Confusion Matrix
15. Recommend
improvement
CQP
10.1. Test for Validity and Reliability of the

measures based on the extracted significant factors influencing
identified Critical to 12. Development of the Multi- pedestrian performance
Quality Parameters 13. Evaluate the performance of the
Objective Pedestrian Performance
existing pedestrian system of Tarlac City,
Prediction Model utilizing Ordinal 10.2. Develop the Pedestrian Performance
Philippines utilizing the proposed Audit Tool (PPAT) using the validated root
Regression Analysis
predictive model causes influencing pedestrian performance
Figure 1. The Conceptual Framework
The first phase of the study's methodology focused on determining and classifying factors influencing the pedestrian
level of service and walkability through a rigorous review and evaluation of published literature and studies, standardized
procedures, and other relevant concepts. This specific phase outlined the concept of pedestrian performance to provide
an overview of how pedestrian systems work and what factors influence its performance. An Ishikawa Diagram was
then constructed through the application of cause-and-effect analysis to identify secondary and tertiary factors and
subsequently classify all the identified factors based on the significant aspects of the study [15].
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The second phase of this approach tackled the delineation and condensation of the identified factors. The Pedestrian
Performance Assessment Questionnaire (PPAQ) was developed incorporating the identified factors and subsequently
validated through face validity and internal consistency test. Factor analysis was employed in evaluating survey
responses to extract the root causes affecting pedestrian performance. However, validation and assumption tests were
conducted first before its application to see if the acquired data were suitable for factor analysis. This analysis is utilized
in studies with large data sets to group various measures with common descriptions into a few components [16, 17].
The development of a multi-objective pedestrian performance prediction model was the focus of the third phase of
the study. A Pedestrian Performance Audit Tool (PPAT) was devised to assess pedestrian areas, only incorporating the
factors that passed the construct and composite reliability tests. Ordinal regression analysis was utilized to develop the
predictive mathematical model. Through the application of this analysis, key predictors were extracted from the items
involved in the PPAT and paved the way to generate the mathematical predictive model. For the study's fourth phase,
the developed predictive mathematical model was validated using a confusion matrix by evaluating a new set of streets.
Predicted values were then compared to the observed performance perceived by the respondents. Finally, the calculation
of odds ratios served as the primary tool in interpreting several dimensions of the result. Recommendations were also
laid out in the study's fifth phase based on the identified critical-to-quality parameters.

4.1. Phase I: Determination and Classification of Pedestrian Performance Factors
The first two objectives of the study were the focus of Phase 1 which aimed to determine and classify factors
influencing pedestrian performance. A total of 56 factors were initially listed after a thorough review and evaluation of
several established and relevant concepts tackling the pedestrian level of service [3, 8, 18] and walkability [12, 19, 20].
Cause-and-Effect Analysis was then employed to explore further the underlying causes which affect pedestrian
performance. After a series of brainstorming sessions, additional factors were added, and subcategories of the study's
four major aspects were developed to further classify these identified factors. For the finalization, experts in pedestrian
movement and facilities validated the list encompassing these factors. Factors that bear many similarities were enjoined,
and factors that so far were not included in the list were also supplemented. With this, the study has now come up to the
finalization of 81 pedestrian performance influencing factors broken down as follows: forty (40) factors under
Infrastructure & Facilities, seventeen (17) under Management & Policies, sixteen (16) from User's Interaction &
Movement, and eight (8) factors included under the Environment. Subsequently, this led to the development of an
Ishikawa Diagram tackling pedestrian performance (Figure 2) and achievement of the study's first and second specific
objectives.
Infrastructure and Facilities

User’s Interaction and Sidewalk Design
Components 9
Movement and Elements 5 Sidewalk Defense and
Security
Sidewalk
Pedestrian Views 9 Connectivity and 8
and Preferences Accessibility Sidewalk Facilities,
10 Amenities, and
User's Movement and 7 Sidewalk Quality and Enhancements
Social Interaction Universal Design 8
Pedestrian
Performance
Pedestrian Aesthetics City Ordinances,
and Streetscaping 5 7
Regulations, and
Policy Support
Funding Mechanisms
Environmental
3 4 and Special Programs
Quality and Condition
Enforcement Practices, Management
Support, Operations, and Maintenance
6
Environment
Management and Policies
Figure 2. Ishikawa Diagram for Pedestrian Performance
4.2. Phase II: Delineation and Condensation of Pedestrian Performance Factors

The PPAQ was subsequently developed utilizing the finalized factors and was crafted under a five-point Likert scale
to measure the importance of the encrypted factors based on the objective and subjective views of the respondents.
However, before its application, the PPAQ was first evaluated by experts in the context of transportation and experts in
statistics through face validity test. These professionals focused on evaluating the questionnaire's content, especially on
how those items were presented. A pilot study was also conducted to measure the reliability of the questionnaire,
specifically its ability to measure the variable of interest through internal consistency test (Table 1). Cronbach's Alpha
for each sub-group of the study was uncovered. Results of this calculation showed that all values were acceptable as
these were above the 0.70 threshold value [16].
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Table 1. Internal Consistency Test
Pedestrian Performance Influencing Factor Cronbach’s Alpha Consistency

Infrastructure and Facilities 0.935 Excellent
Management and Policies 0.797 Acceptable
User’s Interaction and Movement 0.888 Good
Environment 0.750 Acceptable
OVERALL 0.962 Excellent
The validated PPAQ was then evaluated by 100 pedestrians who considered walking as their primary means of
transport. After tabulating responses, it was first checked if the obtained data were suitable for factor analysis by
carefully checking if all assumptions under this analysis were met. The sampling adequacy was examined using the
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy. In the initial run of PCA in the data set, the KMO value
is 0.694, a value above 0.50, which means that the samples are adequate. To check if the data should be suitable for
reduction, Bartlett's Test of Sphericity was employed where the p-value was found to be at 0.00, a p-value lower than
0.05, which means that the correlation matrix of the variables is not an identity matrix; thus, PCA is justified (Table 2).
Table 2. KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 0.694

Approx. Chi-Square 9758.443
Bartlett's Test of
df. 3240
Sphericity
Sig. 0
In this study, 81 items were accounted for the total variance. Each item has a corresponding eigenvalue of 1.
However, after applying PCA as the extraction method, eigenvalues were redistributed to variables that carry the most
variance in terms of the number of items. In the fourth and final rotation using Varimax with Kaiser Normalization as
the rotation method, 21 items were eliminated. The study now was left with the 60 extracted factor items categorized
into 13 components. These extracted components were then carefully named based on the shared concept of the items
contained in those components. It must be noted that the 13 components can explain 79.242% of the total variance, a
value higher than the acceptable threshold of 50% and reflects to the fulfillment of the study's third specific objective.
4.3. Phase III: Development of a Multi-Objective Pedestrian Performance Prediction Model

Before these extracted root causes were involved in developing a new audit tool, these extracted factors were
subjected first to validity and reliability tests through Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and Composite Reliability
(CR) tests, respectively. These values were calculated with the use of the following expressions:
∑(𝑓𝑖 )2
𝐴𝑉𝐸 = ∑(𝑓 2 (1)
𝑖 ) +∑ 𝜀𝑖
(∑ 𝑓𝑖 )2
𝐶𝑅 = (∑ 𝑓𝑖 )2 +∑ 𝜀𝑖
(2)
where 𝑓𝑖 is the factor loading of each measurement item and 𝜀𝑖 is the error variance.
It was set that the minimum criterion to be satisfied for the AVE is 0.50 [16], while for CR is 0.65. Items starting
with the lowest factor loading were deleted as long as the AVE and CR of that specific component did not reach the
threshold value. Undergoing this process comes with simultaneous verification if all the assumptions and requirements
of factor analysis were still satisfied. Thus, after these thorough procedures, a total of 11 components covering all 40
items remained significant (Table 3).
The 40 validated root causes as the independent variable and the 6-point performance rating as the dependent variable
were incorporated in the development of the PPAT. This tool served as an audit and evaluation tool in assessing
pedestrian areas in the City of Tarlac. Five (5) randomly selected local and collector streets in the City of Tarlac were
assessed using the developed PPAT, namely (a) F-Tañedo Street, (b) Romulo Boulevard, (c) Zamora Street, (d) Hilario
Street, and (e) J. Luna Street. All field-driven data were observed and measured onsite, while items under the assessment
survey were answered by a pool of respondents online. Moreover, all five streets were monitored for seven consecutive
days and were observed in the morning, noon, and evening time to capture the optimum and most probable value for the
items involved in each component, especially peak hour values.
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Table 3. Extracted and Finalized Root Causes influencing Pedestrian Performance
Component Description FL AVE CR Component Description FL AVE CR

Pedestrian Space 0.774 Policy Guidelines 0.734
Local Street Design
Vehicle Speed 0.759 Policy Support (PS) 0.733 0.523 0.767
Standards
User’s Movement Sight Distance 0.697 Public Spaces 0.702
0.512 0.840
(UM)
Vehicle Traffic Open Spaces and Nature
0.682 0.817
Flow and Density Preserves
Intersection
0.660 Sidewalk Social and Leisure Spots 0.757
Waiting Time
Accessibility to Less
Staffing Levels 0.845 Tourist and Historic Sites 0.746 0.514 0.839
Essential Destinations
(SALED)
Street Sweeping 0.813 Street Vendors 0.667
Interagency
0.773 Comfort Rooms 0.571
Cooperation
Operations and Education and
Traffic Enforcers 0.764 0.605 0.902 Sidewalk 0.752
Management (OM) Employment
Accessibility to
0.838 0.700
Monitoring and Essential Destinations Hospital and Essential
0.760 (SAED) 0.715
Repair Services
Official’s
0.704 Air and Odor Quality 0.833
Intervention
Traffic Control & Environmental
0.762 Traffic Noise 0.723 0.559 0.791
Calming Devices Quality (EQ)
Natural Enclosure of
Physical Borders 0.762 0.679
Defense and Universal Vegetation
Street Lights 0.723 0.510 0.838 0.758
Accessibility (DUA) Sidewalk Amenities Guide Signs
0.523 0.687
Obstructions 0.708 (SAm) Trash Bins 0.687
Handrails and
0.604 Crossing Facilities 0.795
Guardrails Pedestrian Crossing
0.551 0.710
Imageability & (PC)
0.800 Refuge Islands 0.686
Visual Quality
Pedestrian Aesthetics Ambiance 0.725
and Streetscaping 0.502 0.833 Furnishing Zone 0.789
Infrastructures 0.695 Sidewalk Zone Width
(PAS) 0.563 0.720
Vibrance 0.691 (SZW)
Frontage Zone 0.709
Good Street Art 0.618
Ordinal regression analysis was adopted as the primary statistical tool due to the ordinal nature of the variables [21].
Initially, the 11 established components were set as the main predictors. However, along with the conduct of different
tests for assumptions, the test for Goodness of Fit and Parallel Lines were not satisfied. In response to this situation, it
was redirected to use the contained items in each component as the main predictors. Verifications tests were re-run and
consequently interpreted. A P-value of more than 0.05 indicates that the assumption for proportional odds is met; thus,
having a p-value of 1.0 indicates that this assumption was met. In the likelihood ratio chi-square test, a p-value of less
than 0.05 is anticipated; thus, a p-value of 0.00 for a chi-square value of 144.799 indicates a significant improvement in
the fit of the final model over the null model. Both Pearson and Deviance chi-square tests were also significant as the p-
values were more than 0.5. These suggest that the model fits the data well (Table 4).
Ordinal Regression Analysis was then utilized to generate the predictive mathematical model. Coefficients bearing
a significant value of less than 0.05 confidence interval were retained, and those items exceeding this threshold were
removed. From the table shown, six items remained and were deemed statistically significant and led to the development
of the predictive mathematical model. The study's fourth specific objective, which aims to develop the multi-objective
pedestrian performance prediction model (Table 5), was achieved.
Table 4. Overall Fitting Indices
Test of Parallel Odds Goodness-of-Fit
Model -2 Log Likelihood Chi-Square df. P-val. Chi-Square df. P-val.
Ho 152.549 - - -
General 99.525b 53.024c 140 1 Pearson 376.264 460 0.998
Model Fitting Information
Intercept 297.348 - - -
Deviance 152.549 460 1.00
Final 152.549 144.799 35 0.00
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Table 5. Pedestrian Performance Predictive Model
Predictor Coef. Sig. Pedestrian Performance Constant Model

Pedestrian Space 1.122 0.009 Needs Massive Improvement 6.575 P(Y≤1) = P(Y=1)
Official’s Intervention -1.369 0.008 Very Poor 7.609 P(Y=2) = P(Y≤2) - P(Y≤1)
logit[P(Y≤1)] = β0 + β1X1 +
Ambiance 1.475 0.007 Poor 11.136 P(Y=3) = P(Y≤3) - P(Y≤2)
β2X2+ ... + βkXk
Vibrance 1.326 0.019 Good 16.517 P(Y=4) = P(Y≤4) - P(Y≤3)
Street Vendors -1.342 0.004 Very Good 21.482 P(Y=5) = 1 - P(Y≤4)
Trash Bins 1.114 0.015 The Logit p(x) = (eβ0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + ... + βkXk)/(1 + eβ0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + ... + βkXk)
4.4. Phase IV: Assessment of the Developed Predictive Mathematical Model thru Performance Evaluation of
Pedestrian System
The validation of the predictive model was accomplished by using a confusion matrix. The PPAT was reconstructed
only incorporating the key predictors of the predictive model and was used to assess another set of pedestrian streets. It
was noted from the previous phase that the highest rating (excellent) of pedestrian performance garnered an insignificant
number of responses. Therefore, the model showed a minimal probability of this being selected, thus excluded from the
rating list. Re-coding of the dependent variable was deemed necessary in response to these changes. The interval for
LOS A-C suggests that this LOS range was acceptable to pedestrians, while the interval for LOS D-F indicates that the
users were dissatisfied [9]. The recoded rating is presented in Table 6.
Table 6. Re-Coded Pedestrian Performance Rating
Initial Value Final Value

LOS A-B Very Good
LOS C Good
LOS D Poor
LOS E Very Poor
LOS F Needs Massive Improvement
The respondent's perceived pedestrian performance was then compared to the predicted pedestrian performance. All
matching observed and predicted values were associated with the total number of observations to calculate the model's
accuracy, thus generating an acceptable accuracy rating of 71.67%. This accuracy rating made the multi-objective
pedestrian performance prediction model acceptable and valid (Table 7).
Table 7. Matrix of Observed and Predicted Pedestrian Performance
Predicted Observed
NMP VP P G VG
Needs Massive Improvement 16 1 7 1 0

Very Poor 0 0 0 0 0
Poor 0 0 17 6 1
Good 0 0 0 10 1
Very Good 0 0 0 0 0
4.5. Phase V: Pedestrian Performance Improvement Measures

The interpretation of the developed predictive mathematical model was undertaken by calculating the odds ratios. It
was applied and taken into consideration that the calculated odds ratios are covered by the statistically significant
intervals of the response variable and its reference categories [5]. From the table shown, it can be interpreted that there
is no association between gender and how they perceive pedestrian performance. Results also showed that pedestrians
are more concerned with the qualitative factors of the pedestrian system rather than its quantitative counterparts. Street
ambiance and vibrance are the leading positive contributor to a higher pedestrian performance. For instance, pedestrians
who rated the system's ambiance as high are more likely to perceive a higher rating by approximately 15 times than
pedestrians who rated the ambiance as low (Table 8). On the other hand, pedestrians who rated vibrance as high also
possess a high probability of rating the pedestrian system high by approximately ten times than pedestrians who rated
the system's vibrance as low.
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Table 8. Calculation of Odds Ratios
Variable Interval Odds Ratios
Gender Male (RC)/Female 1.042
Ambiance Low/High (RC) 15.375
Vibrance Low/High (RC) 10.286
To further ascertain all these claims, a comparison between the objective calculations of PLOS from the subjective
evaluation of respondents was undertaken. Also, this comparison aimed to find potential differences and to acknowledge
additional aspects that must be considered. There are several methodologies used for the calculated PLOS. However,
this study utilized pedestrian space from the Highway Capacity Manual (2000) as the basis for the objective calculation
of PLOS due to the following reasons: Pedestrian Space is considered one of the most widely used measurements in the
context of PLOS [8], and Pedestrian Space is considered as one of the predictors of pedestrian performance as it is
deemed statistically significant in the context of this study.
Table 9. Calculated vs. Perceived Pedestrian Level of Service
Calculated PLOS
Area Perceived PLOS
Before/After the Peak (m2/ped) LOS During the Peak (m2/ped) LOS
F-Tañedo Street 3.55 B 1.25 D Good
Romulo Boulevard 3.72 B 3.00 C Good
Zamora Street 3.64 B 3.40 C Poor
Hilario Street 5.06 A 4.88 A Very Poor
J. Luna Street 5.02 A 4.92 A Poor
Macabulos Drive 4.08 B 3.32 C Poor
MH. Del Pilar Street 3.92 B 2.67 C Very Poor
Rizal Street 4.98 A 4.43 B Poor
The calculated PLOS showed positive indications based on the presented information as it reached the acceptable
service rating. However, most of the respondents were still not satisfied with the service given by these pedestrian areas.
Also, even if F-Tañedo Street goes below the acceptable calculated level of service during its peak, pedestrian users are
still satisfied with its service as they experience good street vibrance. From this, it is apparent that focusing more on
heightening the system's ambiance and vibrance may significantly improve the performance of the pedestrian system.
These factors do not possess a numerical equivalence, but they may still be enhanced by meeting the things that provide
ease, comfort, and lively spirit to pedestrians while walking in public places. Also, providing every street with trash bins
not only contributes to improving pedestrian performance, but may also heighten the system's ambiance. Sufficient
pedestrian space can be maintained or enhanced by ensuring that pedestrians' density and flow are not being interrupted
and do not go beyond the critical level.
On the other hand, two factors negatively impacted pedestrian performance. In relevant to those cases, it is highly
recommended that the local government of the City of Tarlac invest more effort in studying and integrating empirical
evidence in the development of sustainable programs, especially those which tackle the needs of pedestrians. Allotting
street vendors with free space and relocating them to areas that may not obstruct pedestrian flow can help. Providing
these interventions may result in a two-dimensional win as this may reset the mindset of pedestrians from the negative
impression of OI and SV and may subsequently elevate the pedestrian's performance.
5. Summary and Conclusion

The main objective of this research study was to develop a multi-objective pedestrian performance prediction model
for evaluating pedestrian performance by integrating both quantitative and qualitative factors. Eighty-one items were
initially listed and classified after thorough evaluation, validation, and verification procedures. These items were then
classified, which led to the development of an Ishikawa Diagram tackling pedestrian performance. After several validity
and reliability tests, the PPAQ was employed and participated in by pedestrians in Tarlac City. Responses were then
analyzed using factor analysis, incorporating various validity and reliability tests that led to the extraction and
finalization of forty (40) root causes. Local and collector streets in Tarlac City were evaluated using the PPAT, which
was developed based on the finalized root causes. After the application of ordinal regression, results showed that there
were six key predictors in predicting pedestrian performance (PS, OI, A, V, SV, & TB), which became the most
significant contribution of the study.
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The findings of the study's analyses were somehow consistent with the previously presented studies. Based on the
results and discussion, it is highly evident that pedestrian users are more concerned with the qualitative aspect of the
pedestrian system. Although the evaluated streets were considered acceptable in the context of calculated PLOS, most
of the respondents were still dissatisfied with its service. Street ambiance and vibrance were the leading factors that
significantly influenced pedestrians' performance. The findings of this study specify the relevance of considering
pedestrian perception, specifically in the development of sustainable programs and measures for improving the
pedestrian system. It must also be noted that pedestrian space is also deemed statistically significant, an indicator under
the objective calculation of PLOS. Thus, the calculated and perceived assessments should be integrated to establish a
trustworthy evaluation of the pedestrian's performance.
The model also showed that both Street Vendors (SV) and Official's Intervention (OI) have a negative coefficient,
which signifies an inverse relationship to pedestrian performance. Upon careful observation, evaluation, and proper
consultation, the overwhelming number of street vendors obstructs the pathway intended for pedestrians, negatively
impacting pedestrians' perception. On the other hand, it has been evident that the majority of the interventions of elected
and appointed officials are still car-centric, specifically in terms of public budgeting and infrastructure development.
Also, some of the pedestrian interventions do not maximize the allotted budget, effort, and time as they do not thoroughly
address the needs of the pedestrians, which leads to a negative impact on the pedestrians' experience. Nonetheless, it
must be noted that the negative effects of SV and OI do not permanently imply that these factors are negatively fixed
and will continually degrade the system's performance. The irregularities brought by these instances may be resolved
by re-running all the procedures in the development of the predictive model within a set of time intervals to be able to
recalibrate the predictive mathematical model, especially if solutions were introduced and executed since people's views
and opinions change.
5.1. Recommendations
The development of the ordinal regression mathematical model in predicting pedestrian performance was extensively
undertaken. But still, several measures may further strengthen the integrity of the gathered data and supplementarily
enhance several aspects of the development of this regression model. For instance, the data acquisition was restricted to
a remote form of gathering responses due to the ongoing situation of the COVID-19 pandemic. The study opted to use
a non-probability-based sampling technique to comply with the health restrictions and protocols imposed by the local
government unit of Tarlac City and the national government of the Philippines. However, using a probability-based
sampling technique can be of great help to ensure the normalization of all the gathered information. Also, several
quantitative factors, such as traffic flow, pedestrian flow, space, etc., may be underestimated and may not take into
account the real state of the pedestrian area because of how the pandemic has changed the way people drive and walk.
The study only focused on extracting the most significant factors that affect pedestrian performance and evaluating
the differences between the calculated and perceived performance through the development of a predictive mathematical
model. Regarding this concern, the study's model was only subjected to an average test to validate its performance.
Thus, the use of high-caliber statistical validation measures such as cross-validation, evaluation metrics, and the like
may further validate the accuracy of the developed model. However, these measures are far beyond the scope of the
study.
It must also be noted that the multi-objective pedestrian performance prediction model is somehow relevant both to
the time and geographic region where this model was developed. Thus, using this model in other places may not ensure
the reliability and applicability of its generated results since this model was crafted from the perception and point of
view of pedestrians residing in the City of Tarlac. Time can also be a factor relevant to the accuracy of the developed
model. The irregularities brought by these instances may be resolved by re-running all the procedures undertaken in
developing the predictive model within a set of time intervals and considering the geographic region of the area.
6. Declarations
Conceptualization, N.A.I.M.; methodology, N.A.I.M. and J.S.B.; software, N.A.I.M.; validation, N.A.I.M. and
J.S.B.; formal analysis, N.A.I.M. and J.S.B.; investigation, N.A.I.M.; resources, N.A.I.M.; data curation, N.A.I.M.;
writing—original draft preparation, N.A.I.M.; writing—review and editing, N.A.I.M. and J.S.B.; visualization,
N.A.I.M.; supervision, J.S.B.; project administration, N.A.I.M. and J.S.B.; funding acquisition, N.A.I.M. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

6.3. Funding
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6.4. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the intangible assistance and efforts of various local departments and agencies
in Tarlac City, Tarlac, Philippines and to the expertise of several professionals for the accomplishment of this
undertaking.

7. References
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Appendix I
Pedestrian Performance Assessment Questionnaire
Dear Respondent:
Greetings!
This is Neil Andrew I. Meneses currently conducting a research study entitled “Efficiency of Pedestrian Mobility: A Factor
Analytic Approach in Developing a Multi-Objective Pedestrian Performance Prediction Model utilizing Regression Analysis” which
aims to develop a multi-objective pedestrian performance prediction model in evaluating existing pedestrian condition and the quality
of service it provides, the main purpose of this questionnaire is to examine and subsequently extract factors which potentially
influences pedestrian performance based on pedestrians’ perspective focusing mainly in the City of Tarlac.
All information provided herein by the respondents will remain secured and confidential. The undersigned researcher, the only
person with full authority to access the responses, fully commits to undertake technical and data protection measures as required by
the Data Privacy Act of 2012 to ensure that the data are protected and safeguarded against unauthorized disclosure or any similar
unlawful acts and will only be used for this research purpose only.
I. Respondent’s Profile
This section contains personal information regarding the respondent. The researcher is fully aware of the rights of his respondents
under the Data Privacy Act including the right to review the data, the right to withdraw consent, the right to correct and/or update the
data, the right to object to processing the data, the right to access the respondent’s data, the right to correct any inaccurate data, and
the right to erasure and blocking of data. For requests to undertake the actions stated above or any similar acts as per indicated in the
Data Privacy Act, please contact the researcher at “naimeneses@mymail.mapua.edu.ph”.
Name (Optional): Age:
Civil Status: Gender:
Address: Employment Status:
Highest Educational Attainment:
Are you a Person with Disability (PWD)? Yes/No
Do you have a Driver’s License? Yes/No
Which of the following means of land transportation you mostly utilize to go to your day-to-day destinations? (Private Transp.,
Public Transp., Walking, Cycling, others)
Do you consider Walking as one of your primary means of transportation? Yes/No
Estimate the average number of hours you accumulate walking in public places per day:
II. Assessment Questionnaire
This survey questionnaire contains a number of potential factors which may affect or influence the pedestrian performance that
were properly validated with the help of some experts in the fields of transportation, research, and statistics. These potential factors
are listed below which were initially categorized into four major components - (1) Infrastructure and Facilities, (2) Management and
Policies, (3) User’s Interaction and Movement, and (4) Environment to provide a holistic approach in assessing the pedestrian facilities
and environment, and its capability to accommodate and address the needs of its users.
This questionnaire hereby asks your personal beliefs and preferences on how important these items are relevant to the things you
consider while walking in public places. These items may directly or indirectly affect the quality of service provided by pedestrian
facilities as these factors may have significant correlation to pedestrian performance. Please carefully read and assess each item and
indicate to what extent you feel the importance of each statement based on your own perspective.
A. Infrastructure and Facilities

Not Slightly Moderately Highly
Item Important
Potential Factor Important Important Important Important
No.
1 2 3 4 5
1.0 Network Design Components and Elements
Assess the following items on how these are important being a part or an integral component of a pedestrian facility
1.1 Furnishing Zone
1.2 Pedestrian Zone
1.3 Frontage Zone
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1.4 Functional Width

1.5 Sidewalk Block Length
1.6 Carriageway Width
1.7 Corner Radius
1.8 Efficient Drainage
1.9 Land Use
2.0 Network Connectivity and Continuity
Evaluate the importance that the sidewalk must be continuous and provide accessibility to the following items
2.1 Hospitals and Essential Services
2.2 Education and Employment
Private and Public Markets, Restaurants, and other
2.3
Food Source
2.4 Social and Leisure Spots
2.5 Tourist and Historic Sites
2.6 Open Spaces and Nature Preserves
2.7 Public Transportation Terminals
2.8 Comfort Rooms
3.0 Network Quality and Universal Design
Assess the importance of considering and/or incorporating the following items in pedestrian facilities relevant to the growing needs of its
users specifically to cater the needs of people with disabilities and special needs
3.1 Sidewalk Segment
3.2 Surface Quality
3.3 Grade
3.4 Surface Markings
3.5 Curb Cuts and Ramps
3.6 Handrails and Guardrails
3.7 Crossing Facilities
3.8 Refuge Islands
4.0 Network Defense and Security
Evaluate the importance of the following items relevant to your safety and security while using the pedestrian facilities
4.1 Physical Borders
4.2 Streetlights
4.3 Traffic Control and Calming Devices
4.4 Obstructions
4.5 Security Cameras
5.0 Network Facilities, Amenities, and Sidewalk Enhancements
Assess the importance of including the following amenities and sidewalk enhancements in pedestrian facilities relevant to your convenience
and comfort
5.1 Weather Protection
5.2 Stations of Public Transportation
5.3 Crossing Holding Areas
5.4 Pedestrian Traffic Signals
5.5 Pedestrian Signages
5.6 Guide Signs
5.7 Street Vendors
5.8 Public Seats
5.9 Portable Toilets
5.10 Trash Bins
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B. Management and Policies

Item Important
No.
1 2 3 4 5
1.0 City Ordinances, Regulations, and Policy Support
Evaluate the significance of the following items if these items may directly or indirectly bear impact to pedestrian quality and performance
1.1 Policy Guidelines
1.2 Local Street Design Standards
1.3 City Ordinances
1.4 Public Spaces
1.5 Speed Limits
1.6 Vandalism and Littering
1.7 Street Parking
2.0 Funding Mechanisms and Special Programs
2.1 Funding
2.2 Campaigns
2.3 Awareness Programs
2.4 Community Outreach
3.0 Enforcement Practices, Management Support, Operations, and Maintenance
3.1 Official's Intervention
3.2 Interagency Cooperation
3.3 Staffing Levels
3.4 Traffic Enforcers
3.5 Monitoring and Repair
3.6 Street Sweeping
C. User’s Interaction and Movement

Item Important
No.
1 2 3 4 5
1.0 Pedestrian Views and Preferences
Evaluate the significance of the following items relevant to the things you primarily consider while walking in public places
1.1 Safety
1.2 Security
1.3 Convenience
1.4 Pedestrian Visibility and Transparency
1.5 Ambiance
1.6 Comfortability
1.7 Vibrance
1.8 Social Acceptance
1.9 User's Attitude and Behavior
2.0 User’s Movement and Social Interaction
Evaluate the importance of the following items relevant to the things that affects or influences you as you use pedestrian facilities and walk in
public places
2.1 Pedestrian Walking Speed
2.2 Pedestrian Volume to Capacity Ratio
2.3 Vehicle Speed
2.4 Vehicle Volume to Capacity Ratio
2.5 Pedestrian Space
2.6 Sight Distance
2.7 Intersection Waiting Time
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D. Environment
Item Important
No.
1 2 3 4 5
1.0 Pedestrian Complexity and Streetscaping
Assess if the following items relevant to the surroundings is important and of relative significance in the quality of pedestrian area
1.1 Cleanliness
1.2 Image ability and Visual Quality
1.3 Infrastructures
1.4 Adequate Greening and Pleasing Vegetation
1.5 Good Street Art
2.0 Environmental Quality and Condition
Assess if the following items relevant to the environment is important and of relative significance in the quality of pedestrian area
2.1 Air and Odor Quality
2.2 Traffic Noise
2.3 Natural Enclosure of Vegetation
Thank you for submitting your response!
We hope to continuously gain your support as we strive to raise awareness regarding the importance and benefits of using this
indigenous mode of transport, and to unceasingly improve and develop its facilities.
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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
Properties of Concrete Produced using Surface Modified

Polyethylene Terephthalate Fibres
Michael M. Mwonga 1* , Charles Kabubo 2 , Naftary Gathimba 2

1
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, Pan African University Institute for Basic Sciences Technology and Innovation
(PAUSTI) Hosted at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya.
2
Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya.
Abstract
Conventional techniques of improving the bond properties of virgin Polyethylene Terephthalate Fibres reduce the
mechanical strength of the fibres, are labour intensive, and present environmental hazards in the case of chemical treatment.
This study introduces a new way of improving the bond properties of fibres obtained from waste Polyethylene
Terephthalate bottles by coating the surface of the fibres with a thin layer of sand to counteract the above-mentioned
shortcomings. Their performance was compared to that of embossed, serrated, and straight fibres and a control mix without
fibres. Workability, compressive strength, tensile and flexural strength were used to assess this performance. Constant fibre
length, width, and content were maintained for this exercise. Compared to the other fibres, sand-coated fibres gave the
highest increment in tensile and flexural strength of 9.49% and 11.61% compared to the control mix, even though
concrete’s workability and compressive strength were decreased. Furthermore, the optimization of the fibre length and
content for the sand-coated fibres was carried out. The 75 mm long fibres showed the highest improvement in tensile
strength of 13.76% and flexural strength of 12.49% compared to other fibre lengths. The optimum percentage of fibres was
1.25% with a 15.49% and 17.26% increment in tensile and flexural strengths, respectively.
Keywords: Concrete; Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET); Workability; Compressive Strength; Split Tensile Strength; Flexural Strength;
Surface Modification.
1. Introduction
Due to its versatility, concrete is one of the most commonly used building materials. It makes use of locally available
materials, has the ability to be cast into different shapes, performs well under high temperatures, and can consume and
recycle waste. Regardless of these desirable properties, concrete has several limitations. It has been classified as a quasi-
brittle material with low tensile strength and low toughness (ductility), and therefore fails suddenly without giving
enough warning signs.
Fibre reinforced concrete is one of the most innovative solutions to the problems highlighted above. When distributed
uniformly through the concrete mix, fibres enhance the tensile, flexural, and impact strength, ductility, and toughness
of the concrete through their crack-bridging effect [1]. Several types of fibres have been used, ranging from steel fibres,
synthetic fibres, glass fibres, and natural fibres to pre or post-consumer waste fibres. Steel fibres have a high risk of
corrosion that can lead to the rapid deterioration of concrete structures, while glass fibres show poor alkali resistance.
While natural fibres are cheap and easily available, they have poor durability and can lead to the degradation of concrete
* Corresponding author: mwonga.michael1@students.jkuat.ac.ke

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structures [2, 3]. In the recent past, many studies have been conducted to reuse waste plastics as fibres in concrete and
mortar composites to overcome the challenges experienced with other types of fibres as well as reduce the environmental
degradation caused by plastic waste.
During the period 2015-2019, worldwide PET packaging usage increased at an annual average rate of 4.0% to 21.8
million tonnes. This is expected to expand at a 3.7% annual rate to 27.1% (Platt, 2020). In particular, the consumption
of bottled water is increasing each year by 7% on average throughout the world, with a million plastic bottles being sold
every minute throughout the world, Aslani et al. (2021) raising concerns over environmental pollution globally [3]. Kaza
et al. (2018) noted that only 19% of the generated waste undergoes recycling, with 37% of waste ending up in landfills
and 33% openly dumped. In Kenya, the sector produces around 20,000 tonnes of plastic waste per year, but only 5% of
this is collected and recycled [4]. The bulky nature and slow degradation rate of plastics [5], not to mention their
restriction of underground water movement and plant root growth, has necessitated their reuse in concrete as fibres to
relieve many countries from environmental degradation caused by PET waste bottles [6, 7].
PET wastes can be recycled into fibres by a process that begins with crystallization, drying, dosing, extrusion,
filtering, spinning, stretching, stabilization, winding and poly wrapping, and then the fibres are cut in the required
diameter and surface geometry, guaranteeing higher fibre tensile strengths ranging from 263 to 550 MPa [6, 8, 9].
However, this process can be uneconomical and labour intensive and lots of difficulties are experienced in the
automation of the sorting process [7]. Any contamination in this process can end up reducing the strength of fibres
obtained through this method [10]. To overcome the rigorous recycling process required, researchers have recycled
virgin PET bottles simply by slitting/cutting them into discrete fibres by hand [11-13] or with the help of locally
manufactured cutters, guillotines, or paper shredders. The fibres that result from this process, although known to have
relatively lower tensile strength, and elastic modulus have been utilized to lower plastic shrinkage and improve the
flexure, compressive strength and toughness in mortars [14, 15]. Their use in concrete majorly improves both the tensile
and flexural capacity of concrete as well as ductility in concrete beams [10, 16]
Several fibre/matrix interactions occur in Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC) composites to produce the toughening
effect of fibres. Fibre bridging, debonding, pull out (sliding) and fibre rupture processes occur as the crack propagates
through a fibre via the matrix. Fibre bridging causes the crack to close, reducing the stress intensity at the crack tip while
fibre debonding and pull-out reduce the overall energy absorption. The capacity of the fibres to stabilize the crack
propagation in the matrix is therefore strongly influenced by the fibre/matrix bond. Polymeric fibres have poor adhesion
and wettability because of their chemical inertness and low surface energy, which results in a weak bond with the cement
matrix [17]. Incorporating smooth fibres has shown a reduction in tensile strength of concrete from 9% to 16% according
to a study by Meza et al. (2021) [18]. Similarly, Taherkhani (2014) [19] noted that smooth fibres reduce the tensile and
flexural strengths of concrete due to a reduction in the bond between the fibres and the cement paste. Meza and Siddique
(2019) [20] noted that the modulus of rupture reduces when fibres with high aspect ratios are used in concrete owing to
their poor bond with cement mortar, causing micro cracks and voids. This calls for the development of various
techniques to improve the interfacial bond of smooth plastic fibres to utilize their maximum strength.
Several interface-strengthening mechanisms that have been proposed and utilized to enhance the interfacial bond of
polymeric fibres include fibre deformation techniques and fibre surface modification either through geometry
modification or through plasma treatment, as shown by Trejbal et al. (2016) [21]. Figure 1 summarizes the approaches
that can be adopted to improve the bond strength of PET Fibres.
Bond enhancement of PET Fibres
Fibre Surface Modification Fibre Deformation Techniques
Geometry Modification Chemical Treatment

Crimping
Fibrillation
Plasma Treatment Twisting
Embossing
Adding buttons at the ends Creating cenre/side Identing
holes Using 'O' shaped fibres
Figure 1. Bond enhancement techniques for PET fibres
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Fibre deformation and surface modification techniques have been applied to virgin PET bottles with desirable results.
Borg et al. (2016) [10] noted that deformed fibres showed high resistance to tensile strength compared to smooth fibres
due to the provision of a sufficient mechanical bond. Similarly, Marthong & Sarma (2016) [12], and Kumar & Suman
(2018) [22] noted that modifying the geometry of the fibres improved both the tensile and flexural strength response of
the concrete composites. While it is easier to modify the geometry of extruded recycled fibres during the manufacturing
process, modifying the surface of virgin PET fibres can be quite a difficult task and time-consuming given the shape of
the bottles as noted by Marthong & Sarma (2016) [12]. Chemical treatment may reduce the mechanical strength and the
disposal of the waste products from such processes can become an environmental problem. Fibre deformation techniques
such as embossing and indentation reduce the cross-section of the fibre, which eventually reduces its tensile strength
[17], and hence reduced tensile strength enhancement in concrete. Kim et al. (2008) [23] observed that crimping reduces
the initial stiffness of the composite due to the initial stretching of the fibre, a factor that could contribute to early
cracking in the composite.
Despite the significant progress that has been made in improving the bond properties of virgin PET fibres, several
shortcomings have been experienced with the current methods calling for new solutions that provide optimal
performance. This study, therefore, suggests a new way of modifying the surface of virgin PET fibres by coating the
surface of the fibres with a thin layer of 0.3 mm-sized sand grains using clear waterproof epoxy. This approach does not
reduce the cross-section of the fibres and provides a relatively rough surface, providing sufficient bond with concrete.
The methodology adopted in producing these fibres is novel and less time-consuming compared to traditional surface
modification methods. The performance of these surface modified fibres was compared to that of embossed fibres,
serrated fibres (whose edge is modified by cutting the fibres using serrated scissors), and smooth fibres. The
effectiveness was determined by examining their impact on the fresh and hardened properties of concrete at constant
fibre length and content. The degree of performance of FRC depends on the quality and quantity of the fibres used,
dimensions and shape, as well as their bond with the concrete mix. Increasing the bond performance can therefore aid
lower the length (aspect ratios) and/or volume fraction while maintaining practically the same crack resistance [17]. For
this reason, once the performance of sand-coated fibres was identified, the length and the dosage of these fibres were
varied to obtain the optimum values, which can be recommended for the industry.

The flowchart of the research methodology that was used to achieve the study's aims is shown in Figure 1.
Performance of surface modified

fibres in concrete
Material
Characterization
Coarse
PET Fibres Fine Aggregates
Aggregates
Particle size distribution

Preparation Specific Gravity and Water Absorption
PET Tensile Aggregate Crushing Value Moisture Content
strength
Aggregate Impact Value Bulk Density and Voids Content
Optimum surface treatment Optimum Length Optimum Dosage
Workability Compressive strength Tensile strength Flexural strength
Figure 2. Methodology framework
1117
The main objective of this research work was to analyze the effect of surface modified virgin PET fibres (sand-
coated) in comparison with geometrically modified (serrated), deformed (embossed), and smooth fibres, and their
optimal values of dosage and dimensions. This was carried out through the characterization of the fibres and the concrete
constituent materials, and the determination of the workability, compressive strength, tensile strength, and flexural
strength of fibre concrete.
2.1. Materials
Materials used in this study include Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) class 42.5N conforming to standard [24], fine
aggregates (ordinary river sand) obtained locally, coarse aggregates which were mixed thoroughly on arrival, and clean
portable water. PET fibres were obtained from waste 5-litre PET bottles obtained from a local plastic handling company
in Nairobi, Kenya. The PET bottles were cut into discrete fibres using a paper cutter, a pair of scissors, and a locally
made spiral plastic cutter. Three fibre treatments were carried out. Serrated scissors were used to produce serrated fibres
while embossing of flat plastic sheets was done using flat files compressed with a mechanical press at 25 kN, which
were then cut into discrete embossed fibres. The sand-coated fibres were produced by applying a thin layer of sand of
0.3 mm (based on a study by Al-Mahmoud et al. (2007) [25]) on the surface of the fibres using clear epoxy. Figures 3
and 4 show the respective preparation stages and the different fibres used.
Cutting top and bottom Cutting into flat Embossing using flat Cutting into discrete
part sheets files fibres
(a) Embossing process
Spiral cutter Cutting with Serrated

(5.5mm) Serrated Fibres
scissors Dimensions
(b) Serrating process
Spiral cutter (2 mm)

Sand-papered fibres Coating with sand
(c) Sand-coating process

Figure 3. Preparation of fibres: (a) Embossing, (b) Serrating, (c) Sand-coating
Smooth Fibres Embossed Fibres Serrated Fibres Sand-coated Fibres

Figure 4. PET Fibres
1118
2.2. Methods
2.3.1. Characterization of Constituent Materials Methods
Fine and coarse aggregates occupy 60 to 75% of the concrete volume and have a significant impact on concrete’s
fresh and hardened properties and its cost. Aggregates must therefore meet certain standards for optimum engineering
use and hence they must be tested before being used in concrete. For instance, the grading of aggregates affects their
proportions in the mix, cement and water requirements, workability, porosity, uniformity, and durability of concrete.
The specific gravity and the density of the aggregates are used in mixture proportioning computations during the mix
design phase. Table 1 shows the characterization tests performed on aggregates, and the PET fibres and the
corresponding test standards.
Table 1. Characterization tests of constituent materials
Material Tests Standards
Particle size distribution British Standard Institution (1985) [26]

Specific gravity & water absorption British Standard Institution (1995) [27]
Fine aggregates (River sand)
Moisture content British Standard Institution (1990) [28]
Bulk density & voids content British Standard Institution (1995) [27]
British Standard Institution (1985) [26]

Particle size distribution
Specific gravity & water absorption British Standard Institution (1995) [27]
Moisture content British Standard Institution (1990) [28]
Coarse aggregates
Bulk density & voids content British Standard Institution (1995) [27]
Aggregate crushing value British Standard Institution (1990) [29]
Aggregate impact value
British Standard Institution (1990) [30]
PET Fibres Tensile strength test British Standard Institution (2006) [31]
Tensile strength tests were carried out to characterize the PET fibres used in this study. This test was carried out
using a tensometer where single fibres were clamped and tensioned until breakpoint, as shown in Figure 5. The force
and elongation at break were recorded and the tensile strength was calculated from the dimensions of the fibre.
Figure 5. PET Fibre tensile strength test
2.3.2. Mix Proportions

A mix design of 30 MPa characteristic strength was carried out according to the Building Research Enterprise (BRE)
method [32]. Workability tests were carried out as referenced in BS 1881-102 (1983) [33] while the compressive strength
tests were carried out according to BS 1881-116 (1983) [34] for 100 mm by 100 mm by 100 mm cubes. Table 2 shows
the trial mix proportions.
Table 2. Mix Proportions for class 30 concrete
W/C Ratio Water (kg/m3) Cement (kg/m3) Coarse agg. (kg/m3) Fine Agg. (kg/m3) Ratio
0.55 190 347.5 1200.7 649.5 1:1.9:3.5
1119
These mix design proportions were maintained throughout the study to assess the effects of surface-modified PET
fibres on the properties of concrete. The study was conducted in three stages. The first stage was to determine the
performance of sand-coated fibres compared to the other fibres. A constant length of 100 mm, a width of 2 mm, and a
fibre content of 1% (by weight of cement) were maintained for all the different surface treatments based on Meza et al.
(2021) [18] and Taherkhani (2014) [19]. The surface-treated fibres that gave better results in terms of split tensile and
flexural strength were then selected for optimization. This was carried out in the second and third stages. The second
stage was to determine the optimum length of the selected fibres. In this stage, the fibre percentage was maintained at
1% while the fibre length varied from 50 mm to 100 mm at 25 mm increments. Last, the optimum fibre length obtained
was used to determine the optimum content by varying the fibre percentage from 0.75% to 1.5% at intervals of 0.5%.
2.3.3. Methods for Testing Fresh and Hardened Properties of Concrete

The workability of fresh concrete was determined using the slump test according to [33] with a slump cone of
dimensions 30 cm height, 10 cm top diameter, and 20 cm bottom diameter. The sampling of fresh concrete was done
under BS 1881-101 (1983) [35]. Tests on hardened concrete properties carried out include the compressive strength,
split tensile strength, and flexural strength tests following BS 1881-116 (1983) [34], BS 1881-117 (1983) [36], and BS
1881-118 (1983) [37], respectively. Cubes with dimensions of 100 mm and cylinders with dimensions of 100 mm
diameter and 200 mm height were used to cast the specimens. Prismatic specimens of dimensions 150 × 150 × 530 mm
were cast for flexural strength determination. Three specimens for each mix were cast as specified in BS 1881-108
(1983) [38], BS 1881-110 (1983) [39], and BS 1881-109 (1983) [40], and cured for 7, 14, and 28 days for cubes and
cylinders while flexure beams were tested at 28 days. The specimens were loaded using a universal testing machine
conforming to BS 1881-116 (1983) [34], BS 1881-117 (1983) [36], and BS 1881-118 (1983) [37] to determine the
compressive, split tensile and flexural strength, respectively.

3.1. Material Characterization
Grading of Aggregates
Figure 6 shows a plot of the particle size distribution of the fine and coarse aggregates with the maximum and
minimum curves as defined in BS 882 (1992) [41]. It can be observed that the results fall within the defined limits and
thus the fine and coarse aggregates were well graded, guaranteeing a workable and uniform mix.
120 120
100 100
Percentage Passing (%)
80 80
60 60
40 40
Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate

20 20
Min specification
Min specification
Max specification
Max specification
0 0
0.1 1 10 5 10 20 40
Sieve size (mm) Sieve size (mm)
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Grading curves (a) Fine aggregates, (b) Coarse aggregates
Physical and Mechanical Properties

Table 3 summarizes the physical and mechanical properties of the fine and coarse aggregates.
1120
Table 3. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Coarse and Fine aggregates
Test Fine aggregates Coarse aggregates

Specific Gravity 2.5 2.68
Water Absorption 1.01% 3.65%
Moisture Content 4.63 –
3
Bulk Density 1609.58 kg/m 1498.27 kg/m3
Percentage of voids 34.97% 39.88%
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) – 18.35%
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) – 6.71%
The specific gravity and the bulk density for both the fine and coarse aggregates were within the recommended
limits, guaranteeing a stronger mix. The aggregate crushing value and the impact value met the specifications outlined
in BS 882 (1992) [41] and BS EN 12620 (2013) [42], respectively. The water absorption and moisture content values
were considered in the mix design to produce a workable mix with the desired strength.
PET Fibres
Figure 7 shows a plot of the tensile strength test results and the corresponding elongation for the PET fibres. There
was a subsequent reduction in strength for the various surface treatments compared to the smooth fibres (control), which
had a tensile strength of 87.7 N/mm2. Embossed fibres had a tensile strength of 45.0 N/mm2 corresponding to the highest
strength reduction (48.8%), followed by serrated fibres which had a strength of 57.83 N/mm2 (34.1% reduction). Sand-
coated fibres showed the highest tensile strength increment of 298% and an elongation of 9.34 mm corresponding to a
42.3% increase compared to straight fibres, which have an average elongation of 6.56 mm. This is because of the
additional elasticity provided by the epoxy coating.
400 10
Strength
Elongation
300 8
Strength (N/mm2)
Elongation (mm)
200 6
100 4
0 2
Embossed Serrated Smooth Sand-Coated
Surface Treatment
Figure 7. Tensile strength and elongation for PET Fibres
Serrated and embossed fibres had an elongation of 3.22 mm and 2.47 mm, which corresponds to a reduction of 51%
and 62.4% respectively compared with the smooth fibres. Serrating the fibres creates a zone of stress concentration at
the surface transitions, hence reducing the strength of the fibre and the elongation. Given the small thickness of the PET
bottles (0.25 mm), embossing weakens the plastic material and thus reduces its tensile strength and elasticity, an
observation made by Singh et al. (2004) [17]. Table 4 summarizes the tensile strength values for both virgin and recycled
PET fibres from previous studies. Sand coated fibres give a considerably higher tensile strength within the range of
recycled PET fibres making them superior to all other virgin PET fibres reviewed except the study by Awoyera et al.
(2021) [43] which records a tensile of virgin PET fibre of around 450 MPa.
1121
Table 4. Tensile Strength Values for Virgin and Recycled PET fibres
Tensile Strength (MPa)

Author(s)
Virgin PET Recycled PET
Marthong (2015) [44] 155
Fraternali et al. (2011) [45] 550, 264, 274, 250
Kim et al. (2010) [8] 420.7
Bui et al. (2018) [46] 122
Foti (2013) [47] 160
Won et al. (2010) [48] 420.7
Hidaya et al. (2017) [49] 254
Ochi et al. (2007) [9] 450
Kassa et al. (2019) [50] 84
Fraternali et al. (2013) [51] 550, 274
Awoyera et al. (2021) [43] 450
Anandan & Alsubih (2021) [52] 31.5
3.2. Effects of PET Fibres on Concrete Properties

3.2.1. Properties of Concrete Produced with Surface Modified Fibres
This section presents the results of the performance of sand-coated fibres compared to the other fibres in concrete.
The content of the fibres was maintained at 1% by weight of cement and the length was 100 mm for all fibres.
Workability
The mechanical, physical, and durability aspects of concrete composites are all affected by workability. Figure 8
shows the effect of the surface modified PET fibres on the workability of the concrete mix.
Slump
40
40
30
30
27
Slump (mm)
25
20
14
10
0
Control Smooth Embossed Serrated Sand-Coated
Surface Treatment
Figure 8. Slump test results for different surface-modified fibres
In general, it can be observed that the fibres reduced the workability of fresh concrete compared to the control mix.
This reduction in workability could be attributed to the adherence of the fibres to the concrete ingredients restraining
their movement within the mix. The geometry and the surface texture of the fibres further affect the workability of the
fresh concrete. There was a subsequent reduction in the workability of fresh concrete mix from straight fibres to sand-
coated fibres. Embossed fibres reduced the workability due to their rough indented surface, which adhered to the
concrete ingredients. The sharp edges of the serrated fibres further restrained the movement of the materials within the
mixture [13]. The surface of the sand-coated fibres was extremely rough and adhered most to the concrete ingredients
compared to all other surface geometries and hence the high reduction in slump. These findings concur with Kumar et
al. [22] who observed that increasing the anchorage of PET fibres through geometry modification led to a 25 – 30%
reduction in the workability of concrete. Figure 9 shows the slump of the control mix compared to that of the mix with
sand-coated fibres.
1122
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Slump for (a) Control mix; (b) Mix with sand coated fibres
Compressive Strength
Figure 10 shows the compressive strength results for the different surface-modified fibres compared to the control
mix and the mix with smooth fibres. Smooth and embossed fibres met the lower limit for Grade M30 concrete but
reduced the 28-day strength by 4% and 13%, respectively, compared to the control mix. Serrated and sand-coated fibres
showed an 18% and 21% reduction respectively, compared to the control. The reduction in strength compared to the 28
days’ lower limit for M30 concrete was minimal, corresponding to 5% and 8% for serrated and sand-coated fibres,
respectively. Sand coated fibres reduced the strength by 17.8%, 9.4%, and 3.2% compared to smooth, embossed, and
serrated fibres, respectively. The failure of PET fibre specimens was less brittle with a prolonged re-loading phase
compared to the control specimens.
35
M30 limit
30
Strength (MPa)
25
Control
20 Smooth
Embossed
Serrated
Sand-coated
15
7 14 21 28
Days
Figure 10. Compressive strength results for the different surface modified PET fibres
As noted earlier, PET fibres lowered the workability of fresh concrete, which made it difficult to achieve complete
compaction, particularly with sand-coated fibres. In addition, PET fibres make the concrete mix more porous, creating
weak zones inside the concrete, resulting in the propagation of cracks and hence the reduction in strength. A reduction
in the ultrasonic pulse velocity of samples with PET fibres has been noted by Sayi and Eren (2021) [53] confirming the
possibility of porosity formation in PET concrete. Similar observations on strength reduction have been made by Meza
et al. (2021) [18] who noted a 6% reduction in strength related to the effect of porosity and low adherence of fibres to
the concrete matrix. In addition, Borg et al. (2016) [10] noted a 0.5% to 8.5% strength reduction that on the addition of
PET fibres in concrete due to the low elastic modulus of plastic fibres resulting in poor composite action [54], findings
which have been supported by other researchers [55]. However, some studies show a slight improvement of compressive
strength at 0.5% [44, 50] and 1% [56] fibre dosage. It is worthwhile to note that in most of the studies that report an
increase in compressive strength, short, smooth fibres were used, and hence fair compaction was achieved. Short fibres
are evenly distributed in the matrix, reducing the micro-crack envelopes, and hence increased loading is required to
propagate cracks until failure [57]. This explains why there is a subsequent reduction in the compressive strength of
concrete when PET fibres are introduced into concrete at a high aspect ratio.
1123
Split Tensile Strength

Split tensile strength tests for a standard cylinder (100×200 mm) were carried out at 7, 14, and 28 days. Figure 11
shows the effect of the different fibres on the split tensile strength of concrete. PET fibres showed an improvement in
the tensile strength of concrete at a constant fibre percentage and length. Smooth, embossed, and sand-coated fibres
showed an increase in the tensile strength corresponding to 5.53, 8.79, and 9.49% respectively, compared to the control
mix while serrated fibres showed a 0.46% reduction in the tensile strength compared to the control mix. This corresponds
to a 4, 1, and 9% increase in tensile strength of sand coated fibres in comparison with straight, embossed, and serrated
fibres respectively. Sand-coated fibres show a 4% increment in tensile strength compared to smooth fibres. A single line
crack appeared on the face of the control specimen cylinder and the failure was sudden while the cylinders with fibres
failed smoothly, forming multiple cracks at the surface due to crack redistribution. The plastic fibres still held the
concrete together after the failure load, as shown in Figure 12.
2.5
Strength (MPa)
2.0
Control
1.5 Smooth
Embossed
Serrated
Sand-coated
1.0
7 14 21 28
Days
Figure 11. Split tensile strength results for the different surface modified PET fibres
(a)
(b)
Figure 12. Failure modes for (a) Control mix without fibres, (b) mix with sand coated fibres
1124
The high improvement in the tensile strength of the sand-coated fibre specimens could be attributed to the increased
bond and elasticity of the fibres, allowing the concrete composite to carry more loads before fibre rupture. The relative
reduction in tensile strength by the smooth fibres compared to the embossed and sand-coated fibres can be attributed to
their weak bond and poor adhesion with the concrete ingredient materials, as noted by Kim et al. (2010) [8]. Serrated
fibre specimens show a higher strength improvement at 7 days, which reduces at 28 days, compared with the control
mix. The initial strength gain is due to the bridging effect of the fibres and their resistance to slip, given the surface
geometry. However, as the concrete strength increases, on loading, stress concentrations build up at the surface
transitions of these fibres, which eventually break. Previous studies on bond enhancement of PET fibres show a relative
improvement in tensile strength compared to smooth fibres. Kumar and Suman (2018) [22] noted an increment of 7.41,
9.88, and 16.05% in tensile strength on using centre holed, two-side circular-cut, and one-side circular cut fibres
respectively, compared to smooth fibres. A similar improvement of 20 to 43% has been reported by Marthong and Sarma
(2016) [12] for flattened end and deformed fibres compared to smooth fibres. In the current study, sand-coated fibres
only show an improvement of 3.96% compared to smooth fibres.
Flexural Strength
Flexural strength was determined using a prismatic specimen with dimensions 150×150×530 mm. The test specimen
was loaded using a two-point-loading arrangement using a universal testing machine at 28 days. On incorporating sand-
coated fibres, the flexural strength of concrete increased by 11.61%, which is 23.1% higher compared to smooth fibres.
Embossed fibres showed an increase of 7.59% while serrated and smooth fibres recorded a decline of 2.13% and 9.31%
respectively. This corresponds to an increase of 3.74% and 14.04% of sand-coated fibres compared to embossed and
serrated fibres, respectively. No specimens with fibres experienced a sudden brittle failure, as was observed with the
control mix without fibres. Figures 13 and 14 show the flexural strength results and the failure mode of the specimens
with and without fibres, respectively.
15
4
4 3.86 11.61
3.59 3.51 10
Flexural Strength (MPa)
3.25 7.59
Percentage Change
3
5
0
2 0
-2.13
-5
1
-10 -9.31
0
Control Smooth Embossed Serrated Sand Coated Control Smooth Embossed Serrated Sand Coated
Surface Treatment Surface Treatment
(a) (b)
Figure 13. (a) Flexural strength results for different surface-modified fibres (b) Percentage change
(a) (b)
Figure 14. (a) Failure of a fibre concrete specimen (b) Failure of Control specimen (without fibres)
1125
As mentioned earlier, coating the fibres with sand increased the bond capacity of the fibres and its elongation capacity
before failure and hence the improvement in flexural strength. Similar reasons apply for the embossed fibres whose
rough surface improved their bond capacity, even though not as much as the sand-coated since the width of the fibres
restricts the depth of the deformations and hence, its roughness. Stress concentrations at surface transitions of the serrated
fibres led to earlier fibre rupture, hence reducing the flexural strength of the matrix. It is recommended that the semi-
circular serrations should be adopted to avoid stress concentrations as in the study by Kumar et al. (2018) [22] who
noted a 39.24% increase in flexural strength when 1-sided circular-cut fibres were used. This translated to a 19.19%
increase in flexural strength compared to the smooth fibres. The 23.1% increment in flexural strength of sand-coated
fibres compared to smooth fibres is also in close agreement with the study by Marthong et al. (2016) [12] who noted an
average increase of 27% in flexural strength when flattened end, deformed, and crimped end fibres were used compared
to smooth fibres.
The low flexural strength obtained with smooth fibres shows the necessity of fibre surface modification. Studies by
[31, 53, 59] show that smooth fibres do not have a significant improvement in flexural strength which is attributed to
their poor bond strength. In another study, Marthong (2015) [44] noted that flattened end fibres gave higher flexural
strength compared to smooth fibres by 2.98% while Borg et al. (2016) observed that deformed fibres had a slightly better
performance than smooth fibres. Visual observations of the failed specimens showed that for the sand-coated and
serrated fibre specimens, fibres failed by rupture while smooth fibres were observed one side of the specimen indicating
possible pull out. A combination of both failures was experienced with embossed fibres. Sand-coated fibres, therefore,
have an increased bond with the matrix and hence the failure by rupture. It was further noted that coating the surface of
the fibres with sand improved their stiffness and therefore the fibres remained straight during mixing, providing a better
stress transfer from concrete to the fibres, unlike the other fibres which deformed during mixing given their length and
low stiffness. It is worthwhile noting that sometimes, at failure, the sand coating peeled off from the surface of the fibres.
This indicates that the bond between the sand coating and the cement paste was stronger than the bond between the fibre
and the sand coating layer and therefore effective roughening of the fibres (by use of a sand-paper) before sand coating
the fibres is highly recommended.
The results from this section show that sand-coated fibres have a better performance in terms of split tensile and
flexural strengths compared to the conventional surface modified fibres. This provides the industry with a new technique
of modifying the surface of virgin PET fibres, which does not compromise the intrinsic properties of the fibre, like the
reduction in tensile strength experienced with embossed fibres. Since the aspect ratio and dosage of fibres affect the
performance of concrete, these were further studied to obtain optimal values of the sand-coated fibres in the next section.
3.2.2. Effect of Fibre Length on Concrete Properties

In the first section, to study the performance of sand-coated fibres in comparison with other types of fibres, the
content and length were kept constant. However, increasing the bond of the fibres might reduce the length of fibres
required to achieve the same tensile strength enhancement. In addition, the length of fibres affects concrete workability,
fibre distribution, and crack prevention, which ultimately affects the compressive and tensile strengths of concrete. In
this section, the length of the sand-coated fibres varied from 50 mm to 100 mm at 25 mm length increments. The content
of the fibres was again maintained at 1% by the weight of cement.
Workability
Figure 15 shows the effect of fibre length on the workability of fresh concrete.
40
40
30
Slump (mm)
25
20
17
14
10
0
Control 50 75 100
Fibre Length (mm)
Figure 15. Slump values for varying fibre lengths
1126
There was a subsequent reduction in concrete workability as the length of the fibre increased. As noted by Sayı &
Eren [53] and Haque et al. (2021) [58], the longer the fibre, the greater the surface area adhering to the mix ingredients,
and therefore the reduction in workability. Ninan et al. (2018) [59] also observed that workability was higher for shorter
fibres (20 mm) compared to longer fibres (80 mm). Meza and Siddique (2019) [20] argued that longer fibres have a
large surface area for the cement paste to cover, resulting in a reduction in workability. The findings of this study
regarding the effect of fibre length agree with these and other studies reported in the literature. The effect of changing
the length (aspect ratio) of sand-coated fibres on workability is similar to that of other virgin PET fibres.
Compressive strength tests were carried out to assess the effect of the different fibre lengths on the hardened
properties of concrete. There was a strength reduction on introducing PET fibres by 20.9, 16.9, and 8.2% for 100 mm,
75 mm, and 50 mm long fibres respectively compared with the control as shown in Figure 12. 100 mm and 75 mm long
fibres showed an 8.1% and 3.5% reduction in the compressive strength compared to the lower limit of M30 concrete at
28 days as shown in Figure 16.
35
30
Strength (MPa)
25
20
7 days
14 days
28 days
15
0 25 50 75 100
Fibre Length (mm)
Figure 16. Compressive strength values for varying fibre lengths
Increasing the length of the fibres leads to a subsequent reduction in workability, making it difficult to achieve
complete compaction, which in turn lowers the compressive strength. The initial strength improvement achieved by
shorter fibres (50 mm) could be attributed to the bridging effects of the fibres before the cement paste fully hydrates.
The mechanical optimization of concrete with PET fibres carried out by Meza et al. (2021) [18] also shows that the
reduction in compressive strength in FRC composites is related to the aspect ratio of the fibres, where the samples with
higher aspect ratios show lower performance than those with shorter dimensions. The findings of this agree with global
data, especially regarding the study by Mohammed and Mohammed (2021) [54]. They carried out a regression analysis
on a large data set and observed that for the same fibre cross-section, the compressive strength reduction increases with
an increase in fibre length.
The lack of composite action between the fibres and concrete ingredients creates lines of weakness and introduces
voids in the matrix, making the concrete porous and thus lowering its compressive strength. Uneven distribution of
fibres is experienced with longer fibres, increasing the micro-crack envelopes and hence reducing the loading required
to propagate cracks until failure [13, 56]. This, coupled with the incomplete compaction as the fibre length increases,
leads to a subsequent reduction in the compressive strength.

