Applications of Sensor Networks Military applications Monitoring inimical forces Monitoring friendly forces and equipment Military-theater or battlefield surveillance Targeting Battle damage assessment Nuclear, biological, and chemical attack detection Health applications Remote monitoring of physiological data Tracking and monitoring doctors and patients inside a hospital Drug administration Elderly assistance Commercial applications Environmental control in industrial and office buildings Inventory control Vehicle tracking and detection Traffic flow surveillance Environmental applications Home applications Examples Microclimates Forest fire detection Flood detection Precision agriculture Home automation Instrumented environment Automated meter reading Industrial monitoring and control ‘Commercial building and control Process control Home automation Wireless automated meter reading (AMR) and load management (LM) Metropolitan operations (traffic, automatic toll, fire, etc.) National security applications: chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear wireless sensors Miltary sensors Environmental (land, air, sea) and agricultural wireless sensorsMAC Protocols for Wireless Sensor networks Multiple access protocols are a set of protocols operating in the Medium Access Control sublayer (MAC sublayer) of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. These protocols allow a number of nodes or users to access a shared network channel. Several data streams originating from several nodes are transferred through the multi-point transmission channel The objectives of multiple access protocols are optimization of transmission time, minimization of collisions and avoidance of crosstalks Categories of Multiple Access Protocols Multiple access protocols can be broadly classified into three categories - random access protocols, controlled access protocols and channelization protocols.MAC PROTOCOLS FOR WSNs ¢ The most critical issue is to — conserve energy ¢ Which factors contribute to energy waste — excessive overhead, — idle listening, — packet collisions, and — overhearing. « Exchange of control and synchronization packets result in significant energy consumption. * Long periods of idle listening may also increase energy consumption. * The retransmission of colliding packets is yet another source of significant energy waste. * Excessive over-hearing, decoding packets intended for other sensor nodes, unnecessarily increases energy consumption.Schedule vs. Contention-based MAC protocols. * Schedule-based — Deterministic MAC protocols (channel access is based on schedule). — Channel access is limited to one sensor node at a time. — Pre-allocation of resources to individual sensor nodes. * Contention-based — No pre-allocation of resources to individual sensors. — Single radio channel is shared by all nodes. — Will try to minimize collisions but not eliminate them. Types of protocols in WSN Approach | Protocols | Reliability | Energy Real Support Efficiency | Time Communi cation Contention | S-MAC, | Good High Moderate Based T-MAC, ELMAC etc. Schedulin | TDMA, | Good Low Low £ CDMA, Based FDMA etc. Hybrid EQMAC. | Good High Good Based CTMAC HYMAC etc.1a. Campare Adhoc-wireless and Wireless sensor networks. The number of nodes in sensor network can be several orders of magnitude large than the number of nodes in an ad hoc network. Sensor nodes are more casy to failure and energy drain, and their battery sources are usually nol replaceable or rechargeable. Sensor nodes may not have unique global identifiers (ID). so unique addressing is not always feasible in sensor networks. Sensor networks are data-centric, the queries in sensor networks are addressed to nodes which have data satisfying some conditions, Ad Hoc networks one address-centric, with queries addressed to particular nodes specified by their unique address, Dats fusion/aggregation: the sensor nodes aggregate the local information before relaying, The goals are reduce bandwidth consumption, media access delay, and power consumption for communication. 1161.2. Clustering in wireless sensor networks Sensor nodes in an environment collect data and transmit it to a sink either directly or collaboratively through other nodes. Many sensor applications cluster the sensor nodes to achieve scalability, robustness and reduced network traffic. A sample scenario of clustering is shown in Figure 1. Here, clusters are provided with cluster heads and these cluster heads transmit the aggregated data to the base station or the sink.CHThe primary advantage of clustering is the scalability of performance across the expanding sensor networks. In addition to this, clustering approach provides numerous secondary advantages. It ensures reliability and avoids one-point failure due to its localized solutions. A cluste g solution can suggest a sleep/wakeup schedule for a WSN to effectively reduce power consumption. In many sensor applications, all the sensor nodes are not required to be in wakeup state and consume energy. Based on