4 © stole ond esplotn loa Pauiky Eos anid ~ | solids a? | mC (Conductors Semicondudor/ Gnsulalon/”~ ea ee | Atoll effect Gn trvensic/ egtrensiC~ Aral voltage. conduchevit7 alt ‘ Feil riy per” wbyph 7 L conbathivity/ anda vite if peered level Fernof eve {~~ > Daft wrren > lew of maggaction Jo. pen | —> Einsleins esuation [Bs eos mA ae —S/ Feneeh leve| was dleracfunction FH) [ea Ire KT —» problems on conduchvi ty foot) So: Danang oe nee forptyr| OP = UpPp ey [= agi wal Intrengic ak | AT = ane Po pyre : Scanned with CamScannerub classtfreotion of soltds hy: 4) — Based on the no of Yalancy electrons Pathe outer most ovb?t and Energy gaps 99 between Valance bond and conduction bond, soltds ore classified Toto 3 types They ane t — Insulators —> Sem¥ conductors — Conductors ‘ToSulators t=, Insulatoy “#s a moteyfals wh¥ch ts fay eatremly bad conducttyity of electyfetty —> The matervtals with ine of valancy electrons Cm) n>4 and the enengy gap %s- gyeatevi than ate equol 4o seV (eqg>seV) are Called as Tosulaters EX%- Glass, chood, Plast*e, vubbey energy gor ie sy figtad: Energy band | \° a! dtogvam of Thsulotor ad Scanned with CamScanner~> Ag shown th energy bond dfagvar the energy gop between Valeney band and conduction band is about greater than ane equal to SeV which 7s very Lovge Ta General ono lelectvons, °s attempt to cross ‘the Forbtdeniigap and thas fnsulatoy ane bad veonductorof electyPcfty Sern Conductors %- The matentals wth the no of valancy electrons n=4 and the ENGY gap Eg-leV arejcalled — « Semi conductors Gi- — Selrcon » Germanium 2 a 3 { Free clechonte YY ae badd) nid te , ez LIAS Mien hed ; Forbtdden } ca tend od : roy 1 T a Enexgy gap, 1 valency" band? “*< , {uy 7 (b) Energy banddragram of 12 “a ! semi conductors —7 As Spear in energy band éfagram the energy gap in, between Voloncy bond and condaction bond f5 | tev asad opp The = At 0° Tempratare’ all the valancy € e¥th Fy the valancy band ave tPghtly bound to’ thety Covalent bond andro; fyee electron available 4 sabet Scanned with CamScanner- - — e ae tn conduction band that, ts. the conduction band i empty: br vl { 1 > hus ot zevo degree demproture, Semcon ductoy per Featly acts as insulator ~> AE Room ‘ternprature Few aledhicas fn the covalent bonds gets subPiePent thermal enevgy, due to which they “break thety covalent, bonds and moved fnto the conduction |band by leavPng vol Vacancies: itn othe valency, hand | ThE Vacancies)! fo the broken “eovolent bend | “OR the walancy band) gre called, as holes Qed the? elechvons., fn. the conduction bond | ‘ane vealjed, Pree, electvons fis only few, electrons _rooyes “feo Nola ‘band 46 Corde ctfon sband, portal), ccondactiying , ar. electyfetty takes: Iplace j¥n Sem conductoy Yasin us icons > the soatertee orth une! val ancy) électrong: N24 and boo wrth 60 ‘energy! gsp \ Intbetween Nalancy band and conductton band ave called as éondie ctor’ 6 > othe conductor es a matertal which is having an excellent conduct tty of pelectvictty edi silver, copper? 