Ib: ENUENY inSGeSseay & 202510) ‘nergy and Bull Environment ex (a) Contents lists avallable at Scienceicect KeAi Energy and Built Environment Journal homepage: htp:/iwwrn.keaipublishing.com/enjournals/energy-and-built environments Overview of the development and application of wind energy in New Zealand Zhiguo Zhang™, Xiran Liu®, Dan Zhao™, Scott Post’, Jiasen Chen® tol f Mechanical nd Bary garg, Zang Ute of Sees and Teo, Hato, 310025, China “pepe of Mechanal Baer Calg Berng Urey of Cer, Now Zand Deparment of Arup Exgetng, olege of gery, ry Rud Auras! Ory, USA ARTICLE INFO ABSTRAGT Renewable energy [New Zesland has abundant renewable energy resources, and abot 85% of curent eletiity generation i from Wid enesy enevrable energy sources, However, i recent year, i appears ha a considerable faction of wid energy hat been undertiied.This ance reviews the history, caren stats, and future ends of wind energy developnent in New Zealand, The main challenges to the curt developnent of wind energy ete summarized compared other couse. he man challenges come rom thei ula influence environmental auesce and eonomc ‘and socal fnfuence duct the vaiele nature of wind power, ts eral to store and opeate power safely and relay daring peak power generation periods. This erie compres seven mainstem wing enerty storage technologies and analyes the best sluton fr wind energy storage in New Zeeland. This article analyzes the feasibly of using smal scale household (Sanéaré power rating range fom 0.008 to 16 KW) wind turbines in Nev Zealand cites regarding ther constuction and operation proces. Thee cycle an te maximum eapecty officent of such small sale wid turbines ae overviewed via thre ase tics and later compared with Iarge ‘ommeril wind trbines standard power rating range from 1103 MW) in power genertion capacity. I Rae 1. Introduction government considers that renewable energy will play a more important role in the global energy structure in the furore. At present, the New Zealand government has adopted series of policies to promote the {evelopment of renewable energy, including the goal of substantially The energy demand grows day by day as the global population ex: pends and manufacturing demands increase. Therefore, non-renewable sitonal fossil fuels will not be able to meet the world’s energy de- ‘mand in the future (|. The development and utilization of new energy sources have become an esental issue forthe sustainable development ‘of modem society. Various countries have been actively promoting re- ‘ewable energy-related industries in ecent year, incuding energy con servation and emission reduction, energy supply security, and employ- ‘ment. As one of the important alternatives to Fosi fuels, the develop ‘ment of wind energy has als attracted much atention (2), New Zealand 38 also made great strides in generating eletrety from renewable en ergy sources (RES) as of 2020, ranking third among the leading coun ‘ries in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), which has over 30 member countries around the world (3), However, New Zealand is facing two significant challenges. The rst {sto search for the energy required to power the economy, and the sec- fond isthe transition toa more sustainable energy future, New Zealand ‘Corresponding author: mal adres. dan haotcaterbury 962 (D, Za). nnps//daLorg/10.1016/ ees. 2022 06.009 increasing the proportion of electricity generated by hydro, geother ‘mal, and wind energy (4). Renewable energy i being promoted in New Zealand and now accounts for approximately 85% ofthe total electric ity generated (5]. Unique geographical location and climatic conditions hhave led tothe diversification of New Zealand’ energy resources. Large areas of forestry and agriculture prove a good source of biofuels while also owning an abundance of tial energy due to facing the ocean. So: lar energy has been relatively slow to develop but has taken its place in New Zealan’s current energy structure. Hydropower and geother mal power developments are generally the dominant projects in New Zealand, and the country’s leading source of electriity has always been hydropower (3). Asa clean energy soure, the geothermal resource can ‘be captured directly by the heat-carying uid and sed to generate elec tricity (6). New Zealand's wind energy resources are equivalent tothe best resources inthe world. Although New Zealand has lagged behind Received 21 Apel 2022; Recelved in esd form 16 June 2022; Accepted 28 June 2022 ‘Avallabe online xx 2666-123/Copyright © 2022 Southwest atong University. Publishing evices by Hever &V. on behalf of KeAi Communication Go. td This is an open access farce under the Gk BY license (i: srestverommone onsen hy 407) Please cite this article as: Zhang, X. Liu, D. Zhao et al, Overview ofthe development and application of wind energy in New Zealand, Energy and Built Environment ps//lo\org/10.1016/)enbenv.2022.06.00911D: ENENY 2 Dave ty 0. han a Energy related CO; emissions (Gt/yr) 5 % “uitsings Fy Transport 20 District heat o 2010 2015-2020 2025 2030 2035, 2040 “Seely 8, 20231510) egy and alt omen ee) ce seuRRENTiPuANS| 33 .t in 2050 oe : eae 2045 2050 Fig. 1. Renewable energy and