the temporal and spatial dependencies, some sensor nodes can be put in sleep mode in which no energy is consumed. An effective schedule can be devised and communicated to these sensor nodes through the sink or administrator. Also, clustering ensures scalability of the application performance due to its semi-distributed nature.Introduction * Asensor network is an infrastructure comprised of — sensing (measuring), — computing, and — communication elements * To administrator the ability to — instrument, — observe, and — react to events specified environments + There are four basic components in a sensor network (1) an assembly of distributed or localized sensors; (2) an interconnecting network (usually, but not always, wireless-based); (3) a central point of information clustering; and (4) a set of computing resources at the central point (or beyond) to handle data correlation, event trending, status querying, and data mining. coe beeen] pes tfSchedule-Based Protocols * Idea: — Asset of N contiguous slots, where N is a system parameter, form 2 logical frame. — This logical frame repeats cyclically over time. — In each logical frame, each sensor node is assigned a set of specific time slots. — This set constitutes the schedule according to which the sensor node operates in each logical frame. — Based on its assigned schedule, a sensor alternates between two modes of operation: active mode and sleep mode. — In the active mode, the sensor uses its assigned slots within a logical frame to transmit and receive data frames. — Outside their assigned slots, sensor nodes move into sleep mode. Self-Organizing Medium Access Control for Sensor-nets (SMACS) —A key feature of SMACS is its use non-synchronous scheduled communication to enable links to be formed and scheduled concurrently throughout the network. Each node in the network maintains a TOMA-like frame, referred to as a superframe, for communication with known neighbors. — Each node regularly execute a neighborhood discovery procedure —To ensure no interference occurs between adjacent links it randomly assigns a channel, selected from a large number of channels (FOMA), or spreading code (CDMA) to each link. Bluetooth — Centralized TOMA-based protocol. — Agroup of devices called a pico-net. — Each pico-net has a master unit which controls access to the channel, and at most seven slave devices as group participants. — Each channel is divided into 625-ms slots. — Pico-nets can be interconnected, via bridge nodes, to form larger ad hoc networks, referred to as scatternets. — Access to the channel is regulated using a slotted time-division duplex (TDD) protocol in which the master uses a polling protocol to allocate time slots to slave nodes.Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) — LEACH takes a hierarchical approach and organizes nodes into clusters. — Within each cluster, nodes take turns to assume the role of a cluster head. — LEACH uses TDMA to achieve communication between nodes and their cluster head. — The cluster head forwards to the base station messages received from its cluster nodes. — The cluster head node sets up a TDMA schedule and transmits this schedule to all nodes in its cluster to avoid collisions. Random Access-Based Protocols — Random access protocols not well suited for WSN environments. — The enhancement using RTS and CTS improves their performance and makes them more robust to the hidden terminal problem. — collisions, idle listening, overhearing, and 39-40/47 ‘ control overhead still occur. — Solutions are * PAMAS * STEM + MAC * B-MAC— Solutions or Enhancements + PAMAS : power aware multi-access protocol with signaling — avoids overhearing among neighboring nodes by using a separate signaling channel, + STEM: sparse topology and energy management — uses two radio channels: 2 data radio channel and a wake-up radio channel. + TMAC: Timeout MAC — reduce idle listening by transmitting all messages in bursts of varlable length. + B-MAC: Berkeley MAC — uses clear channel assessment (CCA) and packet back-offs for channel arbitration, link layer acknowledgments for reliability, and listening for low-power communication. Sensor-MAC (S-MAC) + Major components of SMAC = Periodic listen and sleep = Collision avoidance = Overhearing avoidance + Neighboring nodes are synchronized together Periodic updating using a SYNC packet + Listen interval divided into two parts — Each part further divided into time slots + RTS/CTS Similar to IEEE 802.11 — Interfering nodes go to sleep after they hear the RTS or CTS packet + Power conservation is achieved — Uses a random wake-up schedule during the connection phase and by turning the radio off during idle time slots. Duty-cycled MAC to reduce idle listening - fixed active period in a cycle - variable sleep period in a cycle - duty cycle = active period / cycle length| Commerciatindustiar applications Ips ic Sensor Network Archi =a Elements © There are four basic components in a sensor network: (1) an ‘assembly of distrbuted or localized sensors: (2) an interconnecting