160) 29 ta? heli, gold, graphite cnnzisy Obs, Scanned with CamScanner\ baubnny aN conduction bon 4 0 3) pllyady Nalaney band , bin “te'Eneigy band dieg yam, t Wova eae pd OF Vonduchoys 's.), fo enengy “band didg vam of conductors > AS shown Nod Inaln there 3s no enendy! Wd Pp ‘belweenivalancy!) band on candudllg ‘Bond! fuel both! valaney and conducts bande "dye “dvesilaped with each othey Even eth small amount of!” electyons moveriter ve Nolaney eel! tolconduction- baa (ena hls!” aH! dev ore hayeng excelletide Comdactivity BR ened y? Togo? ho sof. want © velectvicthy BMF f59/95 “Types of Semi Conductors i 7 vf, 2 STA enste »SeM? Conductor iF we SemPeonductoy Mas 8 BALA “ng nie, us » Eutrensic emt Conductor’ / ‘Anopuye, Se A655 r } ae) 1 "tom, gap a mi condactoy re Son hen, 1 re Bp) Se? conductors “ind —_— ITs Intvens Ot Bs bres 5 is Tar 9 36 I Fob) & eto nth & adie <- > The sbre? Coaduetdy Wivtts, pare form "Ss © NON Seg 9B “ called Sn tvensté SemBcon ductors | TY A: srsvlPo ys Ea Stlfeon , Gevman Pum). i = } AY & Slop Scanned with CamScanneréeetal 0 Sty Ce) i — a Baw oseegs uctuves of dotrenste Sem* Conductor, — a wih Spord 1sibusbady 4 Y , { , jak voorn Tennprature / ' 3 ptivitsshyy lo abrenste cetntdanductoy, bay. Scanned with CamScannervr hoy} i Fg Co) ‘shoads ‘two’ dfmensional sF crys tol Shractaves Y As Shown Pn Fig (0) each crltcon atom contrPbutes Four valancy electvons and each ator 95 surrounded by 4 nePghbouring sPl?con ators : > fach electron forms covalent bond afin aelg hour electron of sPlfcon atora — > pt lower Temp alt the valency sleet ne axe feghtly bound to ‘ghety covalent bonds and no Free electron %& avatlable” > At Poom Terop ‘een of? the electrons aguPyes subPictent thermal energy, due to wh¥ch they break they covalent bond and ,moved Pato the conduction by ‘Weed by leoving \vacdnetes with an the broken), cova leat bon dy end u ee shown q so Fig Cb) ; an satvendid Senireo — > agin F¥q Cb) r f : and holes axe gederdted, as pars and thus no of electrons Ps equal to no ‘“f nolés and | Fk suffexs sith less conductivity j > Eatvenste Seas Sergi conftoton Ss? Th ord to Focvease Ahe level of condlichiy' tyy.fs, added tothe pare HG byt ty of o geratehnducto rs \ Some type of Fetpum’ gent conducko¥ “ adding Fon post ties to the pare -> The process of Pr. se" conductoy %$ called doptng Scanned with CamScannerepend® ~ Depending opon ad Wag o (Ym payittes do dhe pave gem’ conductor these aye of favo ‘Vy pes. { wo nhedype Sera Conductors a p= dype Sem? Conductors Gy netype Sen Ser? Conductors * The pentovalent he pede sem condaucloy smpurtly ts added 9 | alo gel, \ype semi Conductors CT, Aysente, Ant frnod » phagphorous / Auve oF inetyre C20) yeti Pree electron Crystal Shyu shh 1 tor cxystal s¥ruclure of n-type semiconductor, |) posittvely charged Prmohile tons" Scanned with CamScannera . ' Qirer te 4 Loco fee " be re Ep ~ Donay i. { eg=t2lev,., jeneegy level Tip phns ; — OF oleey, Epergy, band dicgrom of mine sempeonduciérs | bbe oF phe, YOry I 10 ‘ Fe (a) chews 85D, $? cxystal eiguafise sth! notiinorsy atom at Pts caste positon. As we L2Q%s thot st fa atom contyibutes 4 valoney eleétrons whexe).0S At ators contributes S valancy electrons: In those 4 5 valancy electvons - a electrons forms covalent bond ,aith neighbouring er ‘didn andsthere Fs 5th electron lov) eatroy electron which, Ps loosely bound +o the panent ata > with very small hageint- of eneigy ‘his 5% wat? the condachoo electron easily move Yo cies * Afkey etth oul “creating wileco + bond ' oléltebnn Powords vTonduction donating tts sth xt dent positively sions Pmmabrle band: j i — id prob » TONS ail. | : i 7 sera = Adding ES jertovelat snaps ctothe pug at gem?conductov ak ‘only Fneveases ‘nook elettron's but also decreases no of holes athe: Psithe be G8 toh shies Sone Scanned with CamScannerason 3 Sines, ia yeason Yn n-type semPconductors ~ lech Sov? A | ran ‘ OMS ove majority carvPers and holes” are 9 auch | roPnoxt ty covs'Pevs! “tahich ¥S | shown #4 Fig Cb) > Adding of Pentavalent Fnpuxities ¢reats ods | eseveot energy level mhfch Ps placed just below | ghe tonduchon band ie, about “ologev oat thfs entrg4 level all the sth electrons ove placed | wrth ovogey of energy all the sth electrons moves towords: the conductton tpand ond ah Ps shetwn 8 Brg led | valent Propurikies p-type Sem? Conductors t- The form | | yer igera? conductor T° ee paded to the p-type! sem? conductor Alumto Pum, Gatun, Tadiuny 0% 19 Fe egil? poYen, pole fe created ‘yy breaking “cévalent b honds s/s te Covystal -stractere, of verte roby y o-tges) Semhorductor 5 Scanned with CamScannerrr vha 2 If Ld eaclhyela thsta Fnmobile rons olnal | path} | Cowriers] dal yoda | 14gy sod | VT 1N8 atype Semmteonductor hay Ii 3 4 Enelgy Gap, oF 23y_/ yea AU eRe gy is Cey Energy band Sagranp AE ol eg th Goran Fa G) shows RiP SE eryetol et@dative; ¢ 1s entail ‘position 4) Figure each of atom cont: Nalanty electrons ayy Boren atom cons 3 volaney electvons evap 2’ OF boron atom Forins, atora ot Od shown butes 4 babes The SvaloWey ‘elechvons —tovalent bonds with , tant Peighbouning so cond af Feguh ves anothey i ElecHon. | + Form covglent Joon d wPth anoth ey Stator. this vecciney Csi bias Yaley my pe FeoFiny | PAN the accept +y lard NWN? Cig toh to Nw dis crea’ nex Hate y v energy level] eshich 9 Placed Susp Above the valency bond xe, about Boley eshh th Ban. energy all the acceptey enpurt Kes Occe phe Scanned with CamScanner Hes sergates ¥S Ovoteya the electron from the nePghhouring @ broken valent bonds aftey accepting i the. ,electvon the Fmpux?ty atony becomes C-Svely ‘chaged qmmabile %ons and Sy coultaneously credls’ Holes tn the broken covalent a. , i bonds | | —> The addition of Tee Walent ginpurities no. only : oO f Fneveases the | Iheles but alsoldecreas es me che electrons hus an P-type “sdf # conclicto ys ore majority carriers and electrons one ovnenity ROR tN? ak aatauhag) pl acceptor - TeValent | Sonppri tres ave also vnred Type, af egpoatties :. fe Akavalerts Feuparites, See &yod _asiperet PraGUOH SSF abrowch a5v0m 9, Vr 2 2 ache bas elqque recsoq Sdb 95 8 eavorr ot Sabyot uy Dasiveq bs padi- “pi hubbeaos wala beprods C2G 04 Sef f- ny fh 1 edt Fo ncienest 9¥~ ebsemey han 2aorbssla ts by thay P< om rd Tis movement oF electrons and holes constituley elech?c current with in the semPronductoy > “The Conventfono! current direction ®s token le tothe Flow oF electyons ie, Prom « oppe mitnal to -the -ve Jeveoinal oF the +ve ten powey Supply m——— ‘Scanned with CamScannerelectvons [conductor Difl corvent 2a