Figure 17 shows the effect of fibre length on the split tensile strength of concrete at 7, 14, and 28 days. 50 mm long
fibres show a 4.98% increase in tensile strength while 100 mm and 75 mm long fibres show 9.49% and 13.76%
respective improvements in tensile strength at 28 days compared to the control.
1127
2.5
Strength (MPa)
2.0
1.5
7 days
14 days
28 days
1.0
0 25 50 75 100
Fibre Length (mm)
Figure 17. Split tensile strength results for varying fibre lengths
An increase in the length of the fibres improves the tensile strength up to a certain point and then the strength
declines. This agrees with a study by Kausik and Sharma (2014) [60] who noted that split tensile strength increased up
to 15.66% at a fibre aspect ratio of 45, beyond which there was no increase in strength. Ninan et al. (2018) [59] observed
that 80 mm long fibres provided a 2.15% increase in split tensile strength compared to 20 mm long fibres at 1% fibre
dosage. Contrary to these findings, the statistical analysis of large data carried out by Mohammed and Mohammed
(2021) [54] concludes that the loss in tensile strength is high when fibres of large fibre index are used. In addition, Meza
et al. (2021) [18] noted that for low fibre dosage, longer fibres give high tensile strength results.
In this study, however, at a constant fibre dosage of 1% by weight of cement, 75 mm long fibres seem to give optimal
results. This means that increasing the bond strength of fibres lowers the surface area of the fibre required to achieve the
same tensile strength enhancement. The difficulty of achieving a uniform distribution of long fibres (100 mm) coupled
with the reduction in workability could be the reason for the decline in strength. 50 mm long fibres do not provide
enough length for pull out resistance and hence the reduced strength compared to 75 mm long fibres.
Flexural Strength
Figure 18 shows a similar trend to that of split tensile strength results where the flexural strength of concrete
increased by 9.79, 12.49, and 11.61% on incorporating 50, 75, and 100 mm long fibres, respectively. Similar reasons
for this behavior are explained above. Table 5 compares the percentage change in the split tensile and flexural strength
results of this study to those obtained in other studies.
3.94 4.03 4
4
3.59
0
Control 50 75 100
Length (mm)
Figure 18. Flexural strength results for varying fibre length
1128
Table 5. Comparison of percentage change in the split and flexural strength results
Percentage change compared to control mix (%)

Author(s) Fibre length (mm) Fibre content
Split Tensile Strength Flexural Strength
50 4.98 9.79
Current Study 75 1.0% by weight of cement 9.49 12.49
100 13.76 11.61
30 5.34 1.46
60 10.32 6.80
Sharma et al. (2014) [60] 0.5% by weight of cement
90 13.17 9.71
120 3.56 0.73
20 55.79 34.10
Ninan et al. (2018) [59] 1.0% by weight of cement
80 57.94 44.10
2 kg/m3 - 10.47 - 6.05
53.5
10 kg/m3 - 14.73 - 0.36
3
Meza et al. (2021) [18] 85.6 6 kg/m - 17.05 - 3.56
2 kg/m3 - 9.3 - 6.05
117.8
3
10 kg/m - 12.4 3.2
30 8 3
50 13 10
Merli et al. (2020) [61] 70 0.5% by volume of concrete mix 1 -3
90 -9 - 20
110 - 15 - 31
Increasing the length of the fibre increases the surface area in contact with the matrix, limiting crack propagation
and eventual failure. However, if the fibres have a sufficient bond strength, a shorter length of fibre provides an
equivalent strength enhancement as observed in this study. Fibres with a length of 75 mm gave excellent results in terms
of tensile and flexural strengths. These were therefore selected to study their optimum dosage in concrete.
3.2.3. Effect of Varying Fibre Percentage on Concrete Properties

The content of the sand-coated fibres in the mix was varied from 0.75% to 1.5% at an increment of 0.25% to assess
their effects on the fresh and hardened properties of concrete.
Workability
Figure 19 shows the effect of PET fibre content on the workability of fresh concrete mix at a constant w/c ratio.
Slump
40
35
30
Slump (mm)
25
20
15
10
5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
PET (%)
Figure 19. Slump values for varying fibre content
1129
Compared to the control mix, there was a 42.5, 57.5, 65, and 72.5% reduction in slump when 0.75, 1.0, 1.25, and
1.5% fibre content were added, respectively. The addition of 1.5% PET fibres by weight of cement resulted in the slowest
slump of 11 mm. This shows that an increase in the content of sand-coated PET fibres affects the workability of concrete
negatively. Ninan et al. (2018) [59] noted a 30.8, 38.5, 69.2, 76.9% and 96.2% reduction in slump values when 0.5, 0.75,
1.0, 1.25, and 1.5% fibre content (by weight of cement) were added. The rough surface of the fibres adheres to the
concrete ingredients restraining their movement. Al-Hadithi & Abbas (2018) [13] noted that the sharp edges and the
length of fibres compared with the aggregates restrained the movement of the mix materials, hence lowering the
workability. In this study, this adherence is amplified by the rough surface of the fibres in use. The higher the content,
the lower the workability, which increases the compaction effort and reduces the compressive strength.
Figure 20 shows the effect of varying the fibre content on the compressive strength of concrete. There was a
subsequent reduction in strength from 0.75 to 1.5% fibre content compared to the control. The highest reduction in
strength of 26.84 MPa was observed at 1.5% fibre content, corresponding to a 23% reduction compared to the control.
0.75, 1, and 1.25% fibre contents reduced the strength at 4.2, 16.9, and 15.2% respectively, compared to the control mix
at 28 days.
35
30
Strength (MPa)
25
20
7 days
14 days
28 days
15
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50
Fibre Content (%)
Figure 20. Compressive strength values for varying fibre content
Ninan et al. (2018) [59] observed a similar reduction in compressive strength as the fibre content increased for 80
mm fibre lengths with 1.5% fibres, showing a reduction of 24.9% in strength. Incorporating sand-coated fibres reduced
the concrete compressive strength owing to the subsequent reduction in workability as the fibre content increases.
Despite the good bonding of sand-coated fibres, increasing their content makes the concrete matrix more porous and
their low elastic modulus offers no resistance to the compressive forces compared to say steel fibres. Most of the studies
that report an improvement in the compressive strength of concrete on the inclusion of fibres use consistently short fibres
(within a range of 15–50 mm) [13, 56, 62] and this improvement only occurs at low fibre dosages.

Splitting tensile strength tests for standard cylinders (100 by 200 mm) were carried out at 7, 14, and 28 days for all
PET fibre contents. The fibre content of 0.75% did not show any considerable increment in strength at 28 days. However,
a 13.76, 15.49, and 11.08% respective increment for 1, 1.25, and 1.5% content of fibres was observed compared to the
control as shown in Figure 21.
1130
2.5
Strength (MPa)
2.0
1.5 7 days
14 days
28 days
1.0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50
Fibre Length (mm)
Figure 21. Split tensile strength values for varying fibre content
As the content of the fibres increases, compaction and uniform distribution become a challenge, explaining the
decline in split tensile strength at 1.5% fibre content. The optimum percentage of sand-coated fibres from this study in
terms of the split tensile test is 1.25% by weight of cement with an increment of 15.49% in strength compared to the
control. The increment in strength was attributed to the bridging effect of the fibres where on cracking of the concrete
matrix, the stresses were transferred to the fibres, which increased the resistance to fracture and prolonged the time of
failure, hence improving the ductility of the concrete. Failure of fibre specimens was not sudden as compared to the
control specimens and the fibres held the concrete together even after failure.
Flexural Strength
Figure 22 shows the flexural strength results for the varying fibre content. The flexural strength of the concrete
increases by 1.74, 12.49, 17.26, and 2.58% for 0.75, 1, 1.25, and 1.5% fibre content, respectively. At 1.5% fibre content,
the compressive strength reduces by 23% compared to the control mix. The resistance of concrete to flexure is a function
of its compressive and tensile strength. Fibres improve the tensile strength of the concrete but reduce the compressive
strength of concrete. This explains the decline in flexural strength when a high fibre content (1.5%) is utilized in
concrete. Borg et al. (2016) [10], Mohammad et al. [11], and Meza et al. (2021) [18] have noted 7%, 15% and 21%
improvement in the flexural strength of concrete. Ninan et al. (2018) [59] further noted that the flexural strength
increased up to 0.75% fibre content (by weight of cement) after which the strength decreases.
4.21
4.03
4
3.59 3.65 3.68
0
0 0.75 1 1.25 1.5
Content (%)
Figure 22. Flexural strength results for varying fibre content
1131
At 1.25% fibre content, sand-coated fibres gave excellent results in terms of split tensile and flexural strength, with
a slight reduction in the compressive strength of concrete. The following section gives the conclusions and
recommendations for future research.
4. Conclusions
The following conclusions were derived from this study:
 This study presents a new way of modifying the bond properties of virgin PET fibres with superior tensile strength
and elasticity. The performance of these fibres in concrete was superior to that of other surface-modified fibres
based on tensile and flexural strength results. The split tensile strength improved by 9.49% while the flexural
strength improved by 11.61% compared to the control mix. This can be attributed to their increased bonding
capacity and elasticity.
 Sand-coated fibres reduced the workability of concrete compared to the other types of fibres, which reduces the
compressive strength of concrete. A subsequent reduction was also noted with the increase in fibre length and fibre
content. Superplasticizers should be used to improve the workability of PET fibre concrete to achieve maximum
compaction and favourable strength.
 The optimum length for sand-coated fibres in terms of split tensile and flexural strength was 75 mm, with an
increment of 13.76% and 12.49%, respectively. Fibre content of 1.25% showed the highest split tensile and flexural
strength increments of 15.49% and 17.26%, respectively.
 However, at this fibre content, there is a 15.2% reduction in the compressive strength compared to the control and
a 1.5% reduction compared to the lower limit of Grade 30 concrete. The use of these fibres should therefore be
guided by the structural member of interest. Their use can be restricted to the tension zone of concrete members
to avoid losses in the compressive capacity of structures.
 When determining the optimum fibre length, the fibre dosage was held constant, posing a limitation to the effect
of varying fibre length and dosage at the same time. A correlation study can be carried out to predict the relationship
between fibre length and dosage.
A microstructure study on the interaction of this new surface modified fibre is highly recommended to understand
the interaction between the fibres and the cement paste in comparison with other types of fibres. Additional tests can be
carried out to characterize the fibres, especially fibre pull out tests. Durability tests are also highly recommended for
concrete samples made of these fibres to assess their performance under exposure to temperature, chloride ion
penetration, and water permeability, among others.
5. Declarations
Conceptualization, M.M.M., C.K., and N.G.; methodology, M.M.M.; formal analysis, M.M.M.; writing—original
draft preparation, M.M.M.; writing—review and editing, C.K. and N.G.; supervision, C.K., and N.G.; All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

The data presented in this study are available in the article.
5.3. Funding
This work was supported by the African Union Commission through the Pan African University.
Sincere gratitude to the African Union through Pan Africa University of Basic Sciences, Technology, and Innovation
(PAUSTI) for the financial support in this research work, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology
(JKUAT) for providing technical support through staff and equipment.

1132
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1135

(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
Impact of Climate Change on Crops Productivity Using

MODIS-NDVI Time Series
Zainab K. Jabal 1, 2*, Thair S. Khayyun 1 , Imzahim A. Alwan 1

1
Civil Engineering Department, University of Technology, Baghdad 10096, Iraq.
2
Department of Computer Techniques Engineering-Imam Al-Kadhum College, Baghdad, Iraq.
Abstract
Climate change is the single biggest threat facing the global food system. Irrefutable impacts of climate change on the food
systems are recently acknowledged. Therefore, extensive scientific efforts around the globe are dedicated to investigating
and evaluating the short and long-term effects of climate change on the development of global food systems. In this study,
an integrated approach of two methodologies, including Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Data
and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), was employed to extrapolate the long-term changes in agronomic
areas from 2000 to 2020 in the Dukan Dam Watershed (DDW), Northern Iraq. The link between agricultural areas and the
primary production of essential crops (Wheat, Barley, Rice, Maize, and Sunflower) is proposed to be altered due to the
impact of climate change. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report, Iraq is one of the
semi-arid regions in the world that has recently been characterized by water scarcity and limited agronomic areas. Three
independent variables (rainfall, temperature, and agriculture area) were used in the multiple regression analysis to
understand the impact of the main drivers affecting the production of crops in DDW. Obtained results showed an increasing
trend in crop production as a result of the frequent use of groundwater and surface water sources along with the
implementation of greenhouse cultivation. Correlation analysis shows that the crop production was significantly related to
the annual precipitation with a 59–63% in winter crops like wheat and barley, but was less sensitive to the temperature
with a 20–40% in summer crops like rice, maize, and sunflower.
Keywords: Climate Change; NDVI; MODIS; Multiple Regression Analysis; Remote Sensing.
1. Introduction
In recent years, remote sensing techniques have been widely applied to provide new insights in the field of earth
observation technology and a useful tool to interpret the complex interactions of environmental factors using sensors
with multi-spectral signals. Satellite image processing can indicate a range of physical properties of the object, such as
elements of the land cover and land use, including surface elevation and temperature [1-3]. Assessments of vegetative
cover changes and processes have brought global attention and are topics of considerable societal relevance. Spectral
vegetation indices are among the most widely used satellite data products, providing key measurements for a range of
scientific fields such as climate, hydrologic, and biogeochemical studies; phenology; land cover and land cover change
detection; natural resource management, and sustainable development [4].
* Corresponding author: bce.19.45@grad.uotechnology.edu.iq

1136
1.1. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)

The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), one of the first remote sensing analysis applications, was
signed to make multi-spectral imagery more understandable [5]. The NDVI Method was chosen as the most accurate
indicator for difficult-to-access areas because it combines three (3) capturing vegetative change over time using remote
sensing applications.
For agricultural land conservation and water resources restoration, the characteristics of land cover should be
monitored, including water bodies, urban spaces, and agricultural land [2, 6–11]. This is particularly true in sub-humid
to semi-arid environments, where the agricultural change in grazing areas may only be noticed over long periods. It is
theoretically feasible to generate NDVI at a time by combining data from several sensors. NDVI is also used to classify
the land in areas with different terrains, such as mountain forests and lowland plants. For example, these areas were
monitored based on statistical information on the Mongolian plateau [2]. Another example, NDVI with high-resolution
remote sensing data was applied to investigate the urban vegetation classes in Kuala Lumpur. The main types of urban
vegetation were identified as low vegetation, high vegetation, and non-vegetation areas [12]. Because NDVI is one of
the most extensively used categorization methods for detecting changes in land cover and land use, two Landsat TM
images from 1990 to 2010 were used to generate NDVI values, which were obtained using the Natural Breaks (Jenks)
method [13].
Ozyavuz et al. (2015) confirmed the validity of the use of satellite images with the NDVI method in detecting the
change of the land cover, particularly the changes in vegetation in Tekirdag Province, Sarkoy in the short term (1987,
2002, and 2012) [14, 15]. Viana et al. (2019) have used Landsat satellite images with NDVI and NDWI to apply a long-
term LULC analysis in a rural region characterized by a mixed agro-silvo-pastoral environment based on a Landsat time
series for a period between 1995 and 2015 [16, 17]. Sahebjalal & Dashtekian (2013) have used NDVI classification to
monitor the change in LC/LU with multiple thresholds in Ardakan, Iran for the period 1990–2006 [18]. Bhandaria et al.
(2012) also improved the effectiveness of the NDVI method to classify LC/LU as a case study in the Jabalpur region,
India. Multiple features were found from the NDVI Method classification, such as urban areas, agricultural land, and
water resources [19]. Zaitunah et al. (2018) have used NDVI with remote sensing data to detect changes in land cover
for the Besitang Watershed, in addition to determining the density of vegetation for multiple thresholds in areas for the
period 2005–2015 [9]. Markov chain analysis and complex network methods were used to identify regimes of land-
cover dynamics from land-cover maps (Terra Class) derived from high-resolution (30 m) satellite imagery in the
Brazilian Amazon [20]. Overall, the NDVI time series has been shown to be an efficient index for long-term monitoring
of vegetation changes. The goal of this chapter is to capture global vegetation change dynamics within the 10-day
MODIS-NDVI time series by looking at April fluctuations during the long-term observation period (2000–2017) in Iraq
[21].
One of the reasons for changing the land cover is the change in agricultural areas, which negatively affects the natural
resources like grassland area, which has decreased as a result of the increase in irrigated agriculture in Aso Caldera,
Japan. The NDVI with the GIS program indicated the areas of grassland that were affected by the change in agricultural
patterns and water circulation in the study area as a result of the fluctuating groundwater recharge [22]. While a study
in Vijayawada, Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh showed that the main activity of the main causes in the change of Land
cover using NDVI technique and GIS tools to clarify Land cover for the period between 2014 and 2020 [17]. Foroumandi
et al., (2022) claimed that one of the important limiting factors for vegetation cover is hydro climatological and is critical
to the preservation of a region's characteristics to the current study (the watersheds of two rivers, Nazloo-Chay and Aji-
Chay in Iran). NDVI was utilized as a remotely sensed indicator to investigate changes in vegetation's spatial-temporal
pattern. Furthermore, ground measurements were used to collect temperature, precipitation, and stream flow time series
in order to investigate the causes and consequences of changing plant cover [23].
Drought is generally caused by an imbalance between evaporation and precipitation during the growth cycle, which
can be dangerous to the environment and human activities. The NDVI was considered an anomaly to observe the drought
situation in Mongolia for about 20 years, the spatial correlation between the NDVI anomaly and two meteorological
variables differed depending on the land cover type and plant growth [24]. To monitor drought in these areas, NDVI
was used with temperature data from MODIS sensors to obtain a result of the extent to which crop production is affected
by the increase in temperature [25].
The NDVI Method is not limited to indicate vegetation changes but also to quantify crop yield [10]. Borowik et al.
(2013) compared the production from remote sensing and terrestrial NDVI. Their results showed that the correlation
between theoretical NDVI and terrestrial NDVI, was applied within a seasonal range in an area in Eastern Poland [14].
NDVI Model with statistical approaches to develop corn and soybean yield prediction under water scarcity conditions
was investigated [26]. The temperature and the amount of rain are inversely related to the production for agricultural
lands, particularly in dry areas such as India, and with the lack of agricultural production of crops, the drought increases.
Bellón et al. (2017) have developed an approach to monitor the full-scale agricultural land in Tocantins, Brazil. The
approach was implemented in two stages, the first stage is MODIS data with NDVI time series; the second stage is
classifying the agricultural land to crop agriculture domain land according to cropping systems [27].
1137
1.2. Relationship of Crop Production with Changes in Temperature and Rainfall

Crop production depends on many external factors. These factors are climatic, biological, type of irrigation, and
others. Climatic factors are denoted as temperature, rainfall, evaporation - transpiration, wind speed, and angle of solar
radiation. Two elements intervene in this study, which is temperature and rainfall, and it will explain the extent of their
impact on the crops in the study area. In the next section, the effect of rainfall, and the effect of temperature on crop
production will be discussed.
Crop production in the Fanteakwa District is mostly rainfall-dependent, making field yield of this crop is highly
vulnerable to the changes in precipitation patterns. Therefore, the net effect of precipitation patterns on agricultural
output unavoidable. The rainfall variability within the major seasons in the three groups was smaller than in the minor
seasons accordingly. These results have also revealed that the yields of three crops had decreased over time [28].
Croplands appear to be highly correlated to the annual average of precipitation. The accumulative annual precipitation
and the croplands area have a strong link, which is attributed mostly to the irrigation type, where enormous swaths of
farmland are irrigated [21]. Land use and land cover could be influenced by some environmental factors. This is also
could be resulted from the combination effects of multi-factors including dry weather which is well known to cause a
negative effects on vegetation areas. Therefore, primary production (e.g., wheat and barley in particular) are likely
decreased when the agricultural areas that based on rainfall irrigation is decreased [29]. Pale and Antonio, 2015
explained the link between rainfall and agricultural productivity, who claimed that rain has a negative impact on maize
production, particularly for rain-fed and small farmers. Nevertheless, there is conflict information concerning non-maize
crop output and the influence of rainfall on family net income [30].
Modi et al. (2021) have explained that the impact of climate change on crop production until the year 2090 is reverse
effects, as the study showed that the increase in temperature, as a consequence of global warming, makes the production
of the corn crop decreased significantly (p < 0.05) as bioavailability of water in for plants is decreased [31]. According
to a recent NASA research, climate change might influence maize (corn) and wheat productivity as early as 2030 if the
recent scenario of high greenhouse gas emissions continued. Maize crop yields are expected to fall by 24%, while wheat
yields are expected to increase by roughly 17%. The change in field yields is likely to be related to the increases in
temperature, variations in rainfall patterns, and rising surface carbon dioxide concentrations from man-made greenhouse
gas emissions. These alterations would make producing maize in the tropics more challenging, but they might increase
wheat's growing area [32]. Between 2020 and 2029, the study investigates the influence of rising temperatures levels on
agricultural yields in northern Thailand, notably rice and maize. According to the Representative Concentration
Pathways 8.5 (RCP8.5) scenario, high temperatures are possible [33].
This study aims to evaluate the impact of rainfall and temperature on the crop production in the Dukan Dam
Watershed (DDW) in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq using remote sensing techniques. The Dukan Dam Watershed (DDW)
in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq was evaluated to distinguish the impact of climate change and agricultural area on the
production of crops. Statistical approach will be implemented to understand the impact of agricultural areas on crop
production using historical data of temperature and rain. The relationship between crop production and change in
climatic elements will be investigated. Obtained results will be used to recommend for a further a research strategy
future studies to improve plant production.

2.1. Study Area
The area of DDW is 6526 km2 inside Iraq as it is regarded as a boundary watershed between Iraq and Iran, Figure 1.
DDW is located between latitude 35° 25' 8" to 36° 54'15" N and longitude 44° 25' 35" to 46° 20' 53" E. On the north-
west, it is bounded by the Great Zab River Tributary watershed while on the southeast it is adjoined by the watershed of
Derbendi-Khan Dam reservoir [34]. DDW extends to Sulaymaniyah and Erbil governorates. DDW contains a group of
irrigation projects shown in Table 1. The topography of the study area was simulated using Digital Elevation Model
(DEM) which is provided by the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM). The data is available in ARC GRID, ARC
ASCII, and Geotiff formats, using decimal degrees and WGS84 datum. SRTM data are obtained from the USGS and
NASA (USA). This data has been processed by CIAT to give an actual topography that is smooth surfaces areas where
there was no data in the original SRTM data have been highlighted using interpolation methods described by Reuter et
al. [35].
1138
Elevation (m)
High : 3568
Low : 468
Figure 1. DDW Spatial location with the topography of the study area
Table 1. Irrigation Projects in DDW [36]
Watershed Government Irrigation Projects Area )m2) Status Project

- Kalar 50000 Partially Development
Dukan Dam
- Raniya – Sarujawa 215000 Partially Development
- Erbil - - -
- Sulaymaniyah Rain-fed fields (not Classified under Agricultural projects) - Partially Development
The irrigation methods of DDW are rained and irrigated, Most of the crops grown in the DDW are irrigated (rain-
dependent) for their growth. The cropping pattern for DDW, planting time, harvest time and crop growth months were
shown in the Table 2.
1139
Table 2. Main crops in DDW [37-39]

Crops Plant Time Harvest Time Crop growth months
Winter Crops
a) The second half of October to
the second half of November Beginning of May to the end October, November, December, January,
Wheat
b) The second half of November of June February, March, April and May.
to the second half of December
May - to the beginning of October, November, December, January,
Barley Second half of November
June February, March, April and May.
Summer Crops
Rice Second half of May September to October May, June, July and August
Maize Mid-June to July October to November June, July, August and September.
Sunflower Beginning of July October July, August, and September
2.2. Data Preparation

2.2.1. MODIS Data
A Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) is a critical instrument aboard the Terra satellites
(formerly EOS AM-1) and Aqua (formerly EOS PM-1). Terra's orbit around the Earth is timed so that it crosses the
equator from north to south in the morning, whereas Aqua crosses the equator from south to north in the afternoon. Terra
MODIS and Aqua MODIS are both looking at the same thing. The MODIS sensor offers virtually entire Earth coverage
every day, because the clouds and aerosols are prevalent in daily global imaging sensors, so the cloud shadow effect is
eliminated using temporal compositing of numerous data taken at predetermined time intervals [40]. Time-series data
representing a cycle of vegetation phenology is required for the land cover monitoring. While a reliable time series of
MODIS data is being developed to give the good applicable [41-44]. To get a high resolution and high NDVI resolution,
Borowik et al. (2013) was used MODIS (MOD13Q1 V.5 dataset gathered at 250×250 m resolution) [45].
Satellite images have been provided from MODIS Terra's Surface Reflectance 8-Day L3 Global 250m sensor
MOD09Q1 product [46]. Figures 2 and 3 explained satellite images for months (April and September) for each year of
the period (2000-2020). All satellite images were implemented by NDVI Method in ArcGIS10.3 to get a set of vegetation
images with area for the two months (April and September) of each year. These months were chosen according to the
planting and harvesting of crops in DDW, Table 2.
1140
Figure 2. Satellite images for April month in DDW, MODIS Terra's Surface Reflectance 8-Day L3 Global 250m sensor
MOD09Q1 Data (2000-2020)
1141
Figure 3. Satellite images for September month in DDW, MODIS Terra's Surface Reflectance 8-Day L3 Global 250m sensor
MOD09Q1Data (2000-2020)
2.2.2. Climate Data

In Iraq, both continental and sub-tropical climates are present featuring cool and cold winter and hot to extremely
hot and dry summer. The rainy season extends from October to March and the rainfall pattern is generally erratic. Iraq
is divided into eight agro-ecological zones as a result of the natural changes in terrain [36, 47]. In the study area, DDW
locates in Agro Climatic Zone1 (Upper Zagros Mountains Region) which describe is Sub-humid to humid, cold to cool
winter, and mild to very warm summer [35]. The climate data used in the study was rainfall and temperature provided
from Sulaymaniyah station for the period (2000-2020) [48] (Figures 4, and 5).
160
Rainfall
140
Effective Rainfall
Average of rainfall (mm)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Figure 4. Average of rainfall for the period (2000-2020)
45
Min (°C)
40
Max (°C)
Avrag e monthely Temprture (cO)
35 Mean (°C)
30
25
20
15
10
0
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Figure 5. Average monthly of maximum, Minimum and Mean temperature for the period (2000-2020)
1142
2.2.3. NDVI
The simplest metric of vegetation structure that can be obtained from remote sensing data is vegetation cover.
Assigning a single class to each pixel is the most popular method for mapping plant cover from remotely sensed pictures.
The percentage of pixels identified as vegetation can then be used to estimate vegetation cover. This method is based on
the notion that each pixel reflects a uniform cover type. When the pixel size is much less than the typical plant patch
size, this assumption may be plausible. This assumption, however, is rarely true for coarse-resolution remotely sensed
imaging since coarse-resolution pixels are typically made up of a combination of cover types [49]. There are several
methods for investigating seasonal changes in vegetation using satellite images, one of which is to use vegetation indices
based on the extent of the greenness [50]. NDVI method is a metric methodology that measures the balance of energy
received and released by the observable objects on Earth. This index sets a value for how green area is when applied to
plant communities, that is, the quantity of vegetation present in a particular area and its condition of development. NDVI
methods have been used to give a comprehensive view of land cover change, especially in the agricultural areas in the
study area. It is calculated based on near-infrared (NIR) and red (RED) light reflectance assessments as in Equation 1,
[6]:
𝑁𝐷𝑉𝐼 = (𝑁𝐼𝑅 − 𝑟𝑒𝑑)/(𝑁𝐼𝑅 + 𝑟𝑒𝑑) (1)

where NIR and RED are the amounts of light reflected by growing vegetation and captured by satellite sensor [6]. The
NDVI threshold value varies from) -1 to +1(where the red and near-infrared bands of the NDVI were employed in this
study. Table 3 explained the variability in thresholds NDVI values according to the results of researchers before. The
NDVI values for each type of land cover vegetation are:
 NDVI values for water bodies and snow are less than 0 according to the elevation of water [51, 52]; 1-0.199; -
0.35-0 [53], and described the NDVI value less than -0.5 is an index for No drought).
 NDVI values for no vegetation or urban area are (0-0.2) [18, 19, 51], 2013 represented the NDVI threshold (0-
0.3).
 NDVI values for low vegetation or the natural grasses and herbs are (0.1-0.3) as low and medium Density
vegetation [18]; 0.21-0.5 described as an agriculture area and Scuba area [9, 12, 51] described Lowest dense
vegetation; Mašková et al. [54] clarified this range in meadows.
 NDVI values for high dense vegetation, urban agriculture area (cropland) and forest are (0.5-1) [9, 12, 18, 51, 52,
55].
Table 3. Comparison between many researchers for NDVI threshold values
Researchers Thresholds Descriptions

-0.8–0 Water body
0-0.2 Open area
0.21-0.4 Agriculture area
Gandhi et al. (2015) [51]
0.41-0.5 Scuba area
0.51-0.6 Thin Forest
0.6-0.9 Thick forest
-0.3-0.1 Cloud-Water-Snow
Dagnachew et al. (2020) [52]
0.1-0.9 Forest in Humid Region
0.1-0.2 Low Density vegetation
0.2-0.3 Medium Density vegetation
Ehsan and Kazem (2013) [18]
0.3-0.4 High Density vegetation
>0.4 Very High Density vegetation
0.1-0.2 Urban Area
0.2-0.3
Nanzad et al. (2019) [53]
0.3-0.4 Vegetation
0.4-0.5
Shareef & Abdulrazzaq (2021) [7] 0-0.25 Natural vegetation
Shimelis et al. (2015) [8] 0.25-0.5 Cropland
-1-0.199 Non-Vegetation Barren areas, build up area, road network
Hashim et al. (2019) [12] 0.2-0.5 Low Vegetation Shrub and grassland
0.501-1.0 High Vegetation Temperate and Tropical urban forest
< -0.5 Non-drought
-0.5 - -0.25 Mild drought
Javed et al. (2021) [24] -0.25 - -0.1 Moderate drought
-0.1 - 0 Severe drought
>0 Very severe drought
1143
<0 Non vegetation

0-0.15 Lowest dense vegetation
0.15-0.3 Lower dense vegetation
Zaitunah et al. (2018) [9]
0.3-0.45 Dense vegetation
0.45-0.6 Higher dense vegetation
>0.6 Highest dense vegetation
0.18-0.339 Mown meadow
Mašková et al. (2008) [54]
0.34-0.4 mulched meadow
-0.35-0 Water bodies -
Rawat and Biswas (2016) [55]
0.01-0.6 dense green vegetation
Based on the values displayed in the Table 3, the threshold values for this search are deduced as shown in Table 4:
Table 4. NDVI Thresholds Values Range used in this study
Thresholds Values Desecration
0 - 0.199 No Vegetation Area (Urban area)
0.2-0.499 Low Vegetation Area) Sharp and Grass Land)
0.5-1 High Vegetation Area( Urban Agricultural area)
2.2.4. Multiple Regression Analysis

Multiple regression analysis is a statistical technique for estimating the relationship between independent variables.
Regression models with one dependent variable and more the one independent variable are called multilinear regression,
Equation 2:
Y(c) =b0 + b1 X1 +b2 X2+b3X3 (2)
where: Y(c) is the production for each crop in tones (depended variable), x 1 is agricultural area for each crop (Km2), x2
is annual accumulated effective rainfall for actual growth months (mm), and x 3 is average mean temperature for actual
growth months (oC) , b0 is Y intercept (This is value of Y when all values of x=0); b1 is Slope for agriculture area (when
other independent variables do not change).b2 is Slope for average mean temperature (for actual growth months) when
other independent variables do not change. b3 is Slope for effective rainfall (for actual growth months) when other
independent variables do not change.
The multiple regression was interpreted by determine the coefficient of determination to test how well the model fits
the dada. A correlation matrix was used to show correlation coefficient between the three independent variables with
the crop production and to see which one of these variables has the highest correlation with the production of crops.
Figure 6, shows the flowchart of the research methodology through which the objectives of this study were achieved.
3. Results
3.1. Trend Climate data in DDW
The climate data for ten years during the period (2000-2020) have been clarified in Figures 4 and 5 which represented
the temperature, rainfall, effective rainfall, and effective temperature respectively. The actual climate data which affects
the crop production was formed during the crop growth period and as shown in Table 2, the time of growth, and the time
of harvest of each crop as shown in Table 2. Figure 7 showed that the observed annual accumulated rainfall at
Sulaymaniyah station was significantly decreasing with time (negative trend). Figure 8 showed that there is a positive
trend between the time and mean temperature for actual growth months of crops. The trend of annual rainfall has
correlated with the average annual temperature. The reason is a result of the role of climate change in dry and semi-arid
areas such as Iraq. As shown in the Figures 7 to 10, the rate of increase in average mean temperature between 2000 and
2020 is 37%, with an average of about 6 degrees. While a fluctuation was found in the annual rainfall for the period
(2000-2020).The slope of annual average rainfall decrease in the direction of progress over the years. But the trend of
effective annual rainfall (for actual growth months of the crop) was different from the trend of the annual rainfall because
of the impact of climate change in Iraq. Which shows the change in the distribution of rain and its amounts in that time.
1144
Climate Data: MOD0Q9 Files

 Average monthly for Temperature Download for period
 Average monthly of Rainfall (2000-2020)
Determine the actual months of crop growth

and calculate: Processing in Arch GIS
Crops Production
in (Tons) for:  Average monthly for Temperature and NDVI Method to
 Accumulated Average monthly of Rainfall find Land Cover
Wheat, Barley, Rice,
Maize and Sunflower
Multiple Regression Analysis Land Cover

No Vegetation Area
Y(c) =b0 + b1 X1 +b2 X2+b3X3 Low Vegetation Area
High Vegetation Area
Results: High Vegetation Area

Simulated Crops Production (Tons) = Agricultural area
Clarify the factor affecting Comparison of Simulated

production: Temperature, Production and Observed
rainfall, or Agricultural area Production
Conclusions and Recommendations
Figure 6. Flow chart for study methodology
900
800
y = -2.0727x + 550.87
700 R² = 0.0129
Annual averge Rainfall (mm)
600
500
400
300
200
100
Year
Figure 7. Annual average rainfall
1145
30
y = 1.1848x + 12.333
R² = 0.7238
25
Average Mean Temperature (oC)

20
15
10
0
2000 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020
Year
Figure 8. Average mean temperature
800
Effective Rainfall (mm) for actual months
700
y = 1.59x - 2769
600 R² = 0.0054
crop growth (mm)
500
400
300
200
100
0
2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020 2024
Year
Figure 9. Annual average effective rainfall
30
Average temperature for actualcrops month
25
y = 0.6466x - 1281
20
R² = 0.7742
growth (oC)
15
10
0
2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020 2024
Year
Figure 10. Average Mean effective Temperature
1146
3.2. Land Cover Classification for Vegetation Region in DDW

The results of vegetation region change for each period can be visualized in Figures 11 and 12. These Figures
illustrate the temporal and spatial change of agricultural areas in DDW for April and September. The study area is
frequently cultivated with different agricultural patterns, where large areas of seasonal crops are occupied with natural
vegetation and agroforestry area. Three classes of agriculture area are presented in Figure 12: No vegetation, Low
vegetation area, and High vegetation area. The file produced by MOD0Q9 is an HDF-type and contains 4 layers, the
following Science Data Set (SDS) for HDF file Layers (4) [56]:
 Surface Reflectance Band 1 (620-670 nm);
 Surface Reflectance Band 2 (841-87 nm);
 Reflectance State QA consists of cloud states;
 Reflectance Band Quality and atmospheric correction were performed.
1147
Figure 11. Land Cover classification for vegetation area in April month during the period (2000-2020)
1148
Figure 12. Land Cover classification for vegetation maps in September month during the period (2000-2020)
NDVI Method was used to get this classification according to the percentage of NDVI in equation (1). The near-
infrared (NIR) represents Band 1 (620-670 nm) and RED light Band 2 (841-876 nm). In Figure 13, In April, the high
agricultural area increases with time with position trend. A fluctuation in the values, of the areas during the period (2000-
2020) occurred. The agricultural area decreases to a value of less than 250 square km in 2008 and increased to a large
value in 2010, (5000 km2). While in the September months, a positive trend was observed without high fluctuation in
the areas with a large value in the year 2020, which indicates the confirmation of the agricultural pattern used for
agricultural projects and fields within the watershed. The high agricultural area represents the agricultural area within
the agricultural season within the agricultural season in DDW.
6000 7000
5000 6000
5000
Aera (km2)
4000 y = -178x + 360854

Area (km2)
4000 R² = 0.4656
3000
y = 191.07x - 380855 3000
2000 R² = 0.4838 2000
1000 1000
0 0
2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020
Year Year
(a) High vegetation area (b) Low vegetation area
600 60
500 50
400 y = -12.868x + 26109 40

Area (km2)
Area (km2)
R² = 0.4274 y = 1.9643x - 3930.3

300 30 R² = 0.6221
200 20
100 10
0 0
2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020
Year Year
(c) No vegetation area (d) High vegetation area
5000 6000
4500
4000 5000
3500 y = -126.59x + 257417
Area (km2)
4000 R² = 0.7559
Area (km2)
3000 y = 121.04x - 239765

2500 R² = 0.7329 3000
2000
1500 2000
1000
1000
500
0 0
2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020
Year Year
(e) Low vegetation area (f) No vegetation area
Figure 13. Land cover vegetation areas from DDW (a, b, c in April month and d, e and f in September month)
1149
3.3. Crops Production in DDW

The crops found within the DDW for the period 2000 to 2020 are many, but the lack of data for these crops made
the researcher take the available crops and their data, as shown in a Table 2. The studied crops within the summer and
winter seasons of satellite images were observed in April month and September month. The crops are wheat and barley
for the winter season; rice, maize, and sunflower for the summer season. Crop production data from the Ministry of
Agriculture and the Statistics Division in the Kurdistan region. Figure 14 explain the change of production crops with
time. The figures show a fluctuation in the values of crop production. For example, the production of all crops in the
year 2008 decreased very significantly, except for the rice crop. The second decline is clear in 2012 for winter crops,
but it did not affect much of the summer season's crops.
500 2500
RICE MAIZE SUNFLOWER
450 WHEAT
Prouduction *1000 tone
400 BERLAY 2000
prouduction *1000 ton

350
300 1500
250
200 1000
150
100 500
50
0 0
1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020 2024 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020 2024
Year Year
(a) (b)
Figure 14. Change production crop for period (2000-2020): a) Winter crops; b) Summer crops
3.4. Multiple Regression Analysis Results

The results of linear multiple regression analysis between the dependent variable (crop production) and the
independent variables (agricultural area temperature and rainfall by using the statistical analysis were shown in the
following Tables.
Table 5. Linear equations resulting from multiple statistical analysis with R square for each crop and F significant
Correlation Coefficient
Crops R square Significance F Simulated Equations
Multiple R
Wheat 0.996 0.994 7.4884E-07 422+135x1+60x2+47x3
Barley 0.56 0.32 47% 1866+104x1+99.8x2+218x3
Rice 0.77 60 1% 752.04+31.8x1+32.8x3
Maize 0.52 0.27 38% 213.2+3.05x1+0.6 x2
Sunflower 0.47 0.22 3% 3.2+ 2.34 x1+14.12x2
The analysis of the linear multiple regression showed that the production of winter crops were significant and highly
sensitive to (rainfall) effect. In addition, the sensitivity of wheat production in agricultural areas was 98%, in contrast to
the barley crop, which was 22%, Table 6. Summer crops were significant and highly sensitive to temperature, especially
in the sunflower crop, where the correlation to production ratio was 34%.
Table 6. Correlation Coefficients Matrices

Highest
Crops Agricultural area % Temperature % Rainfall %
Correlation coefficient
Wheat 98 -64 63 98
Barley 22 -29 59 59
Rice -80 24 --- 24
Maize 31 19 --- 19
Sunflower -7 34 --- 34
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The Production quantity and its effect on changing agricultural areas and climatic changes, where shown in Tables
7 to 11. Climate change will disrupt the crops production, the increase in temperature (+1.3), change in rainfall depth (+
6%) changes in the area of agricultural will reduce the crops productivity.
Table 7. Variation of the dependent and independent variable for wheat yield (the reference year 2000)
Crops Production change% Agriculture area change% Temperature change% Rainfall change%
2000 ------- ----- ----- -----
2004 256.67 375.39 -14.29 8.42
2006 180.05 292.32 -19.05 8.95
2008 -86.79 -83.72 9.52 -37.26
2010 370.28 538.67 -23.81 66.11
2012 232.89 256.38 4.76 -9.47
2014 238.18 353.26 0.00 -5.26
2016 333.29 480.08 -42.86 26.74
2018 425.76 554.17 -38.10 -11.58
2020 470.67 589.45 9.52 9.89
Average +484 +337 -13.33 +5.65
Table 8. Variation of the dependent and independent variable for Barely yield (the reference year 2000)
Crops Production change% Agriculture area change% Temperature change% Rainfall change%
2000 ------- ----- ----- 0.00
2004 3.20 375.39 -14.29 8.42
2006 4.48 292.32 -19.05 8.95
2008 -64.74 -83.72 9.52 -37.26
2010 -9.40 538.67 -23.81 66.11
2012 -65.80 256.38 4.76 -9.47
2014 -21.44 353.26 0.00 -5.26
2016 -40.89 480.08 -42.86 26.74
2018 -22.16 554.17 -38.10 -11.58
2020 -28.69 589.45 -9.52 9.89
Average -24.54 +337 -13.33 +5.65
Table 9. Variation of the dependent and independent variable for Rice yield (the reference year 2000)
Crops Production change% Agriculture area change Temperature change Rainfall change
2000 ----- ----- ----- -----
2004 0.12 166.67 -14.29 -----
2006 -2.01 433.33 -19.05 -----
2008 -2.41 66.67 9.52 -----
2010 -4.60 266.67 -23.81 -----
2012 -4.92 466.67 4.76 -----
2014 -4.95 933.33 0.00 -----
2016 -4.74 1000.00 -42.86 -----
2018 -7.94 433.33 -38.10 -----
2020 -11.65 1733.33 -9.52 -----
Average -4.31 +611.11 -13.33
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Table 10. Variation of the dependent and independent variable for Maize yield (the reference year 2000)
Crops Production change% Agriculture area change Temperature change Rainfall change
2000 ------- ----- ----- -----
2004 -0.98 273.33 -14.29 -----
2006 46.03 646.67 -19.05 -----
2008 -47.86 133.33 9.52 -----
2010 -76.02 413.33 -23.81 -----
2012 -43.17 693.33 4.76 -----
2014 -56.08 1346.67 0.00 -----
2016 166.07 1440.00 -42.86 -----
2018 14.45 646.67 -38.10 -----
2020 8.45 2466.67 -9.52 -----
Average +1.21 +806 -13.33
Table 11. Variation of the dependent and independent variable for Sunflower yield (the reference year 2000)
Crops Production change % Agriculture area change % Temperature change% Rainfall change%
2000 8.75 ----- ------ -----
2004 10.48 0.00 -14.29 -----
2006 -68.26 166.67 -19.05 -----
2008 -1.32 433.33 9.52 -----
2010 -0.14 66.67 -23.81 -----
2012 11.46 266.67 4.76 -----
2014 -45.33 466.67 0.00 -----
2016 -92.51 933.33 -42.86 -----
2018 -31.02 1000.00 -38.10 -----
2020 -20.79 433.33 -9.52 -----
Average 8.75 +1733.33 -13.33
To get an impression of crop production during the period (2000-2020), the relationship between Observed and
Simulated production has been clarified from the equations of Table 5. Figure 15 shows the relationship between
Observed and Simulated production.
4500 2500
Simulated Production (*102 ton)
Simulated Production(*102 ton)
4000
3500 2000
3000
1500
2500
2000
1000
1500
y = 0.9462x
1000 y = 0.9454x R² = -0.465
R² = 0.9657 500
500
0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Observed Production(*102 ton) Observed Production(*102 ton)
(a) Wheat Crop (b) Barley
Figure 15. Relationship between Observed and Simulated Production for each crop in DDW
4. Conclusions
The impact of climate change on crop production shows a clear impact on food security, especially for arid and semi-
arid areas such as Iraq. Climate change reduces agricultural productivity by 40–100% of the extra water required in the
absence of global warming [57]. This percentage from the FAO corresponds to the two rates of production as a result of
climatic change. There are two cases in this study, the first case is the change in the mean annual rainfall amount for the
winter crops, which produces a negative change of 86% in the wheat crop in DDW during the year 2008. The negative
1152
change in the production of the barley crop in DDW during the year 2008 reached 65%. The second case is the ratio in
the production change for summer crops (the temperature is considered to be the critical factor because these crops
depend on irrigation). Production of the rice crop in DDW during the year 2020 is to reach 11%. Maize production
increased by 10% with an increase in temperature by 1.3% during a period of ten years, the reason is that maize is due
to the high temperature that suits the ideal temperature, which is 30.
After comparing the agricultural areas from the results of remote sensing with the agricultural areas of the official
agricultural projects, it turns out that there are many fields that are not classified within the official projects and that are
dependent on rain-fed agriculture. The reason for the inconsistency of agricultural areas with the amount of production
per crop is the reasons related to the methods of harvesting the crop. These reasons are the high humidity caused by the
activity of fungi; damage caused by insect and animal pests; and many other factors for the fact that the methods of
agriculture in Iraq are below the standard levels required to secure food security.
It is strongly thought that Iraq will not be able to become self-sufficient in food and fiber commodities, particularly
when considering the expected population growth over the next twenty years in association with the diminishing
available water for irrigation. Therefore, the Strategic Study for Water and Land Resources in Iraq recommends
identifying the most suitable and sustainable agronomic approach to maximize plant productivity. The farming
proportion between food staple crops and high-value (cash) crops has been carefully investigated by the consultant and
diversified among the agro-ecological zones of the country, with the goal of addressing as much as possible the national
food demand while ensuring satisfactory revenue for the farmers and the other actors of the concerned value chain.
The study provided a new insight into the changes in the land cover in the long term in one of the most important
watersheds in Iraq (Dukan Dam). This change was seasonal for two months of the year, which coincides with the
agricultural cycle that already exists in the study area. Clarification of the change in temperature and precipitation for a
period of time (2000–2020). When observing this change, we deduce two cases: the first, the long-term average
temperature and annual rainfall rates for the study area, which makes the study one of the first studies to justify a
tendency in temperature and rain due to the lack of data and loss in the region, as the researcher was able to provide this
type of data for the upcoming studies and show the type of climate change that is affecting the study area. The second
case is knowing the direction of change in the temperature rates and the cumulative rate of the actual months of crop
growth, and this case actually provides a real impression of the type of climatic change that occurs during these months,
leading to the growth of the crop. The fluctuation of crop production was dependent on agricultural areas (extracted
from NDVI average temperatures and rains for the months of crop growth) analyzed using multiple variable linear
regression.
This study provides a useful strategic plan for improving rain-dependent agriculture as a result of changing rain and
temperature. The goal is to improve food security, which is an essential element that is important to be researched and
applied in our time. Among the strategies for the sustainability of crop production, making the outputs a useful reference
to enrich discussions and policies on adaptive agricultural production methodologies for the region in the face of climate
change.
5. Declarations
Conceptualization, Z.-K.J.,T.-S.K. and I.-A.A.; methodology, T.-S.K. and I.-A.A.; remote sensing data processing
Z.-K.J. and I.-A.A.; climate data analysis, T.-S.K. and Z.-K.J; regression analysis, Z.-K.J.,T.-S.K. and I.-A.A.; writing—
original draft preparation, Z.-K.J.,T.-S.K. and I.-A.A.; writing—review and editing, Z.-K.J.,T.-S.K. and I.-A.A.;
visualization, I.-A.A. and T.-S.K. ;supervision ,Z.-K.J. ;project administration, Z.-K.J. ;All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.