network (usually, but not aways, wireless-based); (3) a central point of information clustering: and (4) a set of computing resources at the central point (or beyond) to handle data correlation, event trending, status ‘querying, and data mining. ‘© Each node of the sensor networks consist of three subsystem: © Sensor subsystem: senses the environment ‘© Processing subsystem: performs local computations on the sensed data © RFID — Theft Deterrent and Customer Trt ‘© Communication subsystem: responsible for message «© Plant Equipment Maintenance Monitoring »_|___ exchange with neighboring sensor nodes Basi¢ Sensor Network Architectural Elements | Basi¢ Sensor Network Architectural Elements © sensor netvork is composed of alarge numberof sensor © Each ofthe dstnbuted sensor nodes typically has the nodes that are densely deployed. capability to colect data, analyze them, and route them to a © Asensor node typically has embedded processing (Cesignated) sink point. Figure 1.2 depicts a typical WSN capabilities and onboard storage; te node can have one or | Mfangement. ‘more sensors operating in the acoustic, seismic, radio (adar), infrared, optical, magnetic, and chemical or biological domains. © The node has communication interfaces, typically wireless. links, to neighboring domains. © The sensor node also often has location and positioning knowledge that is acquired through a global positioning system (GPS) or local positioning algorithm. (© Sensor nodes are scattered in a special domain called a Sensor field. an vinsen * Sue ea Network / = ee. = jensor Netwo ee lements * Embedded sensor networks are predicated on three * Each The components of a (remote) sensing node include ‘supporting components: embedding, networking, and ‘sensing and actuation unit, Aprocessing unit, A sensing. Communication unit, A power unit and other application- * Embedding implies the incorporation of numerous distributed —— devices to monitor the physical world and interact wit it; the devices are untethered nodes of small form factors that equipped with a control and communication subsystem. * Logical connectivity has the goal of supporting coordination ‘and other high-level tasks; physical connectivity is typically ‘supported over a wireless radio link. * Sensing implies the presence of these capabilites in a tightly ‘coupled environment, * Software (Operating Systems and Midcleware):To support ic Sensor Network Architectural Elements * Upper layers: In-network applications, including application processing, data aggregation, externa! mueninn muens __ processing, and external catabase * Layer 4 Transport: including data dissemination and accumulation, ‘caching, and storage * Layer 3 Networking: including ‘adaptive topology management ‘and topological routing * Layer 2 Link layer (contention) ‘channe! sharing (MAC), timing, ‘and locality * Layer 1 Physical:mediim;se eC La Network and Wireless Sensor Network: Wireless Adhoc Wireless Sensor Network Network The mediumused The medium used inwirelessadhoc _ in wireless sensor networksisradio networks are radio VEU PEN oye Lila te optical media. Application Application independent dependent network is.used. networkis used. Hop-to-Hop Query based (data routing takes centric routing) or olla location based routing takes place. {heii} UheteM YoY natoXe [=ak=ted ES heterogeneousin in type. iNSU Rtcliila pattern is point- to-point. Wireless routeris used as aninter- connecting devici Bees ay ean Supports common services. Traffic triggering depends on application fit-1e oe BUR Celi fem aca) is any-to-any, many-to-one, many-to-few, one-to-many. Application level gateway is Usedjas an inter= connecting device. Bee Read tel Triggered by Sine Ree IPaddressisused) Local unique MAG Lederle geiae]y El eesstores reel IPis used for, addressing.2. Demand Assignment Protocols * The allocation of resources to nodes is made on a short- term basis, typically the duration of a data burst. ¢ This class of protocols can be further divided into centralized and distributed protocols. * In central control protocols, the nodes send out requests for bandwidth allocation to a central node that either accepts or rejects the requests. * In case of successful allocation, a confirmation is transmitted back to the requesting node -'--~-*h a description of the allocated resource. 176-177/432 10 3. Random Access Protocols * Random access protocols incorporate a random element by exploiting random packet arrival times, setting timers to random values and so on. * Typical random access protocols are pure ALOHA or slotted ALOHA protocol, developed at the University of Hawaii. * In pure ALOHA protocol, a node willing for transmission transmit a new packet it immediately. * There is no coordination with other nodes and the protocol thus accepts the risk of collisions at the receiver. * To detect this, the receiver is required to send an immediate acknowledgment for a properly received packet. * If no acknowledgement, the transmitter backs off for a random time and starts the next trial.