Sern? conductors Rfgi- > whén a voltage % applied aevoas se Reonduclor or || $ “ae alinays ARgfng ey move metal, +he eleclyon Sn a stvo' ght \ne path: > But, during thelr Tourney they well coll?de eth aibferent atoms: at each +?me “the | electvons gh?kes a alom, Bt vebounce and 5 tokes vondom, pect h, Gut, ct?!) the applied a vottoge makes , on electron to move, towards , ave tevenPqal, oF “ihe powey supply — Ths smovemert or dv ng, of electrons ean electrte current ‘aed asi, dF current Scanned with CamScannerConduchyity of Conductor > the conductivity 5 the abrltty oF O mater to carrying curred s y ; = gts expressed by carvent dans?ty of given | material sto the electyre Sreld tohich causes | curvent flow + Mathematt cally at Ys given by ra -£ ere: ye Fo-28 From env where 6: kodak dg? B=, Elect? fel cavyent density Foy m® ys Shown Fa fig, the Conductor % havin tength LC and cross Sectional area ‘A’ > tet av be the moo £ electvonas fo agiven Conductor ertosses cress SecHonal “A Yn waPt tyme T % giver by nuSent aati tt ote be UN Rey = By consi dening athe total change of electrons dhe above £en becomes Ne . a . \/ = volteqe es Oye vebeiy . IP 2d 3S scectly | where Vv sae oF Bengt ace wf pronhed lene! Beldi; odo 1 i gut j where a 8 const of * propobi & gs. called bility ‘of . ACY 4q ~ choot puk@® In ee’ ae oe ei ntdae . ga ono ity Scanned with CamScannerPo ee i “Te | o + oge © we nga () The above expression 1S gengral expression . of conduchvity and by using this expvestron we we gefermme the cnductivily of y \ both inlens%® and extrensfe Semiconductors Aonduchvity of Satvenst , Semi onductoy General expression Foy cond activity of a conductoy 4g 4. given by [o=ngu at we an Patvenste gerrconducor equal no of electrons and holes ane generoted ot OBEN tempratune ie, 9 ~ be the no of electrons” | Bo Tio bility of electyons bp — mobility holes: ” P > wo of holes oh Gooduchvity of intense gemitoductoy #9 band Ag given by is a y af, Poionf \ i Since Bm Privensic Sen conductor 10 of elechonsa) HO) day = 00% holes Cp) = nt a ' _ 1 ] 7 where nee enbvinsic concenlvaton — a N Scanned with CamScannerWeed Un! nnay WE crane ‘of n=ty pe “Oe t oO = we know thatthe conductivi by of Patvensvc Sern’ conductoy! [ob tie , Oy + PAP)? | —— O — In atype eet es nductor } 10 Nn 2G 58 eleetvon's: 8% natype SAS ha | aa = mobi hty ' of! electvons | Pn - “p06 ‘oe holes 90 p-type /| Ap ~ robility of holes conductivity oF 96 -ty pe Sem gang peter Ps givenvcby, greatex cthan holes (na>> Pa) > fAs 6 of electrons F % Scanned with CamScannerr Aonductivity oF Paty pel Semiconducloy | Fivst ewe ednsiderr Conductivity of iintreng Pe ./ S edit conductoy i | te bol ; phi obs ‘ ae aa [or an Pana on 0, 08 Penge ( / ” \ ‘in P type SemPonduefor? | bh ) Pee | Op = no of eleclyons..tn p-type Lid DPT PS 0 1 nto bien mrobj lity, j oF) electrons i V1 i Pooesinoige),, heles jaf? A- ~ty'pe ee Bae ef ihole 9 | From th alglod Ulilidone — 4 27 vob oP 2 bpp ar P a Oe Iie As baler 20 Peo 8s greatest elechon Ay ac Pp >> ~S 0p ee pegleddeds | iM abel ky My | i “|e p = ‘ oats 9 oR bee L 3)?! 