5.3. Funding
This paper was supported by the National Center for Water Resources Management- Ministry of Water Resources,
Iraq. According to the mechanism of cooperation between the universities and ministries. The study was classified as a
cooperation contract (5) for the year 2021 with the National Center for Water Resources Management and the University
of Technology - Department of Civil Engineering - Water and Hydraulic Structure Branch.
1153

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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
A Study on Linear Shrinkage Behavior of Peat Soil Stabilized

with Eco-Processed Pozzolan (EPP)
Mohamad S. Sulaiman 1, Habib M. Mohamad 1* , Anis A. Suhaimi 1

1
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 88400 UMS Road, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Received 18 December 2021; Revised 23 May 2022; Accepted 29 May 2022; Published 01 June 2022
Abstract
Peat soil incorporated materials from fragmented organic constituents that originated in submerged wetlands. Peat soil has
a particular index property that accounts for more than 75% of its organic content. Due to its low shear strength, high
moisture content, high compressibility, low specific gravity, restricted bearing capacity, irregular shrinkage, and instability,
peat soil is interpreted as a challenging soil for the building industry. The purpose of this study is to look at the index
properties of Klias, Beaufort peat soil, and eco processed pozzolan (EPP), as well as to investigate the strengthening and
stiffening effects of EPP stabilization treatment on peat soil and the association between EPP and linear shrinkage effects
of peat. The linear shrinkage used to measure the shrinkage behaviour of peat soil consists of untreated samples, namely
peat soil, and treated samples, which are peat soil in addition to EPP with a concentration of 20% and 30%, respectively.
A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is employed to produce images of a sample by scanning the surface of an untreated
peat sample and treated peat samples with EPP. High moisture content with an average of 580% was reported for the KBpt
area. EPP can potentially help to reduce the shrinkage by almost 66.66%. Additionally, the results showed that by adding
EPP as filler material to the peat soil, shrinkage behaviour decreases significantly for untreated peat soil and treated peat
soil with EPP, with 4.29% reduced to 1.43% significantly. Correspondingly, the crystallization process occurred between
peat soil and EPP, which contributed to the reduction of shrinkage and tension crack in peat soil and produced Muscovite,
which is appeared and identified as mineral that important in rock-forming mineral.
Keywords: Eco-Processed Pozzolan; Peat Soil; Stabilization; Shrinkage.
1. Introduction
Malaysia, which encompasses the regions of Sabah, Sarawak, and Peninsular of Malaysia where various of the
largest tropical peatlands in the Ecosphere are founded. It is surmised that Malaysia has about 2.5 million ha of peat soil,
according to Tong et al. [1]. Pursuant to the Wetlands International report [2], the second largest peat soil area in
Malaysia is found in Sabah, at around 4.76 percent, or 116.965 ha. Nonetheless, regular peatland in Sabah is increasing
as opportunities for development are converted into productive use. As reported by the Department of Agriculture
(DOA) Sabah, there is an approximate value of 116,965 ha of peat land in Sabah. These soils are classified under the
'Klias' association under the DOA. Most of the available information is limited but adequate to identify the location and
extent of the remaining peat swamp forests: in Sabah, on the Klias Peninsula and in the Kinabatangan area, there are
two remaining sites [2].
Malaysia's peatlands also include the peat swamp ecosystem, an unsympathetically endangered type of wetland
ecosystem, distinguished by deep peat soil layers and waters that are so acidic that few of the plants and animals found
inside are found in the other tropical forests of Asia, is also present in Malaysia’s peatlands. Generally, peat is classified
* Corresponding author: habibmusa@ums.edu.my

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into two groups, namely amorphous peat and fibrous peat. Amorphous peat is different from fibrous peat in several
respects. Peat with fiber content of less than 20 percent is amorphous peat. Essentially, it contains particles of colloidal
size that are less than 2 microns and are thus absorbed across the particles' surface by the pore water. On the other hand,
fibrous peat is peat soil with fiber content of more than 20 percent. Natural biomass material with loose fiber is part of
peat. This is evident in the case that peat has a huge specific surface area and a high adsorption capacity due to its porous
porosity. As a result, peat offers the advantages of high permeability, hydrophilicity, and reactivity [3]. The peatlands
of Malaysia help our eco-system, including the protection of infrastructure, the modification and reduction of flood risk,
and the supply of fish, timber, and other resources to local communities.
Peat is composed of combinations of materials from fragmented organic materials produced in submerged wetlands.
Relevant topography is derived from chemically altered and fossilized vegetation. Owing to the low shear strength, high
compressibility, and high water content, it is often referred to as difficult soil. Johari et al. pointed out that with a range
of 0.9 to 1.5 in compressibility, high humidity content, which can be up to 1000 percent, high fiber content, and high
organic content, which can be up to more than 75%, which gives a serious problem of settlement [4]. The soil's
permeability and bearing capacity are limited, making it unsuitable for large loads. Excessive settlement will occur in
the soil, and the settlement will last for a long time [5]. Contrastively, the peat is mainly acidic, and the pH value was
always between 4 to 7. Additionally, there are very low pH values that range from 3.0 to 5.5 for West Malaysian peats.
Conjointly, pH values may also be below 3.0 in certain cases, particularly where sulphide materials are discovered inside
the profile.
For this research, the area of study includes the usage of eco-pozzolanic material for stabilizing purposes and is
measured by using the soil shrinkage technique. Pozzolanic materials have been practically used as a substitute for
cement. Chindaprasirt et al. [6] have established that the use of pozzolan would reduce the use of cement, and Kusaimi
et al. [7] exemplified by their study, support the idea that the use of EPP as a cement substitute in the manufacture of
paving blocks can help to lessen the manufacturing industry's reliance on cement. Eco-processed pozzolan (EPP) is
derived from the process of degumming and bleaching crude palm oil waste products from refinery plants and is used
in blended cement processing [8]. The waste product produced from the processing of edible oil is called spent bleaching
earth (SBE). SBE from a refining plant is extensively discarded in Malaysia's landfills, posing a threat to the environment
[9]. EPP is predominantly made up of silica, also known as silicon dioxide (SiO2). The combined value of silica (SiO2),
aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and iron oxide (Fe2O3) was higher than 50 percent, thus it is labelled as Class C pozzolan
according to ASTM C618 standard. By replacing cement with EPP, it is feasible to minimize wastage and produce cost-
effective concrete. Based on the laboratory tests carried out, it is evident that with less than 30 percent of EPP
replacement, it showed that it had improved performance characteristics compared to foamed concrete control [10].
Even though EPP material has rarely been used, most implementations have been successful and have proven to be an
inexpensive alternative to conventional methods of ground improvement in terms of material being used. It has been
used in many types of soil enhancement, the elimination of pollutants, dewatering, and for stabilization. There are
various previous studies using this technique for the strengthening of soft soils. The efficacy of EPP has been exemplified
in a recent study by Suhaimi & Mohamad [11], which verified that peat soil combined with EPP and cement as a binder
will remarkably improve settling demeanor, resulting in minimal settling over time. In support to Suhaimi & Mohamad
[11], Kho [12] study has shown that with the help of several superplasticizers, the insertion of recycled pozzolan, Eco
Process Pozzolan (EPP), as a partial cement replacement in concrete has been demonstrated to be practical and effective,
producing high consistency and strength outcomes.
Soil stabilization is one of the most vital elements to consider while building on soft soil. It is widely accepted that
the earth stability can influence the structure stability above it, and there are numerous types of soil to deal with
conditional on the area its position, its climate and various other aspects. Andrejko et al. [13] identifies that when peat
is subjected to even a small load, it experiences volatility and long-term consolidation settlements. One of the most
prevalent methods of soil stabilization is by using admixture. There are diversity of admixtures available. Chemical
admixtures ordinarily supplicate the treatment of soil with a chemical substance of some kind, resulting in a chemical
reaction if applied on the soil. The chemical reaction either modifies or reinforces the physical and engineering
characteristic of a soil, for instance, increase soil strength and stability. The soil mixing method is one of the most
common soil stabilization methods in today’s world. It is a procedure typically used to reduce ground permeability and
regulate the flow of ground water, likewise to reinforce and stiffen the soil [14]. By way of illustration, Shah et al. [15]
has conducted a study on characterization and impact of peat fires on stabilization of tropical lowland peats had halted
that the most crucial geotechnical features of peat that govern the stabilization process are natural water content,
humification grade, ash content and pH value.
The focus of this study for peat stabilization was to enhance the strength of peat and its compressibility. Henceforth,
this is the first study which focus on stabilization of peat soil that uses eco-processed pozzolan as the main material.
Recent study reported by Kusaimi et al. [7] also indicates that replacement of cement by EPP with the right percentages
will enhance the compressive strength up to 32.4 MPa and lower water absorption of 4.78%. The changes in soil volume
are usually concurrent with shrinkage or swelling. In consonant with Oleszczuk et al. [16], natural compression causes
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volume changes in peat, and volume change was proportional to the total volume of moisture lost in soil. When air
reaches the soil, residual shrinkage appears to alter the volume in a much smaller way than usual shrinkage. Knowing
how much soil shrinks brings myriad of benefits. One significant benefit is that this predictability removes the element
of wonder of the performance of the ground system. However, in Sabah there are limited data available on this matter
and this is one of the major highlights that can be taken as an advantage of providing this study.
The methodical purposes of this research are to gain an understanding of peat soil behavior under particular
conditions, to investigate the stabilization treatment effects of EPP on peat soil, and to generate the correlation between
EPP to the linear shrinkage effects of peat. Aforementioned, the shrinkage or swelling of soil caused a change in volume.
As a result, when assessing water storage changes, water obtained or lost due to peat volume changes must be thought
about. Peat had a high soil moisture content, but when dried, it lost the moisture, and oxidation of peat causes permanent
changes to the material. Peat is also unable to rehydrate to its original state as stated by Kazemian et al. [17]. Fibrous
peat has a higher shrinkage potential than other types of peat, allowing it to shrink by up to 50% after air drying [18].
Thereupon, that dried peat can only re-absorb 33 percent to 55 percent of water, it will not swell when re-saturated [19].
Plant structure shrinks more across fiber widths than length, and plant fibers are naturally horizontally oriented in situ,
causing shrinkage in vertical and horizontal directions to differ [20]. As thin-walled tissues shrink and the cellular
structure collapses, peat's water holding capacity and particle porosity decrease [21].
The amount of shrinkage was found to be allied to different physical properties of peat. The structural water loss
phase and shrinkage water loss phase were listed as two phases that occurred during the drying process. There is no
shrinkage during the structural water loss process, but there is a linear relationship between water and volume loss during
the shrinkage water loss phase. According to Oleszczuk et al. [16], the load applied has a significant impact on the
relationship between shrinkage geometry factor and moisture ratio. In contrast to unloaded soil conditions, the results
indicate higher values of subsidence and lower values of crack length. The reversible and irreversible shrinkage
coefficient values were determined using the "saran resin" process. Hamamoto et al. [22], Mohamad and Zainorabidin
[23], and Wu et al. [24] investigates a breakthrough in peat shrinkage that is linked to peat soil heat transport under
varying saturation conditions and the impact of volume shrinkage on peat soil thermal properties. Bin Zainorabidin et
al. [25] used the bar linear shrinkage approach to examine soil volume shifts and shrinkage at four dimensional stages.
The linear shrinkage values for peat soil in Malaysia are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Shrinkage rate of peat soil in Malaysia
Location Shrinkage (%)

Rengit, Johor 35.24
Matang, Sarawak 5.35
Parit Nipah, Johor 34.77
Pontian, Johor 33.09
2. Material and Testing Program

The aspiration of this study is to evaluate the linear shrinkage behavior of EPP-stabilized peat soil by examining the
physical properties of peat soil, being pH value and moisture content of peat soil, image analysis and chemical analysis
seized by FESEM test. All the experiments have been performed at Geotechnics’ laboratory, Universiti Malaysia Sabah.
This academic research was conducted with a view for refining the design methodology and typically emphasizing
parameters. This test was carried out in accordance with British Standards. The disturbed sample used in this analysis
to prepare the tests carried out in the Geotechnics Laboratory, including the moisture content, and pH value of soil
sample. For shrinkage test of peat soil, BS 1377-2, tests 6.3 and 6.4 (BSI 1990) are referred. All the samples were
obtained at a depth of 0.5 m from the topsoil level.
The aim of the laboratory test to be carried out on a peat soil sample is by using EPP on peat soil to inspect the
strengthening and stiffening effects of stabilization treatment, to evaluate the index properties of Klias, Beaufort peat
soil and EPP, and to develop the reciprocity between EPP and Peat soil shrinkage effects. The research was performed
on disturbed samples from Klias, Beaufort. After the collection of disturbed samples, as described in the Von Post
classification system, visual observation of the peat soil is carried out.
Index properties tests were done to specify the peat soil moisture content and its pH value. Peat soil is analyzed by
using soil shrinkage method with a concentration of 0%, 20% and 30% of EPP. Likewise, shrinkage testing was carried
out to produce a stronger correlation between peat soil and EPP as stabilizer. The samples are prepared for one shrinkage
observation and were made by following the standard laboratory method (Bar Linear Shrinkage). For shrinkage test,
three samples were prepared, the first sample was maintained as 100% of peat soil whereas the second and third samples
were stabilized by mixing 20% and 30% of EPP respectively. Then, the soil sample were mixed with approximately 100
ml of distilled water beneficial to achieve 50% of moisture content. The shrinkage bar was filled with peat sample and
1159
placed in the oven for 24 hours at 105 degrees Celsius to complete the drying process. Scanning electron microscopes
(SEM) was used in this analysis to capture image samples. One of the key reasons of SEM being included in this study
is that this will allow us to visualize the development between the soil and stabilizing material and how it acknowledges
with one another. SEM were done for all of the samples after the shrinkage test.

The drive was to figure out what the index was made of and deem at the shrinkage behavior of peat soils in Beaufort,
Sabah. The KBpt pH value obtained from the test is 3.21, indicating that the sample is acidic. Due to its location and
activities of decomposition matter, this would have influenced the acidic portion of peat soil itself. When compared to
the findings of other researchers, Zainorabidin & Mohamad [26] 4.6 and Shuvaev et al. [27], the pH value of each peat
is 4.6 and 3.6, indicating that it is acidic.
3.1. Index Properties of Klias, Beaufort Peat Soil (KBpt)

The moisture content is one of the most essential parameters in this investigation. The ratio of water weight to soil
solids weight determines naturally occurring moisture content. The ratio was usually expressed as a percentage.
According to Hashim & Islam [28], Sabah has the highest water content in peat, with a water content of about 1000%
percent. Physically, it can be seen in the position of the peat soil itself in the peat swamp region, as well as rivers running
through the peat valley to the mainstream of the swamp forest. Referring to the Table 2, the average value of moisture
content was at 580.5% but Zainorabidin & Mohamad [26] observed that moisture content is from 491.16 to 985.3
percent. From this previous result, it indicated that the moisture content for KBpt is agreed it is between the ranges.
Zainorabidin & Mohamad [26] found that differences in moisture content existed and were influenced by a variety of
factors, including variations in groundwater level at the location and undrained forest conditions.
These differences in results are attributable to climate change because of changes in temperature, precipitation, and
rainfall impacting soil saturation intensity, where the water table forms in a roughly horizontal plane and may rise to a
level larger or less than the actual water table [29]. Furthermore, particle size has an impact on moisture content. In
comparison to the bigger particle size, the smaller particle size has more void, which indicates that more water may be
maintained and held.
Table 2. The index properties of Klias, Beaufort, Sabah peat soil
Description Rate
Moisture content, % 0.003
pH of peat 3.1
Peat physical colour Dark brown
Degree of humification H5
3.2. Linear Shrinkage

In this research we are using the mix design in Table 3 with different concentration of EPP for each sample. The
shrinkage result from bar linear shrinkage method for the original sample and stabilized sample are as shown in Table
3. It shows the results for the linear shrinkage of peat soil for different percentage of mixtures. For the original soil
sample with 0% EPP, the shrinkage value is at the highest as it is in its natural condition without any stabilize material.
The second and the third sample with 20% and 30% EPP respectively content shows a gradual decrease for the linear
shrinkage. The maximum shrinkage value for original sample is more than 4%. With the combination of the EPP, the
percentage of shrinkage tends to decrease as for the 30% of EPP, the shrinkage reduces to 1.43%. By referring to Figure
1 we can say that by increasing the concentration of EPP the shrinkage of peat soil can be reduced as the R value of the
graph is equal to 1 indicating an acceptable and a high accuracy result. The decrease of shrinkage may be caused by the
high content of silicon dioxide (SiO2) as mentioned [8]. This is because silicon dioxide provides water repellence thus
lowers the absorption of water and stabilizes the peat soil. According to a previous researcher’s study in Table 1,
Sarawak's peat has 5.35 percent, according to Huat et al. [30]. Adding to that, Kolay et al. [31] measured a 35.24 percent
for Rengit, Johor.
Table 3. Linear shrinkage of Klias, Beaufort, Sabah peat soil
Specimen Design Rate (%)

Peat soil Sample 1 4.29
Peat mixed with EPP 20% Sample 2 2.14
Peat mixed with EPP 30% Sample 3 1.43
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Whereas Mohidin et al. [32] found that the linear shrinkage was at 34.77 and 33.09 for Parit Nipah and Pontian,
Johor respectively. Because the recorded value in this study falls within previously published range for Peat soil in
Borneo locations, it is deemed acceptable. Figure 3a shows the shrinkage measurement for untreated peat soil and
without EPP. The shrinkage of peat soil observed represented the reduction in void ratio with decrease in water content
of peat soil. It shows large differences between treated peat soils with EPP as shown in Figure 3b. The crack tension
pattern in specimen treated with EPP has less shrink and void opening. As can be seen in Figure 4a, the SEM image
shows darker area for high intensity of pores in peat soil. Uniquely, Figure 4b and Figure 4c shows the treated peat
mixed with EPP. Identically, a process called crystallization of mineral in peat soil occurred in stabilized peat with EPP.
EPP as a filler, reduced the void in peat and blended well with peat soil.
4.5
4
Linear Shrinkage (%)
3.5
3
y = 0.72x2 - 4.31x + 7.88
R² = 1
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 20 30
Concentration of EPP (%)
Figure 1. Linear shrinkage improvement with EPP
100%
90%
80%
70%
Mixes proportion, %
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Peat Soil EPP
Figure 2. Mixed proportion of peat soil and EPP
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(a) Peat soil (b) Peat soil mixed with EPP

Figure 3. Linear shrinkage measurement for peat soil and mixed with EPP
3.3. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Analysis

Scanning electron microscopes (SEM) is a general purpose ultra-high-resolution FE-SEM that was used in this
analysis to capture image samples based on the special GEMINI technology. In combination with analytical capabilities
and excellent imaging properties, SEM field emissions make it ideal for a wide range of applications. The identification
of materials based on their diffraction pattern is one of the most common applications of SEM analysis. SEM provides
information on how the actual structure differs from the ideal one due to internal tensions and flaws, in addition to phase
identification.
(a) Peat soil (b) Peat soil mixed with 20% of EPP
(c) Peat soil mixed with 30% of EPP

Figure 4. SEM images for stabilized peat soil with EPP
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In this study, we used a mixed design with varied EPP concentrations for each sample, with 100 percent peat, 20%
EPP, and 30% EPP concentrations. The SEM analysis results for the original sample and stabilized sample are depicted
in the figures below. Micrographs taken using a scanning electron microscope at 28kV. Figure 4 indicates that a soil
containing 100 percent peat has a considerable amount of void. This is due to the natural condition of peat soil having a
high organic content. Figures 4b and 4c, on the other hand, demonstrate a large reduction in void. The decrease in voids
was caused by the presence of EPP in the soil mixture. We can deduce that the presence of EPP, with its lower particle
size, has filled the previously existent void, hence assisting in the stabilization of the peat soil.
Figure 5. XRD patterns peat soil
Figure 6. XRD patterns stabilized peat soil with EPP
3.4. Material Crystallization

Shrinkage is represented as reduction in void ratio with decrease in water content of peat soil specimens. The
crystallization process occurred between peat soil and EPP seen clearly that contributed to the reduction of shrinkage
and tension crack in peat soil. This phenomenon inspected by using X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) by extracting the
elements that developed from the mixing of both materials and presented in Figures 5 and 6. The XRD patterns of peat
soil alone and stabilized peat soil with EPP described with the parent elements.
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In particular, parent material of peat soil alone consists of quartz, syn, cis and platinum (III). The main components
of peat binded by 4-Methoxybenzoyl as the synthesis of the organic elements with dimethyl elements as shown in Figure
4. This parent elements slightly seen as main contributor to the crystallization process that developed new elements
when mixed with EPP. Under those circumstances, an element was developed from the crystallization process between
peat and EPP where Muscovite appeared in the formulation. Muscovite is a hydrated phyllosilicate mineral of aluminium
and potassium with formula KAl₂(F, OH)₂ and identified as mineral of the mica family. It is an important rock-forming
mineral which is appeared less resistant to micro-organism weathering than biotite and the latter less than orthoclase
[33-35]. This finding clearly shows that the crystallization process between peat and EPP contributes to the development
of compact structure and filled micro spaces or void in peat soil. This phenomenon helps to reduce the shrinkage by
almost 66.66%. In essence, this development seen as the present of silicon dioxide content that recognized in the form
of quartz provides a water mitigate reaction that lowers water absorption and stabilizes peat soils.
4. Conclusions
The linear shrinkage of peat soil and its reaction to a concentration of 20% and 30% EPP as a soil stabilizing material
are investigated in this study using a linear shrinkage test. Based on the research, the following conclusions have been
drawn: Moisture content and pH were included in the soil index parameters, and both were found to be appropriate. The
average moisture content of the soil sample was 580.5 percent, with pH values of 3.1, 13.02, and 9.00, respectively, for
peat soil, eco processed pozzolan, and peat soil with 20% EPP. In terms of KBpt shrinkage and behavior in response to
EPP, the results of the tests reveal that applying EPP substantially reduces soil shrinkage, as previously stated. According
to the author's observations, EPP was able to reduce soil shrinkage by filling the air void in the soil sample.
After the investigation had been finished, certain improvements were revealed. To improve our understanding of
soil behavior and provide a more refined research outcome, recommendations are required. Additional tests, such as
fiber content and organic content, are recommended to develop a better correlation between the peat soil index and its
responsiveness to EPP. This aids in determining the percentage of organic matter present in peat by mass, as well as
classifying the type of peat utilized and determining the proportion of fibers in a peat sample. Another enhancement that
can be made is to include more soil samples with EPP concentrations of 50 and 70 percent. This will help researchers
better understand the soil sample and EPP's behavior on peat soil. Additional testing, such as soil resistivity on peat soil
and EPP, is also advised because it will aid in the understanding of the EPP's role in stabilizing acidic peat. In peat soils,
tertiary compression occurs, hence increasing the test period will aid in achieving better tertiary compression.
 Based on the tests that have been done, it shows that by adding EPP as filler material to the peat soil, shrinkage
behavior decreases significantly.
 Based on the observation, it was shown that EPP managed to decrease the soil shrinkage as a result that EPP has
filled the air void of the soil sample.
 Peat positively reacts to the EPP treatment. In the final analysis, the microstructure of peat reorganized where EPP
filled the void spaces in peat EPP. These reactions are believed to reduce the shrinkage behavior of peat soil.
 Muscovite appeared and was identified as a mineral that is important in rock-forming minerals. This development
is a new element in peat stabilized with EPP. This mineral is produced from the crystallization process during the
peat soil treatment process with EPP. This is a significant finding in this study.
5. Declarations
Conceptualization, M.S.S. and H.M.M.; methodology, M.S.S. and H.M.M.; software, M.S.S. and H.M.M.;
validation, M.S.S. and H.M.M.; formal analysis, M.S.S. and H.M.M.; resources, M.S.S. and H.M.M.; data curation,
M.S.S. and H.M.M.; writing—original draft preparation, M.S.S. and H.M.M.; writing—review and editing, A.A.S.;
visualization, M.S.S. and H.M.M.; supervision, H.M.M.; project administration, M.S.S. and H.M.M.; funding
acquisition, M.S.S. and H.M.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

5.3. Funding and Acknowledgements

The Authors wish to express their special gratitude to Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS) for the financial support
under grant GUG0535-2/2020. Geotechnical Characteristic and Consolidation Behaviour of Peat Soil.
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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
Land Procurement for Public Interest Against Destroyed Land:

Natural Events and Legal Certainty
Embun Sari 1* , Muhammad Yamin 1, Hasim Purba 1, Rosnidar Sembiring 1

1
Faculty of Law, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Jalan Universitas No.19, Medan City, North Sumatera 20155, Indonesia.
Abstract
Based on a case study on the construction of the Semarang-Demak Toll Road, this study aims to investigate and investigate
land acquisition for the public interest for land that has been destroyed as a result of natural events and its legal certainty.
The research method used is socio-legal with primary data in identification, field measurements, and other supporting data.
Semarang-Demak Toll Road property acquisition demonstrated tidal inundation on the north shore. Subsidence exacerbates
Semarang's flooding. On flooded land, sea dikes and retention ponds prevent tidal floods. If just for transportation, the
Semarang-Demak Toll Road can be built in flood-free areas or over the sea, like Bali's Mandra Toll Road. Land acquisition
concerns delayed the Semarang-Demak Toll Road. Lack of land limitations has delayed land purchases. In the Semarang-
Demak Toll Road land acquisition, destroyed land is not a problem under Indonesian law. 2021's Regulation 18 defines
destroyed land. Destroyed land will drive people to take better care of their land and be more concerned about global
warming or land subsidence. The state honors the landowner's emotional connection by paying for spiritual care.
Keywords: Land Destroyed; Natural Events; Land Acquisition Law; Toll Road; Agrarian Law; Legal Certainty.
1. Introduction
The construction of the Semarang–Demak Toll Road to improve traffic connectivity for goods and services in the
City of Semarang and its surroundings did not go according to plan due to land acquisition constraints. The main obstacle
is the existence of parcels of land affected by tidal or tidal flooding that is inundated throughout the year at the land
acquisition site for the Semarang–Demak Toll Road. The issue of the plot of land that was inundated by the tidal flood
caused debate and the urgency of further regulation of the destroyed land [1]. Among these debates are related to
compensation or how the rights of former landowners are declared to be destroyed. Law Number 12 of 2012 concerning
land acquisition for development for the public interest does not regulate compensation for land indicated as destroyed
land due to tidal flooding.
Meanwhile, land acquisition or acquisition for the public interest carried out by the government must compensate
for losses to provide a better level of survival than the level of socio-economic life before being affected by the land
acquisition project [2]. This is in line with Government Regulation No. 19 of 2021 concerning the Implementation of
Land Procurement for Development in the Public Interest, where compensation is given based on the estimated value of
compensation for land acquisition objects, including land, above ground and basement rooms, buildings, plants, objects
related to land, and other losses, which can be assessed [3].
Law Number 5 of 1960 concerning Basic Regulations on Agrarian Principles as one of the causes of the abolition of
a Land Right to the destroyed land [4]. The absence of further regulation regarding the Land of Destruction previously
* Corresponding author: embunsari25@yahoo.com

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did not raise any significant problems in land administration. In line with the spirit of Law Number 11 of 2020
concerning job creation, the government issued Government Regulation Number 18 of 2021, which among other things,
regulates the determination and granting of money for the destruction of the land. This regulation will be applied for the
first time to designate land covered by tidal flooding at land acquisition for the Semarang–Demak Toll Road as Land of
Destruction.
In the theory of land ownership, the property holder is entitled to enjoy several benefits over his land rights. First,
property holders have the freedom to enjoy their possessions without interference from others [5]. Second, the property
owner can prevent or eliminate the interference of others to his property. Third, the property owner can transfer the
object of his ownership to someone else if he so wishes [6]. A holder of ownership of an object in principle enjoys the
following benefits [7]:
 Use right: The right to enjoy the benefits of the object that is the object of ownership.
 Management right: The right to decide who will be allowed to use the object that becomes ownership under certain
conditions.
 Income right: The right to get income (income) from the object that is the object of ownership.
 Capital right: The right to enjoy (to consume), destroy, and change objects that become the object of ownership.
 Transfer right: The right to sell, surrender or bequeath the property that becomes ownership.
In line with the theory of land ownership above, the Indonesian Constitution Article 33, paragraph 3 of the
Constitution has set limits on the state's right to control the land sector [8]. Therefore, the state, which was originally
the owner of the land, has all the authority to take ownership actions (Eigensdaad). However, this state control is limited
by the existence of individual land rights. The state's power over land that a person with certain rights already owns is
limited by the content of that right, meaning to what extent the state gives power to a person who owns it to exercise
his/her rights. Meanwhile, the state's power over land not owned with any rights by someone or another party is vast
and complete [9].
In addition to causing legal debates about the destroyed land to be built on the Semarang-Demak Toll Road, there
are also natural events that have implications for the need for legal certainty over the destroyed land. In addition to legal
issues that arise, there are also natural problems in the form of tidal flooding. Sea level rise and land subsidence are
often cited as the two leading causes of tidal flooding [10–14]. First, there are places with non-uniform topography and
saturated soil in coastal areas with relatively flat slopes. The non-uniform topography in question is the presence of
places with a lower height than the highest tide, where the boundary between that place and the sea allows seawater
intrusion. Second, soil subsidence, at least two theories support this, namely groundwater pumping theory and soil load.
Groundwater pumping is related to insufficient clean water services and the abundance of freshwater deposits in
geological faults in the earth's crust. At the same time, the load on the land surface due to urban development and toll
road construction areas having a relatively flat topography continue to proliferate along with urban development; this
theoretically resulted in land subsidence [15].
In the Semarang-Demak area, which experienced natural events in the form of tidal waves, land acquisition has been
carried out to construct toll roads. The Semarang-Demak Toll Road construction is designed for transportation facilities
and to control tidal flooding through integration with sea embankments equipped with retention ponds. The retention
pond is expected to accommodate flooding from higher areas and provide water for industry, indirectly reducing
groundwater use and stopping land subsidence [16, 17].
As the land was destroyed in the land acquisition of the Semarang-Demak Toll Road, this development is hampered.
Some of the lands that will be acquired are constrained because the land rights owned have been flooded due to the tidal
wave, so the government has difficulty providing compensation for the public interest because the land is considered to
have been abolished based on the existing land law. This creates a dilemma in legal certainty where the community has
the right to land but is inundated while the existing legal rules do not facilitate this, so it is difficult to provide
compensation for the construction of the Semarang-Demak Toll Road. The search for various studies has been carried
out; however, the research linking these natural events with the concept of destroyed land in land law, especially in the
case of land acquisition, is still minimal, so a more comprehensive study is needed to see natural and legal events as an
inseparable unit.
Previous studies, such as Wiryani & Najih (2018) [18], investigated whether or not the loss of land can be considered
a natural occurrence and whether or not it has any bearing on the law. This study aims to conduct a legal analysis of the
implications of Law No. 2 of 2012 concerning Land Procurement for Development in the Public Interest to improve the
welfare of landowners after the relinquishment of land rights. This study will be conducted to improve the welfare of
landowners. This research discusses compensation arrangements, specifically concerning compensation assessors,
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compensation assessments, and the deliberation process to determine compensation. As a result of the findings of this
study, recommendations regarding compensation arrangements for the Law on Land Acquisition for Development in
the Public Interest have been made. This arrangement, which includes the determination of the appraiser material, the
value of compensation, deliberation to determine compensation, and the deposit of compensation in the Law on Land
Procurement, is not by the principles and principles of land acquisition, which should be the basis and guidelines for the
formulation of norms. Furthermore, this arrangement also includes the deposit of compensation in the Law on Land
Procurement.
According to Sari et al. (2021) [19], the Acts of Indonesia and Malaysia both contain provisions that control
compensation arrangements. Even though Indonesia is governed by the civil law system and Malaysia is governed by
the common law system, the two countries share a few similarities in the legal frameworks that govern their respective
legal systems. In Indonesia, the reassessment process is not explicitly regulated in the law; therefore, in the future, it
will be necessary to pay attention to the pattern of reassessment carried out in Malaysia. According to the author of this
pattern, in light of the current lack of a legal framework, it will be necessary to have a fast-track process to ensure justice
and legal certainty.
Sari et al. (2022) [20] investigated the legal politics of development in the public interest of abraded land after the
presence of legislation containing regulations on the Job Creation Act. The conclusions from the study results show that
public interests have been added as mentioned in the article that regulates land acquisition as many as six activities,
including industrial regions, special economics, tourism, food security, gas industry, oil industry, and technological
development. The abolition of land rights because the land is destroyed simultaneously with the opportunity for the
holder of the power over the land to need to rebuild and revitalize the utilization of the land, and it is regulated in it by
other parties who can carry out reconstruction and revitalization based on the provision of spiritual funds to the power
over land or the power of utilization. The adjustments listed above will be a step closer to accomplishing justice, welfare,
and prosperity in providing compensation for the destroyed land.
Based on previous research, although both research on land acquisition, this research focuses more on land
acquisition in the public interest for land destroyed due to natural phenomena and how legal certainty is with the socio-
legal method. Thus, this study aims to identify and analyze land acquisition for the public interest for land destroyed
due to natural phenomena and its legal certainty based on a case study of the construction of the Semarang-Demak Toll
Road. This research is very useful to provide knowledge and understanding to the government and the community about
how the legal construction of land acquisition is for the public interest on destroyed land; this is to realize legal certainty.
2. Research Methodology
This research method uses the research approach used in this study is the socio-legal approach. "Socio" in socio-
legal studies represents the interrelationships between the contexts in which the law exists (an interface with a context
within which law exists) so that this gives enough emphasis that Socio-legal research that uses social theory for analytical
purposes is not intended to give more attention to sociological studies and other social sciences, but to law and legal
studies themselves [21, 22].
Wheeler and Thomas, socio-legal studies are an alternative approach to testing the law [23, 24]. Socio-legal itself
has a close relationship with other social sciences in terms of the methodology used, wherewith this similar method and
approach, a basic understanding of the legal substance can be obtained [25, 26]. Primary data on land plots indicated
destroyed land due to field identification and measurements. Secondary data was obtained from the Land Office of
Semarang City and Demak Regency as the executor of land acquisition for the Semarang-Demak Toll Road. They
supported data in photo maps, satellite images, land and building tax maps, drone videos, and other data supporting the
analysis. The overlay method is used to analyze these spatial data.

3.1. Structure Existing Condition of Semarang-Demak Toll Road Land Procurement Location
Global Positioning System (GPS) technology is used in the measurement and mapping process [27–29].
Measurements to obtain land parcels affected by land acquisition are carried out by Task Force A of the land acquisition
committee as referred to in Article 60 Paragraph (1) of Government Regulation 19 of 2021 concerning Implementation
of Land Procurement for Development in the Public Interest. By the provisions of laws and regulations, the boundary
measurement of the plot is carried out by the designation of the boundary by the landowner with the approval of the
owner of the adjacent land parcel [30]. The existence of areas submerged by tidal flooding at the land acquisition site
was first noticed by Task Force A during the measurement process.
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The boundaries of land parcels that have been inundated by tidal water cannot be identified directly in the field
because the physical field is already in the form of seawater with different depth variations [31–33]. To assist in
identifying land parcels, Task Force A uses work maps in the form of photo maps, satellite images, and maps of Land
and Building Taxes [34–36]. The land acquisition committee identified the land parcels already in seawater as land
indicated to be destroyed, as in Article 27, Article 34, and Article 40 of Law Number 5 of 1960 concerning Agrarian
Principles. The absence of further regulations regarding destroyed land made land acquisition for areas inundated by
tidal floods halted the measurement and mapping process.
Figure 1. Field Measurements Made Above the Field Boundary Created by the Land Owner
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) or drone technology has been widely used to monitor various natural events in
coastal areas such as flooding and erosion in Ghana [37], shoreline changes in the Canadian Arctic [38], in Italy [39]
and, the productivity of salt marsh vegetation in California USA [40], changes in coastal topography due to storms on
the northern coasts of Germany [41] and Italy [42], and morphological changes due to the earthquake and tsunami in
Japan [43]. UAV is different from satellite imagery or aerial photography methods, which are more expensive and cannot
be used. Drone technology is cheaper, easier to operate, and more flexible whenever you need field data.
In order to identify plots of land that are inundated by tidal water at the location of land acquisition for the Semarang-
Demak Toll Road, the land acquisition committee and the Ministry of Public Works and Public Housing conducted a
mapping using a UAV. The results of the UAV through drones show that the land acquisition locations for which the
toll road will be built have all been affected by tidal or tidal flooding on the north coast of Semarang and Demak. In
addition, it also clearly shows the almost evenly distributed puddle of water in the planned location of the Semarang-
Demak Toll Road. The location where the sea wall and retention pond will be built is already filled with tidal water [44].
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Figure 2. Video of UAV Land Procurement Location for Semarang–Demak Toll Road
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3.2. The Emergence of Destroyed Land Due to Natural Event

The tidal or tidal flood disaster on the coast of Semarang City and its surroundings has long been a concern [45].
Tidal flooding caused by sea-level rise is a global event [46]. Land affected by tidal flooding due to sea-level rise due
to global warming is not expected to return to land [47]. Land that has been covered by seawater without any effort or
adaptation to cope with sea-level rise and land subsidence will forever be an ocean [48]. Handling sea level rise and land
subsidence in Semarang and its surroundings can be learned from the experiences of other countries [49]. Japan managed
to stop land subsidence and prevent the coast of Tokyo City from sinking by carrying out harsh measures such as building
concrete embankments, sea walls, floodgates, reclamation, and elevation combined with soft measures such as
evacuation and early warning systems [48]. The construction of the Semarang-Demak Toll Road integrated with the sea
wall is the government's effort to deal with tidal flooding (harsh measures) as in Japan and Jakarta.
The Semarang-Demak Toll Road map with a photo map of 2004 shows that most toll roads are located on agricultural
land in Sriwulan, Bedono, and Purwosari Villages, Sayung District, Demak Regency (Figure 3). Information from the
three village heads, supported by land and building tax data, confirms that the area was primarily agricultural land.
According to the Ministry of Public Works and Public Housing, there are approximately 273 plots of 91.8 ha in the three
villages, which are the locations for the planned construction of the Semarang-Demak Toll Road integrated with the sea
embankment indicated as destroyed land. Bedono and Sriwulan villages are the areas in Demak Regency that are worst
hit by tidal flooding, and most of their agricultural land is permanently inundated by tidal or tidal flooding, with an area
of 400 ha. Not all land affected by permanent rob in the three villages was affected by land acquisition (Figure 4).
Figure 3. Locations of Sea Walls and Sea Wall Retention Ponds in Demak Regency Photo Map of 2004
a c
b d
Figure 4. Semarang–Demak Toll Plan overlay with High-Resolution Satellite Imagery of Geospatial Information Agency 2018
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The results of the toll road plan map overlay, the results of the Semarang City Task Force A measurement on the
latest satellite image show that the sea wall and retention pond development plans are almost entirely located on parcels
of land that are already in the form of seawater (Figure 4). The sea dikes and retention ponds in the Semarang City area
will pass through three sub-districts, namely Terboyo Kulon, Terboyo Wetan, and Trimulyo in Genuk District (Figure
4.b). A total of 115 plots of land with approximately 283 Ha needed to construct toll roads in the three urban villages
are indicated as destroyed land because tidal waves inundate the physical field throughout the year. This is in line with
the projection that permanent tidal flooding will affect most of the three sub-districts in 2031.
The plots of land indicated to have been destroyed at the land acquisition site have long been recognized by
academics and the public as areas affected by tidal flooding or permanent tidal flooding. The government needs to
anticipate the impact of stipulating that part of the submerged land at the land acquisition site as land is destroyed.
Different treatments for land affected by the tidal flood that belongs to the community can cause social jealousy. This
includes the fact that the construction of the sea wall is only partially inundated by tidal flooding and does not cover
other areas in Demak.
The intense emotional bond between the community and the environment where they live must be a severe concern
in handling tidal floods, including land acquisition for the construction of sea walls. The strong bond can be seen in the
majority of the community (81%) preferring to stay even though there is a tidal flood rather than having to move. The
community's emotional bond with the land that has been destroyed by tidal flooding must still be a concern that cannot
be ruled out in the land acquisition process.
3.3. Legal Certainty on Land Destroyed Due to Natural Events

In Indonesia, legal protection against the impact of sea-level rise and land subsidence that causes tidal flooding has
not been expressly regulated. Law Number 24 of 2007 concerning Disaster Management and Government Regulation
Number 64 of 2010 concerning Disaster Mitigation in Coastal Areas and Small Islands does not mention disasters caused
by climate change that occurs slowly, including tidal floods and floods categorized as disasters flood due to heavy rain
and occurs suddenly [50]. The limited coverage of flood disasters in the disaster law makes tidal flooding due to rising
sea levels or land subsidence impossible. Suppose the tidal flood can be categorized as a disaster. In that case, the
government can determine disaster-prone areas and prohibit or free land controlled by the community through
compensation as stipulated in Article 32 of Law Number 24 of 2007 concerning Disaster Management. The unclear
regulation of tidal flooding as a disaster causes the handling of tidal floods to be not optimal, and there is no legal
certainty regarding plots of land that are indicated to be destroyed by the community.
Semarang-Demak integrated sea wall. The construction of a sea wall as a solution to tidal flooding requires that it is
built on plots of land submerged by tidal flooding. However, the legal status of the parcels of land permanently
submerged by tidal flooding is not yet clear. If it is investigated regarding destroyed land, it can be found in the
fundamental agrarian law as one of the causes of the abolition of land rights as referred to in Article 27, Article 34, and
Article 40 of Law Number 5 of 1960. The absence of further regulation regarding destroyed land is an obstacle to
constructing the toll road. In line with Law Number 11 of 2021 concerning Job Creation, the government is trying to
resolve various problems faced by the National Strategic Program, one of which is the Semarang-Demak Toll Road.
Destroyed land is one of the strategic issues answered by Law Number 11 of 2021 concerning Job Creation through the
issuance of Government Regulation 18 of 2021, which regulates the definition, procedures for determining, and rights
and obligations of the owner of the destroyed land.
By “Article 1 Paragraph (12)” of Government Regulation 18 of 2021, destroyed land has changed from its original
form due to natural events and cannot be identified anymore so that it cannot be functioned, used, and utilized correctly.
The use of the phrase "Natural Event" in Article 1 Paragraph (12) and Article 66 Paragraph (1) makes the scope of
regulation of destroyed land more inclusive and not limited to the concept of disasters that occur in a short time as
defined in the legislation on the disaster. The concept of destroyed land can be applied to tidal flooding, a chronic
phenomenon that tends to last a long time with slow escalation and predictable severity [51].
The spirit of regulating the destroyed land is to provide certainty of land rights that have changed shape and function,
such as land affected by tidal flooding. By the Regulation of the Minister of Agrarian Affairs and Spatial
Planning/National Land Agency, Number 17 of 2021 concerning Procedures for Determination of Destroyed Land, the
provision of spiritual funds for destroyed land is only given to the owner of destroyed land which the government or
other parties took over for the development of the public interest. Ideally, spiritual funds are provided to all victims of
the destroyed land.
This shows the limitation of destroyed land, which only covers the issue of land rights status and has not touched on
efforts to overcome the impact of tidal flooding directly. Prior to determining the destroyed land, the landowner is given
priority to carry out reconstruction or reclamation within 1 (one) year. If the owner does not undertake any reconstruction
or reclamation within 1 (one) year, the plot of land is designated as destroyed land. If the plot of land is designated as
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destroyed land, the Management Rights or Land Rights will be null, and the evidence of ownership held by the
community will be withdrawn. It is hoped that the regulation of destroyed land will encourage the community to be
more active in maintaining or restoring the function of the land.
This will indirectly encourage people to be more concerned about the potential danger of tidal flooding. Public
awareness of potential hydro-meteorological hazards that threaten the environment is something that the government
needs to encourage to handle tidal flooding. With the provision that land is destroyed, the implementation of
development for the public interest will not be hampered by land indications that are destroyed due to tidal flooding or
tidal flooding. The provision of spiritual funds for destroyed land affected by land acquisition for the public interest
shows a concern for the community's emotional bond with the land lost due to tidal flooding.
4. Conclusion
The boundaries of land parcels that have been inundated by tidal water cannot be identified directly in the field
because the physical field is already in the form of seawater with different depth variations. The results of the UAV via
drones show that the land acquisition locations for which the toll road will be built have all been affected by tidal or
tidal flooding and water puddles that are almost evenly distributed at the location of the planned construction of the
Semarang-Demak Toll Road. This indicates that the land has been destroyed. Government efforts are needed to
anticipate the impact of stipulating part of the submerged land at the land acquisition site as destroyed land. The
government must give the same treatment to people whose land is affected by the tidal flood, which will be used to
construct the Semarang-Demak Toll Road.
Legal certainty over the destroyed land, which is the location for the land acquisition of the Semarang-Demak Toll
Road, needs to be held immediately. Therefore, the government presents Government Regulation 18 of 2021, which,
among other things, regulates the definition, and procedure for determining, as well as the rights and obligations of the
owner of the destroyed land. This was born to provide clarity about the existence of the destroyed land. In addition, the
Minister of Agrarian Affairs and Spatial Planning/National Land Agency Regulation Number 17 of 2021 concerning
Procedures for Determination of Destroyed Land is as follows: the provision of spiritual funds for destroyed land is only
given to the owner of destroyed land, which the government or other parties took over for the development of public
interests. These government actions are carried out to accelerate development for the public interest in the future and
encourage people to take better care of their land and be more concerned about the potential for tidal flooding due to
global warming or land subsidence.
5. Declarations
Conceptualization, E.S. and R.S.; methodology, E.S.; software, H.P.; validation, M.Y.; formal analysis, H.P.;
investigation, R.S.; resources, M.Y.; data curation, E.S.; writing—original draft preparation, E.S.; writing—review and
editing, E.S.; visualization, H.P.; supervision, M.Y.; project administration, E.S.; funding acquisition, R.S. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

5.3. Funding
We give our gratitude to Universitas Sumatera Utara for supporting this research.

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1177

(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
Predicting the Inelastic Response of Base Isolated Structures

Utilizing Regression Analysis and Artificial Neural Network
Mohammad Al-Rawashdeh 1*, Isam Yousef 2, Mohammad Al-Nawaiseh 3

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Al-Balqa Applied University, Al-Salt, Jordan.
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Munib and Angela Masri Faculty of Engineering, Aqaba University of Technology, Aqaba, Jordan.
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Amman Arab University, Amman, Jordan.
Abstract
Indeed, utilizing a base isolation system in RC structures can remarkably minimize the possibility of failure, particularly
in seismic-prone countries. Despite that, the design of these structures is a long procedure that consists of choosing the
appropriate isolator to optimize the nonlinear behavior of the superstructure. Moreover, the numerical simulations require
huge computational effort when high accuracy is required. In recent decades, scientists and engineers have applied
numerous estimation approaches such as multiple linear regression and artificial neural networks to decrease the required
cost and time for daily design problems. Thus, this study's main objective is to solve the difficulty of rapid response
prediction by using soft-computing techniques. Additionally, it aims to study the capability of multiple linear regression
and artificial neural networks in estimating the seismic performance of base-isolated RC structures under earthquakes. A
nonlinear response history analysis of four different lead rubber-bearing isolated RC structures will be performed in order
to determine the responses of these structures. Subsequently, the prediction models will be developed using the responses
of the structures as inputs for multiple linear regression and artificial neural networks. Lastly, the reliability of both
estimation approaches in terms of the response of base-isolated structures will be investigated by comparing the prediction
models' capability. In general, the results of the study show that artificial neural networks provide considerably better
accuracy in estimating base-isolated structures compared to multiple linear regression, and their performance results in
reliable prediction.
Keywords: Reinforced Concrete; Lead Rubber Bearing Isolator; Pulse-Like and Non-Pulse-Like Earthquakes; Multiple Linear Regression;
Artificial Neural Network.
1. Introduction
The base isolation system has been shown to effectively control and reduce the responses of reinforced concrete
(RC) buildings, particularly under solid shaking intensities, by minimizing inter-story drifts that are generated from the
inelastic deformations of the structures [1, 2]. Accordingly, many studies have been carried out in the past decades to
understand the performance of these systems [3-5]. This process decreases the seismic response of a building by
increasing its natural period, which ultimately results in a significant improvement in structural behavior when subjected
to ground motion [6]. Indeed, performing a nonlinear time history analysis is necessary to have a comprehensive
understanding of the behavior of a base-isolated structure. Besides, optimizing the response of the isolated structures
requires a lengthy procedure of testing different isolator characteristics, which dramatically increases the time and effort
needed to attain the appropriate level of performance. In recent years, regression methods have witnessed widespread
* Corresponding author: dr_alrawashdeh@bau.edu.jo

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application in various applications in civil engineering, including the estimation of the coseismic landslide displacement
[7], seismic behavior of reinforced concrete walls utilizing a performance-based backbone model [8], and developing
the collapse fragility curve of RC bridges [9].
In contrast, artificial neural networks (ANNs) have earned popularity and importance in civil engineering due to
their superior capability to precisely solve complex problems and predict solutions. It may also be employed in self-
diagnosis and reinforcement learning approaches [10]. In addition, artificial intelligence was adopted to predict concrete
compressive strength [11–14] and assess slope stability [15, 16]. Furthermore, it has been applied to the damage
detection of steel portal frames relying on modal vibration parameters [17], prediction of the structural response of two-
story shear structures [18], and estimation of the earthquake magnitude using seismicity indicators [19–21]. The present
techniques of analysis, mainly nonlinear response history, have a few drawbacks, which consist of the limited capacity
of the finite element packages in addressing this sort of assessment, the difficulty of conducting and interpreting the
outcomes of response history analysis, and the time and effort required by this procedure because the analysis goes
through a lengthy trial and error process. Hence, the world's modern tendencies are toward automation and artificial
intelligence, and applying this to seismic evaluation as a future scope is essential.
As a result, this research aims to assess and compare the efficiency of multiple linear regression versus ANN in
predicting the behavior of base-isolated frames subjected to ground motion loads. Accordingly, this study's innovation
suggests a rapid method for response estimation of base-isolated structures and reports the capability of two of the most
commonly used soft-computing models. This information was never discussed, and the performance of the selected
models for such a prediction is a literature gap. In this investigation, a nonlinear response history analysis will be carried
out on several RC buildings to determine the response of irregular models when combined with various lead-rubber
bearing systems. Furthermore, a suite of ground motion records will be used. Following that, the responses of the
buildings to the chosen earthquakes will be utilized as a dataset for generating the estimation models of the two formerly
described approaches. This study will be helpful for researchers in the field of structural engineering to establish more
automated techniques for performance-based design and assessment of base-isolated structures, as well as practicing
engineers who wish to conduct rapid optimization of base-isolated structures or develop numerical analysis software for
designing base-isolated structures.

Estimating a realistic building response in base-isolated structures is essential for safe and reliable design. A proposal
to expedite the process of designing base-isolated structures by adopting soft-computing techniques is discussed within
the scope of this study. It evaluates and highlights the capabilities of two of the most commonly used approaches in this
context. The research methodology of this investigation is indicated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. A framework of the general research methodology
2.1. Finite Element Modeling and Analysis

Previously, several studies were conducted to investigate the performance of regular and irregular base-isolated RC
structures and highlighted the variation between the response of regular and irregular structures. Consequently, four
different base-isolated RC structures (See Figure 2) were utilized with lead rubber bearing to represent regular, extremely
soft, heavy story, and stepped structure models. The ASCE 7-16 [22] defined extreme soft and heavy story cases.
The sixteen chosen structural models were equipped with lead rubber bearing isolators with 15, 20, and 25% effective
damping ratios. The constituent parts of a lead rubber bearing isolator are a lead core, laminated rubber layers,
attachment steel plates, and stiffening steel plates. The vulcanization bonding technique is utilized to construct the thin
stiffening steel plates, and rubber layers are built in a successive pattern. In addition to that, attachment steel plates are
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employed at the top and bottom of the lead rubber bearing. Practically, the stiffness of this isolator differs depending on
the direction of the bearings. In the case of the vertical direction, the bearings possess high stiffness in contrast to the
horizontal one, which is very flexible.
Based on this, it is possible to separate the horizontal components of ground motions from the structure using lead
rubber bearing by introducing a horizontal sheet of high flexibility between the foundation and the building itself while
it is equipped with the isolator. This situation leads to unique properties of vertical support system restoring force,
flexible horizontal layer, and damping [23]. The bi-linear hysteretic algorithm is applied to model lead rubber bearing.
Accordingly, the behavior is based on the characteristic strength, post-elastic stiffness, and displacement at yielding.
The characteristics of lead rubber bearing were calculated for modeling the isolator as specified by Hwang & Chiou
(1996) [24].
Figure 2. Elevation of used structures
Qd
K eff  K d  (1)
D
eff 
4Qd  D  Dy  (2)
2 K eff D 2
Qd
Dy  (3)
Ke  Kd
Fy  Ke  Dy (4)
In order to model and evaluate the chosen structures in a two-dimensional (2D) system, the finite element program
SAP2000 was used. The building was assumed to be located in a site class D, with the MCER response spectrum
described by parameters SMS = 1.875g and SM1 = 0.9g to be comparable with Kitayama & Constantinou [1]. Besides,
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C16 concrete and S420 reinforcement were employed. The linear elastic approach was utilized to model beam and
column sections (Figure 3) with effective stiffness as prescribed in ACI 318-19 [25]. Thereafter, the equivalent lateral
force method was conducted using ASCE/SEI 7-22 [22] to decide whether or not the structure required retrofitting. In
general, the same section size and reinforcements were defined for all models to reduce the number of parameters that
can alter the period of the structure or have an impact on it.
Figure 3. Illustration of the columns and beams sections used in the models
The nonlinear modeling of the selected structures was carried out according to the directives outlined in the NIST
GCR 17-917-46v3 guideline made available by the National Institute of Standards and Technology [26]. The stress-
strain behavior for the concrete in both the unconfined and confined states was characterized by Mander et al. [27]. In
contrast, the stress-strain performance of the steel reinforcements was described by Park & Paulay [28] as being
symmetrical for both the compressive and tensile zones. The fiber hinge model was applied to simulate the nonlinearity
in the beams and columns by dividing their sections into three parts, as reported by Kalantari and Roohbakhsh [29]. An
unconfined concrete was used for the section's cover, a confined concrete model was employed for the section's core,
and a steel model was utilized for the reinforcements. In this study, the superstructure damping ratio was assumed to be
2.5.
Pacific earthquake engineering research center (PEER) database was taken to identify a set of sixteen earthquakes
for this investigation. On the other hand, Baker [30] proposed a criterion to indicate the pulse behavior for the chosen
sixteen ground motion records (Table 1). This criterion determines the pulse indicator (Ip) and checks the peak ground
velocity (PGV). The ground motion record is deemed to possess a pulse behavior if Ip > 0.85 and PGV > 0.3 m/s.
Besides, one last criterion regarding the directivity impact was considered by utilizing wavelet analysis to exclude the
original ground motion record into pulse signal and residual one.
1
Ip  23.314.6(PGV ratio)  20.5(energyratio)
(5)
1 e
Table 1. Selected earthquake records
Tp Magnitude Vs30 Duration Fault Distance PGA PGV
Earthquake Name Year Ip
(s) (Mw) (m/s) (s) (km) (g) (m/s)
Imperial Valley-06 1979 0.999 2.45 6.53 242.05 29 0.65 0.287 0.349
Imperial Valley-06 1979 - - 6.53 192.05 40 7.31 0.212 0.384
Imperial Valley-06 1979 1.000 3.255 6.53 264.57 40 0.07 0.317 0.729
Irpinia, Italy-01 1980 - - 6.9 649.67 37 8.18 0.130 0.236
Superstition Hills-02 1987 1.000 2.394 6.54 348.69 23 0.95 0.432 1.343
Loma Prieta 1989 0.971 1.869 6.93 380.89 40 8.5 0.514 0.416
Cape Mendocino 1992 0.918 0.924 7.01 422.17 36 8.18 0.591 0.493
Northridge-01 1994 1.000 3.57 6.69 525.79 29 5.43 0.571 0.761
Northridge-01 1994 - - 6.69 628.99 27 5.92 0.426 0.748
Kobe, Japan 1995 - - 6.9 312 41 0.27 0.697 0.684
Chi-Chi, Taiwan 1999 - - 7.62 438.19 150 9.76 0.359 0.423
Chi-Chi, Taiwan 1999 - - 7.62 427.73 90 9.62 0.282 0.511
Bam, Iran 2003 1.000 2.009 6.6 487.4 67 1.7 0.808 1.241
Niigata, Japan 2004 - - 6.63 375 180 8.93 0.599 0.581
Darfield, New Zealand 2010 1.000 7.658 7 295.74 138 8.46 0.257 0.394
Darfield, New Zealand 2010 - - 7 344.02 107 1.22 0.765 1.161
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In terms of scaling the earthquakes, various scaling methods, including ACT [31], ASCE [32], and the mean square
error (MSE), can be used. However, the MSE method was used since it reflected the best results compared to other
scaling approaches, as concluded by Michaud and Léger [33]. After that, MSE scaling was performed using the PEER
website to determine a single factor for earthquake signal then; these single scaling factors were adjusted using a
modification factor to reduce the MSE in-between the mean and spectrums to produce a matching between these two
spectrums. The 16 earthquakes were scaled to minimize the MSE value, Equation 8, over the 0 to 5 seconds period, as
illustrated in Figure 4. Finally, 15 seconds of zeroes were added to each ground motion record to take the effects of the
free vibration response of the structures into account [1].
Figure 4. Scaling the selected ground motion records
2.2. Multiple Linear Regression

It is a statistical analysis that is applied to develop a linear relationship between the response (dependent) variable
and many predictors (independent) [34]. According to Achen [35], the mathematical model of the multiple linear
regression is illustrated in Equation 6.
yi o 1x1i  ... k x ki  i (6)
where yi is the ith observation on the dependent variable, 𝑋1𝑖 , … , 𝑋𝑘𝑖 are the ith observations on the independent variables,
βo is an intercept term, β1, …, βk are the coefficients to be estimated, and εi is a residual error of the ith observation
2.3. Artificial Neural Network

An artificial neural network mimics biological neurons found in the human brain. It gives the computer the ability
to learn and make decisions like people [36]. As a result of its ability to simulate the learning process in humans, it has
been put to use in all fields of civil engineering, makes it feasible to solve complicated problems, and possibly permits
the adoption of such technology in real-world applications [37]. A simple ANN consists of inputs, weight coefficients,
activation and sum function, and outputs [38]. Regarding weight coefficients, they are a vital component of ANN since
they represent the significance of each neuron in the input layer by reflecting the ability of each input to stimulate the
neurons [33-36]. The weighted sums of the input components can be calculated using Equation 7.
n
(net) j  W X b
i 1
ij i (7)
wij is the weight between i and j neurons, Xi is the output of the i neuron, b is the bias used to model the threshold, and
n is the number of neurons.
Feed forward back propagation is a learning process in which the calculations are conducted iteratively to modify
the weights and lower the MSE between the observed and predicted data, as presented in Alshihri et al. [39]. Also, this
process was adopted for this investigation because it includes the computation moving in one direction from the input
nodes towards the output one and then backward from the output through the hidden layer to the inputs. The modified
weights are generally calculated using the steepest gradient descent principle shown in Equation 8.
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E
Wn   Wn 1   (8)
W
where w is the weight between any two nodes, wn and wn-1 are the changes in this weight at n and n-1 iteration,  is
the momentum factor, and η is the learning rate.
The Levenberg-Marquardt back propagation function developed all the prediction models according to Toan &
Menhaj [40] and Marquardt Algorithm [41]. It indicates that the selection of 70% of the total dataset for training the
prediction model should be random, while the remaining 30% of the data should be utilized for testing and validating
the model. The neural network setup consists of one layer each of input, hidden, and output. A trial-and-error process
determined the number of neurons that should be employed in the hidden layer to ensure the highest possible
performance.
2.4. Developing Estimation Models

In order to establish the neural network model, this research adopts the process described in Figure 5. Firstly, the
dataset was acquired to be a suitable illustration of the problem domain and divided into the train (70%) and test (30%)
sets. Then, a group of hyperparameters for each predictive model in a neural network is determined. After the model is
constructed and its parameters are optimized, several metrics are applied to analyze the algorithm's accuracy and
evaluate it versus the code-based technique.
Figure 5. Flowchart diagram for building a neural network model
3. Results and Discussions

In this study, the first stage of the research was devoted to conducting finite element modeling and nonlinear time
history analysis. Accordingly, the results of the numerical simulations are presented herein. For instance, the four
structures' base shear forces are plotted in Figure 6. In general, the heavy story irregularity experienced the largest values
in the case of the bare structure compared to the regular model. However, concerning the investigated structures, the
isolator proved its effectiveness in minimizing the base shear for the three models at 15, 20, and 25% damping ratios.
Lastly, the most drop in the shear force among the four models was obtained in the case of the heavy story, which reflects
the best performance of the isolator, while the soft-story model represents the worst. This is caused by the fact that soft-
story irregularity results in reduced first-story stiffness, which increases the period of the structure. This increase in the
period compromises and reduces the efficiency and performance of the lead rubber bearing isolator compared to other
irregular models as highlighted by previous studies [42, 43].
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Figure 6. Base shear of the investigated structures
On the other hand, implementing a lead rubber isolator reduced the acceleration of the four models regardless of the
damping ratio value, Figure 7. Whereas the utilization of an isolator in the stepped building caused the highest reduction
in the roof acceleration, showing the highest efficiency among the four structural models. Nevertheless, the least efficient
isolator was in the case of the soft story irregularity, which can be attributed to the increase in the period of the structure
during the formation of soft story irregularity. A similar conclusion regarding this issue was observed by previous studies
[42, 43].
Figure 7. Roof acceleration of the investigated structures
As presented in Figure 8, the lead rubber bearing systems lowered the roof displacement response at all considered
damping ratios. Besides that, the response of base-isolated heavy story models was quite close to soft story models
compared to regular and stepped ones that showed much lower results. Moreover, it was found that the best behavior of
the isolator for all models was achieved at a 25% damping ratio. Ultimately, the ratio of roof displacement in the soft-
story isolated building to the bare structure one was the lowest compared to other cases.
The input parameter selection for any prediction model is the key to achieving high accuracy. This study considered
three main aspects in selecting the model's predictors: the investigated earthquake, the structure being evaluated, and
the utilized isolator. Generally, each earthquake is characterized by many parameters that can somehow account for the
degree of severity that such an event holds. However, because taking all these parameters as input into the prediction
models can lead to high computation efforts, this study proposes using only the significant parameters that are correlated
with the response being estimated. Accordingly, the correlation coefficient (R), also known as Pearson's correlation
coefficient or bivariate correlation, was adopted to describe how strong the linear association between the earthquake
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parameter and the corresponding structural response is. In general, this approach assumes that the means of all
independent variables are equal, which is known as the null hypothesis. The correlation coefficient ranges from -1 to
+1, where the values close to -1 and +1 indicate a strong linear correlation, as discussed by Asuero et al. [44]. In fact,
the significance value (P-value) was also determined for each parameter with a certain response to find if there is a
significance or not. For instance, the R and P-value were calculated for each response (base shear, roof acceleration,
etc.) concerning only one parameter (fault distance, arias intensity, etc.) at the time where the R sign represents a positive
or negative relationship and a P-value of less than or equal 0.05 is considered significant. Thus, this parameter must be
considered while developing multiple linear regression and ANN models, whereas values greater than 0.05 indicate no
significance and can be ignored. The results of the correlation tests are illustrated in Table 2.
Figure 8. Roof displacement of the investigated structures
Table 2. Correlation test results
Base Shear Roof Acceleration Roof Displacement