efcency measres may provide mote than 90% ofthe necessary CO, redtlons in 2050, driven by substantial electifcaton (8 ‘many countries in the field of wind energy development, itis undeniable ‘hat wind energy is growing rapidly and has become aa integral part of New Zealand's modern energy structure (2-5) ‘Wind energy is one of the most commercially promising and dy- namic renewable energy sources, clean to use and relatively low in cost. Taere is plenty of room for growth in installed wind power capacity While providing a stable supply of electricity for economic growth, wind ower can effectively mitigate ar pollution, water pollution, and global ‘warming. Due to its geographic location and terrain, New Zealand has 1 consistent and rich wind resource. The presence af cental mountain .nges, particularly on the South Isand, and the continuous coastline ‘with many sites exposure to the sea breeze provide wind energy. Winds {nthe mountains are typically more stable than winds in other ares of| ‘the country [7). The long-run average net capacity factor across al eu- ent and potential sites in New Zealand is 40% (with 35% and 45% in Autumn and spring, respectively) Wind energy isan underexplored but {inexhaustible resource with tremendous potential value in New Zealand Bl. “The remainder ofthis actile ia follows: Sesion 2 briefly overviews the renewable resources, energy statistics in New Zealand, and global wind energy development Section 3 presents the wind energy resource, current development status in New Zealand, and related polices and {ntiutional settings, Section 4 discusses the main challenges tothe de- velopment of wind power in New Zealané, while Section 5 considers the reliability and feasbiity of promoting small wind turbines in New Zealand. Moreover, a related case study is included. Soction 6 provides ‘the conclusion. This article aims co provide a platform forthe near future development of wind energy in Nev Zealand. 2, New Zealand renewable energy background 2.1, Importance of renewable resources How to deal with climate change has become the main concern of this century. According tothe Pais Agreement, global temperature rise should be limited to well below 2G. The ideal scenario isto limit war Ing to 1.5 °C compared to pre-industrial levels inthis eentury, To meet the Paris Agreement targets, energy elated carbon dioxide (CO;) emis: sions need to be reduced by around 3.5% per year from now until 2050 and continue tobe reduced afterwards, As shown ia Pig. 1, the transition inenergy use to electrified forms of transport and heat, together with an ‘expansion of generation from RES, may achieve the required reduction in energy-related CO, emissions of around 60% by 2050. This share ‘may increase to 75% when additional reduetions in direct renewable ‘energy se ar taken into account. Moreover, witen energy efficiency is Increased, this share may inerease to greater than 90%, thus enabling ‘the world to reach the targets set inthe Paris Agreement (5). ‘At present, most of the energy consumed in the world comes from fossil fuels (e., coal, ol, natural gas, etc), and boring fossil fuels is ‘the main cause of greenhouse gas and other air pollutant emissions, Fos sil fuel is a non-renewable energy source and has limited availability "The use of osil fuels to generate electricity also generates toxie waste, ‘hich esuses ar pollution, water pollution, and degrades the habitat of| plants and animals and the global climate. In contrast, renewable en ergy sources are naturally formed and harvested repeatedly from the environment, The use of renewable energy has many benefits, such as proactively addressing stringent environmental requirements, diversify. ing fuel sourees, ensuring a secure ad stable energy supply, and pro- :moting employment and regional economic development (9). Aydogan and Vardar (10) investigated the CO, emissions of Emerging 7 (E7) countries (including Chin, Indi, Brazil, Russa, Mexico, Indonesia, and ‘Turkey) from 1990 to 2014 and found a postive relationship between CO, emissions and real Gross Domestic Product (GDP), non renewable ‘energy consumption, In adlition, there was a negative relationship be ‘tween CO, emissions and the square of real GDP and renewable energy ‘consumption. Therefore, the share of renewable energy should be in creased to reduce fossil energy consumption in terms of environmental Improvements. "ig. 2 depicts the primary energy consumption by fuel (on the lft) and shares of primary energy (on the right) from 1965 to 2035 on a slobal scale. By 2035, the global primary energy consumption by fuels ‘expected to reach 17 billion tonnes of oil equivalent (Btoes),of which ‘the oil, ge, and coal together account for more than 75% of the total ‘energy supply, compared to 86% in 2015, In addition, the global energy {demand will Keep increasing by around 30% by 2035, with an average Annual growth rate of 1.3% [11]. There is also evidence thet among ‘the different sources af energy, the high consumption of non-renewable energy sources (€., ol, earbon, and natural gas) detecmines the pro: ‘duction of eaptal goods, which dives the competitivenes of the goods In the market (12),