00 Bh ‘ Paar = p Pp se Ne Henne io $2 Scanned with CamScanneroe te da UN newt i Fewest satwas Funthon? fo piled Fernot -level t- Ferm tevel, es, the yerm used * he gg ext be athe of the colleclfon of electron e1grgy’ lever at absolute 0 ¢ - Ferm? dfrac Function # iggrac Fanctfon ene! Ferm —= also called Ferm fun oF occupancy of energy leve egos the probabltly chPon , prov" Is by electrons ~+ mathametically , the probabblity of fending an electron fn energy gtate ey at the emp where FE £5 Bo ltzman’s constant a Je. = 138 * 16 SBIOLY, xe ef EF = event level 3 c E = Energy tote occupre, by electyons y Wie Temproture Acct - level So Intyens fe semfeordachr | ak oc tem prot uxe, conductoy the piobablity, of Pidiag! elechors to conduction bond | and the probably of finding holes fr ancy bend 4 verd” 4 > pe tempratwsie “Wcreaser equal mo of electyons and ‘holed ‘ose generated: om Se | Sy Intrensit’ sem Scanned with CamScannerVs ve, the probablity of Frading electyops. Fh, comduchon, bond and the probablity of Finding hole Fo valaney, bond ee Fghiiel ine) ot faye rave bf] ae oa > foy sucha cose ahe Pernt level lees @ sti Ge the Bik bedded’ Bild?! which 3s Sewn * M86 Belden, figure BB hs 1 Aoi bscny ph Tne ore y¢f { toby g PWV ten og. fy hoo a a? sal ersag" 4 3 oy a iy . Evy t de> Qin gh MH. plles ibs ered “4 | ‘ f : Beseng VF othssly i y) 4] ud he [rs Ferret level Pn gooit 22574 BS Ae \ °F tntvenste gern?conductors | : Beds iB ‘we can UNTER « that sd ora dis i OVP ae af er - Sex Ey any bey] - vf Varies] = 94 Matharedfaal prea! hi a —_— nm 62 Rs { i ., pa Ba ter g mob a8 10 Wer oPleledyons 9. GPF echves enegy | dee bre wh¥ch ane occupied by, wos’ oP *9 90 Tew J6 25 9 8heetons MS hava os at oA ee > the no bet chéles» 85,93 wen.) by Pnaidssls, odor9 \o . a ae : - Scanned with CamSeannerpg ler Od fet Po eo @) 2 90, 0F ‘holes. ave cefective’ energy ndeds » CeteipecdPPed by, hol 8 a which eek ob OF Bleeker) 1s "%no of holesyand by |, equattng Both eguatton Ot ©, Se ond y J (ereev) <1 Nee ¢ ise Ws | WIV ach” fee Gp). it i oe 5) > ded ad hSssloete tae yok | Ne ee | Ww . Gersev rere) fet | w MS > eet f | (Tynt J ey). ey pyteking patwral logarthn of “both sided has rk, kya Ser er io a) it} Lf \eT 10 (3) ey tee n$Eh iea3 eT yt In ne) ~ogys CCL REF vd Nv oh Ne = Nv vd s ae) eva ber abe “%T In, (5 iy (se) a SS . a Scanned with CamScannerBy the above een we toncluds, that foy Pn} veng| Sem@conduttoy the Perm? level IPes af the centey of forbidden “band ybrohich ates, that the Peobablity of finding bléctrone 2m conduchron band ‘and heler 85 yalanyy band fs song fa Fever? level % li-type Gemfcond uctoy > The concentration of electrons iq Fotvens fe gerntanndakhieys tengived ‘hy ; a= ta enfeee let oO i y 7] = fox ontgre ( Aye Klan, 1 Rs eats by On Bae! We eTehg Fy | Nae) ne, glee EF ey C€e- Cra dfer! | fpsearhy, t ta ea fin 4 Scanned with CamScannero teed Un4 nae From the above geyatron "we dap Say thats 2s the concentration of donant fons “Wr encreases | and enturn the: ‘yy PPeven ce petween the lower revel oF; tonductton band and fer leval decreates ie, the Foro jevel moves, close 40. qthe tonduction bond which ind! cakes that, +he probabli tyof! Finding electrons 26 (rain greater hen Ako >» Aed 4s "sa Fex ot revel, £0. (be ate Seratcon ductors : | ae? ‘The