Parameter
R P-Value R P-Value R P-Value
Rrup -0.18 0.01 0.10 0.16 -0.18 0.01
AI -0.15 0.08 0.09 0.22 -0.06 0.44
T5 -0.3 0 -0.04 0.57 -0.26 0
T75 -0.38 0 -0.09 0.23 -0.30 0
D5-75 -0.49 0 -0.22 0.00 -0.31 0
T95 -0.3 0 -0.08 0.26 -0.25 0
D5-95 -0.22 0 -0.16 0.09 -0.18 0.01
SV -0.07 0.33 0.02 0.77 0.00 0.98
SD -0.47 0 -0.17 0.02 -0.29 0
STD 0.06 0.38 0.06 0.42 0.10 0.19
PGA 0.02 0.76 0.19 0.01 -0.03 0.69
PGV 0.04 0.62 0 0.97 0.10 0.16
PGD -0.32 0 -0.17 0.03 -0.19 0.01
PGA/PGV 0.03 0.66 0.2 0.01 -0.12 0.09
Vs30 0.15 0.04 0.18 0.11 0.15 0.04
EQ-D -0.29 0 0.11 0.14 -0.29 0
The second aspect is the structural properties that were taken directly by using the response of the bare structure
corresponding to the variable being estimated. This idea was taken to overcome the difficulty in representing the capacity
of the structural elements, especially in the case of nonlinearity. Finally, to take the properties of the lead rubber isolation
system into account, damping ratio and effective stiffness are used as inputs to the prediction models. Based on the
results in Table 2, the independent variables that reflect the significance are fault distance, T5, T75, T95, SD, PGD,
Vs30, EQ duration, damping ratio, effective stiffness, and base shear of the bare structure. In general, the analysis of
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variance illustrated a variation in the P-value for the considered parameters compared to the results based on the analysis
given in Table 2. This change in the value can is caused by the fact that the P-value in the correlation test was computed
for each response in relation to each parameter at the time, while analysis of variance computes the P-value of multiple
predictors (parameters) in relation to one response resulting in remarkably change in the degree of significance of a
certain predictor when its influence is evaluated together with multiple other predictors. Moreover, this study found that
D5-75 and D5-95 were mainly given a coefficient of zero in several multiple linear regression models even though they
were significant, as shown in Table 2. This can be attributed to the multicollinearity issue that occurred due to one or
more predictors in the multiple linear regression model being correlated and can be directly calculated using other
predictors. Thus, since D5-75 is the subtraction between T75 and T5 and D5-95 is the subtraction between T95 and T5,
it was realized that if the model has both T5 and T75 or T5 and T95 as inputs D5-75 or D5-95 will be removed directly.
Generally, such action of removing either D5-75 or D5-95 does not negatively influence the fitting of the regression
model, as discussed by Vatcheva et al. [45]. On the other hand, multicollinearity does not take place in ANN models.
However, to be consistent with the multiple linear regression model, this study has investigated two cases of ANN
models with and without D5-75 and D5-95 and found that removing these parameters significantly reduces the prediction
accuracy, as presented in Table 3. Hence, all earthquake parameters significant for the response were taken as inputs to
ANNs, including D5-75 and D5-95.
Table 3. Influence of D5-75 and D5-95 on the performance of the ANN model
Dataset With D5-75 and D5-95 Without D5-75 and D5-95

Training 0.98 0.87
Testing 0.77 0.8
Validation 0.94 0.51
Overall 0.94 0.8
Indeed, an ANN model is typically developed by testing different setups of the number of hidden layers and neurons
to determine the best correlation coefficients. After that, the setup with the highest correlation coefficient was selected
to build the ANN model. Based on Figure 9, it can be seen that using only one hidden layer and 11 neurons to develop
the base shear model gives the best R value. Based on Table 4, the correlation coefficient was very high for all stages of
developing the ANN model except for some variation in the testing results, even though validation showed high
accuracy. This is caused by the existence of an outlier in the testing dataset. However, the general performance of the
model is considered to give good accuracy. The base shear response is provided for both multiple linear regression and
ANN models in Figure 10. It can be seen that the fitting rate of the ANN model is better, and the accuracy is higher as
compared to the regression model (Figure 11). The error analysis of multiple linear regression and ANN models for the
base shear was performed, as seen in Table 5. This analysis indicated the capability of the neural network model against
the regression model. For instance, ANN showed a value of 0.94 for R and 322.49 for MSE compared with regression
which yielded a value of 0.75 and 1287.27 for R and MSE, respectively. Finally, a similar observation regarding the
capability of ANN compared to multiple linear regression in predicting concrete properties was previously reported [46,
47].
Figure 9. The accuracy of the ANN model for different hidden layers and neurons
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Table 4. Performance of ANN for the base shear model
Dataset R
Training 0.98
Testing 0.77
Validation 0.94
Overall 0.94
Figure 10. Prediction of base shear using multiple linear regression mode
Figure 11. Prediction of base shear using ANN model
Table 5. Error analysis for the base shear predictions models
Error Analysis Multiple linear regression ANN

R 0.75 0.94
MSE 1287.27 322.49
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Similar to previous sections, the Pearson correlation was carried out to determine the significance of the independent
variables. The significant independent variables on the roof acceleration are D5-75, SD, PGA, PGD, PGA/PGV,
damping ratio, effective stiffness, and roof acceleration of the bare structure. The selected ANN model for estimating
roof acceleration consisted of one hidden layer with 18 neurons to reflect a high R value of 0.98, as illustrated in Figure
12. The correlation coefficient for all datasets in the ANN model for predicting the roof acceleration was remarkably
high, as illustrated in Table 6. The fitting rate of the roof acceleration shows good performance for both multiple linear
regression and ANN models (See Figures 13 and 14). Despite that, ANN expressed higher accuracy than the linear
regression model. The accuracy and efficiency of multiple linear regression and ANN models for predicting the roof
acceleration response were examined using the different error functions listed in Table 7. On the basis of this
investigation, the ANN model proved its surpassing capability of accurately estimating the roof acceleration relative to
the multiple linear regression model.
Table 6. The capability of ANN for roof acceleration model
Dataset R
Training 0.99
Testing 0.85
Validation 0.91
Overall 0.96
Figure 13. Estimation of roof acceleration using multiple linear regression model
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Figure 14. Estimation of roof acceleration using ANN model
Table 7. Analysis of the roof acceleration estimation models

R 0.86 0.96
MSE 4.54 1.23
The significant variables in estimating the roof displacement based on the correlation test were the fault distance,
T5, T75, T95, SD, PGD, PGA/PGV, Vs30, EQ duration, damping ratio, effective stiffness, and roof displacement of the
bare structure. The ANN model for estimating roof displacement comprises one hidden layer with 11 neurons. Although
3 hidden layers with 8 neurons provided a slightly higher correlation coefficient, the difference is minimal and can be
neglected especially knowing that using 3 hidden layers will require significantly more computational efforts. The
estimation model for the roof displacement response that was developed via ANN reflected high performance as the R
value is 0.95, as seen in Figure 15. The roof displacement response is plotted for multiple linear regression and ANN
models. The predicted values of the roof displacement based on linear regression and ANN models were accurate, as
observed from the fitting rates (See Figures 16 and 17). The fitting rate of the ANN model exhibited better performance
and higher accuracy. As seen in Table 8, the accuracy of testing and validation is somehow close, which suggests that
all observations are relatively within the dataset range, and the overall R value is considerably high. As discussed in the
preceding section, multiple linear regression and ANN models were investigated using error analysis by determining
the accuracy of each model using different error functions. Based on Table 9, both linear regression and artificial neural
network models exhibited suitable results relative to the measured data.
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Figure 16. Prediction of roof displacement using the multiple linear regression model
Figure 17. Prediction of roof displacement using the ANN model
Table 8. Performance of ANN for roof displacement model
Dataset R
Training 0.98
Testing 0.88
Validation 0.84
Overall 0.95
Table 9. Assessment of the roof displacement prediction models

R 0.83 0.95
MSE 0.001 0
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4. Conclusion
This study aims to develop numerical models using multiple linear regression and ANNs techniques to predict the
response of base-isolated structures considering different ground motions and geometries. This research's significance
is that it suggests a new way of rapid response estimation for base-isolated structures. Numerical simulations have shown
that the structural performance is considerably improved when using a base-isolation system. In line with the originality
of the study, three different input groups related to the properties of the selected earthquake, the bare structure's behavior,
and the isolator's properties were used to achieve high accuracy in predicting the behavior of base-isolated structures.
Moreover, all ANN networks were optimized for the number of hidden layers and the number of neurons. The efficiency
and performance of the multiple linear regression and ANN models in estimating the seismic behavior of the base-
isolated structures were investigated by conducting error assessments. The analysis results indicate the capability of
these two approaches in predicting the response of base-isolated buildings. It was found that the multiple linear
regression model reaches low correlation coefficient values for the base shear, story displacement, and story acceleration
responses compared to ANN results. On the other hand, the limitation of this study is that the results illustrated were
based on 2D frame structures, while future investigations need to extend the concept of the paper to 3D structures,
including buildings and bridges.
5. Declarations
Conceptualization, M.R., I.Y. and M.N.; methodology, M.R., I.Y. and M.N.; formal analysis, M.R.; investigation,
I.Y. and M.N.; writing—original draft preparation, M.R.; writing—review and editing, I.Y. and M.N.; visualization,
M.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

5.3. Funding

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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
An Optimal Cost Estimation Practices of Fuzzy AHP for

Building Construction Projects in Libya
Walid Alfaggi 1*, Sepanta Naimi 1

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Altinbas University, Istanbul, Turkey.
Abstract
This paper analysis and reviews the construction projects in Libya. In Libya, construction projects often face challenges
due to the lack of proper information and data in cost-estimation methods. The primary goal of this paper is to demonstrate
the estimation of construction costs using various methods. An optimization strategy based on a well-known robust
algorithm The Fuzzy AHP technique is used to estimate the best roof structure choice based on cost rank among one or
two-way flat slab, post-tension slab, pre-tension slab, waffle slab, and hollow core slab. The roofs were created employing
five main factors that were implemented in a real-world situation in the Libyan building industry. The cost of materials,
labor, machinery, transportation, and trash on site were all considered. Research findings show that the models can assist
decision-makers in determining the cost rank of roof selection. When a range of methods are applied and compared to
guarantee that this is the best option. This research study must be taken seriously when estimating and managing the
contract and length of highway construction projects in the early stages of project development so that the time difference
at the end of the project can be kept to a minimum by decision-makers when choosing the roof with the lowest cost.
Keywords: Cost Factors; Fuzzy; AHP; Slab Model; Construction Projects.
1. Introduction
Establishing a realistic duration at the early stage of infrastructure projects is important for both contractors and
clients. An accurate determination of duration and cost at an early phase of project development can aid stakeholders to
meet public expectations and avoid the public-related problems of time overruns. In addition, it can also be useful in the
bid evaluation stage. In cases where bidders are requested to specify a construction period and cost, the expected project
duration and cost can be used as one of the bid evaluation criteria. Accordingly, the costs of delays and safety problems
during project implementation can be estimated and used as an input for the lifecycle cost analysis as well [1]. Therefore,
it can be realized that the accuracy of the estimate is critical to guarantee the construction project’s success.
The cost estimating process is a method for obtaining and analyzing historical data as well as forecasting future
program costs utilizing quantitative models, approaches, tools, and databases. One of the most significant elements to
consider during the early stages of the construction design process is cost. In order for a project to be successful, it is
necessary to establish a useable model and approach for cost estimation in construction projects [1]. Furthermore, the
estimating approach tends to become more complicated as the cost parts become more diverse, making it difficult for
users who directly undertake cost estimation to apply recent research results to a building project in practice. Cost
estimation is an important part of every building project. It represents the total cost of all resources required to finish the
task [2].
* Corresponding author: walidalfaggi55@gmail.com

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The conceptual cost estimates developed during the early design stage are unique as a result of the two variables. To
begin with, the estimations must rely on imprecise, incomplete structural information. Second, the ability to influence
the building's features and cost early in the design phase is greater than later in the project. Both of these considerations
stimulate research into development models that use a variety of methodologies and procedures to help with cost
estimations when deciding the price of construction work. Direct costs involved with the realization of the work,
overhead costs, and profit must all be taken into account. Contractors can use unit prices to calculate project costs. This
procedure necessitates the contractor's extensive experience [3]. All of the above-mentioned costs must be included in
the unit pricing. On the other hand, many studies revealed inaccurate estimation practices and proved that completing
later than scheduled is a long-standing problem widely recognized. In the same way, Rivera et al. (2017) [2] have
demonstrated global construction project performance. According to this study, 75% of projects in Africa experience
schedule delays. Of the 75%, the project duration is delayed by 53% more than the original scope.
In several highway construction projects, the completion time of construction is set by the contract documents [4].
Estimation of the contract time duration of road construction projects at the planning stage serves as an important input
for project planning, scheduling, and contract administration. On the other hand, there are various factors leading to time
overrun, which becomes the most prime issue and hence induces turbulence in the time estimates [5]. In several previous
studies, the various sets of factors that significantly affect the estimation accuracy of the duration of highway projects
have been identified. Table 1 depicts the various factors impacting highway project duration and/or its estimation
accuracy, which are deduced from a comprehensive literature review.
Table 1. Factors impacting highway project duration and/or its estimation accuracy
Factors Sources
Project type Ahn et al. (2020); Rahman et al. (2021); Cao et al. (2019) [6-8]
Contract type Camci et al. (2020); Rahman et al. (2021); Afolayan et al. (2020) [9-11]
Area location Ali et al. (2019); Das et al. (2022) [12, 13]
Project location (districts) Noorollahi et al. (2022); Rediske et al. (2020); Al-Abadi et al. (2020) [14-16]
Project scope Ibrahim & Elshwadfy (2021); de Gracia et al. (2018) [17, 18]
Project length Eskander (2018); Ashkezari et al. (2022); Gómez et al. (2020) [19-21]
Site topography (Terrain type) Tang et al. (2021); Costache et al. (2022) [22, 23]
Project capacity (Number of lanes) Feng et al. (2020); Meharie et al. (2019) [24, 25]
Design AADT Jia et al. (2018); Sarraf & McGuire (2020) [26, 27]
Design speed Liu et al. (2020); Galdiani et al. (2022) [28, 29]
Geometric design standard Singh et al. (2019); Jovčić et al. (2019) [30, 31]
Curb, gutter and sidewalk Gharebaghi et al. (2021); Raihan (2018) [32, 33]
Waterbody and storm drain extents Sekovski et al. (2020); Banerjee et al. (2018) [34, 35]
Right-of-way (ROW) costs Simanjuntak & Putro (2020); Dahim (2021) [36, 37]
Climate / weather conditions Rezvani et al. (2022); Perosa et al. (2022) [38, 39]
Condition / type of soils Doke et al. (2021); Zghibi et al. (2020) [40, 41]
Contractor’s performance Al-Saggaf et al. (2020) [42]
The traditional technique of cost estimation is based on the computation of each cost factor separately: direct cost
(labor, materials, and equipment); indirect cost (labor, materials, and equipment); and profit. Proper cost control is a
critical component of a successful project in this regard. As a result of insufficient cost control during the design and
execution stages, several projects have encountered cost overruns. A bad plan, a bad budget, or a bad timetable can
easily transform a profit into a loss [4]. The contractor does not experience losses when carrying out project operations
when cost management is controlled using the finest methods and approaches. Poor project preparation, lapses in
management and control, over budgeting, poor materials, labor shortages, increased material costs, delays in deliveries,
material waste, unexpected weather changes, material loss, insecurity, and poor communication are among the issues
that most project managers and contractors face when it comes to cost control on their construction sites [5]. In the realm
of estimation, several previous studies have been conducted to identify the various critical factors affecting the accuracy
of highway project duration estimation using different statistical techniques such as mean score, relative importance
index [16-20, 43-45], principal component analysis [19, 20], stepwise regression [46], trial and error method of artificial
neural network [47], sensitivity analysis [18], Likert scale analysis [18], as well as correlation analysis [4, 6, 21, 48].
There is no prior study in identifying and analyzing the critical factors that affect the estimation accuracy of highway
project duration in a fuzzy environment because the qualitative attributes for expert evaluation are always imprecise and
subjective. Uncertainties and fuzziness are often encountered in practice [22]. What's more, there is a lack of applying
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a multi-criteria decision-making process to analyze the significant factors affecting highway project duration. This has
motivated the authors of this paper to carry out a study to prioritize and rank the duration estimation accuracy factors by
applying fuzzy set theory and the extent synthetic value analysis method on the fuzzy analytical hierarchy process (fuzzy
AHP) approach as part of the decision-making process to capture the subjective and imprecise perspective data from
experts and finally the most weighted factors influencing..
As a result, there are cost overruns, disagreements, and even project abandonments. In order to increase the accuracy
and reliability of cost work, many studies have attempted to establish cost management strategies that maximize the
practical utility of limited information [43]. The outcome was a variety of methodologies, both traditional and artificial
intelligence-based, were researched and tested for their accuracy in estimating project costs at the conceptual stage. In
recent years, a novel method based on computer system theory has gained traction. To regulate the cost, several methods
such as ANN, Fuzzy NN, SVM, PSO, RBF, RA, PSO, Decision Tree, AHP, Monte Carlo, and fuzzy logic have been
utilized. The qualitative model relies on expert judgment, heuristics, and mathematical rules for accurate building cost
estimation [44, 49].
2. Cost Estimation Methods

Due to advancements in cost estimation, project management has become an increasingly important discipline for
achieving a balance between project working progress and project budget as early as feasible and reducing project
overruns. This should be used to explain what the most effective monitoring-diagnosis cost estimating method [1]. To
achieve the research objectives, the proposed strategy comprises three main steps: the first is computing the effective
cost of various types of concrete slabs, and the second is recognizing the cost weight of each type of slab using
appropriate methods. The third stage is to use the AHP approach to determine the best option based on cost and other
project-related factors. The direct costs associated with the realization of the works, overhead costs, and profit must all
be considered when determining the price of construction work [50]. Contractors can use unit price to calculate project
costs. This procedure necessitates the contractor's extensive experience. All of the above-mentioned costs must be
included in the unit pricing. The traditional approach of cost estimation is based on the computation of individual cost
elements: the direct cost. This old method is accurate but time consuming, thus new approaches are still being explored
through the use of new mathematical tools that can aid in the calculation's efficacy [43].
2.1. Analytic Hierarchy Process

AHP is a decision-making tool that decomposes a complex problem into a multi-level hierarchical structure
comprising objectives, criteria, sub-criteria, and alternatives to better characterize the general choice operation. AHP
can be used to make difficult, unstructured judgments involving several attributes. These criteria define decisions that
do not fit neatly into a linear framework; they include both physical and psychological factors. AHP presents a
mechanism for connecting that can quantify the decision maker's subjective assessment in a form that can be measured
[48].
2.1.1. Implementation of the AHP

Creating a mathematical and computational model is the process of evaluating and selecting the appropriate stations
for use in cost systems. In order to do so, the priority AHP approach was devised and used to specify the required stations
as follows [47]:
Stage 1: establishment of the pairwise comparison matrix,
𝑎11 𝑎12 … . . 𝑎1𝑛

𝐴𝐻𝑃 = ⌈𝑎21. 𝑎22 … . . 𝑎2𝑛 ⌉ (1)
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … . . 𝑎𝑛𝑛
Stage 2: calculation of the weights of the criteria.
𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑚_1 = |∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖1 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖2 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖𝑛| (2)
𝑎11 𝑎12 … . . 𝑎1𝑛

𝐴𝐻𝑃 = ⌈𝑎21. 𝑎22 … . . 𝑎2𝑛 ⌉ × |∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖1 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖2 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖𝑛 |−1 (3)
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … . . 𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑚_11 𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑚_12 … . . 𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑚_1𝑛

𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑚 = ⌈𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑚_21 𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑚_22 … . . 𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑚_2𝑛 ⌉ (4)
𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑚_𝑛1 𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑚_𝑛2 … . . 𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑚_𝑛𝑛
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∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑗1
𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑚_2 = | ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑗2 | (5)
∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑗𝑛
𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑚_2
𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑜 = ∑ 𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑚_2
(6)
𝐴𝐻𝑃𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑜 = ∏𝑛𝑆𝑡=1 𝑆𝑡 (7)
2.1.2. FUZZY Logic Design

This section's major goal is to create a fuzzy classifier based on construction factors. The first goal is to encode data
in fuzzy set format, followed by selecting appropriate fuzzy sets and designing a fuzzy inference system that classifies
a fully formed cost system[46, 51].Steps in the creation of a preliminary heuristic fuzzy classifier are shown in Figure1.
Represent 10 Represent 4 Design of Specify the

factors as slab types as preliminary
slabs weight
fuzzy classifier
fuzzy sets an output as a results
design
Figure 1. Basic steps in heuristic base fuzzy classifier
The method for scaling and mapping the values of process input variables to the area of fuzzy variables using the
finding degree of membership function. For evaluating, creating, and simulating systems based on fuzzy logic, the Fuzzy
Logic Toolbox includes MATLAB® functions, apps, and a Simulink® block. The software walks you through the
process of creating fuzzy inference systems. Many standard methods, such as fuzzy clustering and adaptive learning,
have functions. It can evaluate and visualize the fuzzy inference system once it has been developed. If the alter the names
of the membership functions in the Membership Function Editor, for example, the changes are mirrored in the Rules
Editor [52, 53]. The UIs can read and write variables to the MATLAB® workspace as well as to a file (the read-only
viewers can still exchange plots with the workspace and save them to a file). For any particular system, you can have
any or all of them open, or you can have several editors active for any number of fuzzy systems. This step represents
the primary goal, and the outcomes are used as a selection strategy. The research process depicted in Figure 2 consists
of two basic components, each of which has been confirmed using past industrial data.
Start
Problem Identification
Specify the cost factors Specify the slab types
Specify the slab type weight
Apply F-AHP/AHP methods
Specify best slab cost
End
Figure 2. Methodology flow chart
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3. The Case Study

The selected case study is to select one of the different types of slabs in construction. Bridges, roofs, foundations
and driveways all rely on durable concrete for a firm base and dependable structure. Find out how to compare the four
common concrete slab types before planning a construction project. Assess the concrete slab needs the right way with
professional measuring devices and construction tools from Engineer Supply. The types of concrete slabs used in Libya
are the one-way or two-way flat slab employs 4 to 6 inches of concrete to sustain large loads and is one of the most
prevalent slab types in construction projects. The support structure is referred to by the slab's name. It's intended for use
in situations when one direction is supported while the other requires less support. This slab is a cost-effective and
straightforward option for commercial or residential construction. It's less expensive than other slab kinds, especially
for a ground-level structure. One of the biggest drawbacks of one-way flat slabs is that they can't span as much as other
slab kinds. As a result, they are inappropriate for a variety of bridge and ceiling applications. The Post-Tension Slab is
the second type of concrete slabs. The features of the post-tension slab are similar to those of the pre-tension slab. This
technique occurs after the concrete has been poured, rather than before the cables are tightened and tension is created.
It produces a lightweight, long-lasting effect. If you choose this option, be cautious because an untrained concrete crew
may leave air spaces in the slab. Steel cable corrosion is encouraged in these areas, which increases the likelihood of a
sudden slab fracture.
The Pre-Tension Slab is another concrete slab used as a reinforcing framework for your concrete slab, lay tightened
steel cables. Pre-tension slabs, like post-tension slabs, are used to prevent compression and increase overall strength. It
accomplishes this by employing high-tensile steel cables. Before the concrete is poured into the structure, hydraulic
jacks produce stress in the system. The tension of the wires prevents the concrete fragments from dangerously separating
if the structure cracks. For a thinner result, use a pre-tension slab. The Waffle Slab offers an iconic aesthetic that is often
utilized in restaurants, malls, and other commercial venues. This square-pod system can be used to house recessed
lighting, modify acoustics, and provide a large span with minimum column support in a grand lobby. A waffle slab is
exceptionally expensive and time-consuming to build and install. While the end result is a beautiful structure with a
distinctive interior, the procedure can be too expensive for many commercial and residential projects. Finally, Hollow
Core Slab is delivered to jobsite ready to use. This cuts down on the amount of time and effort required for your project.
Simply lift and install the hollow core slabs on supporting columns with a crane. Hollow core slabs have a great span
distance when compared to other slab alternatives. They also feature holes in them that are ideal for electrical and
plumbing installation, reducing the construction project's time and cost even further. Make sure you get your hollow
core slabs from a reliable contractor. Damage to these slabs might occur as a result of casting faults or incorrect
transportation, resulting in a costly and time-consuming problem.
 Material prices / availability / supply / quality / imports. The factor such as shape and size correlated with gradation
of material particle are hardly analytically linked to the mechanical behavior of materials. These factors have a
major effect in terms of economy, all of which lead to loss of money and even lives [54, 55].
 Labor costs / availability / supply / performance / productivity
 Plant costs / availability / supply / condition / performance
Market conditions and external factors Owners and constructors are constrained by explicitly defined environmental
responsibilities and obligations. One or more environmental challenges touch nearly every section and sector of the
industry. The chosen characteristics can be summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. The cost factor matrix
Cost factor One/two Way Flat Slab Post-Tension Slab Pre-Tension Slab Waffle Slab Hollow Core Slab
F1 Cost of materials H VH VH VH VH
F2 Cost of labor VH VH H VH H
F3 Cost of machinery H H VH H VH
F4 Transportation cost M M H M H
F5 Waste on site M M L M L
The situations were created in two stages. The first step is to identify effective value differences that can be used to
rank the various roof types. To get to this point, the Fuzzy AHP was used to determine the optimum option. The
researcher then put the established AHP algorithm to the test in order to determine the efficacy of roof cost parameters.
The key issue with this project is figuring out how to cope with such massive amounts of data. The researcher organizes
and classifies the data in order to provide a good depiction of the current methods.
1198

Choosing the least expensive cost factor isn't always the greatest solution. If the merchandise is of poor quality, then
the creation of a model that uses the Fuzzy AHP technique could help to eliminate time scheduling delays. Giving other
factors the attention they deserve in order to select the cost component by focusing on its financial stability, history, and
other criteria may be the best option. You'll need to acquire the right pricing, the right time, and the right specification
to choose the ideal roof for the right building. Given equal weight to each criterion, one criterion may be deferred from
another based on its value. In the Fuzzy AHP approach, this idea is employed to evaluate choices. Obviously, certain
elements are more important than others. As a result, applying the appropriate amount of weight may be able to resolve
the situation. Even if some managers believe certain criteria are more important than others, they may act in the opposite
way in actuality. Managers appear to assume that quality is the most important characteristic, but when it comes to
deciding on a cost element, they prioritize delivery performance and/or cost. The cost variables evaluated determined
the priority weight of each criterion in each level. The relevant criteria were discovered using pair-wise comparison
assessments. The purpose of pair-wise comparisons is to determine the relative relevance of the criteria, which are scored
using Saaty's (1980) nine-point scale, as indicated in Table 3.
Table 3. Fuzzy AHP Pair wise comparison matrix

One/two Weight
Post-Tension Slab Post-Tension Slab Waffle Slab Hollow Core Slab
Way Flat Slab (%)
One/ Two Way Flat Slab 1 1 1 0.5 0.3333 0.25 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.33 0.3 0.33 0.3 1 0.3 7
Post-Tension Slab 2 3 4 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.333 0.33 0.3 0.25 0.3 0 0.2 10
Pre-Tension Slab 5 5 5 1 2 3 1 1 1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0 0.1 13
Waffle Slab 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 5 5 1 1 1 0.3 1 0.3 25
Hollow Core Slab 3 2 3 4 4 6 7 7 7 3 2 3 1 1 1 45
Col. Total 14 14 16 9.5 12.33 14.25 14.2 14 13.53 4.87 3.8 4.78 2.1 2 2
The relative numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 represent equal, moderate, strong, extremely strong, and extreme levels of
importance, respectively. 2, 4, 6, and 8 were used to represent intermediate values between two neighboring arguments.
The one/two-way slab is clearly the heaviest among the other criteria. The first three rows illustrate how the one-
way/two-way slab weight (i.e. the relative importance of each criterion) stacks up against the competition. Quality is
slightly more important than delivery, management and organization, and financial performance in the second row and
column. Because delivery (row) and delivery (column) are equally favored, the diagonal elements are assigned a value
of 1. (column). After obtaining the pair-wise assessments, the next step is to calculate the weighting of the elements in
the matrix. Divide the column's items by the column's total after calculating the total for each column. Finally, multiply
this by the number of rows in each column. After calculating the total for each column, divide the column's items by the
column's total. Finally, to calculate the average, add the elements in each resulting row and divide the total by the number
of elements in the row. Illustrates the matrix's calculations. Table 4 shows the results of the priority weights (i.e. the
relative importance of each criterion).
Table 4. Fuzzy weight (i.e. the relative importance of each criterion) of roofs
Fuzzy Weight
One/two Way Flat Slab 0.31387 0.3749 0.4927
Post-Tension Slab 0.05633 0.07654 0.1467
Pre-Tension Slab 0.05285 0.07564 0.1874
Waffle Slab 0.0473 0.05345 0.07456
Hollow Core Slab 0.3195 0.45437 0.5458
Alternative 3 of Hollow Core Slab has the highest total score based on this outcome. As a result, it is recommended
as the best roof among the three, based on five factors and the decision makers' own preferences. This result should be
compared to the Fuzzy approach used to the identical case study. In the effective design and simulation of a fuzzy logic
system, input and output variables were formed, a membership function was created, fuzzy rules were defined, and
results were produced. The model is required to select the appropriate input variable, partition the input space, and
determine the number and kind of membership functions (MF). The input membership function is the Gaussian MF,
while the output membership function is the Trapezoidal MF. The unit cost of product distribution is one of the input
factors, the Mamdani model's architecture is ideal for successful facility design employing FIS as a membership function
connected with the fuzzy inference system and variables (Figure 3).
1199
Figure 3. Membership function plot for input variables

The designed fuzzy model is highly efficient and creative; it includes a creative algorithm capable of fine-tuning
parameters with good adjustments and resilient solutions using dataset provided by membership functions based on
linguistic terminologies, as well as a creative algorithm capable of fine-tuning parameters with good adjustments and
resilient solutions. A control surface map, shown in Figure 4 graphically represents all possible inputs and outputs in
terms of cost. It's a three-dimensional case scenario because it has five input variables (materials cost, labor cost,
machinery cost, transportation cost, trash on site) and five output signals (One/two Way Flat Slab, Post-Tension Slab,
Pre-Tension Slab, Waffle Slab, Hollow Core Slab). The factors (F) that will affect the roof cost influenced all of the
examples required in each situation.
Figure 4. Rule viewer for input and output signals

This is true in Libya, where the One/two Way Flat Slab was employed in the majority of homes. The increase in
indirect cost will make the hollow car the preferred roof. As a result, it may be chosen as the best option for meeting the
construction managers' aims and objectives. The ultimate score and ranking for each roof type may be found in the
results. In terms of high direct cost, One/two Way Flat Slab As' score of (0.67) is higher than the scores of the other four
roof kinds, such as Hollow Core Slab (0.369), Waffle Slab (0.424), Post-Tension Slab (0.316), and pre-tension slab
(0.166). In all other cases, however, the hollow core slab is a viable option. , the general results are significant similarity
as shown in Table 5.
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Table 5. A comparison between Fuzzy AHP weight results and FUZZY weight results
Fuzzy AHP weight results FUZZY weight results

One/two Way Flat Slab 0.4927 0.4
Post-Tension Slab 0.1467 0.439
Pre-Tension Slab 0.1874 0.189
Waffle Slab 0.07456 0.5
Hollow Core Slab 0.5458 0.5
The outcomes of the two operations have a significant cost indicator. Finally, the built model assists in the selection
of a suitable building roof. It comprises a number of steps, including designing building element selection criteria,
identifying sub-criteria, structuring the hierarchical model, prioritizing the order of criteria, estimating roof cost, and
determining roof priority and selection in that order.
5. Conclusion
It has investigated the role of fuzzy logic and the Fuzzy AHP technique in construction operations. Fuzzy logic
applications could be valuable in the construction business, it's worth highlighting. Finally, this research emphasizes the
difficulties in selecting construction elements. The most important contribution of the project was the development of
crucial criteria for the roof selection process. A fuzzy multi-criteria decision model was then constructed for studying
and selecting a roof type. In addition, for studying and selecting roof types, a fuzzy multi-criteria decision model was
developed. A fuzzy decision model for selecting roof kinds was also developed. The fuzzy AHP model assesses decision-
makers to identify and evaluate supplier selection using a multi-criteria decision model. Finally, the model is put to the
test on five different types of roof selection challenges. The findings demonstrate that the models can help decision-
makers evaluate the cost rank of roof choices. The major selection method has been achieved when a variety of ways
were applied and compared to ensure that this is the best option.
6. Declarations
Conceptualization, W.A., and S.N.; methodology, W.A., and S.N.; software, W.A.; validation, W.A.; writing—
original draft preparation, W.A.; writing—review and editing, W.A., and S.N.; supervision, S.N. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

6.3. Funding

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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
Shear Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Beam Using Wire

Mesh–Epoxy Composite
Mustafa Al-Bazoon 1* , Abdulkhaliq Jaafer 1 , Haidar Haidar 1, Abbas Dawood 1
1
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Misan, Maysan, Iraq.
Abstract
This experimental research aims to study the use of wire mesh–epoxy composite (WMEC) as a shear-strengthening
technique for reinforced concrete (RC) beams by focusing on the following parameters: (1) presence of shear reinforcement
in the shear span; (2) type of strengthening technique (U-jacketing, vertical U strip, or inclined strip); and (3) number of
wire mesh layers (three or six layers). Nine simply supported rectangular RC beams were tested under two monotonic point
loads. The testing specimens were divided into two groups: (1) five beams without shear reinforcement and (2) four beams
with shear reinforcement. Load–deflection relationship, shear ductility index, beams’ stiffness, energy absorption, crack
propagation, mode of failure, and strain were studied for all testing specimens and compared with those of the control
beams to measure the improvement from WMEC addition. Results showed that all WMEC types enhanced the shear
capacity. Among the three shear-strengthening types, the continuous U-jacket scheme had a higher effect, increasing the
shear capacity between 33.4 and 95.9% and the shear ductility index by 23% relative to those of the reference specimens.
The shear capacity improvement by WMEC for the beams without shear steel reinforcement was greater than that for the
beams with shear reinforcement under the same shear-strengthening configuration. When the number of wire mesh layers
was doubled, the ultimate load was further increased from 33.4 to 57.8%. This research showed that WMEC is a practical
and excellent shear-strengthening technique for RC beams.
Keywords: Shear Strengthening; Epoxy; Wire Mesh; RC Beam; Ferrocement; Jacketing.
1. Introduction
One of the major challenges of the construction industry is the rehabilitation and repair of existing structures,
especially for structural members suffering from shear deficiency. The shear failure of reinforced concrete (RC) beams
occurs abruptly and therefore has a catastrophic effect. The major reasons for repairing and upgrading existing structures
are to extend their structural life when they approach the end of their service lives or as a result of usage change, damage
due to severe environmental effects (i.e., thawing and freezing fire impairment, corrosion, and erosion), and earthquakes.
The main purpose of strengthening techniques is to increase the bending and shear capacity of structural members and
to control the progress of cracks and deformations.
The basic concept in the design of RC beams is flexural failure; that is, the tensile steel reinforcement reaches the
yield strain before the concrete in the compression zone reaches the crushing stage. This type of failure gives an alarm
before the collapse takes place. However, shear failure happens in a brittle manner and therefore should be avoided.
Shear strengthening becomes a necessity when the shear strength of the RC beams is reduced for the above reasons or
when the shear capacity is lower than the flexural capacity after flexural strengthening. The selection of appropriate
materials and strengthening techniques depends on several factors, such as the easiness of application and time required,
the skill of available human resources, and the overall cost of the strengthening process [1].
* Corresponding author: mustafa-jasim@uomisan.edu.iq

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Externally bonded reinforcement (EBR) is considered one of the most important techniques that has been utilized in
retrofitting concrete members. Different EBR methods, such as steel sheets and fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP), have
been investigated and have their own advantages and disadvantages. Attaching steel plates to the concrete beams’ web
increases the shear capacity of existing structures [2, 3]. However, rust and corrosion and difficulty in installing steel
plates remain the major disadvantages of these techniques [4]. FRP considerably enhances the bending and shear
capacity of RC members [5-7] and has outstanding physical and mechanical properties such as high tensile strength to
weight ratio as well as its non-corrosive nature. FRB is a good solution for strengthening/rehabilitating existing RC
structures instead of conventional steel materials to overcome steel plate abuses. Many experimental and numerical
studies on improving the flexural and/or shear capacity of RC beams using FRB materials have been conducted.
However, a major drawback of FRB is its premature debonding failure [8–10]. Moreover, the manufactured fibers are
unsafe for human health because they emit airborne respirable fibers during manufacturing, utilization, and waste
processing [11]. To solve the premature debonding issue, researchers applied FRP in grooves on the concrete cover and
bonded it with cementitious epoxy or grout. This technique is called near-surface mounted (NSM) reinforcement [12-
14]. The mechanical properties of the FRP, the depth and width of the grooves, and the preparation of the concrete
surface have an effect on the performance of the NSM-FRP system [15-17]. The NSM technique is difficult to use when
the concrete cover is spalled due to deteriorated or damaged concrete structures. Thus, constructing a new concrete cover
exhibiting good bonding strength with the member’s substrate is difficult, sometimes impossible, and requires curing
and additional time to reach the maximum concrete strength. The cost of FRP is another constraint for the composite.
A recent trend in the shear strengthening of RC beams is the direct application of fiber cementitious matrix to
concrete surfaces, such as high-performance fiber-reinforced composites (HPFRCs). The most common kinds of
HPFRC are slurry infiltrated fiber concrete (SIFCON) and fabric-reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM). SIFCON
composite consists of short steel fibers embedded in low-viscosity cementitious slurry. The typical ratio of fiber used in
SIFCON ranges from 8% to 12% by volume, and the compressive strength ranges from 80 MPa to 200 MPa [18]. Al-
Rousan and Shannag [18] tested SIFCON jackets for the shear strengthening of RC beams by studying the parameters
of shear-span-to-depth ratio and longitudinal reinforcement percentage and found that jacketing the members with
SIFCON as external reinforcement increased the ultimate shear strength up to 53% and precluded the brittle shear failure.
Meda et al. [19] studied a high-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious composite jacketing for strengthening beam
defects in shear; the jacketed beams displayed an excellent shear resistance and reached their flexural capacity compared
with the control specimens. Several researchers also studied the use of textile-reinforced mortar or FRCM [20-22]. The
following configurations are commonly performed for strengthening: (1) side-bonded strip [23-25], (2) spaced at the
distance or discontinuous U-jacketing [26-28], and (3) enclosed wrapping [29-31]. Although enclosing wrapping is an
effective strengthening technique in practice, it cannot constantly be used on RC beams cast with a slab [32]. In addition,
the structural performance of the strengthened members changes the failure mode from shear to flexural when
multilayers of textile and mortar are used [33-35]. These systems can also address the problems relating to moisture and
fire resistance. Steel-reinforced grout (SRG) is a recently developed composite system composed of galvanized steel
textiles with ultrahigh strength that are twisted into ropes, collected into unidirectional textures, and inserted in an
inorganic cement-based matrix. For the prevention of rusting, the steel wires are prepared using stainless steel or usually
coated with zinc or brass [36]. Gonzalez-Libreros et al. [37] investigated the effect of internal steel stirrups and SRG
configurations on the performance of RC beams with defective shear and found that SRG strengthening improved the
beams’ overall capacity by more than 30%. Ombres & Verre [38] demonstrated that the effectiveness of SRG
strengthening systems was controlled by slippage at the interface of the concrete–SRG and/or steel fabric–mortar.
As a composite material (consisting of different layers of wire mesh embedded in cement mortar), ferrocement is
utilized for the rehabilitation, repairing, and strengthening of different RC members. Owing to the low flexural strength
of cement mortar, the flexural strength of ferrocement laminate is entirely from the wire mesh, which has a ductile
behavior. Ferrocement is a low-cost material because of the availability of its raw materials and its fabrication in intricate
geometries. Moreover, it exhibits a high tensile-strength-to-weight ratio and good cracking control. However, the main
problems associated with the use of ferrocement as a strengthening material are its poor durability due to fine mesh
corrosion, low-performance mortars, and separation of ferrocement laminate from the member soffit [39-40]. In addition,
strengthening using ferrocement requires a long time to allow the mortar to reach its maximum strength (i.e., 28 days).
Therefore, structural engineers are exploring new materials and/or techniques that do not require a long processing time
during construction and curing stages. To solve the above problem, Yan (2015) [41] introduced a steel mesh-reinforced
resin concrete (SMRC) instead of cement mortar as a new material in traditional ferrocement for the flexural
strengthening of concrete beams and found that the resin concrete can reach about 80% of its ultimate strength within
24 hours.
Li et al. [42] investigated the use of SMRC for strengthened RC compression members and confirmed the efficiency
of resin concrete as a rapid bonding layer. Qeshta et al. [43, 44] developed another method of replacing the cement
mortar in ferrocement with an epoxy resin for the flexural strengthening of plain and RC beams. These studies showed
that the combination of epoxy with steel mesh can also be used as an effective material for rapid strengthening. Jaafer
et al. in 2019 [45] employed a wire mesh–epoxy composite (WMEC) to strengthen concrete slabs. Al Nuaimi et al. in
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2020 [46] studied the durability of using a wire mesh–epoxy system as a strengthening material for RC members. These
reports implied that the system is durable and can be an alternative material for strengthening and retrofitting RC beams
under severe environmental conditions. Abadel [47] studied the use of NSM, carbon fiber-reinforced polymer, welded
wire mesh, and textile-reinforced epoxy mortar to enhance the shear capacity of RC beams. However, no report is
available on the use of WMEC for the shear strengthening of RC beams. U-shape jacketing, vertical strips, and inclined
strips were found to improve the shear capacity to 47–56% and change the mode of failure from brittle (shear) to ductile
(flexural).
Although epoxy resin requires specific environmental conditions, the main advantages of using a composite of steel
wires with epoxy adhesive as a strengthening material are as follows:
 The installation process is easy, fast, and does not require curing.
 The epoxy adhesive does not occupy space because it is thin.
 WMEC is durable and has good corrosion resistance.
 WMEC does not require a framework (i.e., it can be prepared in advance).
The limitations of using epoxy mortar as an adhesive material are as follows:
 Epoxy has a relatively low thermal capacity especially when the temperature exceeds 60˚C [20].
 According to the manufacturer’s recommendations, epoxy (Sikadur-31) must not be applied to wet or moisture
substrates.
Using wire mesh with epoxy mortar as a strengthening technique for plain concrete beams, RC beams, punching
shear for RC slabs, and confining RC columns shows it effectively improves the structural behavior of those elements.
However, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, the use of WMEC as a shear-strengthening technique for RC beams
has not been done. Therefore, further studies are needed to understand the behavior of concrete beams under shear
defects and the influence of some parameters on the ultimate shear capacity and failure mode of the strengthened beam
using this technique. The main goal of the present work is to assess the effectiveness of using WMEC for the shear
strengthening of RC beams. In addition, the effect of stirrups with different schemes of wire mesh–epoxy layers as
external reinforcement on the shear resistance of RC beams was investigated. Nine RC beams with the same cross-
section of 150×300 mm and total length of 2300 mm were fabricated and tested under monotonic load up to failure. The
ultimate load capacity, stiffness, energy absorption, cracking load, and failure mode of the specimens were recorded and
discussed.
2. Experimental Program
2.1. Material Properties
2.1.1. Concrete
Natural sand and gravel were used in the concrete mixture. The gradient of the sand and gravel are confirmed with
the ASTM C33/03 [48]. Figures 1 and 2 show the gradient of the used sand and gravel.
100
90
80
Percentages Passing (%)
70
60
50
40
30
Sand
20 Lower Limit
10 Upper Limit
0
10 1 0.1
Sieve size (mm)
Figure 1. Sieve analysis of used sand
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100
80
Percentages Passing (%)

60
40
Gravel
20
Lower Limit
Upper Limit
0
100 10 1
Sieve size (mm)
Figure 2. Sieve analysis of used gravel
All specimens were cast using one concrete batch with a target concrete compressive strength of 25 MPa. The
mechanical properties of the concrete were tested after 28 days according to BS1881: Part 16:1983 [49]. The average
compressive strength of the six concrete cubes (150×150×150 mm) was 25.1 MPa, the average flexural strength of six
concrete prisms (100×100×500 mm) was 3.5 MPa, and the average splitting tensile strength of six concrete cylinders
(150×300 mm) was 1.9 MPa. The tests were performed in accordance with the concrete testing requirements [50, 51].
2.1.2. Steel
Three types of steel reinforcement bars were used. Two steel bars of 16 mm diameter were employed as longitudinal
flexural reinforcement with a concrete cover of 25 mm. The beam reinforcement ratio was 𝜌 = 1.0%. Two steel bars of
10 mm diameter were placed in the compression zone to hang the stirrups. Mildly deformed steel bars with a diameter
of 6 mm were used as shear reinforcement. The mechanical properties of the steel bars in this study were determined
using a standard direct tensile test (see Table 1). The elasticity modulus of all the tested steel reinforcements was 200
GPa.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of reinforcing steel
Test results ASTM A615M [52]

Bar size
(mm)
Yield Stress (MPa) Ultimate Strength (MPa) Elongation (%) Yield Stress (MPa) Ultimate Strength (MPa) Elongation (%)
6 317 657.0 13.9 420 620 9
10 521 654.4 13.8 420 620 9
16 529 658.7 14.2 420 620 9
2.1.2. Welded Wire Mesh

A locally available welded steel mesh with a square opening of 10×10 mm spacing and an average wire diameter of
0.7 mm was used. Three coupons were prepared in accordance with ACI 549.1 R88 [53] to obtain the mechanical
properties of the wire mesh. The average yield strength, ultimate strength, and elastic modulus were 250, 560, and 110
GPa, respectively.
2.1.3. Epoxy
A two-component thixotropic epoxy adhesive named “Sikadur-31 CF Slow” that hardens without shrinkage was
used to fabricate the WMEC. According to the technical data sheet provided by the manufacturer, after 7 days of curing
at 20 °C, the epoxy adhesive will have tensile adhesion strength greater than 4 MPa, tensile strength of 13 MPa,
compressive strength of 54 MPa, flexural strength of 27 MPa, and elastic modulus of about 2600 MPa.
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2.2. Description of Beam Specimens and Test Variables

The shear performance of simply supported beams after strengthening with external WMEC was evaluated. Nine
RC beams with an overall length of 2300 mm and a clear span of 2000 mm were cast. Dimensions and longitudinal
reinforcement were similar for all the specimens. The beams with a rectangular cross-section of 150 x 300 mm and 25
mm clear concrete covers on all four sides were designed as per ACI Code 318 [54] to guarantee shear failure. According
to this design, the flexural (longitudinal) reinforcement consists of two steel rebars of 16 mm in diameter (d=261 mm,
𝜌 = 1.0%) placed at the bottom. Two rebars with a diameter of 10 mm were placed on top of the beam and used as
stirrups’ hangers. The shear span was equal to 550 mm and remained constant for all the tested specimens.
The beams were divided into two groups according to the amount of internal shear reinforcement. The first group
(group S) included five beams reinforced with a closed stirrup of 6 mm in diameter, and a spacing of 130 mm was used
along the shear span. The arrangement of the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement of this group is illustrated in
Figure 3-a. The second group (group W) consisted of four beams without any shear reinforcement except those placed
on both beam ends as shown in Figure 3-b. One beam from each group did not receive WMEC strengthening and was
labeled as a reference specimen.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3. Dimensions and reinforcement details of tested beams (unit: mm): (a) Group S, beams included shear
reinforcement in shear span; (b) Group W, beams without any shear reinforcement
The test variables in this study were as follows:

 The amount of shear reinforcement in the critical section (shear span)
 The amount of steel wire mesh layers
 The type of strengthening scheme along the critical shear span: continuous U-jacket, vertical strips, or 45° inclined
strips
The nomenclature of the test specimens is labeled using the ‘‘𝑖 − 𝑋 − 𝑌” format as follows:
The first character refers to the number of wire mesh layers. i takes the value of either 3 or 6.
The second character 𝑋 denotes the specimen’s group. S is used for specimens that had shear stirrups within the
shear span, and W is used for specimens without any stirrups.
The third character 𝑌 denotes whether the specimen is strengthened with vertical strips (V), continuous U-jacket
(UJ) scheme, or inclined strips (K).
The reference specimens were labeled as CS and CW for the specimens with shear stirrups within the shear span and
specimens without any stirrups, respectively. Table 2 shows the tested beam specimens.
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Table 2. Test variables

Strengthening Strip Wire mesh
No. Group Designation Shear Reinforcement in shear span
scheme orientation layers
1 CS ------ ------ ------
2 3SUJ U-Jacket 90° 3
S
3 6SUJ Φ6 mm@130 mm U-Jacket 90° 6
(With Stirrups)
4 6SV U-Strip 90° 6
5 6SK Sided Strip 45° 6
6 CW ------ ------ ------
7 W 6WJ U-Jacket 90° 6
-----
8 (Without Stirrups) 6WV U-Strip 90° 6
9 6WK Sided Strip 45° 6
A two-component thixotropic epoxy adhesive named “Sikadur-31 CF Slow” that hardens without shrinkage was
used to fabricate the WMEC. According to the technical data sheet provided by the manufacturer, after 7 days of curing
at 20 °C, the epoxy adhesive will have a tensile adhesion strength greater than 4 MPa, a tensile strength of 13 MPa, a
compressive strength of 54 MPa, a flexural strength of 27 MPa, and an elastic modulus of about 2600 MPa.
2.3. Casting and Curing

Plywood molds were utilized as a casting formwork for all concrete beams as shown in Figure 4. All beams were
simultaneously cast from one concrete batch. The concrete was mixed using a 5 m3 concrete truck mixer and poured in
layers inside the prepared molds. The concrete was carefully compacted inside the forms using a vibrator. The
reinforcement steel was separately prepared as cages and positioned inside the forms with proper spacers prior to
concrete casting. After casting, the specimens were kept in a humid environment for 24 hours and then demolded. All
the specimens were covered with plastic sheets for 28 days. Six concrete cubes, six prisms, and six cylinders were
prepared and cured under the same conditions to determine the mechanical properties of the concrete beam specimens.
(a) Molds (b) Casting (c) Vibration Process
(d) Surface Leveling (e) Casted Specimens (f) Demolding

Figure 4. Casting of beam specimens
2.4. Shear Strengthening of Beam Specimens

As mentioned in Section 2.2, the strengthened specimens were divided into three series according to strengthening
schemes. The first group includes the beams with six or three layers of wire mesh fabricated with a U-jacket (550 mm
in width and 300 mm in depth) and continued along the shear span (Figure 5a). The second group includes strengthened
beams with six layers of wire mesh arranged as vertical U-strips (120 mm in width and 300 mm in depth) with 95 mm
spacing through the shear span (Figure 5b). The third series included beams that were strengthened with inclined strips
with an inclination angle of 45°. The inclined strips had six layers of wire mesh with a width of 70 mm and spacing of
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95 mm through the shear span (Figure 5c). For the second and third groups, the strengthening schemes covered about
65% of the critical shear span. The strengthening steps were as follows:
 The wire mesh was cut off to the required dimensions. These fabricated samples were then tied together using fine
steel wire to make a single unit and to keep the openings of the successive layers. This step allows the epoxy matrix
to easily pass through these layers and ensure good bonding.
 The concrete surface in the shear zone of the beams was graded to remove all sharp edges, loose materials, cement
laitance, and contaminants by using an electric grading machine. The surfaces of the specimens were then cleaned
using a water jet to remove dust and any other materials that could affect the bonding between the beam surfaces
and strengthened materials. The beams’ bottom corners were rounded with a radius of curvature of 15 mm, which
fulfills the ACI 440.2R-08 [55] minimum requirement (13 mm), to avoid stress concentrations.
 Two small holes of diameter 10 mm were drilled on each side and one on the soffit of the beam for strip and
inclined schemes. For the continued scheme, six holes on each side and three on the soffit of the beam were drilled.
 The prepared surfaces were coated with a low-viscosity epoxy primer (Sikafloor-161) [56]. Quartz sand of size
300–600 µm was spread on these surfaces to roughened them and enhance the bonding.
 After the primer layer had hardened, dust was removed using an air blower.
 The fabric of the wire mesh layers was laid in its right position and fixed by inserting a steel screw of 6 mm
diameter into the holes.
 The fabric was covered manually by epoxy adhesive. Gentle hand pressure was applied to the epoxy using a spatula
tool to guarantee that the epoxy reached the concrete surface. Sikadur-31 [57] was used as an epoxy adhesive. It
consists of two components, resin and hardener, which were mixed properly in a ratio of 2:1 by weight using an
electric drill at a low speed. Mixing was continued until the components became homogeneous (gray color). The
average thickness of the composite for the three and six layers of wire mesh was about 5.5–6.5 and 11–13 mm,
respectively. The WMEC was cured at room temperature for at least 7 days before testing to ensure the complete
strength of the epoxy resin. Owing to the sensitivity of the mechanical performance of the interface between
composite layers and concrete to the workmanship during installation, a similar strengthening procedure was
carefully followed for all the members. Prior to the testing day, all the specimens were coated with white color
paint to visualize all cracks during the test.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 5. WMEC shear-strengthening schemes (unit in mm): (a) U-jacket strengthening, (b) vertical strip strengthening,
and (c) inclined strip strengthening
1211
Figure 6 shows a flowchart for applying WMEC.
Figure 6. Flowchart for installing WMEC
3. Loading Setup and Instrumentation

All beams were tested under monotonic loading of two points loads (four-point-bending test) with a shear span to
effective depth ratio of 2.1. Figure 7 illustrates the arrangement and details of the test setup. The simply supported
specimen was placed over the two steel rollers supports at 150 mm from the ends of the beam. The clear span (2000
mm) was divided into three parts: the central part had a 900 mm length between applied forces, and the length of each
edge region was 550 mm. A universal testing machine of 600 kN capacity was used to apply the concentrated load on a
spreader beam, which then distributed two concentrated loads on the test specimen. The load was monotonically
increased in steps up to failure by using a hydraulic load cell of 2.5 kN accuracy. Steel plates and rubber pads were laid
above the supports and underneath the loading points to avoid the local crushing of the tested beams. Beam deflection
was monitored using two dial gauges of 25 mm capacity with 0.01 division. One was placed at the center of the beam,
and the other was placed just below the point of the applied load. Strain gauges were also glued to the concrete surface.
Mid-span compressive concrete strain was measured by one electrical strain gauge of 30 mm length and 120 Ω resistance
as shown in Figure 7. Instead of a complete strain rosette, one strain gage was installed diagonally because the diagonal
strain dominated over the horizontal and vertical strains in the shear span [34]. During the test, a data logger was
employed to record and store the test data, which were later transmitted to a computer for further processing. Beam
behavior, cracks, and failure modes were recorded throughout the test.
Figure 7. Test setup and instrumentation details
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4.1. Load–Deflection Relationship
The load–midspan deflection relationships for the control beams CW and CS are shown in Figure 8. The behavior
of CS and CW is linearly elastic until cracks occur (vertical flexural crack in the central part). With the increase in
applied load, shear cracks appear in the shear span zones (edge regions) and the load-deflection relations are changed.
One of the inclined shear cracks rapidly widens and extends toward the applied load, thus causing a sudden drop in the
applied load. Therefore, the reference beams exhibit brittle failure. CS has higher ultimate load and deflection than CW
as shown in Figure 8.
160
140
120
100
Load (kN)
80
60
40
20 CS CW
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Mid span deflection (mm)
Figure 8. Load–deflection relationships for reference specimens
The load-deflection curves of the strengthened beams (group W and group S) are shown in Figures 9 and 10,
respectively. All WMEC-strengthened specimens show flexure behavior, namely, no sudden drop in the load occurs. In
general, the final collapse of the strengthened specimens occurs in a ductile manner, that is, their curves are flat near the
ultimate load. Initially, the response of the strengthened specimens is similar to that of the reference beams: a linear
relationship between load and deflection. With the increase in applied load, the first flexural crack is initiated in the
central zone of the specimens, followed by a curve slope change that indicates a reduction in beams’ stiffness. Other
small flexural cracks then appear in the same region, indicating the yield of steel reinforcements. When the load is close
to the ultimate load, shear cracks develop in the shear span zones and the specimen collapses. In this stage, the load–
deflection relationships typically become flat with a small increase in the load. All the strengthened specimens exhibit
an increase in cracking and ultimate loads compared with the control specimens.
200
160
120
Load (kN)
80
CW
6WV
40
6WK
6WUJ
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Mid-span deflection (mm)
Figure 9. Load–deflection relationships for strengthened specimens without stirrups (group W)
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240
200
Load (kN) 160
120
CS
80
3SUJ
6SK
40
6SUJ
6SV
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Mid-span deflection (mm)
Figure 10. Load–deflection relationships for strengthened specimens with stirrups (group S)
The ultimate load-carrying capacities 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑡 (failure load) of all tested specimens are listed in Table 3. The 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑡 of
beams strengthened with WMEC is higher than that of the reference beams. For groups S and W, the increase in 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑡
ranges from 32.6% to 57.8% and from 61.8% to 95.9%, respectively. The WMEC strengthening effect is more in group
W than in group S. In group S, the WMEC strengthening system and steel stirrups work together in resisting the shear
force, that is, the diagonal tension stresses are repelled from the later loading stages up to the failure stage. For the
specimens without shear stirrups, the WMEC strengthening plays a major role in resisting shear forces from the early
loading stages up to the failure stage. Group W shows more utilization and benefit of the WMEC strengthening system
than group S. Thus, the considerable increase in the 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑡 of the beams strengthened with WMEC reveals the success of
the proposed WMEC technique as a shear-strengthening system.
Table 3. Failure load of beam specimens
No. Group Designation Ultimate Load 𝑷𝒖𝒍𝒕 (kN) Increase in Ultimate Load (%)
1 CS 135 -------
2 3SUJ 180 33.4
S
3 6SUJ 213 57.8
(With Stirrups)
4 6SV 179 32.6
5 6SK 194 43.7
6 CW 97 --------
7 W 6WUJ 190 95.9
8 (Without Stirrups) 6WV 157 61.9
9 6WK 175 80.4
The beams strengthened with continuous U-jacket configuration (3SUJ, 6SUJ, and 6WUJ) show a higher increase
in 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑡 than those strengthened with other WMEC configurations that have the same number of wire mesh layers (the
𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑡 of 6SK is 43.7% which is higher than that of 3SUJ). The increase in 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑡 for specimens 6SUJ and 6WUJ is 57.8%
and 95.9%, respectively, and that for beams 6SV and 6WV (specimens that strengthened with vertical strips) is 32.6%
and 61.9%, respectively. These results are expected because the continuous U-jacket strengthening configuration
involves a large cross-sectional area of the strengthening layer that resists the diagonal tension stresses similarly to the
separate vertical strip strengthening configuration. In addition, the large restrained area between WMEC and concrete
substrate in the critical regions enhances the shear strength.
In this study, the effect of the wire mesh amount within WMEC was investigated using the continuous U-jacket
strengthening pattern in group S. For the continuous U-jacket configuration, the effect of doubling the number of wire
mesh layers was studied. The failure loads of beams 3SUJ (3 layers) and 6SUJ (6 layers) are 180 and 213 kN (33.4%
and 57.8% increase in 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑡 ), respectively. Therefore, the ultimate load increases by 24.4% when the number of
strengthening layers is doubled.
1214
In terms of the orientation of the strengthening patterns, the beams strengthened with inclined strips (45°) show
higher load carrying capacities than those strengthened with vertical strips for both groups. For the isolated strip
strengthening scheme, the inclination of strips plays an important role in improving the shear strength of the beams.
Thus, the increase in 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑡 for specimen 6SK is 11.1% higher than that for 6SV, and the increase for specimen 6WK is
18.5% higher than that for 6WV. The difference in the ultimate load capacity between these two configurations reaches
about 66.7%, although the cross-section area and the amount of wire mesh are almost the same in both cases. This
difference is mainly due to the orientation of the wire mesh inside the composite. In the inclined scheme, the orientation
of the wire mesh in the composite is almost orthogonal to the crack trajectory. Inclined strengthening prevents the
development and propagation of cracks’ growth. Therefore, the orientation angle of wire mesh has a significant effect
on strength enhancement.
As a result, the increase in the load-carrying capacity of the strengthened beams using WMEC system ranged
between 32.6 and 57.8% for the specimens with stirrups in the shear span and between 61.9 and 95.9% for the specimens
without stirrups. Therefore, the proposed WMEC systems can effectively improve the load-carrying capacity for all
strengthening configurations.
Only the mid-span deflection values were discussed. Mid-span vertical displacement was measured at each load step
until failure. The maximum mid-span deflection at the failure load (∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) and the ratio of maximum deflection to the
deflection of reference beams ∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 /∆𝑟𝑒𝑓 are presented in Table 4. The ∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 /∆𝑟𝑒𝑓 ratios are more than unity for all
specimens strengthened with WMEC. The ratios of ∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 /∆𝑟𝑒𝑓 are between 1.2 and 1.48 for group S and between 1.55
and 1.76 for group W. Therefore, the effect of WMEC is highly significant for the beams without shear reinforcement,
and this finding is similar to the conclusion on load-carrying capacity. The beams strengthened with continuous U-jacket
scheme show higher ∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 /∆𝑟𝑒𝑓 than those with the other strengthening patterns. In addition, the beams with inclined
strip strengthening scheme show higher ∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 /∆𝑟𝑒𝑓 than those strengthened with the vertical strips. As result, the
deformational performance of the specimens without stirrups strengthened with continuous U-jacket is better than those
strengthened with discrete or inclined WMEC counterparts.
Table 4. Maximum deflection of tested specimens
No. Group Designation Maximum deflection, mm ∆𝒎𝒂𝒙/∆𝒓𝒆𝒇
1 CS 10.5 1.00
2 3SUJ 14.0 1.34

S
3 6SUJ 15.5 1.48
(With Stirrups)
4 6SV 12.6 1.20
5 6SK 13.7 1.31
6 CW 7.4 1.00
7 6WUJ 13.0 1.76

W
8 (Without Stirrups) 6WV 11.5 1.55
9 6WK 12.1 1.64
The average ∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 /∆𝑟𝑒𝑓 for specimens without shear reinforcement is about 24% higher than that for specimens with
shear reinforcement. The reference beam without shear reinforcement relies entirely on concrete to provide its shear
capacity. Hence, these beams brittlely and suddenly fail without any ductility (∆𝑟𝑒𝑓 =7.4 mm). On the contrary, the
control beam with internal transverse shear reinforcement has some ductility provided by the stirrups at shear span
(∆𝑟𝑒𝑓 =10.5 mm). Thus, adding the external strengthening schemes (with good tensile resistance and bonding strength)
for both groups has improved the overall ductility of the specimens.
Compared with other studies, the WMEC in the current work considerably improves the shear capacity of RC beams.
For groups S and W, the increase in the ultimate load capacity is 32.6%–57.8% and 61.9%–95.9%, respectively. The
gain of the load-carrying capacity percentages in this study and other reports are listed in Table 5. In all the mentioned
studies, the mode of failure was altered from brittle shear to ductile flexural. The overall dimensions and details of the
main and longitudinal reinforcement of the specimens prepared in this study are identical with the specimens prepared
by Alam & Riyami [22]. The natural fiber strips were used for strengthening RC beams and bonded into the beam sided
(side bonded strips scheme).
1215
Table 5. Comparison of ultimate load gain percentage and deflection ratio
A gain in shear capacity (%)

Study Technique ∆𝒎𝒂𝒙/∆𝒓𝒆𝒇
With stirps Without stirps
This research Wire mesh–epoxy composite 32.6–57.8 61.9-95.9 1.2-1.76
Younis et al. [20] Fabric reinforced cementitious matrix NA −9.6–104.0 0.79-2.38
Alam and Al Riyami
Natural fiber-reinforced polymer 10–36 NA 0.52-0.78
[11]
carbon fiber-reinforced polymer, welled wire mesh,
Abadel [47] NA 42.5–56.2 0.73-1.43
and textile reinforced epoxy mortar
In comparison, the minimum gain value obtained in the current study of specimen 6SV which has vertical strips is
32.6 % while the gains in the ultimate load of are between (34-36) % and (10-31) % for beams strengthened with
untreated and treated natural fibers strips, respectively. The strengthened schemes of the present study are identical with
that presented by Younis et al. [20].
Three different materials were used: glass, carbon, and polyphenylene benzobisoxazole (PBO)-FRCM. In the case
of using FCRM as full wrapping of shear span, the gains in load were 101.2, 61.4, and 45.5 % for carbon, glass and
PBO-FRCM, respectively. In comparison, the gain in the ultimate load of a similar scheme in the current study is 95.9
%. For the inclined strengthening scheme (45 degrees), the gains in load were 45.7, -9.6, and 53.1 % for carbon, glass
and PBO-FRCM, respectively. In the current study, the increase of the ultimate load is 80.4% (specimen 6WK). The
third configuration of strengthening is U-jacket. The obtained gain for specimen 6WV is 61.9 % while for carbon, glass
and PBO-FRCM system were 70.8, 31.7 and 32.4%, respectively. Abadel [47], studied the effect of using different
techniques for strengthening shear performance of RC beams. One of these was using welded wire mesh with epoxy
mortar as near surface mounted strengthening technique. The gain of ultimate load for specimen BS-WWM tested by
Abadel was 56.2 % while it is 61.9 % for specimen 6WV. From the above, it can be concluded that the results of the
present study are in accepted range of available provided methods for shear strengthening of RC beams. Also, the
proposed technique in this study can represent a promising method for rehabilitation and repairing members prone to
shear failure.
In comparison with other researchers, WMEC improves ∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 /∆𝑟𝑒𝑓 . For 6WV, the ration ∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 /∆𝑟𝑒𝑓 =1.55 while it
is 1.43 for the specimen BS-WWM [47]. The ratio of maximum deflection of specimens strengthened by natural fibers
to the deflection of reference beam conducted by Alam & Al Riyami [22] is less than unity, as shown in Table 5. For
the full wrapping system, the ratios ∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 /∆𝑟𝑒𝑓 were 2.38, 1.88, and 1.65 % for carbon, glass, and PBO-FRCM,
respectively [20]. In this study, ∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 /∆𝑟𝑒𝑓 is 1.76 for specimen 6WUJ. The ratios for the inclined strengthing scheme
were 1.47, 0.79, and 1.7 for carbon, glass and PBO-FRCM, respectively [20]. In this study, ∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 /∆𝑟𝑒𝑓 of 6WK is 1.64.
The last configuration of strengthening is U-jacket at intervals. ∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 /∆𝑟𝑒𝑓 is 1.55 for specimen 6WV, while for carbon,
glass, and PBO-FRCM system were 2.32, 1.36, and 1.42, respectively [20]. Thus, it can be concluded that WMEC
improves the deflection ratio more than the techniques studied in Alam & Al Riyami [22] and Abadel [47].
4.2. Shear Ductility Index

The performance of structural members subjected to dynamic loads (such as seismic or blast loads) was evaluated
according to their ductility. Ductile members can inelastically deform without collapsing. For an RC member, ductility
is usually defined as follows:
∆𝑢
𝜇= (1)
∆𝑦
where 𝜇 is the ductility index, and ∆𝑦 and ∆𝑢 are the yield and ultimate displacements, respectively. In this research, the
deflection at yield was calculated using an idealized elastic–plastic curve of the load–deflection diagram as shown in
Figure 10. A bilinear curve can be constructed by drawing a straight line from the origin to the point where 75% of the
maximum load is on the load–deflection curve [58]. The line is extended so it meets the horizontal line that is tangent
to the load–deflection curve at the point of the maximum load.
The shear ductility index of all beams was calculated according to equation 1, and the obtained values are
summarized in Table 6. The results show that WMEC strengthening technique improves the beams’ shear ductility
index. The positive role of this technique in enhancing group W beams’ shear ductility index is shown in Table 6.
The amount of wire mesh in the epoxy matrix seems to have an effect on 𝜇. The shear ductility index gain for the
jacketing scheme with six layers of wire mesh (6SUJ) is 2.5 times higher than that for the three layers of wire mesh
(3SUJ). 𝜇 is also sensitive to the WMEC strip inclination. The improvement in shear ductility index caused by the
inclined strips is greater than that caused by the vertical strips. In addition, the inclined strips present higher ductility
than the vertical strips as shown in Table 6. In comparison to the reference specimen, the deformational behavior of the
reinforced beams is generally better. When comparing the continuous U-jacket design of the specimen with stirrups to
the reference specimen, the increase in ductility reached 23%.
1216
Table 6. Ductility factor of tested beams

Yield deflection Maximum Shear ductility Shear ductility
No. Group Designation
(mm) deflection (mm) index Index gain %
1 CS 8.20 10.5 1.28 ---
2 3SUJ 8.90 14.0 1.57 23
3 S 6SUJ 9.85 15.5 1.57 23
4 6SV 9.50 12.6 1.33 4
5 6SK 9.70 13.7 1.41 10
6 CW 6.00 7.4 1.23 ---
7 6WUJ 9.67 13.0 1.34 9
W
8 6WV 8.77 11.5 1.31 7
9 6WK 9.28 12.0 1.29 5
4.3. Stiffness
Stiffness is an essential factor that affects the serviceability control of members. Thus, the effect of WMEC
strengthening technique on beams’ stiffness was investigated. Beams’ stiffness was calculated by the service load that
produces the maximum permissible allowable deflection as defined by ACI 318-14 [54]. The stiffness values of all the
tested beams are presented in Table 7. The stiffness of all the strengthened beams is considerably higher than that of the
reference specimens. Figures 8 to 10 show that the stiffness of the control and strengthened beams are almost identical
until initial cracks appear (linear elastic part of the curve). Beyond cracking development (after the first crack appears),
the stiffness of the control specimens decreases, and that of the strengthened members remains unchanged due to the
contribution of the strengthening material. L/240 (L is an effective length), i.e., 2000/240= 8.34 mm, is the allowable
deflection for roofs or floors constructed as supporting or attached to nonstructural elements that are not likely to be
damaged by large deflections. This limitation is considered in determining the stiffness of members. As shown in Table
7, all the strengthened specimens exhibit an increase in stiffness at a service load (the load corresponding to allowable
deflection of L/240). The highest increase in stiffness is obtained for the specimens strengthened with continuous U-
jackets in both groups. Among the specimens with shear reinforcement, the increase in stiffness for 6SUJ reaches up to
37.96% compared with that for CS. The limiting deflection defined by L/240 (8.34 mm) is higher than the ultimate
deflection of control specimen CW (7.4 mm) in group W. This specimen does not contain any shear reinforcement and
fails abruptly. Hence, at the service load range for such members, strengthening is crucial to avoid any possible
catastrophic shear failure. However, the beams that contain vertical strips (6SV and 6WV) show less improvement in
their stiffness.
Table 7. Stiffness and secant modulus stiffness of tested specimens
Secant Modulus Secant Modulus Service load at Stiffness, at service
No. Group Designation
Stiffness (kN/mm) Stiffness Gain% Δ=L/240 (kN) load (kN/mm)
1 CS 16.21 ------- 126.8 15.20
2 3SUJ 19.29 19.0 152.4 18.32
3 S 6SUJ 21.62 33.4 174.9 20.97
4 6SV 18.78 15.9 151.0 18.11
5 6SK 19.93 22.9 161.1 19.32
6 CW 16.17 ------- ------ ------
7 6WUJ 19.55 20.9 159.2 19.09
W
8 6WV 17.32 7.3 137.0 16.43
9 6WK 18.83 16.5 151.2 18.13
The stiffness of tested beams can also be estimated using the equivalent elastoplastic curve of the load–deflection
relationship as shown in Figure 11. In this method, the stiffness of specimens is represented by the secant modulus 𝐾𝑒
for the ascending branch of the elastic–plastic curve, which joins the origin point with the point of 0.75 of ultimate load
(P = 0.75 Pu) [57]. The values of calculated stiffness of tested specimens in terms of secant modulus are listed in Table
7. The strengthened beams exhibit greater stiffness than the control specimens. For group S, the increase in stiffness is
19, 15.9, 22.9, and 33.4% for 3SUJ, 6SV, 6SK, and 6SUJ, respectively. For group W, the increase in stiffness is 20.9,
7.3, and 16.5% for 6WUJ, 6WV, and 6WK, respectively. This finding illustrates that the WMEC strengthening technique
improves the beams’ stiffness.
For comparison, the stiffness calculated from the above two methods is presented in Table 7. The variation between
these values ranges 2.41–6.64%. Hence, the above calculation methods can be used to estimate the stiffness of
strengthened beams with desirable accuracy.
1217
Figure 11. Idealized elastic–plastic curve of the load–deflection diagram
The improvement in strengthened beams’ stiffness is due to the contribution of WMEC that restrains the growth of
cracks. As mentioned above, the continuous U-jacket configuration significantly improves beams’ stiffness compared
with the other strengthening configurations due to the large constrained area enclosed by the continuous U scheme along
the shear span. For specimens with similar strengthening scheme (continuous U-jacket), 6SUJ has more stiffness than
3SUJ. Thus, the thickness of the strengthened material is another important factor affecting the stiffness (the number of
strengthening layers is also important). Doubling the number of strengthening layers using the secant and service load
methods improves the stiffness by 14.4% and 17.4%, respectively (specimens 3SUJ and 6SUJ). Shear reinforcement
also contributes to the beams’ stiffness by limiting the propagation of shear cracks. The stiffness of the specimens in
group S is higher than that in group W.
4.4. Energy Absorption

Energy absorption (𝛹) can be estimated as the area under the load–deflection curve up to failure [59]. The values of
energy absorption for all the tested beams are summarized in Table 8. For both groups, the energy absorption of the
beams strengthened with WMEC is higher than the reference specimens. In group S, the highest energy absorption is
reported for beam 6SUJ (2264.42 kN.mm), and the lowest is for the reference beams (880.81 kN.mm). Therefore, the
𝛹6𝑆𝑈𝐽 / 𝛹𝑐𝑠 is about 2.6. In group W, the highest energy absorption is reported for beam 6WUJ (1546.84 kN. mm) and
the lowest is for the reference beams (444.82kN.mm). Therefore, the 𝛹6𝑊𝑈𝐽 / 𝛹𝑊𝐶 is about 3.5. The continuous U-jacket
technique displayed a better enhancement effect on energy absorption compared with the separated WMEC strips.
However, the specimens strengthened with vertical strips, namely, 6SV (1333.17kN.mm) and 6WV (1086.72kN.mm),
show minimum increases in energy absorption (see Table 8). The inclined strips exhibit better energy absorption than
the vertical strips. The increase in energy absorption is nearly 87% and 185% of the corresponding reference specimens
in groups S and W, respectively. The specimens in group W show a higher increase in energy absorption than those in
group S as illustrated in Table 8. This increase in the energy absorption of the specimens in group W is due to enhanced
stiffness that is contributed by WMEC and delays the failure of the specimens. Therefore, the WMEC technique is
relevant to the deformability of the RC members and prevents the abrupt shear failure of strengthened members that
occurred in the control specimens. The WMEC-strengthened beams had better energy absorption than the reference
specimens, as can be seen in Table 8. For the beams with and without stirrups in the shear span, the specimens
strengthened with the continuous U-jacket scheme demonstrated the greatest increase in energy absorption of roughly
twice and three times that of the reference specimen, respectively.
Table 8. Energy absorption of tested specimens
No. Group Designation Ultimate Load (kN) Energy Absorption Ψ, kN.mm Increase in Energy Absorption, %
1 S 135 880.41 -------
2 3SUJ 180 1612.33 83.14
3 S 6SUJ 205 2264.42 157.20
4 6SV 178 1333.17 51.42
5 6SK 194 1643.21 86.64
6 W 97 444.82 ------
7 6WUJ 190 1546.84 247.75
W
8 6WV 157 1086.72 144.31
9 6WK 184 1266.16 184.65
1218
For the continuous full jackets, the gains of energy absorption were 328%, 167% and 116% for carbon, glass and
PBO-FRCM, respectively [20], while it is 247.74% for specimen 6WUJ. The gain in ductility for specimen 6WV is
144.31% while in FRCM system of same scheme were 285%, 66.4% and 75% for carbon, glass and PBO-FRCM,
respectively. For the inclination scheme, the gain of ductility in specimen 6WK is 184.65 %, whereas they were 96%, -
24%, and 130% in carbon, glass, and PBO-FRCM, respectively. It can be concluded that the gain of energy absorption
obtained in the present study is higher than that of glass and PBO-FRCM.
4.5. Crack Propagation and Modes of Failure
The reference specimens (CS and CW) show a typical diagonal shear failure mode as illustrated in Figure 12. In the
early loading stages, one inclined crack has developed in the shear span zone. With further increase in load, the crack
widens and further extends, causing the brittle failure of the beam. The major crack starts near the loading point and
extends downward at approximately 45° angle inclination to the support point. Therefore, the failure mode of these
beams is a diagonal tension failure that happens due to the splitting of the concrete along the inclined crack at loads of
135 kN and 97 kN for CS and CW, respectively.
(a) Control S specimen
(b) Control W specimen
(c) 3SUJ (jacket specimens)
(d) 6SUJ (jacket specimens)
(e) 6WUJ (jacket specimens)
(f) 6SK (strip specimens)
(g) 6WK (strip specimens)
1219
(h) 6SV (strip specimens)
(i) 6WV (strip specimens)
Figure 12. Failure patterns and crack formulation of tested specimens (cont.)
The beams strengthened with the continuous U scheme in both groups show flexural behavior until the failure load.
In 3SUJ, 6SUJ, and 6WUJ, the first flexural crack is initiated in the central zone of the specimens (between two applied
loads) with the cracking load near 90, 95, and 55 kN, respectively. Beyond this load, the cracks extend toward the top
fiber, followed by other small flexural cracks that appear in the same region. The specimen collapses due to the
development of one flexural crack in the middle region of the beam, accompanied by the crushing of concrete in the
compression zone. The failure loads are 205, 180, and 190 kN for 6SUJ, 3SUJ, and 6WUJ, respectively. The crack
patterns at failure are illustrated in Figure 12. During the crushing in the compression zone, the compression
reinforcement also buckles as highlighted in Figures 12-c to 12-e. This phenomenon can be attributed to the excellent
mechanical properties of WMEC that allow the strengthened beams reach their ultimate strength without debonding or
end peelings. The failure of these beams happens in a more ductile fashion compared with the control specimens. The
failure modes of the tested beams are listed in Table 9.
Table 9. Failure modes of tested specimens
No. Group Designation Failure mode

1 CS Shear
2 3SUJ Flexure
S
3 6SUJ Flexure
(With Stirrups)
4 6SV Flexure + shear
5 6SK Flexure + shear
6 CW Shear
7 W 6WUJ Flexure
8 (Without Stirrups) 6WV Flexure + shear
9 6WK Flexure + shear
The failure of the specimens strengthened with vertical and inclined WMEC schemes in both groups (6SK, 6SV,
6WK, and 6WV) were recorded as a combined flexure–shear failure. The failure patterns of the specimens at the collapse
stage are shown in Figure 12. With the increase in load, many flexural cracks appear between the points of applied loads.
The first flexural cracking starts at loads of 60, 90, 40, and 50 kN for 6SV, 6SK, 6WV, and 6WK, respectively. Beyond
this load, cracks extend toward the top fiber, and additional flexural cracks have developed throughout the beam length.
Inclined cracks later appear in both shear span zones close to the beam supports. The inclination angle of these cracks
ranges between 35° and 45°. Increasing the load causes damage to the enclosed region between the load points and a
120 mm distance from the support. This phenomenon continues until the WMEC strips break heavily (Figures 12-f to
21-i). Failure occurs at loads of 178, 194, 154, and 184 kN for 6SV, 6SK, 6WV, and 6WK, respectively. In this stage,
the beam could not endure any further load, and deformation continues due to sequestration supplied by the WMEC
strips. The beams behave in a ductile manner until the jacket strips have fractured on both sides of the beams.
No detachment at the interface between the concrete substrate and WMEC system and/or between the epoxy and
wire meshes is observed for all the strengthened specimens. The removal of the jacket strips reveals that the WMEC has
an excellent attachment to the concrete substrate, and no debonding occurs between them. The test of the strengthened
specimens reveals the influence of WMEC on the breakdown situation and the formation and development of cracks.
Owing to this enhancing role for the shear capacity of the beams, this system may be deemed as an alternative to shear
reinforcement or a solution for beams suffering defects in shear capacity. Thus, the cracking patterns and modes of
failure for the WMEC-strengthened beams are dominated by the WMEC configuration.
1220
4.6. Strain Results

The strains in the concrete were measured using two strain gauges. The first gauge is a 45° strain gauge along the
critical shear span at the mid-height of the beam that was used to measure the maximum WMEC tensile strain. The
second strain gauge was placed at the top compression region at the beam’s mid-span. WMEC strain is a reasonable
indication of the concrete strain. The diagonal tensile strain and top compressive strain reading at the failure of each
specimen are summarized in Table 10 and shown in Figures 13 and 14 for groups S and W, respectively.
Table 10. Maximum strains at the failure load of tested specimens
No. Group Designation Ultimate Load (2P), kN Max. Diagonal Strain Max. Comp. Flexural Strain
1 CS 135 0.001012 0.002001
2 3SUJ 180 0.001338 0.001593
3 S 6SUJ 205 0.001547 0.001392
4 6SV 178 0.001569 0.001011
5 6SK 194 0.001005 0.001973
6 CW 97 0.000052 0.000744
7 6WUJ 190 0.001035 0.002328
W
8 6WV 157 0.003656 0.002025
9 6WK 184 0.000935 0.001957
0.004
Max. Diagonal Strain
0.0035 Max. Comp. Flexural Strain
0.003
0.0025
Strain
0.002
0.0015
0.001
0.0005
0
CW 6WUJ 6WV 6WK
Specimen
Figure 13. Strains at the failure load of Group W
0.0025
Max. Comp. Flexural Strain
0.002
0.0015
Strain
0.001
0.0005
0
CS 3SUJ 6SUJ 6SV 6SK
Specimen
Figure 14. Strains at the failure load of Group S
1221
According to Figure 13 (group W), the maximum diagonal and compressive strains at the failure for all strengthened
specimens are significantly greater than those for CW. This finding indicates the positive impact of the WMEC
strengthening system in delaying brittle shear failure. Upon failure, 6WV and 6WK show similar flexural compressive
strains, indicating their shear failure. In addition, the tensile diagonal strain values of 6WJ and 6WK are close to each
other and lower than the diagonal strain of 6WV. However, the failure loads of 6WJ and 6WK are higher than that of
6WV. This finding indicates the better performance of the inclined strips and U-jacket configuration compared with the
vertical strips.
According to Figure 14 (group S), the flexural compressive strains at the failure for all specimens are lower than
those for the control beams. In particular, 3SUJ and 6SK yield lower tensile diagonal strains than the control and other
beams. 6SV has relatively low compressive strain and high tensile diagonal strain, indicating its shear failure. Therefore,
the performance of the vertical strip configuration is poorer than that of the other strengthening schemes. In addition, all
the beams have greater tensile diagonal strain than the control specimen, except for 6SK, which has a close strain value
to the control beam. For comparison, the strain states of group S specimens and the strains at the load of 135 kN (the
failure of control specimen CS) were computed and are presented in Figure 15. The compressive strains for all
strengthened specimens are lower than those for the control specimen.
0.0025
Max. Comp. Flexural Strain
0.002
0.0015
Strain
0.001
0.0005
0
CS 3SUJ 6SUJ 6SV 6SK
Specimen
Figure 15. Compressive strains at a load of 135 kN
5. Conclusions
The effectiveness of WMEC as a shear-strengthening technique for RC beams was investigated by testing nine
rectangular cross-section beams with and without stirrups within the shear span. The following conclusions can be
drawn:
 The proposed WMEC systems effectively improve the load-carrying capacity. Compared with the non-
strengthened reference beams (for different strengthening schemes), the increase in the load-carrying capacity of
the strengthened beams ranged between 32.6% and 57.8% for the specimens with stirrups in the shear span and
between 61.9% and 95.9% for the specimens without stirrups.
 The deformational behavior of the strengthened beams was generally improved relative to that of the reference
specimen. Compared to the reference specimen, the continuous U-jacket scheme of the specimen with stirrups in
the shear span increased ductility by 23%.
 The effect of WMEC strengthening increased with the number of steel wire mesh layers inside the WMEC. The
beam with six layers of wire mesh increased the ultimate load to 57.8%, which was higher than the 33.4% provided
by three layers. The load-carrying capacity increased by about 72% when the number of layers was doubled.
 The WMEC strengthened pattern had an essential effect on the failure mode and load capacity of beams. The
continuous U-jacket configuration was the best pattern for improving the beam performance.
 The WMEC systems increased the beams’ stiffness and reduced deflection compared with the control specimens.
The increase in the stiffness of the strengthened beams (for different strengthening schemes) ranged from 19.8%
to 31.4% for the specimens with stirrups in shear span and from 40% to 60% for the specimens without stirrups.
1222
 All the WMEC-strengthened beams showed higher energy absorption than the reference specimens. The
specimens strengthened with a continuous U-jacket scheme showed the maximum increase in energy absorption
of about twice and three times that of the reference specimen for the beams with and without stirrups in the shear
span, respectively.
 The WMEC-strengthened beams generally yielded two types of failure modes: flexural failure for the continuous
U-jacket scheme and flexural–shear failure for vertical and inclined strip schemes. Both control beams failed in
diagonal tension failure mode. Thus, WMEC efficiently transformed the failure into flexural.
 WMEC improves beams’ deflection, load-carrying capacity, and energy absorption better than other strengthening
techniques such as natural fiber-reinforced polymer, glass, and PBO-FRCM.
In summary, the proposed WMEC technique is an effective method to improve the shear strength of RC beams and
is suitable for practical application in rapid strengthening. Further studies using different types of wire mesh and shapes
are recommended. Also, WMEC can be tested for strengthening other concrete structural members, such as deep beams.
6. Declarations
Conceptualization, M.A.B., A.J., H.H., and A.D.; methodology, M.A.B., and A.J.; writing—original draft
preparation, M.A.B., and A.J.; writing—review and editing, H.H., and A.D. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.

The data presented in this study are available in article.
6.3. Funding
The authors are grateful to the Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, the University of Misan
for the support.

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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
Mechanical Properties of Eco-friendly Concrete Made with

Sugarcane Bagasse Ash
Tareg Abdalla Abdalla 1*, David O. Koteng 2 , Stanley M. Shitote 3, M. Matallah 4

1
Civil Engineering Department, Institute for Basic Science, Technology and Innovation, Pan African University Hosted at Jomo
Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, PO Box 62000-00200 Nairobi, Kenya.
2
School of Civil & Resource Engineering, The Technical University of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya.
3
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, School of Engineering, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya.
4
RISAM, University of Tlemcen, BP 230, Tlemcen, Algeria.
Abstract
Modern concretes lay emphasis on high strength in order to reduce structural member sizes to reduce materials used; high
early strength to promote fast construction; high durability to reduce maintenance costs; and the incorporation of industrial
and agricultural wastes to reduce environmental degradation. The incorporation of industrial and agricultural wastes into
concrete as cement replacement materials reduces the amount of cement used in the production of concrete and the CO2
emissions arising from cement production. Sugarcane bagasse is a waste product from the extraction of juice from sugar
cane. It is estimated that 1.7 million tons of bagasse are produced worldwide every year. Much of the bagasse is used as
boiler fuel and to produce electricity, and the ash is dumped in earth fills, resulting in critical environmental pollution that
requires immediate attention. Available literature shows that when burned under controlled conditions, a pozzolanic ash
of high silica content can be obtained, which can be used in concrete production with several advantages. This study
investigates the mechanical properties of concrete designed for high strength and incorporating processed sugarcane
bagasse ash in amounts of 10–40% by weight of cement in a binary combination with silica fume. Concrete workability in
the fresh state and compressive, flexural, and tensile strengths in the hardened state are investigated. Water absorption of
hardened concrete is also investigated as an indicator of potential durability. The results show that the mix containing 10%
SCBA has the highest mechanical strength, and increasing the SCBA percentage reduces water absorption. However, the
workability of concrete in the fresh state reduces substantially with an increase in ash content.
Keywords: Eco-Friendly Concrete; Sugarcane Bagasse Ash; Mechanical Strength; Water Absorption.
1. Introduction
Concrete is one of the most widely used manmade construction materials on the globe. The large-scale use of
concrete is due to its readily available raw materials, flexibility in use, good hardened properties, good durability
performance in aggressive environments, adaptability to a variety of dimensions and shapes, and low cost of repair
during the whole life cycle [1, 2]. Cement production is rising rapidly to cope with demand. For instance, between 2005
and 2020, cement production rose from 2.3 to 3.5 Gt, an average annual increase of 2.5%. It is expected that cement
production will reach 3.7 to 4.4 Gt by 2050 [1, 3]. However, cement production is ranked third in energy consumption
after steel and aluminum [3]. Each ton of Portland cement requires about 110 kWh of electrical energy [4] and about
1.6 tons of raw materials [5, 6]. In addition, from the decomposition of limestone and chalk used as raw materials and
* Corresponding author: taregabdalla87@gmail.com

1227
from the fuel used to burn and grind raw materials, producing 1 ton of Portland cement generates about 1 ton of CO2.
The CO2 increases the greenhouse effect and contributes to global warming [7–10]. Much effort has gone into research
for materials which can be used as cement replacement or supplemental cementitious materials (SCMs) to reduce CO 2
emissions [2, 5, 11], and the use of nonrenewable raw materials. Commonly used SCMs are fly ash, blast furnace slag
[12], palm oil fuel ash, rice husk ash, elephant grass ash, bamboo stem ash, wood waste ash, corn cob ash [13], coal
bottom ash, and sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) [14], as well as silica fume (SF) [15]. Currently, there is no proper
application of SCBA waste, resulting in it polluting the environment and causing a landfill problem [16].
Silica fume (SF) is a by-product of the production of ferrosilicon alloys, or silicon metal. It pollutes the environment
and causes health hazards [17]. The SF color can be either premium white or grey [18]. Since the late 1970s, it has been
extensively used to increase the density of concrete by filling the micro-voids in the cement paste [19]. Sugarcane is a
widely grown crop globally, with 1.5 billion tonnes produced in over 110 nations [20]. Sugarcane bagasse is a by-
product of the sugar producing factories after extracting the juice from sugarcane [21]. Annual sugarcane production is
estimated to be 5.5 million tonnes. Considering sugarcane bagasse to be 0.3% of the total mass of processed sugarcane
[22], annual sugarcane bagasse production worldwide is estimated to be 1.7 Mt. SCBA with good pozzolanic properties
can be obtained when sugarcane bagasse is burned for 20 minutes at 800 to 1000°C [23, 24] or burned by air calcination
for 3 hours at 600 °C [25]. The silica percentage in the ash varies depending on some factors, such as temperature, the
soil type used to farm sugarcane, and the method of burning [3, 26]. This pozzolanic material can enhance concrete
strength and durability when used as a mineral admixture for high-strength concrete [27]. The calcium hydroxide formed
during Portland cement hydration reacts with the silica and alumina in the pozzolana in the presence of water to form
calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), calcium aluminium hydrate (C-A-H), and calcium aluminium silicon hydrate (C-A-S-
H) as shown in Equations 1 to 3.
Ca (OH)2 + SiO2 + H2O = C-S-H (1)
Ca (OH)2 + Al2O3 + H2O = C-A-H (2)
Ca (OH)2 + Al2O3 + SiO2 + H2O = C-A-S-H (3)

These pozzolanic reactions are responsible for concrete's improved compressive strength [28–32]. Furthermore, the
incorporation of SCBA delays the initial hydration, which improves the setting time, perhaps as a result of sulfur trioxide
and phosphorus pentoxide content [12]. The compressive strength is influenced by various factors used in the production
such as type of material, mix design, and material composition. In addition, the dosages of SCBA and curing methods
have an influence on the mechanical properties of concrete [33]. The optimal content to the weight of cement varies
with the characteristics of SCBA, but is generally between 10% and 20% [12].
Ahmad et al. [34] examined the effects of the temperature of calcination on the chemical and microstructure
properties of SCBA. The sugar cane bagasse was collected and burned for 1 hour at 800 ° C, and for 3 and 6 hours at
and 600° C. The results showed that when burned for 1 hour at 800°C, the SCBA contained the highest amount of
amorphous silica compared to the other ashes. On the other hand, Rajasekar et al. [35] investigated the effect of replacing
cement with 5, 10, 15, and 20% SCBA by weight of cement on concrete properties and established that it is possible to
produce ultra-high strength concrete by incorporating processed SCBA in concrete. Other researchers, Dineshkumar &
Balamurugan [14] replaced ordinary Portland cement with 10, 20 and 30% SCBA and found that the ideal SCBA dosage
is 20%, but as SCBA is increased, permeability and water absorption decreased. Similarly, Hussein et al. [8] investigated
the replacement of ordinary Portland cement with 5% to 30% SCBA by weight in intervals of 5% and found that the
highest compressive strength was observed with a 5% SCBA replacement level. Similar results were obtained by Mangi
et al. [36] who also observed that at 5% SCBA dosage, the workability of fresh concrete did not change significantly.
In contrast, Chindaprasirt et al. [23] investigated pavement concrete containing 20, 40, and 60% SCBA by weight
of cement and concluded that compressive strength, density, and modulus of elasticity decreased with increased volume
of SCBA. In another experiment, Amin et al. [37] explored the role of finely ground bagasse ash (GBA) when used to
replace 10, 20, and 30% of cement by weight. They concluded that replacement of cement by 10% of GBA produced a
higher compressive strength compared to that of control. They further observed that the tensile and flexural strengths
exhibited almost similar patterns to that of the compressive strength. Other research on SCBA was carried out by Rukzon
& Chindaprasirt [27] investigated the compressive strength, chloride penetration depth and chloride diffusion coefficient
of concrete incorporating 10, 20 and 30% SCBA. The authors concluded that the substitution of 30% SCBA is acceptable
for the production of high-strength concrete (> 60 N/mm2) and also found that the incorporation of SCBA improved the
resistance to chloride penetration and diffusion.
Other researches were done by Quedou et al. [38] who examined the effect of SCBA partial replacement of cement
at 5, 10, 15, and 20% by weight of cement. The authors found that a 10% replacement level exhibited positive
performance and can be considered a suitable cementation material in construction materials. Moreover, the water
absorption increased with increasing SCBA percentage. Similarly, Jagadesh et al. [39] also investigated the mechanical
1228
and fracture properties of mortar incorporated 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30% SCBA. The authors concluded that the
mechanical and fracture properties of cement mortar with 10% replacement level showed improved properties. In
contrast to the aforementioned experiments.
In contrast, other researchers investigated the use of SF and the use of SF together with SCBA. Uzbas & Aydin [15]
investigated the replacement of Portland cement with 5, 10, 15 and 20% SF by weight on the mechanical and
microstructural properties of hardened cement paste and concrete. The authors found that SF content of up to 15%
improved concrete's observed mechanical and microstructural properties. Farrant et al. [40] on the other hand, examined
the effect of the mechanical and durability properties of concrete with SCBA and SF. Their results showed that with
30% SCBA and 10% SF the highest mechanical strength and the lowest permeability were realized.
In summary, the literature review clearly shows that SCBA has potential for use in concrete as a pozzolanic cement
replacement material. In some of the cases, the researchers burned bagasse to produce the ash, and results varied
depending on the manner in which the ash was burned. In other cases, the ash was used without any treatment, while in
other cases, some method of pretreatment was used. The results obtained are, therefore, subject to many variables and
do not offer a specific conclusion on what can come out of using SCBA as a partial replacement of cement in concrete
production. The purpose of this research is to characterize SCBA produced by a local sugar mill, to attempt to improve
it by controlled reburning, then use it to design a high strength concrete and to study its characteristics in the fresh and
hardened state. The success of this research will add value to local SCBA waste, reduce the clinker associated with
concrete production, and by extension, reduce the consumption of nonrenewable raw materials and CO 2 emission.

2.1. Material
Cement
The cement used was Portland cement CEM I/42.5N manufactured locally to EN 197 with a specific gravity of 3.1.
The chemical composition of the cement is given in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical Compositions of fine materials by weight
Oxides Cement Raw SCBA SCBA after burning Silica fume

Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 24.619 80.005 76.18 97.99
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) 5.454 8.923 3.62 0.00
Iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) 2.741 3.19 8.71 0.099
Calcium oxide (CaO) 62.741 1.482 2.88 0.664
Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.607 2.705 5.495 0.123
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 0.000 2.372 0.00 0.001
Phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) 0.439 0.537 1.422 0.615
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) 0.193 0.464 0.937 0.018
Manganese oxide (MnO) 0.025 0.16 0.456 0.021
Sulfur trioxide (SO3) 2.964 0.00 0.00 0.394
Loss on ignition (LOI) - 15.08 5.82 -
SiO2+ Al2O3 + Fe2O3 - 92.12 88.51 -
Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA)

Raw SCBA was obtained from Sukari Industries Ltd, in Western Kenya. The SCBA was oven-dried for 24 h at a
temperature of 105 °C to remove the moisture, sieved through a 75 μm sieve, and tested for chemical compositions and
loss on ignition (LOI). The LOI of the raw SCBA was 15.08%. The raw SCBA was re-burned in an electric furnace for
4 hours at 650 °C to reduce the LOI below 6% to meet the requirement of ASTM C618. A chemical test was repeated
on the re-burned SCBA and chemical analysis of the raw and re-burned SCBA was carried out by the x-ray fluorescence
(XRF) analysis. Both results are given in Table1. The major oxide found in the SCBA after re-burning was silica (SiO2),
which was 76.18% of the total weight. The summation of SiO 2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 was 88.51% and the LOI was 5.8 %,
slightly lower than the specified limit of 6%. According to ASTM C168, the re-burned SCBA met the requirement for
a Class F pozzolan. Figure 1 presents the X-ray diffraction pattern (XRD) of the raw SCBA. The raw SCBA contained
the main crystallization phases of quartz, hematite, cristobalite, calcium phosphate, and potassium carbonate, as well as
mulite. Figures 2-a and b show the physical appearance of raw and re-burned SCBA, and Figure 3 shows the particle
size distribution of the raw SCBA, which ranged from 1.6 to 74 𝜇𝑚, with an average particle size distribution (D50.) of
16 𝜇𝑚. The processed SCBA had a specific gravity of 2.1.
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Figure 1. XRD pattern of raw sugarcane bagasse ash
(a) Raw SCBA (b) Reburned SCBA (c) Silica fume
Figure 2. Physical images of sugarcane bagasse ash and silica fume
100 Raw SCBA

FA
Percentage passing (%)
CA
80 Lower Limit of CA
Upper Limit of CA
Lower Limit of FA
60 Upper Limit of FA
40
20
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Figure 3. Particle size distribution of materials (mm)
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Silica Fume
Silica fume consisted of a grey powder with a specific gravity of 2.20. The chemical compositions are shown in
Table 1. SiO2 was the major oxide present, which was 97.99%. Figure 2-c presents the physical appearance of the silica
fume.
Superplasticizer
The superplasticizer (SP) used was a locally produced polycarboxylate based superplasticizer. The properties are
presented in Table 2.
Table 2. The properties of superplasticizer
Colour Yellowish
Specific gravity 1.08
Solid content (%) 34
Aggregates
Coarse aggregate (CA) consisted of crushed stone of maximum aggregate size (MAS) 12.5 mm. The CA was washed
through ASTM sieve No. 2.36 mm and sun-dried before use. Fine aggregate (FA) consisted of river sand and quarry
dust, both of which were washed on ASTM 0.18 mm sieve and oven-dried at 105oC for 24 hours, then mixed in the
ratio of 70% sand to 30% quarry dust. Table 3 shows the properties of the aggregates. All tests were conducted in
accordance with ASTM standards. The aggregate particle size distribution is shown in Figure 3.
Table 3. The physical properties of the aggregates

Fineness Specific Water Density Voids ratio Aggregate crushing Aggregate impact
Type of aggregates
modulus gravity absorption (%) (kg/m3) (%) value (ACV) (%) value (AIV) (%)
Coarse aggregates - 2.66 3.5 1,468 42 17.6 6.2
Fine aggregates 2.70 2.61 7.61 1,677 28 - -
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Imaging of the Powders

Figure 4 shows the microscopic images of the SCBA, silica fume, and, cement which were taken using scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) to reflect the details of the particle's morphology. The SEM images of the SCBA show that
most of the SCBA particles are irregular in shape with a non-smooth surface, and porous. As a result, when the SCBA
was blended into the cement matrix, the water demand increased. Silica fume was observed as fine particles that
increased the physical packing of paste, thus improving durability and the ultimate strength by enhancing the bond
between hardened cement paste and aggregates.
Elongated
Irregular
Spherical
(a) Image of raw SCBA (b) Image of processed SCBA
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(c) Image of silica fume (d) Image of cement
Figure 4. SEM imaging of SCBA, silica fume and cement
Mix Proportions
A total of five (5) mixes of concrete were prepared according to the procedure given in ACI 211.4R-2008. The
control mix 1 had 0% SCBA. The remaining four mixes were prepared by partial replacement of cement with SCBA at
10, 20, 30, and 40%, respectively. All mix details are given in Table.4. The amount of superplasticizer used varied
according to the weight of the powders. In addition, the water-binder (w/b) ratio was increased for the mixes with 30%
and 40% SCBA.
Table 4. Mix proportional of concrete (kg/m3)
Mix SCBA (%) Cement SCBA Silica fume Water Superplasticizer Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate
1 0 475 0 25 175 3.0 700 1000
2 10 428 48 25 175 6.0 700 1000
3 20 380 95 25 175 9.0 700 1000
4 30 333 143 25 225 6.0 700 1000
5 40 285 190 25 225 7.5 700 1000
2.2. Methodology
Execution of the Study
The study was carried out to the flow chart given in Figure 5. The materials were collected, prepared, characterized,
and then used to prepare the test samples. The samples were tested as described in the following sections.
Concrete Mixing
A rotating drum mixer was used for mixing the concrete. Water was added to the mixer followed by cement, SCBA
and SF and these were mixed to form a uniform paste. Fine aggregate was then added to the paste and mixing continued
to produce uniform mortar. Lastly, coarse aggregates were added to the mortar and mixed to produce concrete of uniform
consistency. SP was added to the mix at all staged to maintain a workable mix.
Workability
The workability of freshly mixed concrete for all mixes was determined by the slump test in accordance with ASTM
C143/C143M – 10.
Preparation and Curing of Test Samples
Rate until the cube was crushed. The maximum load attained was recorded and used to calculate the crushing load
intensity. Concrete into the cube in two equal layers and compacting each layer by 25 tamps of a standard tamping rod.
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The top of the cast cube was levelled smooth using a trowel. For the split tensile and water absorption tests, a total of
30 cylinders of 100 mm diameter and 200 mm height were cast by placing the concrete into the mould in three equal
layers and compacting each layer by 25 tamps of the standard tamping rod, then levelling off the surface smooth with a
trowel. Lastly, 15 prisms of size 150×150×500 mm were cast for the flexural strength test. All cast specimens were
covered by moist cloth and left to stand overnight. The samples were then demoulded and cured in water until the time
of test.
A universal compression testing machine with a load capacity of 150 Mt. was used to test the cube samples. At the
specified age, the concrete samples were removed from the curing tank, wiped dry using a soft cloth, and then left to
stand for 1 h to air dry. Each sample was then placed centrally between the battens of the compression testing machine.
The top batten was brought into contact with the top surface of the sample, and load was then applied at a constant rate
until the cube was crushed. The maximum load attained was recorded. Tests were carried out at 3, 7, 14, 28, and 56 days
and 3 cubes were tested to obtain an average value for each record. The tests were carried out to BS EN 12390- 03.
Split tensile strength test was carried out at 28 days to ASTM C 496/C 496M – 04. 3 cylinders were tested for each
mix and the average value was recorded.
Flexural Strength
Flexural strength test was carried at 28 days to ASTM C78 – 02. 3 prisms were tested for each mix and the average
value was recorded.
Water Absorption
Water absorption test was carried out at 28 days to BS 1881-122 (2011). 3 cylinders were tested for each mix and
the average value was recorded.
Materials collection
Materials
characterization
Mix design
Experimental
methods
Fresh concrete test Hardened concrete test
Workability tests
Slump test
Mechanical properties Durability properties
Water absorption
Compressive strength Splitting tensile Flexural strength
Figure 5. Flow chart for the study
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3.1. Workability
In previous studies, it has been observed that the water demand increases with increasing SCBA replacement ratio
in concrete, which decreases workability as reported by Jha et al. [24] and Landa-Ruiz et al. [17]. However, other studies
have also observed that improvement in workability can be attributed to the low value of LOI as reported by Wu et al.
[41] and Hussein et al. [8], which indicates that the SCBA is low in carbon content. In this study, Figure 6 shows the
slump value for all concrete mixes at different SCBA contents. It is observed that the slump decreases with an increase
in SCBA content. This can be attributed to the flaky shape, rough texture, and porosity of SCBA grains, as can be
observed from SEM images.
110
100
90 Slump
Slump (mm)
80
70
60
50
40
30
0 10 20 30 40
SCBA content (%)
Figure 6. Effect of the SCBA on the workability of concrete
3.2. Compressive Strength

Figure 7 shows the compressive strength results for the five mixes over the 56-day test period. A significant increase
in strength over the control is observed in mix 2 with an increase of 6% at 28 days and 11% at 56 days which is attributed
to the conversion of dormant Ca (OH)2 in the control mix to cementitious C-S-H, C-A.H, and C-A-S-H. However, at
higher SCBA dosages, the strength reduces with respect to the control. Strength gain can only take place when there is
enough Ca (OH)2 to react with all the SCBA. When the amount of SCBA exceeds the amount of available Ca (OH) 2,
the SCBA exerts a diluting effect on the paste resulting in a reduction in strength. It is also observed that, whereas 10%
SCBA inclusion produced concrete in the high strength category with compressive strength at 28 days in excess of 60
MPa, all the other mixes with SCBA inclusion up to 40% produced structural grade concrete with 28-day strength in
excess of 25 MPa.
70
Compressive strength (MPa)
60
50
40
30
20 Control
10% of SCBA
20% of SCBA
10 30% of SCBA
40% of SCBA
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Age (days)
Figure 7. Effect of the SCBA on compressive strength of the concrete
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Another significant observation is that mixes 2, 3, and 4 produced concrete with high early strength of 25 MPa and
above at 3-days. This can allow early removal of formwork and accelerate the rate of construction with significant
savings in costs and time. The increase in strength may be attributed to the fine particle size of SCBA, which is
distributed all over the mix of concrete and increases the packing density. Also, the fine reactive silica content reacts
with calcium hydroxide and forms calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), which is responsible for the strength of concrete,
as reported by Akram et al. [42], Jagadesh et al. [5], and Shah et al. [33]. Moreover, also previous studies have found a
similar trend of decreasing strength at an early age and then increasing strength with increasing curing ages, as observed
by Amin et al. (2022) [43], Chindaprasirt et al. [4], and Amin et al. (2020) [37], which can be attributed to the late
pozzolanic activities of the SCBA.
In Figure 8, the compressive strengths per unit weight of concrete are compared. The lower unit weight of SCBA
compared to cement results in the reduction of the weight of concrete. It is observed that when this consideration is
made, mix 3 with SCBA content of 20% compares well with the control mix. The weight advantage of mix 2 over the
control is also observed to increase.
30
Compressive strength per unit weight (MPa/Kg)
25
20
15
10 Control
10% of SCBA
20% of SCBA
5 30% of SCBA
40% of SCBA
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Age (days)
Figure 8. Effect of the SCBA on compressive strength per unit weight of the concrete
3.3. Split Tensile Strength

Figure 9 presents the split tensile strength results at 28 days, which followed a similar trend as observed in the
compressive strength. A mix incorporating 10% SCBA showed the highest tensile strength value, which was 10% higher
than the control mix, whereas mixes containing 20%, 30%, and 40% SCBA showed 3.9 %, 11 %, and 35 %, respectively,
lower than the control mix. A similar decrease in splitting tensile strength was observed as SCBA percentage increased,
as reported by Shafiq et al. [44] and Gupta et al. [19], which followed the same trend as for compressive strength.
5
Control
10% of SCBA
Splitting tensile strength (MPa)
4 20% of SCBA
30% of SCBA
40% of SCBA
3
0
28
Age ( days)
Figure 9. Effect of SCBA on the 28-day split tensile strength of concrete
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3.4. Flexural Strength

The test results for 28-day flexural strength are shown in Figure 10. The results followed the same trend as for
compressive strength. The mix containing 10% SCBA had the highest flexural strength, which was 8 % greater than the
control mix. A mix containing 20% SCBA showed slightly lower flexural strength, whereas mixes containing 30 % and
40 % SCBA replacement showed much lower strengths of 23% and 28%, respectively.
8 0% of SCBA
10% of SCBA
7 20% of SCBA
Flexural strengh (MPa)
30% of SCBA
6 40% of SCBA
0
28
Age (day)
Figure 10. Effect of SCBA on the 28-day flexural strength of concrete
Figure 10. Effect of SCBA on the 28-day flexural strength of concrete
3.5. Water Absorption

Table 5 shows the water absorption results of the five mixes. As the percentage of SCBA is increased, the water
absorption decreases. The water absorption rate for mixes containing 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% of SCBA gradually
decreased by 9%, 8%, 14%, and 15%, respectively, compared to the control mix. The decrease in water absorption
percentages at all SCBA replacement levels indicates that SCBA has a filling effect in the concrete mixes. A similar
study by Dineshkumar & Balamurugan [14] stated that due to the use of fine bagasse ash, the pores between the concrete
particles were filled, resulting in a lower percentage of water absorption. On the other hand, another study by Amin et
al. [43] concluded that the decrease in water absorption could be attributed to the pozzolanic reaction of the concrete
becoming slower with a high percentage of bagasse ash cement replacement. The percentage of water absorption was
calculated using Equation 4.
Ww − Wd
Percentage of absorption = × 100 (4)
Wd
where, Ww is wet weight of the specimen, and Wd is dry weight of the specimen.
Table 5. Water absorption percentage
SCBA (%) Dry weight (g) Wet weight (g) Percentage of absorption (%)
0 3721 3766 1.21
10 3742 3783 1.10
20 3641 3682 1.12
30 3541 3578 1.04
40 3425 3460 1.03
4. Conclusion and Recommendation

In this study, researchers have investigated the possibility of using SCBA up to 40% and its blend with SF as a partial
replacement of cement to produce sustainable and high-strength concrete. The influence of cement replacement with
SCBA and silica fume on the fresh properties of concrete (slump), the hardened mechanical properties of concrete
(compressive strength, splitting tensile strengths, and flexural strength) and water absorption was assessed and compared
to that of the control mix.
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The results demonstrated that slump content decreases with an increase in SCBA content. On the other hand, a high
early strength of 25 MPa and above is obtained at 3-days with SCBA addition of up to 30%, with potential for the early
striking of formwork and fast construction. In addition, concrete of a high 28-day strength in excess of 60 MPa can be
produced by replacing cement with 10% SCBA, and concrete of a normal 28-day strength above 25 MPa can be obtained
by substituting cement with SCBA up to 40%. At 28 days of age, the compressive strength, split tensile strength, and
flexural strength followed the same trend. Furthermore, the addition of SCBA reduces the water absorption of concrete,
which increases with the amount of SCBA added up to 40%. This has the potential to enhance the durability of concrete.
The authors recommend that SCBA can be used as a cement replacement material at various dosages of up to 40%
to impart advantages to concrete in the form of increased strength, reduced weight, and reduced water absorption. The
incorporation of SCBA in concrete adds value to the material and offers an avenue for the disposal of SCBA waste,
thereby creating a cleaner environment. Partial replacement of Portland cement with SCBA reduces the amount of
cement used in construction. Hence, clinker is required to produce cement. The result is reduced CO 2 emitted during
clinker production, environmental pollution and global warming. A new industry can be developed around the
processing of raw SCBA for use in concrete, resulting in increased jobs and enhanced economic activity.
5. Declarations
Conceptualization, T.A.A, D.O.K, S.M.S, and M.M.; methodology, T.A.A.; validation, D.O.K, S.M.S, and M.M.;
investigation, T.A.A.; data curation, T.A.A, and D.O.K.; writing—original draft preparation, T.A.A.; writing—review
and editing, D.O.K, S.M.S, and M.M.; supervision, D.O.K, S.M.S, and M.M. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.


The authors appreciate and acknowledge the African Union for financial support for this work. Also, the authors
appreciate Pan African University, Institute for Basic Science, Technology, and Innovation, and Jomo Kenyatta
University of Agricultural and Technology for technical support and for the use of the Structural Engineering
Laboratory.

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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
Slenderness in Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete Long Beams
Ravpreet Kaur 1, 2*, Harvinder Singh 3

1
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, IKG Punjab Technical University, Punjab, India.
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, SGT University, Haryana, India.
3
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, GNDEC, Ludhiana, Punjab, India.
Abstract
Slenderness influences in steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) long beams are not adequately addressed in current
concrete design regulations. The present guidelines are confined to semi-empirical formulations for limiting slenderness
ratio, but largely restricted to RC beams. Many scholars have already examined RC long beams and successfully
presented the slenderness ratio formula for RC long beams. This article proposes a novel term for limiting the
slenderness ratio for SFRC long rectangular beams based on the fundamental principle of mechanics and taking into
account the slenderness impact of RC long beams as well as the flexural moment capacity of SFRC beams. The
suggested formulation for limiting slenderness ratio agrees closely with experimental data and may reliably forecast the
mode of collapse. The proposed limiting slenderness ratio formulation takes into consideration beam end circumstances,
loading conditions, concrete strengths, steel, tension and compression reinforcement ratios, and transverse reinforcement
ratios, among other factors. It is revealed that a wide variety of slenderness limits may be achieved for varied sets of
design parameters. The researchers' predictions and the suggested equation are compared to the test results of 9 SFRC
beams. The suggested equation fits well with the results of the tests that have been done so far.
Keywords: SFRC; Steel Fibres; Slenderness; Long; Hooked End.
1. Introduction
Slenderness impacts in RC beams are restricted to normal span beams as per the Indian building design code [1].
However, long beams (RC) exhibit a distinctive response because of slenderness from those of regular
sized/span beams. The collapse mechanism of unusually long beams is found to be sudden destabilization. A relatively
thick beam would be vulnerable to the effects of slenderness and would fail in flexure at a load corresponding to the
moment smaller than the flexural moment capacity, implying material failure. But owing to the research on long
beams in the past few decades, it has been learnt that the design standards [1-5] stipulated for slenderness in normal
span beams cannot predict the behaviour of these RC long beams accurately, and investigations have further
demonstrated that the slenderness of these reinforced concrete long beams is also dependent on different design
factors. It has been learnt that the slenderness depends upon the values of M uf (ultimate flexure moment capacity) and
Mbcr (critical buckling moment), so proper estimation of both (M bcr and Muf) is required to precisely predict the
behaviour of these beams. Currently, there is no approach in the design codes for evaluating M bcr for RC long beams
and Muf for SFRC long beams in BIS design codes. In recent years, many researchers have analysed the RC long
beams and have quite accurately predicted the behaviour of these RC long beams and, hence, forth put forward a
mathematical model for calculating the critical buckling moment and the slenderness [6-8].
* Corresponding author: ranjodh6051@gmail.com

© 2022 by the authors. Licensee C.E.J, Tehran, Iran. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms
and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
1240
Revathi & Menon [6, 7] investigated the extremely and relatively moderate long RC beams and developed as well
as presented mathematical equations to compute Mbcr for these rectangular beams. It was asserted that a number of
sets of design parameters can have a broad range of slenderness limits and further presented a limiting value
of slenderness ratio (λ) by comparing the critical buckling moment, M bcr with the ultimate flexural moment capacity,
Muf in the mathematical expression:
𝐶1 𝐸𝑐
λ= . . √𝛼𝛽 (1)
10𝐶2 𝑅
where C1 and C2 are variables that corresponding to the support conditions of beam and the applied loading,
respectively.
The ‘flexural resistance factor' R for a beam section of width b and having an effective depth d) is R = Muf / (bd2);
and α, β are the ‘effective flexural rigidity' and ‘torsional rigidity coefficients' that are a function of fracturing and and
tension stiffening, respectively. The suggested formula for Mbcr was verified using seven tests performed by Revathi &
Menon [6], three tests devised by Sant & Bletzacker [9], and eleven tests designed by Massey [10]. As many as eight
beams that Revathi & Menon [7] tested collapsed by buckling actually failed in the flexural tension mode, despite the
fact that the flexural capacity in majority of these cases was lowered due to slenderness as stated by Girija & Menon
[8]. Girija & Menon [8], further conducted 15 laboratory tests on slender RC beams rectangular in shape, and hence
modified the formula for critical buckling moment as presented by Revathi & Menon [7] as it further took into account
the non-linear behaviour of concrete leading to development of cracks.In addition to this, an improved version of
mathematical expression presented by Revathi & Menon [7], was suggested by Girija & Menon [8] for calculating the
slenderness ratio λ = √𝑀𝑢𝑓 /𝑀𝑏𝑐𝑟 , which gave much more accurate results.
The current research study is performed on steel fibre reinforced concrete long beams, as owing to the reduced
ductile tolerance of concrete, the reinforced concrete loses its tensile strength and fails in a fragile manner [11], so by
adding steel fibres, as volume reinforcement, not only can resist shear but also overcomes the flaws in concrete,
by reducing and deferring the crack propagation and improving the complete performance of reinforced
concrete structural system [11]. Concrete when strengthened with discontinuous, small, and dispersed fibres is
considered to be a composite material with high fracture resistance due to the fibres' capacity to transmit tensile loads
across crack surfaces (crack-bridging). The past studies on steel fibres have affirmed that the steel fibres have
traditionally been known to increase the strength in bending, in tension and show a better fracture response as well as
the energy absorption capacity. The researchers have indeed been investigating their efficacy on the flexural behaviour
of these reinforced concrete structural elements for several years now. The steel fibrous concrete (SFC) shows
improved cracking behaviour, decreased fracture size, limited crack growth, and prolonged concrete failure which
further improves the flexural fracture resistance when reinforced with standard steel rebars [12-14]. Deformed or
hooked-ended steel fibres with larger l/d ratio have also been shown to successfully enhance fracture resilience, energy
loss, and ductility indices [15, 16]. The mathematical study of concrete structural sections reinforced with steel rebars
and fibres, the incorporation of workable fundamental stress–strain relation of steel fibre reinforced concrete under
compression as well as tension offers logical, reasonable and precise forecasting of the flexural evaluation in context
of bending stress curves versus analytical curves [17].
It is due to the lack of adequate predictive techniques for determining the true behaviour of concrete and steel
fibres in shear strength. Considering the absence of construction standards and regulations, a number of researchers
conducted experiments and presented mathematical equations for predicting the shear strength of SFRC beams [18-
25]. The hypothesis, on the alternative hand, accords strongly with the lab tests from that which it is developed, yet it
does not agree well with the other test findings. As a result, mathematical models for predicting the flexural strength
of SFRC beams using a wide range of experimental data are needed, taking into account the real contribution of steel
fibres and concrete, as well as their interactions. The formula for ultimate flexural moment, M uf(=RBd2) as in Indian
standard codes (IS 456:2000) can be very well applied to RC long beams but not to the SFRC long beams as it is silent
on effect of adding the fibres to the RC and thus cannot estimate the M uf for SFRC beams. However the formula for
calculating the ultimate flexural moment capacity of SFRC beams as proposed by Singh [26] suffices with lab
tests. Since there are no such formulae or mathematical model for the slenderness limits and hence accurately predict
the behaviour of SFRC long beams, the present study aims to present an analytical equation for predicting the
slenderness limits of these beams. For long beams, different formulae to calculate critical buckling moment were
proposed but the one suggested by Girija & Menon [8] defied the flaws and accounted for the non-linearity and
cracking behaviour of concrete. When compared lab test results of SFRC long beams performed in this study, the
suggested formulae for slenderness presented here accurately predict the slenderness limit and hence the mode of
failure of these SFRC long beams as the construction sector is interested primarily in the possible and effective
utilization of steel fibres. This would offer engineers and consultants with a guideline for the deciding the span of long
SFRC beams quantity of fibre and aspect ratio of steel fibres in the design of SFRC long beams. As a result, this
precise analytical model for predicting the slenderness limit of SFRC long beams will be used in order to establish
design recommendations or regulations that would inevitably make SFRC long beams adaptive where-ever suitable in
common construction.
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2. Research Significance
Slenderness can have an undesirable impact on the performance of RC beam by developing a rapid imbalance
failure or a significant reduction in flexural strength. Numerous studies in past provided theoretical models to predict
slenderness limit for RC long beams based on their test findings, but none for SFRC long beams. The formula λ =
√𝑀𝑢𝑓 /𝑀𝑏𝑐𝑟 presented by Girija & Menon [8], however accurately estimate the slenderness in rectangular RC beams.
Since, these models could not account for the combined influence of steel fibres and other variables in forecasting
slenderness limits for SFRC long beams with conventional reinforcement. So a semi-empirical formulation for
estimating the slenderness limits (Ld/b2) for SFRC long beams is provided in this study. The methodology followed in
this research study is shown in the flowchart in Figure 1.
 Searching for slenderness limits for SFRC long beams;

 No formula available for Slenderness limits for SFC long beams;
 Analyzing the available literature (RC long beams and SFRC beams).
 Experimental framework decided;

 Dimensions of the beam are decided;
 Method of testing: Point Bending test.
 Results are noted and mode of failure is studied;

 Theoretical formulation to propose Slenderness limits for SFRC long
beams has been presented;
 Theoretical analysis on experimentally tested beams.
 Theoretical formula successfully predicts the slenderness limits;

 Theoretical formula: validated and proposed.
Conclusions
Figure 1. Flowchart showing the methodology followed in the research
3. Experimentation Method
The study was carried out at the Heavy Testing Laboratory at GNDEC, Ludhiana. A total of 9 under-reinforced
rectangular beams were casted and tested. The size of beams were decided on the basis of the limiting slenderness
ratio for RC long beams established previously by Revathi & Menon [7]. The beams, were 80mm in width and
360mm depth and span of 5m, were casted. The casting was carried out in three separate batches for three different
concrete grades; M1 ranging from 31-36 N/mm2, M2 ranging from 42-44 N/mm2, M3 ranging from 55-59 N/mm2. For
each grade of concrete, one control beam (that does not include steel fibres) was casted. The remaining samples, on
the other hand, were casted with 1% volume fraction of steel fibres. Additionally, to study the effect of aspect ratio of
steel fibres on the behavior of these SFRC long beams, 2 different aspect ratios (63.63 and 77.78 of hooked end steel
fibres) were considered for this investigation. The beam ends were simply supported in the vertical and lateral planes,
but were torsionally restrained and allowed to twist. Four point bending test was performed and the experimental
arrangement (as shown in Figure 2) was based on Hansell & Winter’s [27] study, and it remained explicitly the same
as the one used by previous studies. It comprised of two load assemblies built up using rollers in between two steel
plates to convey the applied point loads with little constraints laterally. Preliminary test was performed with the load
setup to guarantee that the imposed loading only marginally restrains the beam's lateral deflection.
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Figure 2. Test Setup for experimental study
3.1. Specimens
Table 1 lists the beam size and reinforcing specifications of the test samples. The tension reinforcement in all the
test samples was kept same throughout at 1.09%.The initial imperfection of 1-6 mm was recorded in all beams. The
change in parameters was accomplished in the 9 beams by changing the fck for concrete and aspect ratio of steel fibres.
Table 1. Test beam Data
Beam Dimensions Aspect Average cube Initial

S. No. Fibre type Remarks
Label b × D × L (mm) Ratio strength (MPa) Imperfection (mm)
1 M1S0 80×360×5000 - - 31.00 4 Control beam (without fibres-grade 1)
2 M1S1P1 80×360×5000 Hooked-end 63.63 33.40 1 SFRC beam with Grade M1
3 M1S2P1 80×360×5000 Hooked end 77.78 34.20 3 SFRC beam with Grade M1
4 M2S0 80×360×5000 - - 42.20 3 Control beam (without fibres-Grade M2)
7 M3S0 80×360×5000 - - 55.0 3 Control beam (without fibres-Grade M3)
3.2. Materials
Fine aggregate was Zone II with fineness modulus 4.96 and specific gravity 2.6, (the grading curve for fine
aggregates is shown in Figure 3) while coarse aggregate was crushed granite stone with a maximum size of 16 mm
and fineness modulus of 1.98and specific gravity as 2.97 (the grading curve for coarse aggregates is shown in Figure
4). The weight ratio of the mix for M1 was 1:2.16:2.66: with 𝑤/𝑐 ratio as 0.47 and admixture as 0.4%, for M2, it was
1:1.62:2.24 with w/c ratio as 0.39 and admixture as 0.42%. Both grades M1 and M2 use PPC. While mix design for
high grade concrete, M3 was 1:1.37:2.84 with w/c ratio as 0.34 and admixture as 0.5%, fly-ash as 0.18% and silica
fumes as 0.0625% with OPC43 grade. The longitudinal reinforcing bars of diameter 10 mm were made of steel with a
characteristic yield stress of 500 MPa, while the stirrups were 6mm in diameter and made of steel with a characteristic
yield stress of 250 MPa. During each casting, three cubes were casted and the mean cube strength values were found
out from the peak load on compression testing machine and 2 cylindrical specimens were casted for finding the split
tensile strength. These values of compressive strength and split tensile strength were utilized in the beam specimen
strength computations.
1243
100
90
80

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 1 0.1 0.01
Sieve Size (mm)
Figure 3. The grading curve for fine aggregates
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100 10 1
Sieve Size (mm)
Figure 4. The grading curve for coarse aggregates
3.3. Instrumentation for the Specimen and the Test Method

At mid-span, dial gauges with a precision of 0.01 mm were utilised to monitor the lateral and vertical deflections at
the centre point of the effective span. It was ensured that the load was applied without any damage. All the beams
were gradually loaded, with the predicted failure occurring after 15 to 20 load stages. As calculated from theoretical
formulation, the beams were loaded to failure, and dial gauges were used to record a complete set of deflection values
at each load increment. The peak load and mode of collapse were noted. Table 2 also shows the test beam failure loads
and observed mode of failure during the laboratory investigation.
Table 2. Test results
S. No. Beam fck Ec Expt. peak load Observed Failure

1 M1S0 31.00 27838.82 43.200 Flexural tension failure (with negligible lateral deflection)
2 M1P1S1 33.40 28896.37 48.500 Flexural failure with enhanced tensile capacity (with lateral deflection)
4 M2S0 42.20 32480.76 52.500 Flexural failure with enhanced tensile capacity (with lateral deflection)
7 M3S0 55.0 37080.99 44.80 Flexural failure with enhanced tensile capacity (with lateral deflection)
8 M3P1S1 57.4 37881.39 50.80 Failure due to instability (i.e. large lateral deflections)
9 M3P1S2 58.9 38373.17 46.20 Failure due to instability (i.e. large lateral deflections
The results indicate that the suggested expressions for M bcr and limiting slenderness ratio for slender RC beams,
suggested by Girija & Menon [8] holds true since the 4 point bending test performed in laboratory on the specimens of
3 control beams show comparable results and, hence the formulation published by Girija & Menon [8] can be further
1244
applied for deriving the formulae for flexural moment capacity and limiting slenderness ratio for steel fibre reinforced
concrete long beams and the formulation must be validated against all above laboratory tests performed on the
specimens of SFRC long beams as in Table 2.
3.4. Observed Mode of Failure

Case 1: Flexural tension failure (with negligible lateral deflection)
When the cracks appear due to flexural failure, lateral deflection is zero or it’s actually negligible generally
observed in the soffit area extending gradually to both the sides under the application of load. These cracks propagate
upwards thus leading to final collapse due to concrete crushing in the compression zone with prior warning.
Case 2: Flexural failure with enhanced tensile capacity (with lateral deflection)
When the flexural cracks appear due to application of load with controlled lateral deflection .The cracks generally
observed in the soffit area extending gradually to both the sides under the increased loading. These cracks propagate
upwards similar to Case 1 but in this case the beam can take load compared to the calculated capacity thus leading to
final collapse due to increased vertical deflection due to bending with prior warning.
Case 3: Failure due to instability (i.e. large lateral deflections)
Where the beam is not able to carry any load further due to large lateral deflection or increased twisting with
loading and cracks, the failure occurs suddenly as the beam moves out of the load assembly due to large lateral
deflection and the failure occurred at a load value less than the calculated flexural load capacity of the beam.
3.5. Load vs. Deflection Curves

The load-deflection curves from Figures 5 to 7 show how with variation in concrete grade and Figures 8 and 9
shows how the aspect ratio of steel fibres impacts the load carrying capacity and deflection control in the test beams.
Comparison of Load deflection curve from Experimental study for Grade M1, M2 and M3 (Figures 5 to 7).
For Grade M1
60
50
40
Load (kN)
M1S0
30 M1S0 Lateral
M1S1P1
20
M1S1P1 Lateral
10 M1S2P1
M1S2P1 Lateral
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Deflection (mm)
Figure 5. Comparison of Load deflection curves for Grade M1
For Grade M2
60
50
40
Load (kN)
M2S0
30 M2S0 Lateral
M2S1P1
20
M2S1P1 Lateral
M2S2P1
10
M2S2P1 Lateral
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Deflection (mm)
Figure 6. Comparison of Load deflection curve for Grade M2
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For Grade M3
60
50
40
Load (kN)
M3S0
30 M3S0 Lateral
M3S1P1
20
M3S1P1 Lateral
10 M3S2P1
M3S2P1 Lateral
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Deflection (mm)
Figure 7. Comparison of Load deflection curve for Grade M3
Comparison of Load deflection curve for Fibre type S1 and S2 (Figure 8 and 9).
For S1
60
50
40
Load (kN)
M1S1P1(EXPT)
30 M1S1P1 Lateral
M2S1P1(EXPT)
20
M2S1P1 Lateral
10 M3S1P1(EXPT)
M3S1P1 Lateral
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Deflection (mm)
Figure 8. Comparison of Load deflection curve for Fibre type S1
For S2
60
50
40
Load (kN)
M1S2P1
30 M1S2P1 Lateral
M2S2P1
20
M2S2P1 Lateral
10 M3S2P1
M3S2P1 Lateral
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Deflection (mm)
Figure 9. Comparison of Load deflection curve for Fibre type S2
4. Theoretical Formulation
4.1. Critical Buckling Moment
The first step is to compute the critical buckling moment.
From the previously published studies, it has been learnt that for a rectangular section, critical buckling moment is
derived from the fundamental concept of considering potential energy as constant [28]. On the application of load, the
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deformation takes place in both vertical direction (in y direction) as well as in the horizontal direction (in x direction)
along with twisting (x-y direction) of the deformed section (Figure 10 shows the experimental procedure and Figure
11 shows the deflection in the beam).
Figure 10. Horizontal deflection in Slender RC beam with the application of load as captured during experimental testing
Figure 11. The cross section of mid span of slender beam in laterally deflected position [8]
δ ∏ = δU + δV = 0 (2)
where δ∏ , δU, and δV represent the initial change in total potential energy (∏ ), strain energy (U) owing to horizontal
bending and twisting, and loading potential (V) for the simply supported structural member subjected to proportioned
middle third loading, correspondingly.
The in-plane deformation component can be eliminated while evaluating displacement as it de-links the in-plane
action from the failure in the horizontal direction [8, 29]. For thin rectangular components, the impact of twisting can
be ignored [30], resulting in captured strain energy and load capacity in horizontal twisting bending. The stored
potential energy and load stored in horizontal twisting bending can be written as:
1 𝐿
U = ∫0 [𝐸𝐼𝑦 (𝑢")2 + 𝐺𝐽(𝛳′ )2 ]𝑑𝑧 (3)
2
𝐿 𝑎 𝐿
V = ∫0 𝑀𝑥 𝛳𝑢"𝑑𝑧 − ∫0 𝑃𝛳2 𝑑𝑧 (4)
2
where u is the sideways deflection, θ is the measure of twisting angle, P is the entire load transmitted, a is the distance
of load applied above the shear centre (Figure 12) and M x is the bending moment owing to the load application about
the principal bending axes.
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Figure 12. The load applied above shear center [8]
The expression of Mbcr reduces to the below equation:
2
𝜋 𝑎 𝐸𝐼 𝑎 𝐸𝐼𝑦
√𝐸𝐼𝑦 𝐺𝐽 ×(√1 + (1.57 𝐿 √ 𝐺𝐽 ) − 1.57
𝑦
Mbcr = 1.09
𝐿 𝐿
√ 𝐺𝐽 ) (5)
where 𝐸𝐼𝑦 is the sideways flexural rigidity and 𝐺𝐽 is the torsional rigidity.
The above formulation, for thin beams with simply supported ends, rectangular cross sections loaded at the central
third points and casted of homogenous elastic substance could not be easily applied to RC members, since it accounts
for cracking and non-linearity of concrete. Beacuse of which Revathi and Menon [6, 7] developed formulas for
effective bending and torsional resistance for fractured concrete beams.
4.1.1. Effective Flexural Stiffness

To obtain the effective stiffness in flexure for any value of load, the relationship between moment and curvature
(M–ϕ) of RC beams as presented by Bazant & Oh [31] applied in this study (Figure 13). Although Branson's model
[32] is only applicable to service loads, the framework hence is curated from basic material properties which can
predict bending and deflections up to the ultimate load. This moment curvature relationship is hence developed
applying strain interaction, as proposed by Bazant & Oh [31].
Figure 13. Typical moment (M)-curvature (φ) relationship [8]
1248
The fraction, 𝑀/𝜙, corresponds to any point on this graph (for a given moment level) and is a measurement of
effective flexural stiffness with respect to the primary axis, (𝐸Ieff, x). The secant elastic modulus is obtained from the
specified nonlinear stress vs. strain graph of concrete (Figure 14) which corresponds to the excessive fibre
compression stress and strain.
Figure 14. A typical Stress-strain curve of concrete [8]
The M–ϕ curve's effective moment of inertia (Ieff, x) accounting for the fracturing caused by primary axes bending
as well as the non - linearity of concrete. This will have a negative impact on lateral flexural stiffness. This drop is
supposed to be characterized by an analogous effective rectangular beams, with the same width b but a decreased
depth 𝑑𝑒𝑞𝑣 , leading to the estimated value of I eff,x, at every moment level, M, whereby the calculated value of Ieff,y
may now be determined as well. For the constraint M = Mbcr, the converged values of Ieff, x, 𝑑𝑒𝑞𝑣 and Ieff,y may be
produced via an iteration including repetitive applications of Equation 5.
For this crucial state, the value of effective horizontal flexural stiffness is represented by𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 , which is stated as
follows:
𝑑𝑒𝑞𝑣 𝑏 3
𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐸I eff, y = 𝐸 ( ) (6)
12
4.1.2. Torsion Rigidity (Effective)

In this work, Tavio and Teng [33] provided the solution for effective twisting stiffness, 𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 of fractured concrete
beams, which is a revised form of the expression published by Hsu [34]:
4µ𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑜 2 𝐴𝑐
𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 1 1 (7)
𝑝𝑜 2 ( + )
𝜌𝑡 𝜌𝑡𝑟
where µ is the rigidity multiplier often taken as 1.5 as suggested by Tavio & Teng [33], 𝜌𝑡 = 𝐴𝑙 /𝐴 c and 𝜌𝑡𝑟 =
𝐴𝑡 𝑝1
denotes the ratio of reinforcement in both longitudinal and transverse directions respectively 𝐴𝑜 , 𝐴𝑐 and 𝑝𝑜 are the
𝐴𝑐 𝑠
cross-sectional properties of the section of the beam as shown in the Figure 15.
Figure 15. The cross section of the beam
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4.1.3. Critical Buckling Moment for a RC Beam

The formula for Mbcr stated in Equation 5 (suitable for symmetric position of middle-third loading with ends being
simply supported) may be represented as follows in contexts of effective lateral flexural rigidity (𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 ) and torsional
rigidity (𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 ):
2
𝜋 𝑎 𝐵
𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑎 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓
Mbcr = 1.09
𝐿
√𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 ×(√1 + (1.57 𝐿 √𝐾 ) − 1.57 𝐿
√𝐾 ) (8)
𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓
It should be highlighted that the real estimation of Mbcr necessitates the use of an iterative operation because it is
dependent on 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 evaluation, Equation 6, which necessitates the use of gradual strain loading method to create the
M– ϕ correlation previously stated.
The formula of Mbcr as in Equation 8 can be simplified further to general formula which can be applied to a number
of loading conditions and boundary setups as given below:
𝐶1 𝐶3
Mbcr =
𝐶2 𝐿
√𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 (9)
The above stated formulation for Mbcr has parameters which can be described as C1 is for applied loading condition
(which has a value of π for pure bending and 1.35π under the central concentrated load ), and C3 is a component that
contributes for the end support. C2 accounts for the beam's support conditions (a value of unity for beam with ends
simply supported ) and C3 accounts for the position of loads with regards to the rectangular beam's centroidal axes
(=1, when the load is applied at the centroid) [30].
4.1.4. Validation of the Suggested Critical Buckling Moment Expression

All documented test findings on slender reinforced rectangular beams (which collapsed by buckling) are taken into
account for the aim of validating the suggested formulation for M bcr and comparing it to concepts found in the
literature. The proposed formulation was validated by the experimental investigations undertaken by Revathi &
Menon [6], Girija & Menon [8] and Sant & Bletzacker [9] and Massey [10].The published literature validated that
both under-reinforced and over-reinforced beams are found to be suitable for the suggested technique.
4.1.5. Critical Buckling Moment (Generalized Formula)

Iterative procedures are used in the suggested methodology to compute M bcr (Equation 8). It would be preferable to
offer a more straightforward phrase that could be used in design codes. Revathi and Menon [7] provided a revised
formulation that included modified formulas for effective lateral flexural rigidity (𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 ) and effective torsional rigidity
(𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 ). In the current research, a similar technique is used to calculate 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 and𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 , with the gross cross section for
flexural and torsional stiffness of UN - cracked concrete sections being as follows:
𝐵3 𝐷
𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 = α𝐸𝑐 (10)
12
𝐵3 𝐷
𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 = β𝐺𝑐 (11)
3
In order to arrive at highly realistic estimations of 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 and 𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 , and therefore Mbcr, certain modifications have
often been made in the research by Girija and Menon [8]. The actual drop in depth (𝑑𝑒𝑞𝑣 ) due to bending fracturing
with respect to the major axis is accounted for the flexural stiffness coefficient (α). As 𝑑𝑒𝑞𝑣 is acquired from Ieff, x,
which is derived from the M–ϕ plot, the flexural rigidity coefficient (α) additionally compensated for tension
hardening effect.
As demonstrated in Shebl & El-Nemr [35], it is mostly influenced by the amount of reinforcement in the tensile
zone (pt) and very slightly by the strength of concrete in compression (fck).
The following formula for obtaining α:
α = [0.8 − 0.003fck] (pt)0.25 (12)
The suggested confined formulation for α, generates results of that are remarkably similar to those obtained by the
iterative method provided by Bazant and Oh [31].
Teviot & Teng's [33] solution yields the following result for the torsional stiffness co–efficient:
12µ𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑜 2
β= 1 1 (13)
𝑝𝑜 𝐵2 𝐺𝑐 ( +
2 )
𝜌𝑡 𝜌𝑡𝑟
1250
The equation for critical buckling moment Mbcr may be derived by incorporating Equations 12 and 13,
respectively, in Equation 9 and applying:
𝐶1 𝐶3 𝐸𝑐 𝐵3 𝐷
Mbcr =
6 𝐶2 𝐿
√𝛼𝛽 (14)
√2(1+‫) 𝑐ט‬
where ‫= 𝑐ט‬0.15 for Poisson’s ratio of concrete [7], for the present case of simply supported beam with point loads at
middle third points (𝐶1 =1.09π, 𝐶2 =1).
The fundamental for generalized slenderness limit, which is represented as standardised moment capacity instead
of compressive stress [36, 37]: λ =√𝑀𝑝 /𝑀𝑏𝑐𝑟 (for beams made of steel).
The standardized slenderness limit may be calculated as:
𝑀𝑢𝑓
λ=√ (15)
𝑀𝑏𝑐𝑟
Using a common method for RC thin beams, substituting the plastic moment capacity (Mp) with the maximum
flexural moment capacity (Muf) (RC beams).
For λ values less than 1, the flexural mode of collapse is estimated to prevail, and for λ more than 1, the instability
mode of failure is likely to occur. Though, the relationship between the two modes of failure can be predicted, in
addition to decreased moment capacity, for λ = 1.
The following expression is proven by existing laboratory data and is proposed as a basis for attempting to prevent
abrupt destabilization collapse in slender reinforced concrete beams. A revised formulation for minimised slenderness
limit in terms of Ld./b 2 is also suggested based on this [7].
λ <1.0 (16)
4.2. Estimation of Ultimate Flexural Moment Capacity

The flexural concept developed by Singh [29]
𝑀𝑢 ℎ 2 ℎ 2 𝐷 𝑑′ 𝐷
= ⌊0.24𝜉 ( 1) + ( 2 ) {0.5𝐹 + 𝛾ꙍ ( ) (1 − )⌋ (17)
𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝐵𝐷2 𝐷 𝐷 ℎ2 𝐷 ℎ2
Equation 17 may also be used to forecast the ultimate capacity of rectangular concrete sections using standard
longitudinal rebars as their only main reinforcement. It's worth noting that concrete beams usually collapse due to the
crushing of the concrete along their path, regardless of the amount of reinforcing given, the severe compression face.
The impact of fibre characteristics, represented as fibre-index (F), and reinforcement-index (ꙍ), on the flexural
capacity (Mu) of an SFRC section is presented in this study by Singh [26]. The fibre-index (F) is a parameter for the
tensile capacity of SFRC.
A high index value implies that the component has a larger capacity in flexure. According to Singh [26], the
quantity of the volume percentage (Vf) and the fibre aspect ratio (ratio of length of fibre to diameter of the fibre i.e.
l/d) utilised in the concrete mix rise. Concrete's compressive strength has a minor impact on the fibre-index value. As
a result, SFRC beam with an increased fibre value is predicted to have a greater flexural capacity.
Both conventional RC and SFRC sections have tensile zone. Consequently, in the case of flexural SFC
reinforced member with traditional tensile reinforcing bars in its tensile region, the tensile capacity of these rebars
shall offer mobilization and play a vital role in adjusting the location of the NA in the segment based on the strain-
value consensus at the reinforcing bar's level, with regards to the inclusion from the steel fibres existing in its tensile
area.
Singh [26] conducted a study on steel fibre reinforced concrete structures and presented a flexural model to
estimate the ultimate capacity of steel-fibre-reinforced rectangular sections. The volume fraction (V f), determines the
proportion of volume of steel fibres in a beam to total concrete volume of that beam. The aspect ratio of steel fibres is
defined as the length of the fibre divided by its diameter. These steel fibres are understood to be dispersed randomly
and displayed uniformly throughout the beam. For presenting the realistic model of a SFRC member, Singh [26], took
into account the conventional reinforcement i.e. steel bars in the spanning the length of the beam with a cross-sectional
area (Ast) at a distance d’ from its bottom face as shown in Figure 16, in addition to the steel fibres. When the
significant tensile stresses induced by external loads surpass the ultimate tensile strength of the material, cracking
occurs in an SFRC member.
1251
Figure 16. The cross section of the SFRC beam for the formulation presented by Singh [26]
As presented by Singh [26], the flexural capacity of SFRC members is calculated by the following expression:
𝑀𝑢 ℎ 2 ℎ 2 𝐷 𝑑′ 𝐷
= ⌊0.24𝜉 ( 1) + ( 2 ) {0.5𝐹 + 𝛾ꙍ ( ) (1 − )⌋ (18)
𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝐵𝐷2 𝐷 𝐷 ℎ2 𝐷 ℎ2
where (ꙍ) is a reinforcement-index [=(Ast/BD) fy/fck] and (ɣ) is a constant that specifies how much stress is mobilised
in typical longitudinal tensile reinforcement bars with yield strength (fy) under the prevailing strain state in the
member. 𝜉 has a value of unity. For every given value of the fiber-index (F), the value of the neutral-axis coefficients
ℎ ℎ
( 1, 2 ) can be computed using a series of modified expressions presented in Equation 17 for the SFRC beam sections:
𝐷 𝐷
ℎ1 2.38F
=( ) (19)
𝐷 1+2.38F
ℎ2 ℎ1
= (1 − ) (20)
𝐷 𝐷
Using 19 in 20:
ℎ2 1
=( ) (21)
𝐷 1+2.38F
It's worth noting that the depth of the NA i.e. the neutral axis in a steel fibrous RC beam is solely determined by
the fibre-index (F), with a larger value indicating a greater strength of the material in the tension zone.
0.3 𝑉𝑓 (𝑙/𝑑)
𝐹= (22)
√𝑓𝑐𝑘
Using 19 and 21 in 18:
𝑀𝑢 ℎ 2 ℎ 2 𝐷 𝐷 𝑑′ 𝐷
= ⌊0.24 ( 1 ) + ( 2) {0.5𝐹 + 𝛾ꙍ ( ) − 𝛾ꙍ ( )⌋ (23)
𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝐵𝐷2 𝐷 𝐷 ℎ2 ℎ2 𝐷 ℎ2
𝑀𝑢 ℎ 2 ℎ 2 𝐷 ℎ 2 𝑑′ 𝐷
= ⌊0.24 ( 1 ) + ( 2) 0.5𝐹 + {𝛾ꙍ ( ) ( 2) − 𝛾ꙍ ( )⌋ (24)
𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝐵𝐷2 𝐷 𝐷 ℎ2 𝐷 ℎ2 ℎ2
𝑀𝑢 2.38F 2 1 2 𝛾ꙍ 𝛾ꙍ 𝑑′
= ⌊0.24 ( ) +( ) 0.5𝐹 + {( )− ( )⌋ (25)
𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝐵𝐷2 1+2.38F 1+2.38F 1+2.38F (1+2.38F) ℎ2
Since 𝑀𝑢 = 0.8 𝑀𝑢𝑓 (26)
Substituting the value of Mu from Equation 26 in Equation 25:

𝑀𝑢𝑓 1 2.38F 2 1 2 𝛾ꙍ 𝛾ꙍ 𝑑′
= ( ) ⌊0.24 ( ) +( ) 0.5𝐹 + {( )− ( )⌋ (27)
𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝐵𝐷2 0.8 1+2.38F 1+2.38F 1+2.38F (1+2.38F) ℎ2
4.3. Slenderness Limits

From Equations 15 and 16:
𝑀𝑢𝑓
√𝑀 ≤1.0 (28)
𝑏𝑐𝑟
Squaring Equation 28:
1252
𝑀𝑢𝑓
≤1.0 (29)
𝑀𝑏𝑐𝑟
Putting the value of 𝑀𝑢𝑓 and 𝑀𝑏𝑐𝑟 in Equation 29:
𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝐷 6 𝐶2 𝐿√2(1+‫) 𝑐ט‬ 2.38F 2 1 2 𝛾ꙍ 𝛾ꙍ 𝑑′

( ) ⌊0.24 ( ) +( ) 0.5𝐹 + {( )− ( )⌋ ≤ 1 (30)
0.8𝐶1 𝐶3 𝐸𝑐 𝐵2 √𝛼𝛽 1+2.38F 1+2.38F 1+2.38F (1+2.38F) ℎ2
𝐿𝐷 √𝛼𝛽𝐶1 𝐶3 0.8𝐸𝑐 1
≤( )( 2.38F 2 2 𝑑′
) (31)
𝐵2 ⌊0.24( ) +(
1
) 0.5𝐹+{(
𝛾ꙍ
)−
𝛾ꙍ
( )⌋
√2(1+‫ 𝑘𝑐𝑓 ) 𝑐ט‬6𝐶2 1+2.38F 1+2.38F 1+2.38F (1+2.38F) ℎ2
𝐿𝐷
where represents slenderness (i.e. Limiting slenderness ratio, ƛ) according to IS 456:2000, clause 23. 3.
𝐵2
According to IS-456:2000, a RC simply supported beam is proportioned such that span of the beam should not
250 𝐵2
exceed [1]. Therefore for RC long beam, the lower limit of slenderness limit shall be
𝑑
𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝑩𝟐
L> (32)
𝒅
Combining Equations 31 and 32:
250 < ≤( )( 2.38F 2 2 𝑑′
) (33)
𝐵2 ⌊0.24( ) +(
1
) 0.5𝐹+{(
𝛾ꙍ
)−
𝛾ꙍ
( )⌋
√2(1+‫ 𝑘𝑐𝑓 ) 𝑐ט‬6𝐶2 1+2.38F 1+2.38F 1+2.38F (1+2.38F) ℎ2
Equation 33 gives the final expression for slenderness limit for SFRC long beams.
Table 3. Comparison of results from experimental and theoretical formulation and the validations
Moment from
Beam Critical Buckling Flexural To avoid instability Type of Failure
S. No. Experimental test Type of Failure@
Label Moment (Mbcr)** Moment (Muf)# failure Moment (Muf)## predicted @@
results (kNm)*
failure with warning
1 M1S0 51.786 81.072 48.89146 Y Failure with warning
(flexural cracks)
2 M1S1P1 58.13938 82.175 61.86115 Y Failure with warning
(flexural cracks)
(flexural cracks)
(flexural cracks)
(flexural cracks)
(flexural cracks)
(flexural cracks)
8 M3S1P1 60.8965 89.1 101.0803 N Bending Instability Failure
9 M3S2P1 55.38225 89.4 105.6156 N Bending Instability Failure
* Calculation done according to simply supported beam with two point loads. ** From proposed Theoretical Formulation (kNm) [using Equation 14].
#
From Proposed Formulation (kNm) [using Equation 27].## From Proposed Formulation (kNm)-Mbcr>Muf-Yes(Y) or No(N) [Equation 29]
@
From Experimental test Results. @@ From Proposed formulation (Failure with warning or Instability Failure).
5. Proposals for Slenderness Ratio Limits

To prevent the sudden instability leading to failure, the design codes prescribe the limits for slenderness.
Slenderness limits for long beams as proposed by Revathi and Menon [7], incorporated the effect of different variable
design parameters (pt, pc , ρtr, fck and fy). But this formulation showed abnormal results and to rectify the flaws in the
previous study, Girija and Menon [8] further extended the concept of lateral torsional buckling of steel beams to RC
long beams substituting the plastic moment capacity (Mp) of steel beams with the ultimate flexural moment capacity
(Muf) for RC beams.
The slenderness ratio λ can be defined as follows: λ =√𝑀𝑢𝑓 /𝑀𝑏𝑐𝑟 (RC beams). (18) The modified expressions for
α and β proposed in the present study (Equations 12 and 13) should be incorporated in Equation 20. Muf and Mbcr were
equated to get the slenderness limit for RC long beams. But M uf for SFC is different for than of RC as the effect of
fibres need to be addressed. For this, the formulation by Singh [26] effectively takes into account the effect of fibres
when added to the RC beam with conventional steel reinforcement. Hence, in this study the slenderness limit is
suggested for SFRC long beams and the mode of failure is interpreted which is further validated by the experimental
and numerical investigations. Beams with limiting slenderness ratio, ƛ values more than 1.0 are likely to fail due to
instability, whilst those with ƛ values less than 1.0 will fail due to flexural tension.
1253
The final expression for slenderness limit as stated in Equation 34 to avoid instability failure is:
250 < ≤( )( 2.38F 2 2 𝑑′
) (34)
𝐵2 ⌊0.24( ) +(
1
) 0.5𝐹+{(
𝛾ꙍ
)−
𝛾ꙍ
( )⌋
√2(1+‫ 𝑘𝑐𝑓 ) 𝑐ט‬6𝐶2 1+2.38F 1+2.38F 1+2.38F (1+2.38F) ℎ2
6. Conclusions
 Existing formulations for slenderness limits proposed in the literature do not predict accurately the ultimate
moment capacity and mode of failure of rectangular SFRC long beams, as the limits of slenderness for RC long
beams do not take into account the contribution of steel fibres, which effects the flexural moment capacity as
established by 9 experimental tests conducted in the present study.
 A theoretical formulation for slenderness limits for SFRC long beams is being proposed, which has been
validated against experimental tests performed in this study and the data has been presented in Table 3.
 Limiting slenderness ratio, λ ≤ 1.0 suggested on the basis of avoiding sudden instability failure in long RC beams
as by Revathi & Menon for long RC beams. Also, based on this, a simplified expression for limiting slenderness
ratio for SFRC long beams, in terms of Ld/b2, is proposed.
 High strength SFRC beams show instability failure in the form of bending and twisting. So the load carrying
capacity in M40 grade of concrete shows better results than M55 grade, as M55 grade shows twisting and
bending leading to instability failure at lower loads as compared to its load carrying capacity. Also, M40 grade
shows better results as compared to M25 grade of concrete, as M25 gives a lower value of load carrying capacity
as compared to M40 grade.
 The higher aspect ratio of steel fibres shows higher load carrying capacity for the M40 grade of concrete, unlike
the M25 and M55 grades of concrete, which show higher load carrying capacity with lower aspect ratio for the
same fibre type.
 No shear cracks were observed. All beams failed in flexure as to justify the behaviour of slender beams.
 The mode of failure as predicted based on theoretical formulation is the same as proved during experimental
testing. So, the theoretical formulation predicts the behavior of the beams accurately and can hence be applied to
SFRC long beams.
 A better deflection control both laterally and vertically is shown by beams with hooked end steel fibres with an
aspect ratio of 77.78 as compared to the hooked end fibres with an aspect ratio of 63.63 as inferred by the load-
deflection curves.
 The failure in the grade M55 of SFRC beams was due to instability because of twisting of beams and higher
lateral deflection, leading to beams moving out of load assembly.
7. Declarations
Conceptualization, R.K. and H.S.; investigation, R.K. and H.S.; resources, R.K. and H.S.; writing—original draft
preparation, R.K. and H.S.; writing—review and editing, R.K. and H.S.; visualization, R.K. and H.S. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

7.3. Funding
The authors a very thankful to Stewols India (P) Ltd. and SRONS Engineers, Ludhiana, Punjab, India for
providing Steel fibres (Hooked end aspect ratio 77.78 -STEWOLS India(P) Ltd; and Hooked end aspect ratio 63.63-
SRONS Engineers, Ludhiana) used in the present study. The authors extend sincere gratefulness to the Department of
Civil Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, for giving the permission to carry out
experimental research work in their Concrete Laboratory and Heavy testing Laboratory.

1254
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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
Asphalt Elasticity Modulus Comparison Using Modified

Laboratory LWD Against UMMATA Method
Lucky Caroles 1*
1
Department of Infrastructure Engineering, Graduate School of Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia.
Abstract
Highway consultants need pavement structure strength to examine and design. With advances in computer, sensor, and
microelectronic technologies, the light weight deflectometer (LWD) can measure granular and asphalt layers. This
portable, easy-to-use tool is suggested. This article was designed to improve LWD Pusjatan's accuracy and distinguish it
from other testing methods. This study compares the LWD Pusjatan and UMMATA (Universal Material Testing
Apparatus) methods for measuring modulus of elasticity on different materials. Boussinesq elastic theory is used to
compute the modulus of most LWDs. In a semi-elastic environment, modulus is the connection between pressure and
displacement in a rigid or flexible basis. The deflection value is derived from the process of vibrations caused by a load
delivered from a given height onto a test item, with the wave/vibration collected by an acceleration measuring instrument,
such as a geophone or accelerometer. The modulus of elasticity provided by the AUDL (Laboratory Deflection Test
Equipment) method is less than that produced by the UMMATA method. According to the test results, the average value
of AC Base material is 7.52% less than that of AC Base. The average value of AC BC material is just over 0.3%. These
results indicate that more testing is necessary when using the AUDL methodology to detect correlations that might serve
as a basis for comparison. Thus, the AUDL test method may be used as a nondestructive testing technique. This kind of
non-destructive technique should be used frequently so that simulations of field circumstances are more accurate.
Keywords: Asphalt; Elasticity Modulus; Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD); UMMATA.
1. Introduction
Highway consultants require the structural strength characteristics of a pavement structure for assessment and
management planning. This structural strength criterion is expressed by the value of the California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
for unpaved roads such as unpaved roads. The utilization of these methods takes a long time and requires numerous
personnel. The Field CBR test, on the other hand, is inappropriate for any soil having particles with a longest dimension
of more than 20 mm, since the plunger's sitting on a big stone might provide an inaccurate result. The sand test often
yields substantially lower results than the laboratory testing upon which the design charts are based. Nondestructive
testing (NDT) techniques may offer all of these characteristics and are particularly suited for use on pavements. Using
NDT, many data sets may be collected at the same time, providing statistical dependability for the experimentally
collected data. The basic purpose of a structural assessment procedure is to estimate the structural strength [1]. It may
be described in terms of in situ layer elastic modulus, layer thickness, inter-layer bond conditions, and anomaly
characterization for asphalt pavements. After excavating pits or removing pavement cores, which are disruptive
processes, a layer's attributes may be estimated using a straightforward and basic visual assessment. Besides, it does not
damage pavement and has a lower cost than destructive testing. It is also faster that from 50 to 60 tests can be done per
* Corresponding author: caroleslucky88@gmail.com

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hour. Furthermore, it is less disruptive to traffic than destructive testing. A dynamic cone penetrometer test, in
comparison, may provide a qualitative (and to some degree, quantitative) estimate of layer thickness, despite its
limitations in test-speed, inaccuracy, and subjectivity. However, the usage of Non-Destructive Test is still limited due
to its lack of widespread recognition and use. Therefore, further references and references are required to promote the
usage of NDT. One thing that must be done is to give a comparison to present conventional practices. It is also beneficial
to increase the precision of testing utilizing NDT.
With advancements in computer, sensing, and microelectronic technology, a more practical instrument known as the
Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) has recently been created. A Light-Weight Deflectometer (LWD) is a device used
to evaluate the rigidity of a road pavement structure. This instrument is recommended since it is portable and simple to
use. Additionally, this instrument is reasonably priced. The LWD tool is now available for usage in both granular and
asphalt layers. Presently, LWD is being designed for the scientific assessment of the structural strength of asphalt layers
[1]. The LWD is effective and adaptable as a tool for field quality control and pavement study provided data users
acknowledge the instrument's limitations. He indicated that the contact area of the plate surface is a crucial component
in the case of LWD. Furthermore, regardless of the temperature of the buffer, the stiffness remained essentially constant.
The only immediately obvious change was the duration of the load pulse, which increased from 18 to 20 milliseconds
as the temperature of the buffer increased.
Subgrade as a component of the road pavement system is an essential component of the system. The necessity for a
solid subgrade starts with the compaction process and its monitoring. Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) Modification
is an alternate instrument for quality control of compaction. It can be shown that employing this Modified LWD tool as
a quality control tool has various benefits, including efficiency in terms of time, money, and the number of workers
necessary [2]. The Binamarga (Indonesian Road Development Office) 2018 standard mandates the utilization of LWD
in the inspection process for granular layer compaction in road building projects [3]. The Light Weight Deflectometer
(LWD) is used to evaluate pavement structures and road subgrade. The primary goal of this LWD test is to ensure
consistency of the tested coating. The Pusjatan LWD is a modified LWD tool developed via research and development
at the Research Center for Roads and Bridges during the fiscal years of 2012 and 2014 [4].
This study was prepared as part of the process of improving the LWD Pusjatan so that it may be more accurate and
stand out above other comparable testing techniques. The results of reading the modulus of elasticity using the LWD
Pusjatan technique and the UMMATA method on various kinds of materials will be compared in this research.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Performance Evaluation of Flexible Pavement
In essence, road pavement assessment is inextricably linked to road rehabilitation, with choices concerning the kind
of rehabilitation being heavily influenced by information about road pavement evaluation findings [5]. Pavement
assessment is separated into three actions in general [6]:
 Determine functioning qualities (ride quality and surface roughness);
 Conduct a condition and damage inspection;
 Perform pavement structural testing (destructive and non-destructive) [7].
There are two common types of pavement assessment, specifically structural evaluation and functional evaluation
[8]. Road pavement performance assessment is a method that includes a review of the performance of the road pavement
during the road's service life [9]; this is essential for maximizing the function and quality of the road pavement itself
[10]. Evaluation operations are directly tied to a pavement's repair and maintenance programme, assessing the road's
geometric and structural qualities [11]. If the state of the pavement is still deemed satisfactory from a service standpoint,
then only little maintenance will be performed [12]; however, if there is a decline in road performance, many measures
will be done that are tailored to the kind of pavement damage [13]. Functional evaluation serves to determine the impact
felt by road users. Parameters related to functional conditions are [14]:
 International Roughness Index (IRI);
 Pavement Condition Index (PCI);
 Damage Type.
Assessment of the performance of the road pavement's structural functions, particularly in terms of the strength or
deformation caused by traffic loads over the service life, is structural evaluation [15]. The form of the findings of this
examination is a collection of data that offers information about the structural performance of the pavement, such as the
existence or absence of cracks, potholes for road surface settling, etc. [16]. On the basis of the technique of application,
the evaluation of the road pavement structure may be separated into two parts [17]:
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(a) Destructive Test

This sort of test will have a harmful impact on the sample or test item, given its origin. In general, this examination
may be conducted by:
1- Drilling for sampling;
2- Sampling by creating test holes [18].
(b) Nondestructive Evaluation
Non-destructive testing is the most popular option among practitioners, scholars, and players in the construction
industry sector since it is not only less expensive, but also practical and non-destructive in nature [19].
Several variables influence the deflection value of this nondestructive test, including temperature, moisture content,
kind of component of the pavement layer, operator abilities, and type of equipment [20]. Typically, the equipment used
for this test consists of static or dynamic loads that are given to the road surface through a load plate [21], while other
tests are conducted by directly measuring the amount of the deflection [22].
2.2. Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD)

LWD is a sort of readily transportable (portable) equipment designed for use in the field, based on its operating
principle [23]. Its operating concept employs the wave principle to calculate the deflection value [24]. LWD was created
by the Federal Highway Research Institute and made its debut in Germany in 1981 [25]. This instrument has been
utilized as quality assurance for earthwork construction for over two decades. This tool was formerly used only for
earthwork and just lately for asphalt [26]. In the United States, the findings of LWD tests, i.e. soil deflections or
estimations of their dynamic soil modulus, have been used as relative and qualitative values due to the fact that the
criteria rely on dry density and moisture content [27]. This field test kit may be used to quickly estimate the modulus of
elasticity and input parameters for mechanical designs, offering an alternative to time-consuming field experiments
(such as static load tests) and input parameters for mechanistic pavement designs. The LWD modulus of elasticity
(ELWD) is computed using the half-elastic space theory, plate contact stress and deflection, and stress distribution
assumptions [28]. Although the majority of devices have a similar function and approach, there are variations in the
contact plate pressure. This results in a variation in the computed ELWD values. A typical LWD device has a loading
plate with a diameter of 100 to 300 mm and a drop weight of 10 to 20 kg, an accelerometer or geophone to measure
deflection, and a load cell or load limit calibrated to measure the plate contact stress [29].
The parts of an LWD based on Figure 1 are (1) Handrail, (2) Load locking latch, (3) Slide Rod, (4) Load, (5) Spring
or rubber, (6) Load cell, (7) Load plate. Multiple nations, including Indonesia, have created LWD because it is extremely
simple to use and the results gained may be delivered promptly [6]. Through study performed at the Road and Bridge
Research Center, the following will describe numerous varieties of LWD, including those manufactured outside and
those produced by Indonesians (Puslitbang).
Figure 1. Lightweight Deflectometer
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2.3. Modified Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD Pusjatan)

The Pusjatan LWD is the outcome of research [30] undertaken during the 2012 and 2013 budget years at the Research
and Development Center for Roads and Bridges (Figures 2 and 3). West Java has used the Pusjatan LWD on various
parts of dirt roads. The usage of LWD on paved roads is anticipated to mitigate the dearth of Falling Weight
Deflectometer (FWD) in Indonesia while performing surveys to gather data for road management, particularly on paved
roads with moderate to low traffic flow. Because the effective structural number (𝑆𝑁𝑒𝑓𝑓 ) is strongly connected to the
surface modulus value, it is possible to utilize the Pusjatan LWD to calculate the extra layer thickness by correlating the
modulus values acquired from these two tools. The surface modulus is used to compare two structures. On the roadways
around the Pusjatan Bandung campus, LWD research was conducted for cemented roads [6]. This Pusjatan LWD tool
differs from ordinary LWD tools in the following ways [3]:
 The load capacity of the Pusjatan LWD differs from that of the Standard LWD. The LWD Pusjatan can carry a
weight of 12 kg. This exceeds the load utilized for regular LWD. The primary objective is to employ a bigger load
to generate a higher stress level so that this LWD Pusjatan instrument may also be used for testing roads with
moderate traffic levels [31].
 LWD Pusjatan does not employ load cells. Because the load cell is a component that needs attentive maintenance,
upkeep is much simplified.
 Three geophone sensors are used by LWD Pusjatan.
 At LWD Pusjatan does not employ load cells.
 There are five levels of load, ranging from zero to four. Each level generates a certain burden. This load's
magnitude has been previously calibrated using a standard load cell.
 LWD has just one load type, which is 12 kg, and one plate size, with a diameter of 30 cm; it is suitable for subgrade
to asphalt surfaces with medium to low average daily traffic volumes (500 vehicles).
Figure 2. Modified Lightweight Deflectometer (LWD Pusjatan)
Figure 3. Modulus Elasticity Determination using UMMATA Method
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3. Methodology
3.1. Specification of Modified Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD Pusjatan)
Pusjatan LWD specifications are as follows:
 The circular bearing plate with a diameter of 100 to 300 mm is made of metal with a hole in the middle (annulus).
The annulus diameter is 50 to 75 mm, while the plate thickness is 10±5 mm;
 The load cell is used to measure the magnitude of the load caused by the falling load. The accuracy of this load
cell is a minimum of 0.1 kN. In performing calibration, this load cell must be calibrated in the range of 0-15 kN;
 Geophone to measure vertical deflection caused by falling loads. The accuracy of this geophone is ±2 micrometers.
In performing the calibration, this geophone must be calibrated in the range of 0 to 2000 micrometers;
 Free-falling loads with a range of 10 to 20 kg that can be lifted at a certain height and when dropped will provide
an impact load on the loading plate;
 Rubber buffer which aims to distribute the impact load to the loading plate in a time range (16 to 30) milliseconds;
 The processor is equipped with an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) and a program to record wave data and
process it into deflections. The program used gives the operator the flexibility to provide input data in the form of
Poisson's ratio, temperature, plate stiffness, location, and type of pavement being tested;
 The processor must be able to record the deflection with an accuracy of ± 1 micrometers;
 Maximum load and deflection measurements must be recorded for a minimum period of 60 milliseconds;
 The processor must be capable of registering the maximum load with an accuracy of ±1 kN;
 Calibration;
o Reference calibration for both load cells and geophones is carried out at least once a year.
o For each new LWD appliance, factory calibration is valid for 1 year.
 Accuracy Coefficient of variation for single operator and equipment for GM/GC/GP soil type is 10-20%.
Meanwhile, for soil type SW/SM/SP it is around 15-35%. For soil ML/CL is 20-40%.
3.2. Testing Procedure

The Testing Procedure is carried out with the following steps:
 Place the Light Weight Deflectometer tool on the test point. The surface slope of the coating that can be tested
with LWD is a maximum of 4%. For granular coatings it is recommended to use a thin layer of sand at the test
point. This is to obtain a uniform contact surface between the loading plate and the coating surface;
 Check once again the position of the loading plate and geophone sensor (Items 5 of 7 in Figure 1);
 Lift the load at a certain height until it reaches the desired stress level and then drop it so that it causes an impact
load on the loading plate;
 Do the test at that point at least 2 times. If the difference in the results of tests 1 and 2 is greater than 3%, record
this difference in the report. A third test is required when this occurs;
 For the test on the granular layer, it is also noted the amount of field moisture content.
3.3. Laboratory Deflection Measuring Device (AUDL)/Laboratory LWD

This tool is the result of Hasanuddin University doctoral research [32] assisted by researchers working at the
Bandung Road and Bridge Research Center (Pusjatan) [4] from 2018 to 2020, and until now, development and
improvement are still being carried out. The research was inspired to make a deflection/modulus test device on a
laboratory scale using the working principle of a field LWD device. From the physical form and working principle used,
this Laboratory Deflection Measuring Tool is a miniature of the LWD Pusjatan, but there are some basic differences
with the LWD Pusjatan, namely:
 Load weight: 4 kg;
 Drop height: 49.5 cm;
 The diameter of the load plate is 10 cm (according to the diameter of the asphalt core/bitumen briquette);
 Intended for laboratory tests, especially for asphalt core samples and briquette samples;
 Not using a geophone but using an accelerometer to read the vibration acceleration.
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Figure 4. Configuration of Modified LWD
In addition to the above, the advantages of using this tool are:

 The direction of the deflection measurement is in the direction of the load and is the same as the deflection
measurement principle in the field. While the current tool (UMATTA) reads the deflection not in the direction of
the load, where in UMATTA the deflection reading is considered the sum of the two-way horizontal strain due to
the working cyclic load. So it is possible that the correct deflection direction is closer to the AUDL approach.
 Has a cheaper production cost than current laboratory test equipment (If AUDL is acceptable).
 It is portable so it can be carried/moved easily to any location.
 Does not use electricity in the operation of the tool so that it can be used in road laboratories in remote areas where
electricity is difficult.
 Only requires 2 people to operate the tool.
 Simple operation, fast and relatively low maintenance costs.
Although currently AUDL is still in the development stage and is still a prototype, it is hoped that this tool will later
become a worthy alternative for laboratory testing.
3.4. Modulus and Deflection Calculation

In general, the modulus value for almost all types of LWD is calculated based on the Boussinesq elastic theory,
namely the relationship between pressure and displacement applied in the soil for the case of a rigid or flexible base
located in a semi-elastic space, with the formula [6, 32].
(1×106 )𝑅
𝐸𝐿𝑊𝐷 = 2𝑟𝑝 𝜎(1 − 𝜈 2 ) (1)
∆
𝐹
𝜎= (2)
1000𝜋𝑟𝑝2
where, ELWD is Elasticity Modulus (MPa), rP is Loading Plate Radius (m), σ is Peak Stress to the ground (MPa), v is
Poisson’s ratio, R is Plate Stiffness (0.79 for rigid plate, and 1.0 for flexible plate), Δ is Peak deflection (µm), and F is
Maximum force to the ground (kN).
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Because LWD and AUDL use the same working concept, the deflection value is derived from the process of
vibrations caused by a load delivered from a given height onto a test item, with the wave/vibration collected by an
acceleration measuring instrument, such as a geophone or accelerometer. Then, a computer software will translate it into
a value of deflection or deflection by using the laws of vibration and soil dynamics. If utilize a geophone as a speed
transducer, it will often use a one-time integral method to calculate the deflection value, however by using an
accelerometer, a two-integral system is used [4].
4. Results and Discussions

In this research, numerous types of asphalt mixture materials are evaluated. Several kinds of materials were then
evaluated for deflection and modulus of elasticity using the AUDL/Modified LWD approach and compared with the
UMMATA method. Several kinds of materials were tested using the AUDL/Modified LWD approach, and the results
are illustrated in Figures 5 to 8.
2200
2180
2160
Elasticity Modulus (MPa)
2140
2120
2100
2080
2060
2040
2020
Material Type
Figure 5. Modulus Elasticity of AC_Base type material using AUDL
1850
1800
1750
1700
1650
1600
Material Type
Figure 6. Modulus Elasticity of AC_BC type material using AUDL
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2450.0
2400.0
2350.0
2300.0
2250.0
2200.0
2150.0
2100.0
2050.0
2000.0
AUDL UMMATA
1950.0
1900.0
AC_BASE_Mtype1 AC_BASE_Mtype2 AC_BASE_Mtype3 AC_BASE_Mtype4 AC_BASE_Mtype5
Material Type
Figure 7. Comparison of Average Elasticity Modulus of AC_Base Type Material using AUDL and UMMATA Method
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
AUDL UMMATA
0
AC_BCtype1 AC_BCtype2 AC_BCtype3 AC_BCtype4 AC_BCtype5
Material Type
Figure 8. Comparison of Average Elasticity Modulus of AC_BC Material Type using AUDL and UMMATA Method
According to a comparison of the AUDL and UMMATA testing methods, the modulus of elasticity obtained by the
two procedures differs. The modulus of elasticity determined using the AUDL approach tends to be lower than the
UMMATA method. Figure 6 demonstrates that for the AC-Base material type, the AUDL test method produced a
difference between 3 and 11% less than value produced using the UMMATA method. Compared to Figure 8, the
difference is bigger between 25 and 35%. The comparison of the modulus of elasticity between material types is shown
in Table 1.
The difference in test results based on the Table 1 and figure above forms a pattern. This pattern needs to be analyzed
further to find the equations that can be used to produce a smaller margin of error. From the test results, it can be noted
that the difference in the value of the modulus of elasticity shows different patterns for different types of materials. This
means that correlation does not only need to be carried out on the test method but also requires improvements that
include parameters related to the material being tested.
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Table 1. Modulus Elasticity values using AUDL and UMMATA method
AUDL Modulus Elasticity UMMATA Modulus Elasticity Differences Difference Rate

Material Type
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (%)
AC_BASE_Mtype1 2120.7 2269 148.30 6.54
AC_BASE_Mtype2 2092.6 2162 69.37 3.21
AC_BASE_Mtype3 2094.0 2304 210.00 9.11
AC_BASE_Mtype4 2114.4 2269 154.57 6.81
AC_BASE_Mtype5 2102.2 2387 284.77 11.93
AC_BCtype1 1751.7 2487 735.30 29.57
AC_BCtype2 1718.3 2507 788.67 31.46
AC_BCtype3 1721.3 2304 582.73 25.29
AC_BCtype4 1700.8 2657 956.17 35.99
AC_BCtype5 1732.0 2560 827.97 32.34
From these results, as shown, for the AC Base Modified material, the difference rate between the UMMATA and
AUDL methods is around 7%, while for AC BC the difference rate is around 30%. This value is very critical if it cannot
be converted and correlated, because the value generated through these two tests is the main parameter in planning and
designing road pavement.
Based on the comparison in Figure 9, the modulus value produced by the AUDL method has a lower value than the
UMMATA approach. The average value in the AC Base material is 7.52 percent lower. In contrast, the average value
of the AC BC material is just 30.93%. These findings show that more trials are required when utilizing the AUDL
method to identify correlations that might serve as a foundation for comparison. The AUDL test method may thus be
used as a nondestructive testing approach. This kind of non-destructive technology should be extensively used in order
to provide more realistic simulations of field conditions.
2800
2600
y = 2168.4e0.0174x
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600 y = 2255.2e-0.031x
1400
AUDL UMMATA
1200
Expon. (AUDL) Expon. (UMMATA)
1000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Material Type
Figure 9. Comparison of Average Elasticity Modulus using AUDL Method and UMMATA
5. Conclusion
Compared to the AUDL and UMMATA testing methodologies, it is revealed that the obtained modulus of elasticity
varies between the two methods. The modulus of elasticity generated using the AUDL method tends to be less than the
UMMATA method. For the AC-Base material type, the difference between the AUDL and UMMATA methods is
between 3 and 11 percent less. In comparison to the AC BC material type, the difference is between 25 and 35% bigger.
The average value of AC Base material is 7.52 percent less than AC Base. The average value of AC BC material is just
30.93%. From here, it shows that the UMMATA and AUDL methods are sharing a mutual trend. This means that future
research could obtain comparative correlations between similar methods and use them to calibrate the AUDL, improving
its accuracy. These results indicate that further trials are necessary when using the AUDL methodology to detect
1265
correlations that might serve as a fundamental comparison for calculation. Furthermore, a comparative study is necessary
to provide other possible correlations between AUDL and other methods. Thus, the AUDL test method may be used as
a nondestructive testing method that is reliable and accurate. This kind of non-destructive method should be used
frequently so that simulations of field circumstances are more accurate.
6. Declarations
6.2. Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
The author would like to deliver the greatest appreciation to Pusat Studi Perencanaan Pembangunan Pengembangan
Prasarana/PSP4 (Infrastructure Development Planning Research Centre) for supporting the technical aspects of the
investigation.

The author declare no conflict of interest.
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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
Three-Dimensional Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis of Base

Isolated Cylindrical Steel Tank
Abdellali Saria 1* , Mohamed Djermane 1 , Nasser Dine Hadj-Djelloul 1
1
FIMAS Lab, Department of Civil Engineering, Tahri Mohamed University, Bechar B.P 417, Bechar, 08000 Algeria.
Abstract
Failure of a tank during an earthquake can result in significant financial, human, and environmental losses. Thus, their
lack of resiliency against strong earthquakes may result in refinery disruption. This has the potential to have a
considerable impact on any economic system. As a result, more research into the seismic performance of tank structures
is required to attain the highest possible level of resistance against strong earthquakes. In this paper, we aim to look into
the installation of seismic isolation systems in cylindrical steel storage tanks. A nonlinear 3D finite element model is
developed with ANSYS software. Moreover, tank wall material nonlinearity, fluid-structure-interaction, and sloshing
components are considered. The bilinear hysteretic LRB is used for modal and time-history analysis. In this work, three
tanks with varying aspect ratios are studied: "Model A", "Model B", and "Model C". Furthermore, the fixed tank's
fundamental frequencies were compared to the analytical results of the American API 650 Standard. Subsequently, the
dynamic behavior response of the researched tanks to the horizontal component of the El-Centro 1940 earthquake with
PGAs of 0.34g and 0.5g is investigated. As a result, the dominating frequency of the seismic isolation system is within
the effective frequency range of seismically isolated systems. The results illustrate that the base isolation limits the tank
wall movement with a large displacement in the isolators; the mode shape is a cantilever beam in all isolated
circumstances. The total seismic response reduction in the slender tanks is greater as compared to the broad case in the
base-isolated tanks. The sloshing displacement increases with an increase in the tank aspect ratio. Additionally, the
isolation device eliminates tank buckling at the base and top of the tank shell during seismic excitation (elephant foot and
diamond buckling). It can be concluded that the seismic isolation technique has a more significant impact
on reducing the dynamic response of ground-supported tanks, particularly in taller tanks as compared to broad tanks.
Keywords: Liquid Storage Tank; Lead Rubber Bearing; Fluid-Structure Interaction; Seismic Base Isolation; Finite Element Analysis.
1. Introduction
Continuous production processes (such as refineries) require the storage of products for later use. There are
thousands of steel storage tanks operating in almost every country in the world. They must function efficaciously and
be trouble-free at their maximum storage potential to ensure that these installations have their planned manufacturing
capacity. Therefore, accidents involving storage tanks have to be avoided as much as possible. Besides, the purpose of
these units is considered a vital service and they are expected to function after extreme earthquakes. Furthermore,
damaged steel tanks containing petroleum or hazardous chemicals can cause environmental pollution. In such
situations, fire and fluid spillover are of major concern. The most challenging aspect of predicting the seismic
behaviour of liquid-filled structures is identifying the tank's vibration response while accounting for the Fluid-
Structure Interaction (FSI). The motion of the water relative to the tank shell, as well as the motion of the tank relative
to the ground, must be included in a dynamic study of such tanks. In this study, the numerical method is used to
perform a dynamic analysis of the fluid domain.
* Corresponding author: saria.abdellali@univ-bechar.dz

© 2022 by the authors. Licensee C.E.J, Tehran, Iran. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms
and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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The behaviour of a closed and filled water tank or an empty tank can be well predicted as a one-mass system. The
tanks are usually partially filled with water. Furthermore, the tank has a free water surface in this case, making the
tank-liquid system behavior a complicated coupled problem. The tank's dynamic behaviour may be substantially
different in this situation. Vertical tanks' mantles can be composed of a single shell or numerous layers of shells of
varying thicknesses. This suggests that the tank's architecture varies depending on the usage requirements. The fabric
chosen to construct the tank is also largely determined by the type of material to be stored within. Numerous reports
concerning the tank damage modes of liquid steel storage tanks due to earlier earthquakes are in the literature. The
damage during past earthquakes was usually caused due to its complex seismic behaviour response. Their failure
mechanism is influenced by a multitude of factors, including the tank's construction material, tank configuration, tank
type, and supporting mechanism [1]. Several researchers and practitioner engineers have focused their efforts on
assessing the seismic vulnerability of such structures [2].
The first study has affected by Jacobsen (1949) [3]. Housner (1963) [4] developed a useful idealization for
calculating the liquid response of rigid tanks anchored to a rigid foundation and subjected to horizontal ground motion.
The latter separated the tank hydrodynamic response into two components, namely impulsive and convective. Heavy
damage was observed in liquid storage tanks after some strong earthquakes. Since the rigid-tank idea could no longer
be employed, a number of analytical and numerical studies focusing on tank wall flexibility were published.
Veletsos (1974) [5], Haroun and Housner [6], and Malhotra (2000) [7] demonstrated that the tank wall's flexibility
could have a significant impact on dynamic forces. The authors reported that it develops a cantilever beam type mode
under horizontal excitations. Virella (2006) [8] examined the natural periods, mode shapes, and dynamic response of
cylindrical tanks partially filled with a liquid, to horizontal ground excitations. It was found that by considering only
the fundamental mode, the response of a tank-liquid system under horizontal excitation could be accurately
approximated.
Maekawa et al. [9, 10], examined tank deformation and buckling using a 1:10 scale model in their most recent
experimental investigation. While evaluating tank bucking and behaviour, they reported that their method was
appropriately consistent with experimental results. In addition, they discovered that their method was sufficiently
accurate in evaluating tank seismic strength, such as seismic safety. Maekawa (2012) [10] used numerical modelling
to investigate the seismic behaviour of ground steel tanks and achieved a more accurate reduction factor in regulations.
Kangda (2018) [11] investigated the dynamic buckling of steel tanks in the presence of horizontal components of an
actual earthquake in the soil and above the soil, taking into account the influence of Soil-Structure Interaction (SSI).
The results demonstrate that the critical PGA was decreased with the tank's 𝐻/𝐷 ratio, and soil flexibility substantially
impacts the seismic reaction of steel tanks. Hadj-Djelloul. (2019) [12] investigated the effect of geometric imperfection
on the dynamic behaviour of elevated water tanks using a three-dimensional finite element technique that takes into
account the FSI, wall flexibility, local geometric imperfection, nonlinear time history analysis, material and geometric
nonlinearity. This work also applies three different instability criteria for the critical PGA estimate.
A new technique for protecting structures from powerful earthquakes has been proposed. Compared to most
traditional seismic force-resisting systems, seismic isolation is a high-performance technique that reduces seismic risks
in various structures (buildings and bridges) [13]. Seismic isolation's primary goal is to shift the fundamental period
and improve structural performance. The basic goal is to decouple the structure from the ground to dissipate seismic
energy, allowing the structure to behave more flexibly and providing damping to reduce the response. The base
isolation devices are installed between the tank's base ground and the tank's bottom.
Seismic isolation may offer an easy and economical technique for such structures in moderate to high seismic
intensity zones. Many researchers looked at the seismic performance of ground-supported tanks with various isolation
and energy dissipation mechanisms. Shake table tests were performed on fixed base and isolated base tanks by
Chalhoub and Kelly (1990) [14]. Similarly, Kim and Lee (1995) [15] carried out an experiment on isolated liquid
containers. Malhotra (1997A, 1997B, and 1998 [16-18]) investigated several rehabilitation solutions, including
vertical isolation, lateral isolation, and passive energy dissipation devices. Most investigations used three equivalent
lumped masses to account for the effect of stored liquid, and a significant reduction in the total hydrodynamic pressure
while the base reaction values were recorded. Shirmali and Jangid (2003, 2004) [19, 20] reported a modest rise in the
isolated tank's free-surface sloshing height relative to the fixed base tank.
In recent years, many researchers have studied the effect of base-isolated system on dynamic behavior of tanks
under seismic excitation. Güler and Alhan (2021) [21] examined the performance limits of a benchmark base isolated
LST with different isolation systems and with/without supplemental damping. They concluded that the base
displacement, sloshing displacement, and shear force exhibit different tendencies depending on the isolation system
parameters, use of supplemental damping, and the characteristics of the earthquake records. Tsipianitis and
Tsompanakis (2021) [22] examined the main parameters of two different base isolators (SFPB and TFPB isolators)
using efficient intelligence algorithm. It was shown that the beneficial role of base isolation is highlighted, since the
imposed ground motion was de-amplified for both SFPB and TFPB isolation system.
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Jiang et al. (2020) [23] proposed an optimal design method based on closed-form analytical solutions for a liquid
storage tank with isolation system. The method proves to be effective for decreasing of sloshing height response,
while simultaneously reducing base shear of the tank and relative isolation displacement. Kumar and Saha (2021) [24]
presented a numerical analysis of liquid storage tanks considering soil-structure interaction under seismic excitation.
The effect of soil structure interaction on fixed base tanks is found to be similar under different seismic excitations.
Vern et al. (2021) [25] analyzes flexible rectangular base-isolated storage tanks for bi-directional earthquakes using
ABAQUS finite element software with five Lead Rubber Bearing (LRB). The numerical results show that the height
of water increases by about 20%–30%. Besides, the shear force induced in the tank is reduced.
The aim of this study is to investigate the performance of ground-supported cylindrical water tanks under seismic
loading. The objective is to evaluate the implantation of seismic isolation system in cylindrical steel storage tanks. For
this purpose, the bilinear hysteretic LRB is used. A comparison between the calculated FE results and those
recommended by API 650 current practice is also done to assess the accuracy of code requirements in seismic analysis
and design of liquid-containing structures. Unlike most contributions that have been done in this field, this work
represents the first study on the nonlinear dynamic buckling analysis of base isolated cylindrical steel tank by
modelling the fluid in three dimensions and considering the FSI, the non-linearity of materials, the geometric non-
linearity and the non-linearity of the seismic excitation.
2. Theoretical Simplified Model (API-650)

The Housner approach, which is employed in many codes, divides the fluid into two parts: impulsive, which is
rigidly fixed to the structure, and convective, which is freely vibrated to the structure. The weight and stiffness of
these components are determined by the API-650 appendix, which specifies the minimum standards for designing the
welded steel storage tanks that may be susceptible to seismic ground motion. The design procedures in this appendix
are based on impulsive response spectra that are 5% damped and convective response spectra that are 0.5 percent
damped. The pseudo-dynamic modal analysis method in this appendix is based on the structure and contents' natural
period. The tank system's impulsive period 𝑇𝑖 and convective period 𝑇𝑐 can be determined using the following
equations [26]:
𝑇𝑖 = (1⁄√2000)(𝐶𝑖 𝐻 ⁄√𝑡𝑢 ⁄𝐷 )(√𝜌⁄√𝐸 ) (1)
Coefficient 𝐶𝑖 is displayed in (API-650).
𝑇𝑐 = 1.8𝐾𝑠 √𝐷 (2)
where 𝐷 is the nominal tank diameter, 𝐻 is the tank height, 𝑡𝑢 is the tank shell uniform thickness, 𝜌 is the liquid
density, 𝐸 is the tank wall Young's modulus, and 𝐾𝑠 is factor obtained from (API-650) for the ratio 𝐷/𝐻.
3. Finite Element Isolated-Base-Tank Models

In the present study, 3-D ground-supported flexible fixed and base-isolated cylindrical steel tanks, modelled using
the FE method, are investigated and subjected to horizontal components of an earthquake. The seismic responses of
interest are the liquid's convective (sloshing) displacement components, base shear, hydrodynamic pressure, and
bearing displacement. The modelling of the tank is carried out using the 3-D finite element method (FEM) model for
simulating the 3D behaviour of isolated tanks with high accuracy.
In this study, the modelling of the tank is carried out using: (i) the 3-D FEM method, (ii) the geometric
nonlinearity of the tank wall materiel, (iii) fluid-structure-interaction, (iv) the convective (sloshing) component, and
(v) the nonlinear hysteretic behaviour of LRB isolators. For the parametric study, three aspect ratios (liquid height to
the radius of the tank), notably "Model A," "Model B," and "Model C," correspond to tanks with height to diameter
ratios (H/R) of 0.72 for the broad tank, 1.14 for the medium tank, and 1.71 for the slender tank, respectively. Their
geometrical dimensions are given in Figure 1. The three selected tanks have the same diameter. The geometrical
parameters of the broad, medium and slender tanks are taken from the earlier published studies of Djermane et al. [27],
and Virella et al. [28].
For a given seismic demand, the amplitude of the sloshing wave must be calculated (API 650). It is sufficient to
employ 10% of the cylinder's height as a freeboard. The tapering thicknesses of the tanks depicted in Figure 1 were
selected for serviceability circumstances utilizing the API 650 standards without considering any seismic design. The
tanks are rigidly anchored to the rigid ground. There is no sliding or uplift. As a result, the influence of soil-structure
interaction is not considered.
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Figure 1. Tank models; shell thickness. (a) “Model C” with H/R= 1.71; (b) “Model B” with H/R= 1.14; (c) “Model A” with
H/R= 0.72 (All dimensions in mm)
The storage tank model includes the tank body, the liquid, and the foundation. The material of the steel tank
Young's modulus and density are 207 GPa and 7800 kg/m3, respectively. The Poisson's ratio, yield stress, and tangent
modulus are 0.3, 2.5 GPa and 1.45 GPa, respectively. The thickness of the tank varies along with the height of the tank
(Figure 1). The behaviour of the steel tank structure is considered nonlinear in the dynamic analysis and considers
varying thicknesses of the wall. The tank is filled with water with a Bulk modulus of 2.07 GPa and a density of 1000
kg/m3. The foundation is a circular concrete plate with a radius of 15.24 m and a thickness of 0.30 m. The material's
elastic modulus is 32.16 GPa with a dynamic friction coefficient value of 0.2. The properties of the elastomeric
bearings used in this study are: the yield strength 𝑄𝑦 =224 kN, the elastic 𝐾𝑑 =17 kN/mm, plastic 𝐾𝑢 =2 kN/mm
stiffnesses and vertical stiffness 𝐾𝑣 =600 kN/mm.
3.1. Numerical Model

The computations were performed using the finite element package ANSYS 14.5 [24]. The wall is modelled in this
study employing shell181 "plastic capability". SHELL181 can be used to analyse thin to moderately thick shell
structures. It is a four-node element having six degrees of freedom: translations in x, y, and z directions, as well as
rotations about the x, y, and z-axes. SHELL181 is well-suited for nonlinear linear, large rotation, and large strain
applications. Nonlinear analyses accommodate for changes in shell thickness. FLUID80 is a fluid element used to
calculate hydrostatic pressures and fluid/solid interactions. Acceleration effects, such as those seen in sloshing
difficulties, may be problems. The fluid element comprises eight nodes, each with three degrees of freedom:
translation in the nodal x, y, and z dimensions. The solid element SOLID65 is employed to simulate the concrete base.
Two-node simplified element model, Combin40, is used to simulate the behaviour of the bearing devices in the
horizontal direction in combination with the Combin14 element to simulate the axial (vertical) behaviour of the
bearings. In the isolated tank model, the interface between the base plate of the tank and isolation elements has been
modelled using contact ANSYS elements Contact175 and Target170. Two-node simplified element model, Combin40
is used to simulate the behaviour of the bearing devices in the horizontal direction in combination with the Combin14
element to simulate the axial (vertical) behaviour of the bearings.
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FSLIDE K1
M or M/2 GAP M or M/2

K2
I
J
z C
y
x Operates in nodal coordinate system
Figure 2. COMBIN40 Geometry
In the isolated tank model, the interface between the base plate of the tank and isolation elements has been
modelled using contact ANSYS elements Contact175 and Target170.
The finite element (FE) technique solves the fluid-structure interaction problem. The discretized structural and
fluid domain equations of motion must be considered simultaneously as coupled sets of equations. For the dynamic
analysis of liquid tank models, the general-purpose FE analysis programme ANSYS® is employed.
[𝑀]{𝑢̈ } + [𝐶]{𝑢̇ } + [𝐾]{𝑢} = {𝐹 𝑎 } (3)
This matrix equation represents 𝑛 differential equations that govern the motion of an MDOF system subjected to
external dynamic forces {𝐹 𝑎 }; where: {𝑢̈ }: is the acceleration vector; [𝑀] the mass matrix; {𝑢̇ } the velocity vector; [𝐶]
the damping matrix; {𝑢} the displacement vector and [𝐾] the stiffness matrix.
3.2. Fluid-Structure Coupling

A fluid-structure interaction problem involves modelling the fluid domain and the surrounding structure. At an
interface, the interaction of the contained fluid and the structure generates hydrodynamic pressure to apply force on
the structure, and structural motions produce an effective fluid load [29]. Equation 3 is divided into the fluid pressure
𝑝𝑟
load acting at the interface {𝐹𝑒 } and the resultant of all other forces {𝐹𝑒 } to generate the fluid-structure coupling
𝑝𝑟
equations {𝐹𝑒 }.
As a result, the elementary structural equation can be rewritten as:
[𝑀𝑒 ]{𝑢̈ 𝑒 } + [𝐶𝑒 ]{𝑢̇ 𝑒 } + [𝐾𝑒 ]{𝑢𝑒 } = {𝐹𝑒 } + {𝐹𝑒𝑝𝑟 } (4)

𝑝𝑟
Integrating the pressure over the interface surface area can be determined the fluid pressure load vector {𝐹𝑒 } at
the fluid-structure interface 𝑆:
𝑝𝑟
{𝐹𝑒 } = ∫𝑆{𝑁 ′ } 𝑝{𝑛}𝑑(𝑆) (5)
in which, {𝑁 ′ } is the shape functions employed to discretise the structural displacement components, 𝑝 is the fluid
pressure, and {𝑛} is the fluid boundary normal. Using the finite element approximating shape functions for the spatial
variation of the fluid pressure, we can write:
𝑝 = {𝑁}𝑇 {𝑝𝑒 } (6)
where {𝑁} is the shape function for fluid pressure, and {𝑝𝑒 } is the nodal pressure vector. Substituting Equation 6 into
Equation 5 gives:
𝑝𝑟
{𝐹𝑒 } = ∫𝑆{𝑁 ′ } {𝑁}𝑇 {𝑛}𝑑(𝑆){𝑝𝑒 } (7)
The coupling matrix [𝑅𝑒 ] relates fluid pressure and forces at the fluid-structure contact. As a result, we can write:
𝑝𝑟
{𝐹𝑒 } = [𝑅𝑒 ]{𝑝𝑒 } (8)
The coupling matrix is found by comparing the Equation 7 and 8:
[𝑅𝑒 ]𝑇 = ∫𝑆{𝑁 ′ }{𝑁}𝑇 {𝑛}𝑑(𝑆) (9)
By substituting Equation 8 into Equation 4, the dynamic elemental equation of the structure subjected to external
forces can be written as:
[𝑀𝑒 ]{𝑢̈ 𝑒 } + [𝐶𝑒 ]{𝑢̇ 𝑒 } + [𝐾𝑒 ]{𝑢𝑒 } − [𝑅𝑒 ]{𝑝𝑒 } = {𝐹𝑒 } (10)
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3.3. Free Surface Effects

The FLIUD80 element can be used to investigate sloshing effects and associated mode characteristics. To keep the
free surface in place, equivalent stiffness 𝐾𝑠 springs are added to each node of the element. 𝐾𝑠 is established as
follows:
𝐾𝑠 = 𝜌𝑙 𝐴𝑓 (𝑔𝑥 𝐶𝑥 + 𝑔𝑦 𝐶𝑦 + 𝑔𝑧 𝐶𝑧 ) (11)
where, 𝜌𝑙 is liquid density, 𝐴𝑓 is area of the face of the element, 𝑔𝑖 is acceleration in the 𝑖 direction, and 𝐶𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑡ℎ is
component of the normal to the face of the element. Added springs have positive constants at the nodes on the
element's top surface and negative constants at nodes on the element's bottom surface. As a result, these effects cancel
out at the interior nodes of the liquid domain, and they only function at the fluid-free surface
3.4. Isolator Device
In this technique, the model of the base-isolated tank system is achieved by adding the isolation bearings under the
model of the fixed-base system. The tank structure is isolated from the ground on base by lead-rubber bearing; LRB
may also be considered an energy dissipater capable of absorbing the input destructive energy. This FEM model can
simulate the 3D behaviour of base-isolated tanks with nonlinear hysteretic seismic isolators. In today's practice, lead-
rubber bearing is more widely used; they offer a simple and economical solution for seismic isolation of structures.
The isolation system LRB comprises rubber and steel-related layers wrapped around a lead core. The lead cylinder
controls the lateral displacements of the structure and absorbs part of the applied force energy. The "classical bilinear
kinematic hardening" plasticity algorithm adopts the nonlinear behaviour of mild steel and lead materials. The LRB
reported by Robinson (1982) [30] is used in this study. This plasticity algorithm uses the Von Mises yield criterion and
the kinematic hardening rule. The LRB used was a circular 650 (Diameter) × 197 mm. The hysteretic behaviour of the
bearing is indicated in Figure 3 as determined by a simplified model (Moslemi 2011) [31]. The number and properties
of the bearings are chosen based on Megget (1978) [32].
𝐾𝑑 = (1 𝑡𝑜 2)𝑊𝑚−1 and 𝑄𝑑 = (0.05 𝑡𝑜 0.10)𝑊
Where, 𝑊 is the part of the weight carried by the bearing, 𝐾𝑑 is the elastic stiffness and 𝑄𝑑 is the yield strength.
The natural period 𝑇 of a lead-rubber bearing isolator is given as:
𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑊 ⁄𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑔 (12)

Where, 𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 is the effective stiffness.
500
375
250
Applied force (kN)
125
-125
-250
-375
Simplified Robinson Model
-500
-100 -75 -50 -25 0 25 50 75 100
Stroke (mm)
Figure 3. Hysteretic loop for 650 (Diameter) × 197 mm lead-rubber bearing
4. 3D Finite Elements Modal Analysis (Free Vibration Analysis)

The vibration characteristics of this model are determined using modal analysis. The model solves the equation of
free vibrations for an un-damped system:
[𝑀]{𝑢̈ } + [𝐾]{𝑢} = 0 (13)
where, 𝑀 is structural mass matrix, 𝐾 is structural stiffness matrix, 𝑢̈ is nodal acceleration vector, and 𝑢 is nodal
displacement vector. The procedure for obtaining the seismic responses for the tank structure is schematically
described in Figure 4.
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Ground Motion
Tank Model (FSI)
Isolator
Characteristics
Isolated base Tank Fixed base Tank

model model
Free vibration Free vibration

analysis analysis
Time history Time history

analysis analysis
Obtain peak Obtain peak

response response
Plot Results (Peak Response)
Figure 4. Procedure for seismic analysis of base-isolated tank
Natural frequencies and mode shapes are significant characteristics in constructing a structure for dynamic loading
conditions, and it is the initial point in designing structures. The fundamental frequencies (impulsive and convective
mode) and the corresponding mode shapes have been extracted and presented in Tables 1 and 2 and Figure 5. The
results have been compared with the API 650 standard.
Table 1. Fundamental frequencies for convective and impulsive modes
3D FEM Model API-650

Model Mode type
Frequency, Hz (Period, sec) Mass Ratio Frequency, Hz (Period, sec) Mass Ratio
Impulsive 4.459 (0.224) 0.410 4.979 (0.201) 0.404

A
Convective 0.156 (6.410) 0.570 0.165 (6.062) 0.547
Impulsive 3.463 (0.288) 0.650 4.000 (0.250) 0.590

B
Convective 0.167 (5.969) 0.340 0.169 (5.918) 0.385
Impulsive 2.669 (0.374) 0.780 2.918 (0.343) 0.733

C
Convective 0.169 (5.892) 0.220 0.173 (5.764) 0.262
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Table 2. Fundamental frequencies for convective and impulsive modes
Model Mode type Mode N° Frequency, Hz (Period, sec) Partic. Factor Ratio β Modal Mass Ratio
1st 0.156 (6.410) 1 0.570
Convective 2nd 0.284 (3.509) 0.207 0.016
3rd 0.347 (2.877) 0.077 0.002
Fixed-Base
1st 4.459 (0.224) 0.816 0.410
Impulsive 2nd 8.199 (0.121) 0.117 0.005
A
3rd 8.434 (0.118) 0.001 0.0001
1st 0.156 (6.406) 1 0.553
Convective 2nd 0.284 (3.509) 0.175 0.017
Isolated-Base
3rd 0.348 (2.869) 0.089 0.004
Base-isolation 1st 0.865 (1.155) 0.476 0.350
1st 0.167 (5.969) 0.650 0.340
Convective 2nd 0.282 (3.544) 0.111 0.081
3rd 0.347 (2.881) 0.056 0.002
Fixed-Base
1st 3.463 (0.288) 1 0.650
Impulsive 2nd 3.821 (0.261) 0.026 0.0004
B
3rd 5.489 (0.182) 0.018 0.0002
1st 0.163 (6.115) 0.884 0.408
Convective 2nd 0.281 (3.551) 0.162 0.013
Isolated-Base
3rd 0.347 (2.879) 0.084 0.003
Base-isolation 1st 0.675 (1.480) 1 0.522
1st 0.169 (5.892) 0.561 0.251
Convective 2nd 0.281 (3.549) 0.096 0.007
3rd 0.346 (2.884) 0.044 0.001
Fixed-Base
1st 2.669 (0.374) 1 0.795
Impulsive 2nd 3.749 (0.267) 0.033 0.0009
C
3rd 5.687 (0.175) 0.185 0.027
1st 0.167 (5.960) 0.644 0.287
Convective 2nd 0.281 (3.549) 0.118 0.009
Isolated-Base
3rd 0.346 (2.887) 0.062 0.002
Base-isolation 1st 0.657 (1.521) 1 0.692
The fundamental modes are chosen based on the criterion of effective mass participation (Participation factor).
Impulsive and isolation modes have a greater normalized modal participation mass in non-isolated and isolated tanks.
The effect of the base isolation system in the predominant response of cylindrical steel storage tanks with different
ranges of 𝐻/𝐷 has been investigated in this section. In this technique, the seismic response of the tank model can be
decreased using this strategy by raising its natural period much beyond the predominant period of the input motion.
This study investigates the effect of such modifications on the dynamic response of water tanks by doing FE-free
vibration and time-history analysis.
The tank structure's base is isolated from the ground using seismic isolators. The tank Model A uses 57 lead-rubber
bearings, the tank Model B uses 85, and the tank Model C uses 100. Devices such as lead-rubber bearings may also be
considered dissipaters capable of absorbing the input seismic energy. A rigorous finite element method (FEM) model
is proposed for simulating the 3D behaviour of isolated tanks with high accuracy. The nonlinear hysteretic behaviour
of seismic isolators and tank wall nonlinearity are included.
The isolated tank models' period is four times longer than the impulsive period of the non-isolated models. Also,
since the modal participation factor of the base isolation modes has the most significant value, this mode dominates
the total dynamic response of isolated cylindrical steel storage tanks. The mode shapes of the isolated tank model in
Figure 5 indicate that the base isolation mode presents a large displacement in the isolators system with minimal
displacement in the tank shell. However, as listed in Table 2 and Figure 6, the convective mode of the non-isolated
and isolated tanks model was approximate. In the three models, the period of the convective mode slightly increases;
he has not been considerably affected by the base isolation system.
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Fixed
Isolated
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5. Mode shapes of impulsive modes for fixed and isolated tank model; (a) Model A; (b) Model B; (c) Model C
Figure 6. Mode shapes of convective modes for fixed (left) and isolated (right) tank Model C
The fundamental mode for the non-isolated tanks, the shortest tank Model A, is a bending mode defined by a bulge
near the cylinder's mid-height, as seen in Figure 5-(a). The maximum radial displacements occur towards the tank's
base. The meridian has the most significant radial displacements. However, as demonstrated in Figures 5-(b) and 5-(c),
the fundamental modes for Models B and C are cantilever beam modes.
1276
Regardless of the height-to-tank diameter ratios (H/D) addressed in this work, the fundamental mode for tank-
liquid systems is bending. This conclusion agrees with that previously stated by Virella et al. [9]. The fundamental
periods obtained with the finite element models employed in this paper are compared favourable to the API 650 [1]
recommendations. A good approximation is observed in all cases.
The basic modes of a cantilever beam tend to be the first mode in isolated tanks. The isolators have the most
significant radial displacements, as seen in Figure 5. As a result, seismic base isolation in cylindrical steel liquid
storage tanks directly affects the tank system's predominant response by increasing their fundamental period with a
small modal displacement in the tank wall.
5. Time History Analysis

In this part, the evaluation of the seismic isolation technique's applicability to the dynamic behaviour of partially
liquid-filled above-ground cylindrical steel tanks considering many parameters is investigated due to seismic shaking.
The main focus is to identify and address the aspects that significantly impact the dynamic response of isolated tank
structures. The criteria under consideration are sloshing of the liquid-free surface, tank aspect ratio, earthquake
frequency, and tank foundation condition. The time history response of the fluid tank system is determined using the
direct integration approach. The step-by-step integration technique is employed directly in this technique to derive the
solution for the system's original equations of motion. The accuracy of the time history dynamic solution is determined
by the solution algorithm's integration time step. In this study, caused by the nonlinear and inelastic systems (seismic
isolators and tank material), the automatic time stepping option of the ANSYS® program is employed. This option
automatically adjusts the integration time step of the solution according to the response frequency and the nonlinearity
effects.
The hydrodynamic time history response of both fixed and isolated tanks is investigated. The horizontal
component of the 1940 El-Centro earthquake is used as excitation, and the scaled earthquake has a peak ground
acceleration of 0.34g. The first 12 seconds of the recorder are used in Figure 7. The computed results draw essential
conclusions regarding the seismic behaviour of isolated cylindrical above-ground tanks. The results of both fixed and
isolated tanks are compared to evaluate the effectiveness of this technique in steel tank structure applications.
4.0E-1
3.0E-1
2.0E-1
Acceleration (g)
1.0E-1
0.0E+0
-1.0E-1
-2.0E-1
-3.0E-1
-4.0E-1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)
Figure 7. The scaled horizontal component of 1940 El-Centro earthquake
The sloshing displacement, base shear, and hydrodynamic pressure are evaluated for the base isolated liquid
storage tank using lead rubber bearing (LRB). The seismic responses of the tank subjected to the earthquake's
horizontal component are evaluated and compared with the previous research modelling approaches. The responses
are also compared with the similar non-isolated tank to study the isolation system efficacy.
The pressure and the maximum positive sloshing height obtained from the present method are compared with the
results reported by the past researchers and used in the code specifications. The hydrodynamic pressure of a shallow
concrete tank (aspect ratio, 𝐻/𝐷 = 0.115) having geometrical dimensions: diameter (D) 47.90 m, liquid height (H)
5.5 m, and thickness of tank wall (𝑡𝑤 ) 0.3 m adopted from the results published by Moslemi and Kianoush [33]. The
density of water is 1000 kg/m3. The material properties of the tank are: Young's modulus, 24.86 GPa, density, 2400
kg/m3, and Poisson's ratio, 0.16. The tank is subjected to the horizontal component of 1940 Imperial Valley (El-Centro
station) earthquake scaled to the peak ground acceleration of 0.4g at the base.
Figure 8 compares the hydrodynamic pressure between the past published results and the present FE model. The
sloshing displacement is measured at the extreme node from the centre of the tank on the x-axis, adjacent to the tank
1277
wall. The maximum positive sloshing heights of 262 mm find in the present study and 248 mm by Moslemi and
Kianoush [33]. The maximum base shear is 20.8 kPa in the present study and 21.2 kPa in Moslemi and Kianoush
(2012) [33]. These results show a good agreement between the previous research and FE results.
20.0
Analytical
18.0 Moslemi and Kianoush
Present Study
16.0
14.0
Pressure (kPa)
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Height (m)
Figure 8. Comparison of hydrodynamic pressure in shallow tank
To investigate the time-varying response characteristics of the tank models, the total time history response of the
tanks is displayed in Figures 9 to 11. The hydrodynamic pressure exerted by the liquid on the tank wall, the structural
forces, shear force, and the vertical displacement or sloshing height of the liquid-free surface are all investigated.
1.0E+6 5.0E-1 Fixed

Fixed
Isolated Isolated
7.5E+5
Sloshing Height (m)
5.0E+5 2.5E-1
Base Shear (N)
2.5E+5
0.0E+0 0.0E+0
-2.5E+5
-5.0E+5 -2.5E-1
-7.5E+5
-1.0E+6 -5.0E-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
1.2E+8 Fixed
1.5E-3 Fixed
Isolated
Hydrodynamic pressure (N/m²)
Isolated
8.0E+7
Elastic strain (m)
4.0E+7 1.0E-3
0.0E+0
-4.0E+7 5.0E-4
-8.0E+7
-1.2E+8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0.0E+0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (s) Time
(s)
(c) (d)
Figure 9. Time history response of the fixed and isolated tanks Model A due to1940 El-Centro earthquake horizontal excitation
1278
1.0E+6 Fixed
5.0E-1 Fixed
Isolated Isolated
7.5E+5
5.0E+5 2.5E-1
Sloshing Height (m)

Base Shear (N)
2.5E+5
0.0E+0 0.0E+0
-2.5E+5
-5.0E+5 -2.5E-1
-7.5E+5
-1.0E+6 -5.0E-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
(a) Time (s) (b) Time (s)
1.2E+8 1.5E-3
Fixed Fixed
Isolated Isolated
8.0E+7
Elastic strain (m)

4.0E+7 1.0E-3
0.0E+0
-4.0E+7 5.0E-4
-8.0E+7
-1.2E+8 0.0E+0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
(c) (d)
Time (s) Time (s)
Figure 10. Time history response of the fixed and isolated tanks Model B due to1940 El-Centro earthquake horizontal excitation
1.0E+6 Fixed
5.0E-1 Fixed
Isolated Isolated
7.5E+5
5.0E+5 2.5E-1
Sloshing Height (m)
Base Shear (N)
2.5E+5
0.0E+0 0.0E+0
-2.5E+5
-5.0E+5 -2.5E-1
-7.5E+5
-1.0E+6 -5.0E-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
1.2E+8 Fixed
1.5E-3 Fixed
Isolated Isolated
8.0E+7
Elastic strain (m)
4.0E+7 1.0E-3
0.0E+0
-4.0E+7 5.0E-4
-8.0E+7
-1.2E+8 0.0E+0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
(c) Time (s) (d) Time (s)
Figure 11. Time history response of the fixed and isolated tanks Model C due to1940 El-Centro earthquake horizontal excitation
1279
5.1. Base Shear

Figures 9-a, 10-a, and 11-a show the time history responses of the base shear in the wall of the broad "Model A",
the medium "Model B", and slender "Model C" tanks with and without base isolation, respectively, evaluated using
the 3D FE model. The structural responses are provided at the maximal response points within the tank wall. Because
the highest shear occurs near the base of the wall, it is referred to as base shear. From the results of the base shear
response presented in Figure 9-a, it is observed that the base shear component of the broad tank does not significantly
affect their peaks by the base isolation system for the broad tank. Still, the strong cyclic effect of the earthquake was
clearly reduced. The base shear response has slightly increased by about 2 percent in the isolated tank compared to the
fixed condition. The absolute maximum values for the base shear force due to the horizontal component of the 1940
El-Centro earthquake excitation are 283 kN and 287 kN for the fixed and isolated base tank, respectively. In medium
"Model B" tank, the base shear response has decreased by about 47% in the isolated tank compared to the fixed
condition (Figure 10-a). The base shear response is significantly reduced in the isolated tank case, as the latter is
prominently influenced by the geometric design of the tank.
As the liquid height to the radius of tank ratio increases, the impulsive component mass participation ratio becomes
more significant compared to the convective component of the liquid (free vibration analysis) Table 1. The impulsive
component of the moving liquid dominates the base shear induced in the tank wall as compared to that caused due to
the convective component of the moving liquid (from broad to slender tank). As presented in Figure 11-a, the base
shear component was significantly affected in their peaks by the base isolation system with a sound reduction in the
strong cyclic effect of the earthquake. In this case ("Model C"), the base shear response has been reduced by about 65
percent in the isolated tank compared to the fixed condition (from 907 to 317 kN). The application of the base
isolation system causes a significantly reduced total response of the liquid, which considerably reduces the tank wall
base shear compared to the fixed tank. From the results of the base shear response presented earlier, it is observed that
the seismic isolation system reduces maximum values of base shear by 65 and 47 percent for "Model C" and "Model
B," respectively. The results show a modest increase in base shear values (roughly 1.5%) in "Model A". Enhanced
effectiveness of the seismic isolation is observed in the case of the slender tanks. The peak response values derived
using time history FE analysis are summarized in Table 3. The bold in the table represents a percentage drop
(negative) or increase (positive) over the equivalent tank model.
Table 3. Summary of peak time history analysis results
Model A Model B Model C

Response
fixed isolated fixed isolated fixed isolated
0.272 0.258 0.249 0.264 0.277 0.355
Sloshing height (m)
-5% +1.5% +28%
283 287 591 317 907 317
Base Shear (N/m) ×103
+1.5% -47% -65%
108 72 115 84.5 102 80.7
Hydrostatic pressure (N/m²) ×106
-33% -27% -20%
246 147 250 181 250 191
Von Mises stress (N/m²) ×106
-40% -28% -24%
1.13 1.06 1.20 0.874 1.20 1.10
Elastic Strain (m) ×10-3
-3% -28% -5%
5.2. Hydrodynamic Pressure

In tank "Model A", the absolute maximum values for the hydrodynamic pressure due to the horizontal component
of 1940 El-Centro earthquake excitation are 1.08e+8 N/m² for the fixed base tank and 0.72e+8 N/m² for the isolated.
The hydrodynamic pressure response for "Model A" was reduced, Figure 9-c. They decrease by 35 percent. Figure 16
shows the Von Mises stress dynamic response of the fixed and isolated “Model C” tanks subjected to the 1940 El
Centro earthquake. It has also been observed that the Von mises stresses have visibly reduced (24%) at the total tank
wall due to the seismic isolation effect; this can directly benefit the tank resistance.
For "Model B", the hydrodynamic pressure response was also reduced. They decrease by 28 percent (from 1.15e+8
N/m² to 0.84e+8 N/m²), and the Von mises stresses have reduced by the same value (28%). The hydrodynamic
pressure response was also decreased by 20 percent in the slender "Model C" tank, which directly benefits the tank
resistance. Table 3 shows the absolute peak hydrodynamic pressure in the tanks. The hydrodynamic pressure and von
mises stress distribution over the tank walls for the three tank models under horizontal excitation presented above
indicate the direct influence of the seismic isolation system on stress reduction overall tank wall. The effect is
observed in the three tank models with adjacent increased normalized values (Figure 12).
1280
0.2 1.0
Normalized sloshing height ratio

0.18
Normalized base shear ratio

0.0 0.8
-0.05
-0.2 0.6
1
-0.4 0.4
0.71
-1
-0.6 0.2
-0.8 0.0
-0.02
-1.0 -0.2
Model A Model B Model C Model A Model B Model C
(a) (b)
1.0 1.0
0.9
Normalized Bearing disp ratio
Normalized Hyd Pres ratio

0.8 0.8
0.6 0.7
1 0.6
0.96
0.4 0.5 1.00
0.66 0.91
0.4 0.75
0.2 0.3
0.0 0.2
0.1
-0.2 0.0
(c) (d)
1.0
0.9
Normalized Elastic Strain ratio
0.9
Normalized V M Stress ratio
0.8 0.7
0.7
0.5 1
0.6
0.5 1.00 0.3
0.95
0.4 0.79 0.1
0.3
-0.1 -0.04
0.2
-0.3 -0.49
0.1
0.0 -0.5
(e) (f)
Figure 12. Normalized dynamic response reduction ratios of the fixed and isolated tanks subjected to the 1940 El Centro
0.34g earthquake; (a) sloshing height, (b) base shear, (c) bearing displacement, (d) hydrodynamic pressure, (e) von mises
stress, (f) elastic strain.
The comparisons of the computed response variations for the fixed and isolated models clearly demonstrate the
period elongation effect in the transient response of the isolated tank models owing to seismic isolation. Furthermore,
the results show that seismic isolation significantly reduces the base shear, hydrodynamic pressure, von mises stresses,
and elastic strain response values in the three isolated models tested. This is partly due to an additional damping effect
caused by hysteretic energy absorption of lead-rubber bearings and partly to the supplement weight and tank model
configuration in slender isolated cases compared to broad. It is also noted that the isolation system is more efficient for
slender tanks than the broad tanks. On the other hand, it should be noted that the effectiveness of the isolation system
for the liquid storage tank depends on its configuration.
5.3. Sloshing Displacement

The sloshing displacement is measured at the extreme node from the centre of the tank in the x-axis (θ=0°) along
the direction of the applied horizontal components of the earthquake. The time history responses of the sloshing
displacement in the fixed and isolated base broad, medium and slender tank with the LRB using the 3-D FEM model
are shown in Figures 9-b, 10-b, and 11-b, respectively.
1281
Furthermore, we may deduce that the isolation system has a less substantial effect on the dynamic liquid sloshing
response of the liquid-tank system in "Model A" by comparing the sloshing height response values of fixed and
isolated tanks. The liquid wave height has lowered by 5% in this scenario. Due to horizontal excitation, the maximum
positive sloshing height of 259 mm occurs at t = 5.66 sec. The peak of sloshing height occurs far later than the peak of
ground acceleration. Also, the sloshing height response values of the fixed and isolated tanks are adjacent to their peak
values. So, the isolation system has a less significant effect on the dynamic liquid sloshing response of the liquid tank
system in the "Model B". The liquid wave height has increased by 1.5 percent. The time history graph for sloshing of
the water-free surface is shown in the maximum positive sloshing height of 259 mm occurs at t = 5.64 sec due to
horizontal excitation in the fixed model, and 264 mm occurs at t = 5.64 sec for the isolated model Figure 10-c.
The peak value of sloshing height due to the isolation system significantly affects the dynamic liquid sloshing
response of the liquid tank system in the "Model C" tank as a result of horizontal stimulation. For the isolated model,
the maximum positive sloshing height of 265 mm occurs at t = 5.70 sec and 355 mm at t = 5.78 sec after the peak of
the ground acceleration. In the slender case "Model C", the liquid wave height has increased significantly (28 percent).
The plots for sloshing response show that it has decreased in broad configuration case and increased when both the
types of medium and slender.
The introduction of increased flexibility due to base isolation of the tank tends to increase the sloshing
displacement of the liquid in the tank. This trend almost remains the same in the case of the fixed and isolated tanks.
The increase in the fundamental period of the isolated tank causes further increase in the sloshing displacement in the
medium and slender isolated tank. The sloshing displacement increases as the aspect ratio increases. The sloshing
height ratio of the fixed and the corresponding isolated tank values in the "Model C" is higher than the "Model A".
This suggests that, when the dynamic response of isolated liquid-tank systems is considered, the convective effect has
a little more significant influence on the total dynamic response of isolated liquid-tank systems in Model C containers
than in Model A. The tallest tanks exhibit an increase in liquid sloshing height due to seismic isolation systems, which
may take into account in-tank freeboard design (Figure 13).
Figure 13. Sloshing height for the fixed (left) and isolated (right) “Model C” tanks subjected to the 1940 El Centro
earthquake 0.34g at time 5.66s
5.4. Bearing Displacement

The bearing displacement is one of the essential parameters in the design of an isolation system. Due to the relative
displacement occurring at the isolation level, earthquake energy dissipation takes place in the isolation systems, and
hence the relative displacement in the tank is reduced. Figures 14 and 15 show the bearing displacement and the force-
displacement diagram for the isolation system in broad, medium and slender tanks. However, the bearing displacement
response follows a different trend. Bearing displacement in the "Model C" tank is 46.6 mm, 44.9 mm in the "Model
B," and 30.7 mm in the "Model A". As a result, it can be inferred that the seismic isolation technique has a greater
impact on the dynamic response of ground-supported steel tanks, especially in taller tanks when compared to broad
ones. It can be observed that the bearing displacement is less in the broad tank as compared to the slender tanks. As
the aspect ratios (liquid height to the radius of the tank) increase, the bearing displacement also increases.
1282
5.0E-2
Model A
Model B
Model C
Bearing displacement (m)

2.5E-2
0.0E+0
-2.5E-2
-5.0E-2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (s)
Figure 14. Bearing displacement time-history response of the three isolated tanks models
4.0E+5
2.0E+5
Base shear (N)
0.0E+0
-2.0E+5
Model A
Model B
Model C
-4.0E+5
-0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06
Figure 15. Force-displacement diagram for isolated tanks
Figure 16. Von Mises stress dynamic response of the fixed (left) and isolated (right) “Model C” tanks subjected to the 1940
El Centro earthquake 0.34g at time 2.44s
6. Effect of Earthquake Frequency Content on the Dynamic Behaviour of Liquid Tanks

To investigate the effect of earthquake frequency content on the dynamic behaviour of fixed and isolated
cylindrical steel tanks, the slender tank (Model C) is subjected to El Centro 1940 earthquake ground motions with the
highest frequency (PGA), and the time history response values are obtained. The El-Centro record is scaled so that the
peak ground acceleration is 0.5g. Due to the El-Centro earthquake (PGA=0.5g), a 276 mm wave height value at t =
5.02 sec is found in the isolated tank case. In this case, an increase of about 32 percent is found. Figure 17 shows the
Von Mises stress dynamic response of the fixed and isolated tank and the tank's plastic deformed shape bulge at its
base and indicates a plastic buckling type (Elephant foot buckling). An elastic buckling has also been observed in the
top tank shell.
1283
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 17. Von mises stress: (a) fixed tank, (b) isolated tank; Plastic strain: (c) fixed tank, (d) isolated tank subjected to El-
Centro 0.50g earthquake
The maximum displacement in the fixed base tank is in a zone near the top (Figure 17 (a)). The relative
displacements are measured from the middle of the wall height to the top. A slight increase in relative displacements is
shown. This buckling occurs in an elastic regime, the form of this elastic dynamic buckling obtained after 10 s.
Buckling was caused by the negative (inward) resultant pressure near the fluid's free surface, which induced
considerable compressive stresses sufficient to buckle the shell (Figure 17-a)). Still, no buckling was observed in the
relatively isolated model (Figure 17-b)). As presented in Figure 17-c, the shape has a bulge through the thickness near
the base. This deformation mode results from the development of plasticity on the base zone, and we can characterize
it as elephant foot buckling. Also, it is clearly shown that the use of seismic isolation system leads to removing the
buckling phenomena. No buckling has been noted in the relatively isolated model (Figure 17-d)).
According to the obtained results, we can visibly reveal that the seismic isolation system affects the dynamic
buckling of liquid containers above the ground cylindrical steel tank. It was clearly shown that when the peak
frequency of the earthquake recorder increases, the total energy dissipated also increases (Figure 18). This shows the
effectiveness of the seismic isolation technique on the dynamic response of liquid ground-supported cylindrical steel
tanks under high earthquake frequency content.
1.4E+6 6.0E-1
Fixed Fixed
Isolated Isolated
Sloshing Height (m)
7.0E+5 3.0E-1
Base Shear (N)
0.0E+0 0.0E+0
-7.0E+5 -3.0E-1
-1.4E+6 -6.0E-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
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4.0E+5 1.0E-1

2.0E+5 5.0E-2
Base shear (N)
0.0E+0 0.0E+0
-2.0E+5 -5.0E-2
-4.0E+5 -1.0E-1
-0.08 -0.04 0.00 0.04 0.08 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
(c) Bearing displacement (m) (d)
Time (s)
Figure 18. Time history response of the fixed and isolated tanks Model C subjected to El-Centro 0.50g earthquake
7. Conclusions
In this work, the effect of the seismic isolation system on the dynamic behavior of cylindrical steel tanks was
studied. Three tank models were chosen to study the effect of aspect ratio under horizontal components of ground
motion earthquake records. A nonlinear three-dimensional finite element model is developed in ANSYS software
while taking FSI and free surface into account. Free vibration analysis, the sloshing displacement in the contained
liquid, hydrodynamic pressure, and base shear in the tank wall are obtained. The results from the 3-D FE model are
compared with the previous studies and the commonly used mechanical lumped-mass models of the tank given by the
API 650 Standard.
The most significant results obtained in this study can be summarized as follows:
 The results obtained by free vibration analysis for the fixed base tank model were compared and validated with
the values given by the API 650 Standard. Model A fundamental mode is a bending mode, while Models B and
C's fundamental modes are the initial modes of a cantilever beam. This conclusion is consistent with previous
studies.
 The seismic isolation system's dominant frequency is within the effective frequency range of seismically isolated
systems. In all cases, the fundamental mode for the tank-liquid systems is the first mode of a cantilever beam.
The seismic isolation system eliminates the bending mode in short tanks (Model A). It is worth pointing out that
the period of the fixed tank model is shifted 3–4 times in the corresponding isolated model. In the base-isolation
mode shape, the isolated tank model presents a slight displacement in the tank wall with a large displacement in
the isolators. Moreover, the period of the convective mode slightly increased, and the latter has not been
considerably affected by the base isolation system.
 In the Model A tank, the base shear component does not significantly affect their peaks by the base isolation
system, but the strong cyclic effect of the earthquake was clearly reduced. Moreover, the base shear response has
slightly increased, and the hydrostatic pressure response has decreased. It was also observed that the Von mises
stresses were significantly reduced at the total of the tank wall; this outcome is directly beneficial for the tank
resistance. Furthermore, by comparing the sloshing height response values of fixed with those of isolated tanks,
we can conclude that the isolation system has a less significant effect on the dynamic liquid sloshing response of
the liquid-tank system in the "Model A" tank.
 For the "Model C" tank, the base shear component was significantly affected in its peaks by the base isolation
system, with a good reduction in the strong cyclic effect of the earthquake. Compared to the fixed condition, the
base shear response has been reduced by about 65% in the isolated tank. The tallest tanks present an increase in
the liquid sloshing height under the effect of seismic isolation systems, which may be taken into consideration
in-tank freeboard design.
 The consequence of earthquake frequency content on the dynamic response of tank systems can be pretty
significant and may thus result in a considerable increase in time-domain peak response values. It was also
clearly shown that when the peak frequency of the earthquake recorder increases, the total energy dissipated also
increases. This improves the effectiveness of the seismic isolation technique on the dynamic response of liquid
ground-supported cylindrical steel tanks under high earthquake frequency content.
 The seismic isolation system directly affects the dynamic buckling of liquid containers above ground in
cylindrical steel tanks. The use of seismic isolation systems can lead to the removal of the buckling phenomena.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the seismic isolation technique can provide an excellent solution to perfectly
protect liquid containers above ground in cylindrical steel tanks from the disruptive effect of severe earthquakes.
1285
The present 3D FEM method serves as a basic model for the seismic analysis of base-isolated liquid cylindrical
steel storage tanks. Nonetheless, these tanks can further be studied by considering the effects of bi-directional and/or
vertical seismic excitation on the stresses developed in the tank walls.
8. Declarations
A.S. and M.G. and N.H. contributed to the design and implementation of the research, to the analysis of the results
and to the writing of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.


This work was supported by FIMAS Laboratory, University of Tahri Mohamed Bechar, Algeria.

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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022
Usage of EB-CFRP for Improved Flexural Capacity of Unbonded

Post-Tensioned Concrete Members Exposed to Partially
Damaged Strands
Hayder Qays Abbas 1*, Alaa Hussein Al-Zuhairi 1

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Baghdad, 10071 Baghdad, Iraq.
Abstract
The study presents the performance of flexural strengthening of concrete members exposed to partially unbonded
prestressing with a particular emphasis on the amount (0, 14.2, and 28.5%) of cut strands-symmetrical and asymmetrical
damage. In addition to examining the influence of cut strands on the remaining capacity of post-tensioned unbonded
members and the effectiveness of carbon fiber reinforced polymer laminates restoration, The investigated results on
rectangular members subjected to a four-point static bending load based on the composition of the laminate affected the
stress of the CFRP, the failure mode, and flexural strength and deflection are covered in this study. The experimental results
revealed that the usage of CFRP laminates has a considerable impact on strand strain. In addition to that, the flexural
stiffness of strengthened members becomes increasingly significant within the serviceability phases as the damaged strand
ratios increase. The EB-CFRP laminates increased the flexural capacity by approximately 13%, which corresponds to
strand damage of 14.28% and about 9.5% for 28.57% of strand damage, which represents one of the unique findings in
this field. Additionally, semi-empirical equations for forecasting the actual strain of unbonded tendons were presented.
The suggested equations are simple to solve and produce precise results.
Keywords: CFRP Laminate; Debonding; Post-Tensioned Girder; Strand Damage; Unboned Strands.
1. Introduction
Around the world, pre-stressed concrete (PSC) bridges are corroding and falling into disrepair. Recent catastrophic
failures have triggered an assessment of the state of numerous pre-stressed structures, resulting in new assignments and,
in some cases, issues for emergency deactivation. Several of these collapses and damages are a result of terrorist acts
utilizing TNT or rocket attacks, which cause damage to pre-stressed bridge concrete sections or reinforced prestressed
tendons. The cutting of strands on concrete members reduces the overall capacity of the structure. Compensation with a
carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminate is one of the ways that this project will try to make things stronger
[1]. This study provides an efficient strengthening technique to restore the damaged bridge’s girder and to cover the gap
of other studies regarding the time-saving of retrofitting the structure and re-entering the service.
CFRP was used to reinforce or retrofit reinforced concrete (RC) or post-tensioned concrete (PC) structures.
Reinforced with CFRP laminate is more successful than other conventional methods, such as externally attached steel
plates or steel section jacketing. However, because of the appearance of corrosion, it is difficult to work with the weight
of steel plates, which adds dead loads to the members. The main sources [2] of damage to bridge members include one
* Corresponding author: haider_q@yahoo.com

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or more of the following: corrosion, degradation, and chloride attack; build-up of fatigue damage; inadvertent damage,
such as collision with a vehicle with a higher-than-typical height; tougher assessment rules and improved loading
parameters; initial design defects; construction errors; and an absence of maintenance [3]. The additional load-bearing
fiber-reinforced polymer can be affixed to increase the capacity of composite materials (CFRP) has come into the
strengthening field as a more robust alternative to conventional external reinforcing methods [4].
In the 1980s, Europe and Japan developed the first externally bonded CFRP composite systems for retrofitting
concrete members [5]. However, due to the frequent occurrence of bridge incidents, few studies have been conducted
on the restoration of collision-damaged girders. Near-surface mounted (NSM) and externally bonded (EB) CFRP
composites can be used to reinforce concrete structures (NSM) [6]. The primary concept behind these two systems is to
increase the flexural strength and stiffness of the concrete tensile surface by externally connecting CFRP material to it.
Although the FRP is applied directly to the member’s surface, efficient bonding in any environment requires substantial
preparation [7].
Strengthening of RC beams using various promising techniques such as externally bonded steel plates, concrete
jacketing, fiber-reinforced laminates or sheets, external prestressing/external bar reinforcement technique, and ultra-
high performance concrete overlay has been extensively investigated for the past four decades [8, 9].
The surface on which the attachment is to be applied must be dry, stable, and clean. By ensuring that the compatibility
of the strain criteria in the tendons, CFRP reinforcement, and concrete are met, the pre-tensioned tendons help save the
integrity of bonded PC members reinforced with FRP tendons [10]. This results in a relatively uniform interaction
between both the laminate and the surrounding concrete along with the member [11]. This approach, however, does not
exist in un-grooved tendons due to the lack of connection between both the strands and the surrounding concrete. As a
result, unbonded strands, adjacent concrete, and FRP laminates interact unevenly along the beam [12]. This could make
it less effective for UPC members to strengthen their flexural strength compared to prestressed concrete members with
bonded tendons [13]. CFRP composite laminate has been shown to increase the material's bending strength and ability
to expand to the elastic zone of PC members. Each FRP application incorporating concrete must be secured with
adhesive epoxy [14].
The epoxy class and manner of application are essential aspects of such projects since they might result in premature
failure, for example, cover debonding before the target strength is obtained. In comparison to steel reinforcements, it
has been demonstrated that FRP composites exhibit a brittle attitude with no or few warning signs preceding failure.
However, research has shown that adding CFRP to PS girders can make them much more durable [15].
The failure load of partially prestressed concrete beams with internally unbonded strands was increased by about
2.5%, to 10%, when the jacking stress increased from 0.5 to 0.7 of the strand's ultimate strength. Increasing the concrete
compressive strength from 35MPa to 60 MPa led to an increase in load-carrying capacity by about 10% [16].
Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) composites are finding huge applications in many industries. Drilling of
CFRP composites is required for the assembly of these composite structures in the aerospace industry. This study
investigated the feasibility of drilling CFRP composite using a drill bit made of tungsten carbide [17]. Prestressing
concrete damage has become a major issue and to improve the ultimate and serviceability, new materials such as carbon
fiber reinforced polymers or shape memory alloys can be used for active strengthening [10]. Prestress loss of CFRP
during prestressing and service stage is one of the critical technical issues in concrete structures rehabilitation. Eight RC
beams strengthened by prestressed CFRP plate were subjected to sustained loading and continuous wetting condition.
The results showed that the CFRP end anchorage system had a good long-term performance [18].
This study is a subset of Baghdad University's (Iraq) ongoing investigational research into the effectiveness of
strengthening procedures (Civil Engineering Lab). This research focuses on strengthening approaches employing CFRPs
with external bonding.
2. Manuscript Scheme
The proposed research involves designing and preparing samples, simulating the impact damage, concrete repairing,
CFRP strengthening, static load testing as shown ion Figure 1.
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Experimental Study and Investigation
Study the Failure Study the Flexural capacity Study the effecting on Study the effecting on
Mode and load-deflection the strands strain the FRP strain
Control Member
Damage Members
14.28% 14.28% 28.57%

Symmetrical Damage Un-symmetrical Damage Symmetrical Damage
Figure 1. Flowchart for the research methodology
3. Material and Method

3.1. Member Design and Properties
Seven girders, as illustrated in Table 1, have been used in this manuscript, spanning 3000 mm, resting on simply
supported ends of 2800 mm apart. The specimen was reinforced with 2f16mm at the bottom and 2∅10 mm at the top,
while the ∅10 mm bars were used for stirrups. Two unbonded strands are used inside the 22.5mm PVC duct with end
grips, and the strand extends to 0.45 meters from each side (Figures 2 and 3). All tests had been done in the laboratory
of the college faculty of Baghdad University under four points of loading. CFRP laminates (𝑏𝑓 = 50 mm and 𝑡𝑓 = 1.2
mm) are attached to the soffit to reinforce the specimen, as shown in Figure 4.
Table 1. Summary of specimen testing

Area of a CFRP details in (mm)
Member Damaged Un- p s
Class Symmetrical strand
ID (%) symmetrical Thickness Width Length (percent) (percent)
(mm2)
Control REF. 0 ‫ــــــ‬ ‫ــــــ‬ 197.40 ‫ــــــ‬ ‫ــــــ‬ ‫ــــــ‬ 0.490
B1R ‫ــــــ‬ ‫ــــــ‬ ‫ــــــ‬
1 14.28%  169.20 0.385
B1S 1.20 50.0 2700.0
B2R ‫ــــــ‬ ‫ــــــ‬ ‫ــــــ‬ 0.810
2 14.28%  169.20 0.385
B2S 1.20 50.0 2700.0
B3R ‫ــــــ‬ ‫ــــــ‬ ‫ــــــ‬
3 28.57%  141.00 0.320
B3S 1.20 50.0 2700.0
Figure 2. Member’s dimension and properties
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Figure 3. Profile of the damaged strand
Figure 4. Strengthening techniques for this study
The first letter "B" in the specimens' designation stands for beam, and the numbers 1, 2, and 3 after the second letter
designate the 14.28 percent and 28.57 percent strands, or damage groups, respectively. "R" for individual group
references, and "S" for CFRP laminate strengthening.
The design of the mixture concrete consisted of: Portland cement C45 with 412, 1030, 548, and 245 kg/m3 for
cement, aggregate coarse sand, and fine sand, respectively. (f’c=44.60 N/mm2 and ft=5.80 N/mm2) and 5.46 L/m3 of the
superplasticizer. The yield, ultimate, strain and area of bars for steel bars 518.20 N/mm 2, 658.970 N/mm2, 12.20%, and
77.21 mm2 respectively for D10 bars and 577.30 N/mm2, 710.74 N/mm2, 13.40%, and 199.10mm2, respectively for
D16 bars (Es=200000 MN/m2). Nominal area, ultimate strength, yield strength, and ultimate strain were 98.7 mm2,
1860.00 MN/m2, 1725.00 MN/m2, and 5.00% respectively for the Seven wires Garde 270 unboned tendons (Es=197.5
GPa). The manufacturer provided the carbon fiber fabrics' mechanical properties in addition to the resin, in which the
nominal thickness, tensile strength, and ultimate elongation were 1.2 mm, 3100 MN/m2, and 0.02 respectively for
laminate (Ef = 170 GPa), and 0.167mm, 3500 MN/m2, and 1.59% respectively for unidirectional sheet (Ef = 220 GPa).
3.2. Strain Gauges Details and Setup
All members were tested using a unidirectional electrical resistance strain gauge attached at the middle span to
measure strain in the strand, FRP, concrete, and steel as the described in Table 2.
Table 2. Properties of strain gauges and location
Type Code Ω Adhesive QTY, location

Steel FLAB–6–11 118.5±0.5 CN 2 @ tension bars
Strand YEFLAB-2-3 119.5±0.5 CN 4
Concrete PL-60-11 120±0.5 CN-E 1 @ 5cm below the top
CFRP BFLAB-5-3 119.5±0.5 CN 2
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3.3. Instrumentation and Test Procedures

The steel rebar cages were attached with strain gauges of the electric type before being placed in mild steel and wood
forms for concrete casting. Using ready-mixed concrete. In addition to the dial gauge for measuring camber, the strain
gauge wires were linked to the strain data logger to capture the strain of the strands during the prestressing process. The
two 1.5 cm thick end steel plates were fixed at the ends of each specimen with the incision at one of the endplates to
protect and guide the strain gauge’s wires during the prestressing process. The two endplates were punched with 2.2 cm
of diameter for PS ducting. For anchorage at the unbonded strands, two pieces of split-wedge anchor grip (barrel-type)
were used. The grips were attached to the far ends of the strands, which were then marked using a permanent pen to
determine the level of pre-strain that was applied to each strand. (L=15.5 cm as per the member design requirement).
The first strand was pulled out to the requisite prestressing desired value in two stages: initial for starching the strand
and final to the preferred prestressing value. (L), then released the piston. The procedure was then repeated with the
second strand. With pressure gauge readings from the hydraulic jack that is used in the post-tensioning operation as
shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Operation of post-tensioning

Two of the Analog dial gauges are attached to each end of the strand to find out the slipping of the strand during the
loading process. Four LVDTs were used to measure the deflection of the specimens; two near the support, one under
the point load, and the last under the quarter-point. All LVDTs were set up to zero strain at the start of testing, as shown
in Figure 5. To gradually increase the load, a fifty-ton hydraulic jack was used and attached to the load cell with an
ultimate capacity of fifty tons. Increments of 15 kN were added until the cracking load was reached. The load was then
applied in 30 kN increments until failure occurred each beam took approximately 2 to 3 hours to complete the test. The
load cell was used to monitor the applied load from the frame of the test, in addition to collecting the huge amount of
reading data, which lists the load as it was repeatedly applied. Cracks were signified for each load step after the first
crack appeared. The fracture pattern on 2 sides of the cross-section was captured on camera after the test. The modes
and ultimate loads of failure were reported in each case. During the tests, the load deflection and the first crack, and how
it spread were watched (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Member installation on the frame of testing
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4. Result and Discussion

The ultimate load-bearing capacity of the member was determined. All reference beams failed in the compression
zone due to flexure tensile steel reinforcement yielding.
4.1. Failure Mode

The test girders' performance was measured in terms of maximum load-bearing capability. All of the reference
girders failed in the compression zone due to flexure tensile steel reinforcing yielding. While the strengthened beams
failed by deboning of laminate followed by sudden compression and tension of concrete and steel bars. The first flexural
crack appears in the midspan of sub-reference girders B1R, B2R, and B3R, with cracking loads of the reference girder’s
cracking load at approximately 94.61, 93.10, and 85.4%, respectively. The cracking propagation is typically shown in
Figures 7 and 8. At the end of the test members in the various test series. When the specimens were subjected to the
externally applied load, the cracking patterns were most similar and typical of flexural members. All specimens (control
and strengthened) grew. During the initial cyclic loading between P min and Pmax, the first cracks of flexural appear within
the constant moment zone.
Figure 7. Failure mode – controlling by debonding
Table 3. Result summary of specimen
Cracking Cracking load Ultimate Mid-span deflection @ Change in flexural strength Failure
Girder ID
load, in kN concerning the control % Load, kN the ultimate load (mm) in compared with control % mode
B0-control 55.00 ‫ــــــــــــــ‬ 166.240 26.871 ‫ــــــــــــــ‬ SF, CC
B1R 52.00 94.59 157.250 25.470 5.410 R SF, CC
B1S 62.80 14.11 187.990 24.122 13.080 I SF, CC-DL
B2R 51.20 93.08 155.2 27.516 6.640 R SF, CC
B3S 59.10 7.48 193.91 25.123 16.640 I SF, CC-DL
B2R 47.00 85.41 148.75 29.912 10.540 R SF, CC
B3S 58.40 6.09 182.42 23.824 9.70 I SF, CC-DL
SF, steel failure at tension zone, CC crushing of concrete, DL, delamination of CFRP laminate. CD covers delamination, a Negative sign is for reduction, and a positive sign
is for increasing. R is for reduction, and I is for increase.
Figure 7, shows the cracking loads Pcr for the individual members before the CFRP application. As a result of the
increase in the applied load, the number of cracks increased and began to form within the shear zone. The cracks tended
to separate as the load increased to failure and formed more additional flexural cracks. The last column of Table 3;
contains a brief of the members' modes of failure. Unbonded PC members failed due to crushing of concrete, CFRP
debonding, or a group of these modes. The propagation of interface cracks in the concrete near to the CFRP in a
horizontal direction along with the embedded tension rebars until connecting with the vertical flexural cracks caused
peeling off of the concrete cover, indicating FRP debonding failure. The control member failed in a more brittle mode
than the strengthened members, which was evidenced by more rapid crack propagation and fewer cracks but wider crack
widths, while the control girder failed and showed brittle mode while the strengthened girders showed less brittle issue
[19], that is explained by propagation fewer and faster cracks with a wide width while a large number of cracks with
smaller widths for girders strengthen by carbon fibers.
4.2. Flexural Capacity and Load-Deflection

At three different load levels, the analysis of tested members was investigated: cracking loads, post-cracking elastic
stage, and peak loads as shown in Figure 8. The CFRP laminates and tendons had almost no effect on the member
attitude when the applied load does not reach the cracking load.
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Load-Deflection curve for all specimen

200
180
160
140
120
Load (kN)
100
80
REF.
60
G1S
G2S
40 δser =11.2 mm
G3S
G1R
20 G2R
G3R
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Deflection (mm)
Figure 8. Load verse deflection curves
The findings demonstrate that the damage caused by cutting one and two prestressing strands is significant. (Group
1, 2, and 3) results in a loss of strength when it is compared with the undamaged member; however, the strengthened
members with laminated exhibited an increase in flexural capacity of 9-16 percent for groups 1, 2, and 3 as illustrated
in Figure 8. The stiffness of the reference girders decreased slightly, and the strengthened girders were not significantly
different from the damaged reference girders of the same group. When the applied loads from the frame of testing
increase and exceed the cracking load, the damaged members of individual groups exhibit a relatively high rate of
stiffness deterioration due to the absence of a portion of the pre-stressing force, which increases the development rate
of cracks and displacement. Likewise, the flexural-strengthening externally bonded CFRP of the laminates exhibits their
ability to postpone the fracture formation and deterioration of the stiffness of the strengthened girders. As a result, the
strengthened member exhibits less deflection than the control girder for the same applied four-point load because of the
reduction in the force of prestressing of strands that resist the influence of the applied load.
The deflection is at the same value as the applied load, which is equal to 0.79 from the ultimate load and the ultimate
deflection. The serviceability limitation for deflection requirements (span over 250) is considered to use the
corresponding value in this manuscript. As per the result of control, the deflection at the serviceability limit is 1.12 cm,
and this value is referred to as the permissible load, which is about 79% of the ultimate load. During this period, the
displacement of the strengthened girders was slightly reduced by 9–18% for B1S, B2S, and B3S. The maximum
displacement increased significantly for the strengthened girders when compared to the controlled girder, which is about
5.3%, 7.51%, and 20.67% for B1S, B2S, and B3S, respectively. CFRP members demonstrate a decrease in displacement
at the maximum load, which comes from the obstruction of crack development during loading progression compared
with the group references.
4.3. Crack Progression Pattern

Many cracks developed between the two loads in the zone of pure bending moment. As the applied load grew, further
cracks occurred outside of this zone, as illustrated in Figure 9.
1294
REF
B1R
B1S
B2R
B2S
B3R
B3S
Figure 9. A pattern of cracks at the failure of the tested member
4.4. Applied Load and Strain for the CFRP Laminates

The strain increases in Figure 10 for the CFRP laminates are before the crack load, minimal and nearly equal. After
the load reaches the value of the cracking, the strain increases clearly, and after the bonded steel reinforcement yields,
the rate of strain increase increases significantly. The increased rates of strain in the carbon fiber reinforced polymer
laminates were almost similar.
1295
Load-Strain curve for FRP & Strand-G1

Intial strain 4590 Yeild in strand 8485
200
CFRP G1S
180 Strand Ref. + initial
Strand G1R + initial
160 Strand G1S + initial
140
Load (kN)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Strain (microstrain)

200
CFRP G3S
180 Strand Ref. + initial
Strand G3R + initial
160 Strand G3S + initial
140
120
Load (kN)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
1296

CFRP G2S Strand Ref. + initial Strand G2R-D+ initial
Strand G2R-UD-Initial Strand G2S-D+ initial Strand G2S-UD-Initial
200 Intial strain 4590 Yeild in strand 8485
180
160
140
Load (kN)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Load-Strain curve for FRP for G1, G2, and G3

200
CFRP G1S
180 CFRP G2S
CFRP G3S
160
140
120
Load (kN)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Figure 10. Load-strain for CFRP and strands
At a serviceability load limit, the rise in the strain of strengthened members B1S, B2S, and B3S was 0.265%, 0.294,
and 0.346% related to 13.25, 15.42, and 17.3% of the laminate ultimate strain capacity (Fibre Elongation at Break ffu =
2%). While the strain increase at the ultimate loads was 0.830 percent, 0.871, and 0.90 percent corresponding to 42.0
percent, 49.1%, and 45.10 percent of the ultimate strain of the fiber capacity for B1S, B2S, and B3S.
1297
4.5. Applied Load and Effecting on the Strands Strain

Because of the minor strain increases, the not contributing of the strand with the flexural strength before the first
crack. The increase in the strand strain was calculated by subtracting the post-tensioning initial strain (4600 μ,) from
the actual strain Figure 10. During this loading stage, the strand acted the same behavior in all of the tested members.
The strain increases in the strand for the references groups 1, 2 and 3 were greater than the control girder, whereas the
strand strain increases in the members strengthened with laminate was less than the member without strengthening in
the same group. At the serviceability load limits, the increase in the strand strain for B1R, B2R, and B3R, was 7500μ,
7590μ, and 89501μ, which showed an increase of about 9 to 30% when compared to the control member. Similarly,
the strain increases in the strands of the strengthened girders B1S, B2S, and B3S were 6750 μ, 6760 μ, and 7620μ,
with a reduction reaching 15% in comparison with them in parallel in the damaged member references. The strand strain
increases were much smaller in the loading stage after the load in the serviceability manner in the strengthened members
B1S, B2S, and B3S at the same loading level as in the reference and group reference. As previously mentioned, the
carbon fiber laminates were able to delay the cracks and prevent their development and they slowed down the
degradation of the member stiffness. Despite significant heterogeneity in the increase in strand strain for members B2R
and B2S with unsymmetrical losses in strand area, the average increase in strand strain was comparable to that for
members with symmetrical losses in strand area. For example, the coefficient of variation of strand strain increases at
the permissible service load was 0.0867 for damage reference beams G1R and G2R, but the COV of the strengthened
beams (coefficient of variation) of strand strain increases for B1S and B2S was 0.072.
4.6. Nominal Moment Strength of the UPC

Estimating the bending capacity of prestressed concrete members strengthened with externally bonded carbon fiber
laminates necessitates evaluating the strain increase of unbonded prestressed tendons [20]. Unfortunately, design
regulations, i.e. only offer a process for estimating the strain increase of bonded prestressed members reinforced with
EB-CFRP laminates [20], omitting out the unbonded procedure tendons in members reinforced with Externally Bonded
Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer laminates. Furthermore, as per the results of the trials, the EB-CFRP laminate has a
major effect on the attitude of unbonded tendons. The manuscript assesses the increase in strain for unbonded tendons
and bending capacity using the approach given previously [21]. To determine (ps) the strain in unbonded strands of the
CFRP reinforced simply supported and/or continuous components with nominal flexural strength, the following equation
is given:
𝛽1 𝑐 𝛽1 𝑐 𝛽1 𝑐
𝑀𝑛 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 (𝑑𝑝 − ) + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑠 (𝑑 − ) + 𝛹𝑓 𝐴𝑓 𝐸𝑓 𝜀𝑓 (𝑑𝑓 − ), (1)
2 2 2
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑃𝑆 ) (1-a)
𝑓𝑠 = 𝐸𝑠 𝑠 ≤ 𝑓𝑦 (1-b)
𝑑𝑝 −𝑐
𝜀𝑝𝑠 = 𝜀𝑝𝑒 + 𝜑𝑝𝑠 𝑁𝑝 𝜀𝑐 ( ). (2)
𝐿𝑎
The equation 𝜀𝑝𝑒 = 𝑓𝑠𝑒 /𝐸𝑝𝑠 represents the tendon's initial strain, not including stress losses, 𝜀𝑝𝑒 (microstrain) which
represents the strain of the carbon fiber, Ef (N/mm2) represents the modulus of elasticity of the carbon fiber, Eps (N/mm2)
which represents the modulus of elasticity of the prestressing strand, 𝑓𝑠𝑒 (N/mm2) which represents the effective stress
of prestressing which is equal to the force over an area (Fp/Ap), Fp (N) which represents the tendon's actual tension
force, Aps (mm2) represents the tendon cross-sectional area, Af (mm2) represents the cross-sectional area of carbon fiber
= tLf times bLf, 𝜑𝑝𝑠 which represents the stress reduction factor, set equal to 0.70, 𝜑𝑓 which represents the CFRP
reduction factor, set to 0.85 as per [20], and Np (Unit less factor) which is represent the parameter considered for simply
supporting members, Taking 𝑁𝑃 = 14.0 as a constant [21].
Understanding that stress rarely of the prestressing reinforcement exceeds yield and limiting the related stress to
0.95𝑓𝑝𝑦 allows the use of a linear correlation between prestressing reinforcement strain and stress, that is, 𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 𝐸𝑝𝑠 ×
𝑝𝑠 , which results as:
𝜑𝑝𝑠 𝑁𝑝 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝜀𝑐 𝑐
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 𝑓𝑠𝑒 + 𝐿𝑎 (1 − ) ≤ 0.95𝑓𝑝𝑦 (3)
⁄𝑑 𝑑𝑝
𝑝
The equilibrium compression and tension forces across the rectangular section can be stated as follows, assuming
rectangular section action:
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑠 + 𝐴𝑓 𝐸𝑓 𝜀𝑓 = 𝛼1 𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝛽1 𝑐 (4)
𝑑𝑓 − c
𝜀𝑓 = 𝜀𝑐𝑢 ( ) − 𝜀𝑏𝑖 ≤ 𝜀𝑓𝑑 (5)
c
𝑓𝑐′
𝜀𝑓𝑑 = 0.41√ ≤ 0.9𝑓𝑢 (6)
𝑛𝑓 𝐸𝑓 𝑡𝑓
1298
where, 𝜀𝑓𝑑 (Micro strain) which represents the debonding strain of the carbon fiber.
Using Equations 2 to 4, to do the step-by-step procedure which can be considered for evaluating the Mn for the
nominal moment capacity of carbon fiber reinforced polymer unbonded post-tensioned strengthened members.
Mode I: Concrete Crushing Controlling the Flexural Capacity

Step Number One: Assume that concrete crushing is used to control the nominal flexural strength that is the Equation
5 ≤ Equation 6. For 𝛼1 = 0.85, 𝜀𝑐 = 𝜀𝑐𝑢 , and 𝛽1 as defined in [19]. Substituting the 𝑓𝑝𝑠 from Equation 3 into Equation 4
and the stress reinforcing steel is assumed to be yields which mean fs = fy . The gained formula is a second-degree
equation as listed follow, which is used to calculate the NA depth at nominal flexural strength in the rectangular section
under sight:
𝐵+√𝐵2 +4.𝐴.𝐶 (7)

𝑐=
2.𝐴
with the follow parameter for Equation 7:

𝜑𝑝𝑠 𝑁𝑝 𝐴𝑃𝑆 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝜀𝑐𝑢
𝐴 = 0.85𝛽1 𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏 + (7-a)
𝐿𝑎
𝜑𝑝𝑠 𝑁𝑝 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝜀𝑐𝑢 𝑑𝑝
𝐵 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝑓𝑠𝑒 + ) + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 − 𝐴𝑓 𝐸𝑓 (𝜀𝑐𝑢 + 𝜀𝑏𝑖 ) (7-b)
𝐿𝑎
𝐶 = 𝐴𝑓 𝐸𝑓 𝜀𝑐𝑢 𝑑𝑓 (7-c)
Step Number Two: When Equation 5≤ Equation 6 as the result. Then calculate the strain in the reinforcing steel 𝜀𝑠
to investigate whether is larger than the yield strain 𝜀𝑦 as assumed in step number 1 Again when Equation 5≤ Equation
6 as result, while 𝜀𝑠 is not greater than (𝜀𝑦 ), Now repeat step number One to recalculate more precisely the NA depth
by using Equation 7 the following set of quadratic parameters when substituting, is generated.
𝑑−𝑐
𝑓𝑠 = 𝐸𝑠 (𝜀𝑠 = 𝜀𝑐𝑢 × ), (8)
𝑐
Instead of 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓𝑦 in to Equation:
𝜑𝑝𝑠 𝑁𝑝 𝐴𝑃𝑆 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝜀𝑐𝑢
𝐴 = 0.85𝛽1 𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏 + (8-a)
𝐿𝑎
𝜑𝑝𝑠 𝑁𝑝 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝜀𝑐𝑢 𝑑𝑝

𝐵 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝑓𝑠𝑒 + ) − 𝐴𝑠 𝐸𝑠 𝜀𝑐𝑢 − 𝐴𝑓 𝐸𝑓 (𝜀𝑐𝑢 + 𝜀𝑏𝑖 ) (8-b)
𝐿𝑎
𝐶 = 𝐴𝑓 𝐸𝑓 𝜀𝑐𝑢 𝑑𝑓 + 𝐴𝑠 𝐸𝑠 𝜀𝑐𝑢 𝑑 (8-c)
Step Number Three: Calculate 𝑓𝑝𝑠 from Equation 3 considering: 𝜀𝑐 = 𝜀𝑐𝑢 , 𝑓𝑠 = 𝐸𝑠 𝜀𝑠 ≤ 𝑓𝑦 . To determine the 𝑀𝑛 ;
nominal moment capacity from Equation 1.
Mode II: FRP Failure Controlling the Flexural Capacity

Step Number Four: When fiber strain 𝜀𝑓 calculated from Equation 5 is greater than debonding strain (𝜀𝑓𝑑 ) in
Equation 6, which is mean that the CFRP failure occurs just before the strain of concrete (𝜀𝑐 ) in the most distant concrete
compression fiber (𝜀𝑐𝑢 ). For this matter, the strain in the carbon fiber (𝜀𝑓 ) is equal to debonoding strain 𝜀𝑓𝑑 . As a result,
a technique of trial-and-error for fulfilling the compatibility of strain and forces equilibrium across the
rectangular section's overall height becomes more appropriate, as indicated in the following procedures.
Step Number Five: Using the fiber strain equal to debonding strain (𝜀𝑓 = 𝜀𝑓𝑑 ) as it was assumed initial value of
compression zone, evaluate the (𝜀𝑐 ) concrete strain from Equation 9 at the outermost concrete compression fiber, and
calculate the gained stress in the prestressing strand from Equation 3 and the gained stress in the reinforcing steel from
the Equation 10 by substituting 𝜀𝑐 concrete strain for 𝜀𝑐𝑢 .
𝑐
𝜀𝑐 = 𝜀𝑓𝑑 ( ) (9)
𝑑𝑓 −𝑐
d−c
𝑓s = 𝐸𝑠 𝜀𝑐 ( ) (10)
c
Step Number Six: Make certain the equilibrium issue by using Equation 4 in which the strain of fiber is equal to the
strain of debonding (𝜀𝑓𝑑 = 𝜀𝑓 ), 𝛽1 and 𝛼1 are as calculated from Equations 11 and 12:
1299
4𝜀𝑐′ −𝜀𝑐
𝛽1 = (11)
6𝜀𝑐′ −2𝜀𝑐
3ε'c εc -(εc )2
α1 = 2 . (12)
3β1 (ε'c )
where 𝜀𝑐′ can be considered equal to 0.002, which is represent the strain according to 𝑓𝑐′ , or for more accurately 𝜀𝑐′ can
𝑓𝑐′
be calculated as "ε′c =1.7. .
𝐸𝑐
Step Number Seven: Now steps 5 and 6 must be performed until the force equilibrium requirements of Equation 4
are about equal; if some degree of tolerance is acceptable.
Step Number Eight: Using Equation 1, determine the nominal moment capacity 𝑀𝑛 at the section. when "𝜀𝑓 = 𝜀𝑓𝑑 ".
Step Number Nine: For the factored nominal moment is greater than the applied moment (φMn ≥ Mu ).
Taking into account the reduction factor was determined following the ACI Building code by calculating the
correlation between the net tensile strain on the tension reinforcement bars and the NA depth 𝑐 at nominal flexural
strength:
 = 0.9 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐⁄𝑑 ≤ 0.38 (13-a)

𝑒
 = 0.65 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐 ⁄𝑑𝑒 ≤ 0.6 (13-b)
𝑐
 = 0.65 + 0.25 (2.73 − 4.55 𝑑 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0.38 ≤ 𝑐 ⁄𝑑𝑒 ≤ 0.6 (13-c)
𝑒
de which represents the equivalent depth of the tension reinforcement (FRP laminates, prestressing steel, and reinforcing
steel,) and is described as bellows:
(𝐴𝑝𝑠 .𝑓𝑝𝑠 .𝑑𝑝 +𝐴𝑠 .𝑓𝑠 .𝑑.+𝐴𝑓 .𝐸𝑓 .𝜀𝑓 .𝑑𝑓 )
𝑑𝑒 = (14)
𝐴𝑝𝑠 .𝑓𝑝𝑠 +𝐴𝑠 .𝑓𝑠 +𝐴𝑓 .𝐸𝑓 .𝜀𝑓
As the result, the experimental values of ultimate stress gained unbonded strands were compared to those predicted
by the previously given Equation 11. As indicated in Table 4 and Figure 11, the COV for theoretical and practical
moments was 0.030.
Table 4. Comparison between the theoretical and experimental moment
Members for El-Meski & Harajli (2013) [22] Manuscript data

Member Mu-P Mu-E Mu-P/Mu-E Member Mu-P Mu-E Mu-P/Mu-E
UB1_H_F1 41.801 46.501 0.899 Ref 90.090 91.430 0.990
UB1_H_F2 54.302 56.200 0.966 B1R 85.228 86.490 0.990
UB1_P_F1 41.403 46.500 0.890 B2R 85.228 85.360 1.000
UB1_P_F2 55.603 55.810 0.996 B3R 80.525 81.800 0.980
UB2_H_F1 50.502 60.310 0.837 B1S 98.197 103.390 0.950
UB2_H_F2 65.511 70.100 0.935 B2S 98.197 106.650 0.920
UB2_P_F1 58.512 60.500 0.967 B3S 94.374 100.330 0.940
UB2_P_F2 63.303 70.500 0.898 Average “M” 0.966
US1-H-F1 21.400 23.300 0.918 Standard Deviation “SD” 0.029
US1_H_F2 26.900 30.100 0.894
Variation’s coefficient “COV” 2.97%
US1_P_F1 21.600 23.800 0.908
US1_P_F2 30.100 30.800 0.977 For All:
US2_H_F1 26.600 26.400 1.008 Average “M” 0.968
US2_H_F2 35.800 31.600 1.133 Deviation of standards “SD” 0.079
US2_P_F1 29.800 26.900 1.108 Variation’s coefficient “COV” 8.20%
US2_P_F2 37.400 32.100 1.165
Average “M” 0.969
Mu-P is for theoretical (predicated); Mu-E is for experimental
Deviation of standards “SD” 0.094
Variation’s coefficient “COV” 9.74%
1300
Maximuim Moment Validitation Curve

140
Tested beams
120 Beam for Fatima
Slab for Fatima
100
Moment Theo. kN.m
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Moment Pract. (kN.m)
Figure 11. Comparison of experimental and theoretical flexural capacities
5. Conclusions
The impacts of partial strand damage enhanced by externally bonded-carbon fiber-reinforced polymer laminates on
post-tensioned concrete members were quantified. The results of the experiments lead to the following conclusions:
 As the ratio of damaged strands grows, the flexural capacity of post-tensioned members diminishes, whereas the
displacement of damaged stranded members increases at the same level of loading. At midspan, the damaged
strands' flexural capacity is reduced by 5.4%. The capacity of the strengthened specimens is reduced because the
strand's strength was lost, and the capacity for strengthened members was increased by 13.08% for B1, 16.64
percent for B2, and 9.73 percent for B3. This means that the capacity is higher than it was before the strand was
damaged. Regardless of how much flexural capacity has been restored, it is important to look at the serviceability
needs of prestressed concrete members with exceeding 20% losses in strand area before applying any more
treatments. The proposed equations for determining strain rises in unbonded post-tension members that are
reinforced with externally bonded-CFRP laminates will be very accurate and have very little variance in their
estimates of flexural strength (Mean = 0.97 and COV = 8.20%).
 Using externally bonded CFRP laminate methods to control crack development enhances cracking load and
flexural capacity. It was a big help when the EB-CFRP laminates were put on unbonded post-tension girders. They
made them stronger by 6.0 to 14.0%. The CFRP laminates have a significant effect on the attitude of the strands.
At the same loading value, the strain rise in the strands of the CFRP girders was significantly less than that in the
damaged beams. And enhancement of bonding for laminate strengthening is a prospect for future research.
6. Declarations
H.Q.A. and A.H.A. contributed to the design and implementation of the research, to the analysis of the results and to
the writing of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

6.3. Funding

1301
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[22] El-Meski, F., & Harajli, M. (2013). Flexural behavior of unbonded posttensioned concrete members strengthened using external
FRP composites. Journal of Composites for Construction, 17(2), 197-207. doi:10.1061/(asce)cc.1943-5614.0000330.
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(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)
Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022

Review Article
Life Cycle Assessment in Road Pavement Infrastructures: A Review
Bruno Guida Gouveia 1* , Marina Donato 1, Marcelino Aurélio Vieira da Silva 1

1
Transportation Engineering Program – COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Received 01 April 2022; Revised 26 May 2022; Accepted 29 May 2022; Published 01 June 2022
Abstract
The need to meet society's demands for road infrastructure while minimizing the resulting environmental impacts is a
source of great complications. In this context, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) can be useful by applying a set of rules and
processes for the environmental assessment of projects. The objectives of this study were to present the main environmental
impact categories associated with emissions from the life cycle phases of a road pavement and how to estimate them. In
addition, this paper provides examples of LCA applications on these infrastructures. In view of the evolution of research
on LCA, a compilation was made on: the main categories of environmental impact associated with emissions; phases of
life cycle impact assessment; and procedures and methods of impact estimation. The impact categories presented are
associated with climate change, acidification, ozone depletion, tropospheric ozone formation, eutrophication, and
Particulate Matter Formation. Not all methods are able to generate indicators for all types of impact and, depending on the
type of materials and services that make up the inventory of the alternatives analyzed, one specific method may be more
appropriate to use. The conclusions are that for each environmental impact, the results depend on the input parameters,
such as energy flows and materials, along with their processing by methods of life cycle impact assessment. Besides this,
despite the great diversity of the databases for the steps of life cycle assessment of roadway pavement, there is a general
consensus about the nature of these steps.
Keywords: Life Cycle; Infrastructure; Environmental Impact; Transport.
1. Introduction
Because there is a limit on the ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities, and because these
actions are mutable and subordinated to the degree of technological development and social, economic, and cultural
organization, the concept of sustainable development has emerged. It consists of the idea that it is possible, through the
combination of supply and demand management of productive resources and incentives for technological improvements,
to generate economic growth for the current generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their needs [1].
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is inserted in this context. The processes and rules for conducting LCA were originally
defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in its family of standardization [2]. The criteria for
carrying out LCA are general since the objective is to guide analysis of any type of undertaking. Therefore, its application
in pavement projects requires very precise specifications. The orientation is generally developed by the relevant
industries and other stakeholders, such as researchers and public agencies [3].
* Corresponding author: brunoguida@pet.coppe.ufrj.br

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Interest has been growing among transportation planners to determine the environmental impacts generated by all
the steps of the life cycle of transportation infrastructure, from extraction until final disposal or recycling of materials.
In this respect, although the environmental impact of products or services could be determined by other methods, LCA
has gained space as the most appropriate tool to accomplish this type of task since it is able to qualify, quantify, and
compare the repercussions of the structures studied. Finally, this type of capacity allows determining how a project can
be implemented while minimizing the negative impacts on the environment [4, 5]. According to Alshehry & Belloumi,
2017 [6], 20% of global energy resource consumption and 25% of global GHG emissions are associated with
transportation systems. However, 75% of those emissions come from road systems. In addition, pavement construction
is recognized as one of the three most relevant activities in terms of natural resource consumption and, specifically
within the road pavement life cycle, pavement construction can emit up to twice as many pollutants as motor vehicle
operation [7, 8].
A road pavement is a layered structure that is generally sub-base, sub-base, base and surface course. As the layers
underlying the surface course generally do not exert much influence on design processes, one of the main ways of
classifying pavement is associated with the material that makes up this layer, which can be asphalt concrete and
conventional concrete mixes [9, 10]. In Brazil, 65% of freight transport and 95% of passenger transport is carried out
by road mode. Brazilian's road density if about 25,1 km/1000 km², with 99% asphalt-paved. In comparison, to other
countries like China, USA, Russia, Argentina and Canada they have, respectively, 452,1 km/1000 km², 437,8 km/1000
km², 54,3 km/1000 km², 42,3 km/1000 km² and 41,6 km/1000 km² with some type of surface course, Brazil have much
to expand [11].
Since asphalt-paved roads are more common, this study may focus on this type of pavement. Therefore, it is
necessary to point out that asphalt mixtures are usually composed of aggregates, fillers, binders, and sometimes
additives. Approximately 85% to 95% of the mix is composed of aggregate and fillers, the rest is filled by asphalt [9,
10, 12].
Chen et al. 2021 [13] analyzed the effect of global warming on asphalt-paved roadway deterioration. In this regard,
they used a mechanistic-empirical pavement design method to simulate the effect of temperature. They concluded that
an increase in global temperature would accelerate the deterioration of asphalt pavement leading to an escalation in
maintenance demand, which would consequently require more raw material, plant production, transportation, and field
construction. This growth in the amount of services generates an increase in the amount of CO 2 emitted over the life
cycle of the pavement, which, although it performs better in the use phase, does not pay off. It is evident then, that the
life cycle of road pavement influence and are affected by climate change. In addition to these impacts such as
acidification and particulate matter emissions are widely analyzed [14].
As a contribution to less environmentally offensive roadway, this article presents a short review of concepts and
paradigms for conducting life cycle assessment, focused on roadway infrastructure. The objectives were to present the
main midpoint environmental impact category associated to emissions, the main methods used to translate the effects of
human activities into the units generally used for each environmental impact and the life cycle stages usually adopted
in life cycle assessment of a roadway pavement. In addition, this paper brings some examples of LCA searches with
their combinations of sources inventories bases, stapes of life cycle considered, methods to estimate impacts. The article
is organized into five sections including this introduction. Section 2 defines the general concepts for conducting life
cycle assessment for any type of product or service; section 3 identifies some specifications necessary to apply LCA to
roadway pavement products; section 4 summarizes some examples of studies that have applied LCA for this purpose;
and section 5 contains our conclusions and some proposals for future works.
2. Life Cycle Assessment

Life cycle assessment can be subdivided into four steps: objectives and scope; life cycle inventory; environmental
impact assessment; and interpretation. Figure 1 depicts a graphic representation of the LCA steps and their
interdependence. The step of defining the objectives and scope consists of determining parameters, such as: (1)
functional units, which are connected to a specific input or output, to enable comparison between different projects, such
as kilometers of road constructed per CO2 equivalent emitted; (2) frontiers of the system, among them the life cycle
phases of the product or service and the types of impacts considered; (3) period of evaluation of the product, which in
the case of pavement can extend beyond the service life; and (4) general specifications, such as a complete description
of the data sources, methods and tools used to guarantee the reproducibility, replicability and auditing of the studies and
evaluations [15, 16].
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Figure 1. Structure of a Life Cycle Analysis- Source (adopted from [17, 18])
A life cycle inventory (LCI) is basically a list of inputs and outputs associated with all the steps of the LCA of a
determined product [19]. There are three approaches most often applied for LCI. The first is known as process analysis
or the bottom-up approach, in which the life cycle of the product is segmented into various production subsystems. The
second is the top-down approach, which is based on macroeconomic diagnoses through input-output analysis. The third
method incorporates characteristics of the first two procedures [20, 16].
Different substances may have the ability to generate the same environmental effects, but with different potentials.
In view of this, standardization is necessary. In most cases, the intensity of the effects that a given quantity of a given
substance causes on an environmental quality parameter is taken as the basis. Each effect then has its own basic
substance of comparison. In addition, the same substance can contribute to several negative impacts. For a deeper
understanding of the theory adopted by the life cycle assessment it is important to note that each environmental impact
will have consequences on areas of protection. Usually, but not exclusively, these areas are: usually human health;
ecosystem quality or natural environment; natural resources and ecosystem services. It is evident that each intermediate
impact can affect more than one area of protection [19]. In this respect, Table 1 reports some of the main midpoint
environmental impact category associated to emissions and Ecosystem quality or natural environment.
Table 1. Main midpoint environmental impact category associated to emissions *
Characterization
Midpoint Environmental Impact Unit Area of Protection References
Factor
Climate Change Global Warming Potential (GWP) kg CO2-eq IPCC, 2014 [21]
Ozone Degradation Potential

Stratospheric Ozone Depletion kg CFC-11-eq Hauschild et al. 2018 [19]
(ODP)
Photochemical Formation
Photochemical Ozone Formation kg NOx-eq Ecosystem quality Van Zelm et al. 2016 [22]
Potential (POPC)
or natural
Acidification Acidification Potential (TAP) kg SO2 -eq environment Roy et al. 2014 [23]
Freshwater Eutrophication
Eutrophication kg PO4 -eq Helmes et al. 2012 [24]
Potential (FEP)
Particulate Matter Formation
Particulate Matter Formation kg PM2,5-eq Van Zelm et al. 2016 [22]
Potential (PMFP)
* Source: Adapted from [25-28].
Life cycle impact assessment phase apply procedures that transform different emissions in a cause-effect chain into
different estimates of environmental impacts of interest susceptible to assessment. An example is the conversion of
direct emissions of one ton of any gas into a carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2eq) to determine the potential contribution
to the greenhouse effect, such as methane gas (CH4). This conversion enables comparing different substances from the
standpoint of global warming potential. This step tends to be highly automated, having a great amount of different
computer programs available, depending on the product analyzed and the impacts targeted for estimation [19]. Table 2
exhibits the methods developed to translate the effects of human activities into the units generally used for each
environmental impact. It is pertinent to point out that for each midpoint environmental impact there is a diversity of
models and considerations. For this reason, but not only, comparisons between different studies should be made with
caution, as each method may use different procedure to estimate each midpoint environmental impact. In addition, it is
important to note that not all methods are able to generate indicators for all types of impact. Another important issue is
that, depending on the type of materials and services that make up the inventory of the alternatives analyzed, one specific
method may be more appropriate to use [15, 19].
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Table 2. Methods developed to translate the effects of human activities into the units generally used for each environmental impact*
Method Name Description Developer Year Source

Tool for Reduction and
An LCA program based on SimaPro U.S. Environmental
TRACI Assessment of Chemical and 1995 Bare, 2002 [29]
specifically for use in the USA. Protection Agency (EPA)
other environmental Impacts
The methodological procedure adopts a Goedkoop et al. 1998
Eco- Pré Consultants (product
________ combination implementation of the end 1997 [30]; Goedkoop &
indicator 99 ecology consultants)
environmental impact-oriented approach. Spriensma 2001 [31]
A parametric environmental assessment tool
Laboratoire Central des
ERM Elementary Road Modulus developed by replicating LCA and adapted 1998 Hoang et al. 2005 [32]
Ponts et Chaussées (LCPC)
specifically for road structures.
Institute of Environmental Guinée et al. 2002 [33];
Developed determination of intermediate
CML Centrum Milieukunde Leiden Sciences at the University of 2001 VAN Caneghem et al.
environmental impacts.
Leiden 2010 [34]
A free LCA software application aimed
Athena Sustainable
specifically at the construction and
Athena Athena Impact Estimator Materials 2002 Stek et al. 2011 [35]
maintenance stages of highways in Canada
Institute
and the USA.
Pavement Lifecycle Assessment
An Excel®-based LCA tool focusing on University of California, Horvath, 2004 [36];
PaLATE Tool for Environmental and 2003
economic and environmental effects. Berkeley Muench, 2010 [37]
economic effects
An LCA tool focused on comparing the Birgisdottir, 2005 [38];
Road construction and disposal Technical University of
ROAD-RES utilization of waste from incineration 2005 Birgisdottir et al. 2007
of residues Denmark
processes and virgin materials. [39]; Muench, 2010 [37]
Goedkoop et al. 2009
The ReCiPe LCA method was developed to RIVM, Radboud University 2008;
[40]; Goedkoop et al.
ReCiPe ________ provide factors to characterize intermediate Nijmegen, Leiden University updated
2013 [41]; Huijbregts et
and final environmental impacts. and Pré Consultants. 2016
al. 2016 [42]
A JAVA®-based LCA tool dedicated to road French Institute of Science 1.0 (2008);
ECO-comparator applied to
pavement for the construction and and Technology in
ECORCE Road Construction and 2.0 (2013); Jullien et al. 2015 [43]
maintenance phases with a focus on material, Transportation, Planning and
Maintenance M (2014)
water and energy reduction. Networks
Calculator for Harmonised
A calculation tool for monitoring,
Assessment and Normalisation International Road
CHANGER estimations, evaluation and normalization of 2009 Huang et al. 2013 [44]
of Greenhouse-gas Emissions Federation (IRF)
GHG emissions from road construction.
for Roads
A free LCA software for evaluating new and
Roadprint ________ rehabilitated road pavement, which can be University of Washington 2012 Muench et al. 2014 [45]
considered as an evolution of PaLATE.
Asphalt Pavement Embodied An LCA tool for calculating carbon dioxide Transport Research
AsPECT 2009 Nicuță, 2011 [46]
Carbon Tool equivalent emissions from asphalt mixtures. Laboratory
Mukherjee & Cass,
Pavement GHG emissions monitoring Michigan Technological
PE-2 Project Emission Estimator 2012 2012 [47]; Mukherjee et
program. University
al. 2013 [48]
Interactive Excel®-based tool specially
Evangelista & De Brito,
EcoConcrete Eco-friendly Concrete designed for quantifying the life cycle Joint Project Group (JPG) ____
2007 [49]
environmental impacts of concrete products.
Swiss Federal Institute of
The methodological procedure adopts an Jolliet et al. 2003 [50];
Technology Lausanne
IMPACT implementation through a combination of
________ (EPFL), currently _____ Humbert et al. 2012
2002+ the approach to intermediate and final
maintained and improved by [51]
IMPACT Modeling Team.
* Source: Adapted from [15, 25, 28, 52, 53].
Hoxha et al. 2021 [54] reviewed Life cycle assessment of roads exploring research trends and harmonization
challenges. They concluded that, although theoretically unexpected, the software used for analysis affects the results
and possible comparisons between studies, even if they contain the same databases and methods. In addition, they noted
that most studies estimated impacts on climate change, leaving other impacts relegated to the background. Furthermore,
they pointed out that publicizing the impacts that road infrastructure can generate for climate change is important as it
can raise awareness.
Finally, the objective of the interpretation step is to summarize, identify and evaluate the results of the LCI and
LCIA, and to draw some conclusions regarding the project of interest. This step generally consists of three elements:
identification of relevant questions based on the results of the LCI and LCIA; evaluation of the sensitivity of the
problems identified and verification of the consistency and completeness of the results; conclusions, limitations of the
study and recommendations for future research [15].
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3. Life Cycle Assessment on Pavement

LCA is a structured method to determine the types and quantities of impacts generated during the life cycle of a
supply chain, by examining the inputs and outputs of a product or system. In the case of roadway pavement, the life
cycle can cover the following phases: (1) extraction of raw materials (virgin inputs); (2) transport of inputs; (3) milling
or other processing of the input materials; (4) transport of the processed paving materials; (5) construction of the
pavement; (6) maintenance and recuperation; (7) operation; (8) recycling; (9) demolition; and (10) reconstruction [3,
16, 55].
Figure 2 (adapted from [15, 18, 55]) contains a representation of a roadway pavement life cycle phases connection
and the processes customarily allocated to them. It is possible to note the phases chronological order of linkage and the
contribution of a single phase to multiple other phases (e.g., the production of materials feeds the construction and
maintenance phases). Another observation is the participation of transport in all the phases, although with different
relevance levels. Finally, the phases of use/operation and maintenance/recuperation, although occurring in the same
period (during the life cycle of the pavement), are considered separately, in attempt to rationalize organization, since the
desire is to verify the effects of different processes that in final analysis are associated with the users or managers of the
road. The reason is that the flows of materials and energy that feed each phase have different levels, and hence different
Figure 2. Life cycle stages Illustration of a highway pavement
According to Xiao et al. 2019 [15], a LCA of a pavement have different designations depending on the steps life of
cycle included into the analysis, namely: (i) from cradle to gate, when the phases of extraction, processing of inputs and
construction are considered; (ii) from cradle to grave, when the phases of use/operation, maintenance/recuperation and
end of life are added to those mentioned in (i), without considering total recycling of the elements composing the
pavement; and (iii) from cradle to cradle, when the study covers all the phases plus the recycling of the elements that
compose the pavement, to start the chain again.
There are at each stage of the pavement life cycle a number of processes. Figure 3 attempts to illustrate the fact that
each process requires different types and amounts of materials and energy to complete them. For example, to prepare
the asphalt mixture it is necessary to have asphalt, aggregates and additives, which need to be heated and mixed together.
The result is not only the desired product, but also substances that can affect the soil, land and air [19, 56].
Figure 3. Generic procedural unit illustration regarding its inputs and outputs from an environmental point of view
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The stage of extraction and supplies production includes the processes of extraction and beneficiation of raw
materials to produce the materials that will be used in the phases of construction, maintenance and recuperation of the
pavement. These mainly consist of mixtures of aggregates with a wide granulometric range and asphaltic binders [3,
57].
The phase of materials production has the objective of gathering the different inputs from the extraction phase and
processing. With regard to asphaltic mixtures, the typical steps are: (1) drying and heating of the aggregates; (2) heating
of the binder; and (3) mixture of the aggregates with binder. With regard to the materials composing the other pavements
layers namely, base, sub-base and subgrade, the following steps occur: (4) granulometric stabilization; and (5) chemical
stabilization [18]. The transport of materials is involved in all the other steps of the life cycle of a roadway pavement.
For example, in the case of the construction of a new pavement or maintenance/recuperation of an old one, it will be
necessary to transport the binder and different aggregates to the worksite. In the case of maintenance/recuperation, it
will also be necessary to transport old material for recycling or final disposal. The environmental impacts of this transport
will be mainly influenced by: engine technology of the transport vehicle; load capacity of the vehicle; shifting distances;
transportation speed and weight of the materials to be carried [57].
The environmental impacts usually considered in construction phase and maintenance/recuperation phase depends
on equipment combustion: (1) of the fuel used by the construction equipment at the site and vehicles that carry the
materials; and (2) the extra fuel consumed by vehicles that must wait idling, travel at reduced speed and/or take detours
around the construction site [3, 57]. Some of the main aspects that directly interfere in the intensities of environmental
impacts in practically all stages are: service life, with several methods for estimation; frequency and type of maintenance,
which also has a great diversity of possibilities and effects [58]. During pavement use stage, impacts are normally
associated to vehicles consumption affected by vehicles-pavement interactions. Fuel consumption can vary due to:
conditions and characteristics of vehicles (shock absorbers, brakes, tire tread, engine); preservation or deterioration of
the surface of pavement, that increases or decreases rolling resistance (roughness, macrotexture); geometric
characteristics of the road, such as curves and ascending and descending ramps; pavement such as albedo or reflectance,
heating capacity and thermal conductivity [3, 57].
Table 3 presents some pavement life cycle assessment studies. Consensus can be observed on phases definitions, but
there is no agreement on which steps to be taken account. This seems to corroborates that, these aspects must be
determined by the team of researchers according to the objectives and scope of the study. Other aspect to note is that the
majority decided to estimate climate change, acidification contributions and energy consumption. Those aspects are in
line with Meijer et al. (2018) [14].
Table 3. Papers Collection that applied LCA in highway pavement studies, showing the steps considered and the
environmental impact indicators used*
Life cycle steps Environmental Impact Indicators
Compounds (VOC)
Consumption (MJ)
Particulate Matter
Greenhouse Gases
Carbon Monoxide
Volatile Organic
Nitrogen Oxides
Carbon Dioxide
Methane (CH4)
Nitrous Oxide
Sulfur Oxides
Construction
Maintenance
Transport of
Extraction /
Produçtion
Recycling
materials
(CO2 eq)
(PM10)
Energy
Studies
(NOx)
(CO2)
(N2O)
(SOx)
(CO)
Use
Huang et al. (2009) [59] X X X X X X X
Yu et al. (2012) [60] X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Yu et al. (2013) [61] X X X X X X X X X X X X
Chou et al. (2013) [62] X X X X X X
Yu et al. (2014) [63] X X X X X
Araújo et al. (2014) [64] X X X X X X X
Santos et al. (2015a) [57] X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Santos et al. (2015b) [65] X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Liu et al. (2015) [66] X X X X X X X
Mauro et al. (2016) [67] X X X X X X X X X X X X
Chen et al. (2016) [68] X X X X X X X X X X
Chong & Wang (2017) [52] X X X X X X X X
Santos et al. (2017b) [69] X X X X X X X
Moretti et al. (2017) [70] X X X X X
Liu et al. (2018) [71] X X X
Hong et al. (2018) [72] X X X X X X X
Gulotta et al. (2019) [73] X X X X X X
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Wang et al. (2019) [74] X X X X X X X X
Cong et al. (2020) [56] X X X X X X X X X X X X
Huang et al. (2021) [75] X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Total 18 17 18 14 15 14 8 13 11 9 8 10 10 5 4 1
*Source: Adapted from [76].
4. Life Cycle Assessment on Pavement Applications

Table 4 presents a compilation of pavements life cycle assessments studies exposing: objectives and scopes; sources
of data used; LCIA method adopted. Objectives includes comparison of asphalt mills versus asphalt plants and virgin
aggregates versus recycled aggregates. The majority of works estimated contributions made on climate change,
acidification, degradation of the ozone layer, formation of tropospheric ozone and eutrophication. Regarding to data
inventories, there was no consensus on national and international databases use. About LCIA method, no particular
preference was observed.
Table 4. Databases, LCA methods, software and estimated impacts when performing road pavements LCA*
Environmental
Objectives Life cycle Steps Database Source LCIA Methods Software References
Impact Indicators
Comparison of the environmental Regional data; ODP, GWP, POPC,
Cradle-to-site:
impacts associated with the Ecoinvent v.3 e USLCI TAP, FEP, Ecotoxicity, Vega et al.
Transportation; extraction TRACI SimaPro
production of HMA with virgin (United States life cycle Fossil Fuel Depletion, 2020 [28]
& machining; construction
and recycled aggregates. inventory) Human Health Damage
Comparison of the economic and

Cradle-to-site: Regional data, Nascimento
environmental impacts of using GWP, Fossil Fuel
Transportation; extraction Ecoinvent v.3, literature CML Baseline SimaPro et al. 2020
different materials for pavement Depletion
& machining; construction review [76]
layers.
Comparison of the environmental GWP, TAP, ODP,

Cradle-to-gate: Martinez-
impacts associated with the Regional data e FEP, Human Health
Extraction; crushing (RCA); IMPACT 2002+ SimaPro Arguelles et
production of HMA with virgin Ecoinvent v.3 Damage, Ecotoxicity,
transport to storage al. 2019 [27]
and recycled aggregates. Fossil Fuel Depletion
Comparison of the economic,

Cradle-to-grave: EIO-LCA GWP, TAP, ODP,
social, and environmental impacts Regional data;
Machining; construction; model POPC, FEP, Danos a Shi et al.
associated with the use of RCA on Oklahoma DOT AADT TRACI
use; maintenance; end-of- developed saúde humana, 2019 [77]
the base paving (PCC) with Traffic Counts
life by CMU Ecotoxicity
conventional ones.
Cradle-to-site:
Comparison of the environmental Demolition site transportation Regional data;
GWP, Human Health
impacts associated with the (RCA); extraction and Ecoinvent v.3 e USLCI Rosado et
IMPACT 2002+ SimaPro Damage, Ecotoxicity,
production of HMA with virgin machining; disposal (RCA); (United States life cycle al. 2017 [78]
Fossil Fuel Depletion
and recycled aggregates. concrete plant transportation; inventory)
transportation
Comparison of the environmental Cradle-to-gate: literature review, CML baseline

impacts associated with the Extraction and machining; Ecoinvent v.3 e ELCD method and ADP, GWP, ODP, Braga et al.
SimaPro
production of HMA with virgin transportation to the mill; (European life cycle Cumulative POPC, TAP, FEP 2017 [79]
and recycled aggregates. production at the mill. database) Energy Demand
Cradle-to-site: CLP (Chinese Light and

Compare the differences between GWP, TAP, ODP,
Extraction of materials; Power), CLCD (Chinese
the environmental impacts POPC, FEP, Ecotoxicity, Hossain et
crushing; transportation life cycle database) e IMPACT 2002+ SimaPro
generated by recycled and virgin Fossil Fuel Depletion al. 2016 [80]
through all stages until ELCD (European life
aggregates. Human Health Damage
construction. cycle database)
Cradle-to-site:
Compare the environmental Transport from demolition
Eco-indicator 99, GWP, TAP, ODP,
impacts associated aggregates for site (RCA); quarrying and Estanqueiro
CML Baseline FEP, Human Health
asphalt mixtures: (i) virgin; (ii) machining; cradle-to-grave Regional data SimaPro et al. 2016
and Cumulative Damage, Ecotoxicity,
recycled in a mill plant; (iii) (RCA); transport from [81]
Energy Demand Fossil Fuel Depletion.
recycled in a mobile plant. concrete plant; transport to
construction site.
*Source: Adapted from [28].
5. Conclusion
Transport infrastructure affects the environment in several ways. Directly, by demanding natural resources that will
form the materials used in the construction and conservation of pavements. Indirectly, by demanding fuel to operate
vehicles and construction equipment. To decrease the negative environmental effects of infrastructure, it is necessary to
compare which alternative designs cause the lowest environmental impacts. That is the context of the application of life
cycle assessment. This article presented a short review of concepts and paradigms for conducting life cycle assessments,
focusing on highway infrastructure.
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A compilation of the main midpoint environmental impact category associated with emissions was shown. As
discussed, different substances may have the ability to generate the same environmental effects but with different
potentials. Each effect then has its own basic substance of comparison. The impact categories presented are associated
with climate change, acidification, ozone depletion, tropospheric ozone formation, eutrophication, and Particulate
Matter Formation.
The life cycle impact assessment phase applies procedures that transform different emissions in a cause-effect chain
into different estimates of environmental impacts of interest susceptible to assessment. This step tends to be highly
automated, with a greater number of different computer programs available depending on the product analyzed and the
impacts targeted for estimation. Not all methods are able to generate indicators for all types of impact and, depending
on the type of materials and services that make up the inventory of the alternatives analyzed, one specific method may
be more appropriate to use. Comparisons between different studies should be made with caution, as each method may
use a different procedure to estimate each midpoint environmental impact. In addition, the methods used to determine
these indicators vary widely in the sample analyzed, indicating lack of consensus about it and constant technology
update.
There is no way to indicate the best database to use is to recommend the adoption of a database that best represents
the alternatives, since the precision of the results of LCA depends on the reliability of the data employed for
characterization of the inputs. The diversity of selections that have to be made by researchers to apply the LCA
methodology and the inherent diversity of the infrastructure project alternatives being compared makes quantitative
comparisons difficult, because the final analysis will correspond to the characteristics of the chosen parameters for the
inventory. In order to use LCA as a reliable and replicable tool to evaluate the environmental impacts that highways can
generate, all the parameters and considerations adopted to perform the analysis must be established and made evident.
Finally, a proposal for future studies would be to evaluate the effects on the LCA of a pavement that would suffer under
the variation of construction materials, construction techniques, and pavement management strategies.
6. Declarations
Conceptualization, B.G.G., and M.D.; methodology, B.G.G., and M.D.; software, B.G.G., and M.D.; validation,
B.G.G., and M.D.; formal analysis, B.G.G., and M.D.; investigation, B.G.G., M.D., and M.A.V.S.; resources, B.G.G.,
M.D., and M.A.V.S.; data curation, B.G.G., M.D., and M.A.V.S.; writing—original draft preparation, B.G.G., M.D.,
and M.A.V.S.; writing—review and editing, B.G.G., M.D., and M.A.V.S.; visualization, M.A.V.S.; supervision,
M.A.V.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

6.3. Funding
This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – Brasil
(CAPES) – Finance Code 001 and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico – Brasil (CNPq).

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Civil Engineering 2022

Editor in Chief: Dr. Jiliang Li

Dr. S. Hooman Mousavi Dr. Sanjay Tewari

Prof. Nikolaos Eliou

Phone: +98-21-88779475-ext. 258 Mailing Address: Dr. Kavianpour office, 3rd

Contents Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022

Cahyono Ikhsan, Ariva S. Permana, Arlendenovega S. Negara

Analysis of Pedestrian Performance by Integrating both Quantitative and Qualitative Factors

Neil Andrew I. Meneses, Jocelyn S. Buluran

Properties of Concrete Produced using Surface Modified Polyethylene Terephthalate Fibres

Michael M. Mwonga, Charles Kabubo, Naftary Gathimba

Impact of Climate Change on Crops Productivity Using MODIS-NDVI Time Series

Zainab K. Jabal, Thair S. Khayyun, Imzahim A. Alwan

Mohamad S. Sulaiman, Habib M. Mohamad, Anis A. Suhaimi

Embun Sari, Muhammad Yamin, Hasim Purba, Rosnidar Sembiring

Mohammad Al-Rawashdeh, Isam Yousef, Mohammad Al-Nawaiseh

Walid Alfaggi, Sepanta Naimi

Shear Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Beam Using Wire Mesh–Epoxy Composite

Mustafa Al-Bazoon, Abdulkhaliq Jaafer, Haidar Haidar, Abbas Dawood

Mechanical Properties of Eco-friendly Concrete Made with Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

Tareg Abdalla Abdalla, David O. Koteng, Stanley M. Shitote, M. Matallah

Contents Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022

Slenderness in Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete Long Beams

Ravpreet Kaur, Harvinder Singh

Three-Dimensional Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis of Base Isolated Cylindrical Steel Tank

Abdellali Saria, Mohamed Djermane, Nasser Dine Hadj-Djelloul

Hayder Qays Abbas, Alaa Hussein Al‐Zuhairi

Life Cycle Assessment in Road Pavement Infrastructures: A Review

Bruno Guida Gouveia, Marina Donato, Marcelino Aurelio Vieira da Silva

• Building Materials and Structures • Coastal and Harbor Engineering

• Earthquake Engineering • Environmental Engineering

• Road and Bridge Engineering • Structural Engineering

 Civil Engineering Journal (C.E.J) is published monthly.

Civil Engineering Journal (C.E.J) Indexing & Abstracting

 This is an open access journal under the CC-BY license (https://

Civil Engineering Journal

Vol. 8, No. 06, June, 2022

Armor Layer Uniformity and Thickness in Stationary

Cahyono Ikhsan 1* , Ariva S. Permana 2 , Arlendenovega S. Negara 1

* Corresponding author: cahyonoikhsan@staff.uns.ac.id

1.1. Armor Layers

1.2. Shear Stress and Transport Rate

1.3. Coefficient of Uniformity (𝑪𝒖 )

1.4. Measuring System and Accuracy

Figure 1. Flowchart of the Method of Experiment

Figure 2. The flume setup

Figure 4. Gradation of Five River Bed Materials (M1-M5)

2.2. Measurements of Variables

3. Results and Discussion

M1Q1S2 25 0.014 0.604 0.070 0.705 9.610

M1Q1S3 25 0.018 0.660 0.065 0.797 11.478

M1Q1S4 25 0.022 0.701 0.060 0.878 12.949

M1Q1S5 25 0.026 0.729 0.055 0.951 14.028

M1Q2S1 30 0.010 0.562 0.090 0.598 12.500

M1Q2S2 30 0.014 0.626 0.080 0.706 13.000

M1Q2S3 30 0.018 0.685 0.075 0.799 13.244

M1Q2S4 30 0.022 0.730 0.070 0.881 15.107

M1Q2S5 30 0.026 0.762 0.065 0.955 16.579

M1Q3S1 40 0.010 0.621 0.110 0.598 13.800

M1Q3S2 40 0.014 0.701 0.100 0.708 14.700

M1Q3S3 40 0.018 0.754 0.090 0.802 15.892

M1Q3S4 40 0.022 0.809 0.085 0.886 18.345

M1Q3S5 40 0.026 0.852 0.080 0.962 20.405

M1Q4S1 45 0.010 0.648 0.120 0.597 14.300