concentralto07 ‘ohh holes 18 Pyare 1S), semi aaah rs give? By : nd eCen ey /en 4 419 9AT OF Le ue | z m #x0¥ pyre ei iekts aol by ; hyweee toe. AS Tt 9 3 Y — 1 ws aes In above Big tea ! i ba | Scanned with CamScanner ~PR Ne = (ee “T ) if NN a | af lev) /er. wy Hee Take Ps tod k ihn (2 fol Oh Onis &92n9%INg by tevelond Valance ‘band 4 decvedsen hee ti tevel roves close! tothe valancy. aes Kieh rp Pndtcate’ he! concentyedion of holes 4 ig mai |) band” ie} greater, than the concentyectron of, electyons io conduction tandalt wef 199040 { 19) od > I Ave NO athe. Bevan? level rkeotngded, eof aah Upper energy ; | level of akan, band, snside te > qt hi fig Th nae av ce! Piste teve) lies Nalany bond > me concert 9s Sheen 8a below diagvam 1 ‘ort | ad 2 Mila ¢ 2 49 Jee } eee ev ONeAGs by bn pa_Pever tevel In Piupe Scanned with CamScannerPANE A os Sen Due COS slew § Problem-1 + Find the conductivity and Resistivity frenste stliton at 300k, PF exten 1 x10" per em? 1300 cin /y-see of an Pn entrensic concemtvahion | % ghile the mobility of electrons 10°" and mobility. of holes = 50° cn’ vise é -19 eet pssume = 1 602 *10 'C 10 om fos Given ng = 15% 10 Pet = 2 agai" fa a aos, * a av is #10" i e -4 > ev do = 1300 onl VeSES 13.00 %10 oh, r fF a os 25 a . i aap 2 500° 10" 18 | v-see 5 1 WAG + ¢ ] es 1.602 10° C* or = ar (an tae) 2 4 pki (300Kie 1 ,.sooxis|) ng 16602 KIO < guo3 x10° (1800 x16"| por Es é cere Kote ‘ i ony ve Ue 3LS KIO [o-m & <1 2, Ush2S x10! C@-9) i [haat ow 13: Resistivity re ba quis eto! = ers. ) Scanned with CamScannerr \Problem=2 | Estomale the value of Resistive by of Rntvensece Ge jah soork if Sntrensh cencentraby is BS xg" Joi, mobikty of electrons 88 3809 on, ond +he mobility” oP holes Ps 1600 cr P] Vsec OSSeuMe T= tee eelVer od i 3 pp! 1s ; 1 ! ‘ € rae Las x16 f 5 ) 4 ge o's {i Ay . Ory fa i Ne 3890, 4/181 m lVsec i SP = ore eee yigt | J i ott We yo. 180) 15% a Veec N\n'ory i oe > De LORIE... GPs, i Et ni ) i T= 98.4 (ato tue) Vm "Oi x og BS ei0l x » Sago, q (asin ee A 1BX1G, NG B80 x orii toon 4 (uxna'?) ) xe 99;05% o af (OR, be 82400 ae (a- ay Ol x vesishuty 2 me os 1 ane : mnsoy"y" e 2 oh say yu 2-ig wt DENIS? #0 ax w &) U4 6x16 (Lim eeimmmpmmmmnmmaie CE #19 x 7 ‘Scanned with CamScannerny . . Jere Me dyado UN! ane vedo ON! vney BRE aw of mass actons— —{S=. In Intvens%e sern?conductors HK n'es the no of. of holes then, the law electvons ‘and p ts the no of mass action states that the OF clectvons and Holer Ps alleoays consta Fised tem prota e product of concertraten stabka. N= no of electrons 5, Pz no of holed — shis loco can be apphed, tp both fntvenste, and ethensie gem? conductors ag i for n-type the lau of mass action. fs k Nas Pas 9% A For p-type “The Jaw of moss actron ts and holes Proplern ne oe concestvadion of & em | Conductivity AS O° ifs { 3 and en tvalion’ is eS AIO °] em | sehen Sg) 1300-Cm ify see ww aa” age Soot assume ore Pntvenstc Conte mobility of ele m6 e 2 oneid aot mf 2 bS KIO Deore = vs £105 Ans 1300 *164 rm] v-see a Scanned with CamScannerPo mb Pn? i San a ae ey i 4A Bony 1 4 L & p ‘ ai Pq 06 oy is Potogusy dt tonp More, iy i aia 4 22 ee Oty BB f eg My oo Kg x W6KIO YH Po 106 | ; ° : . stots 4 pee = ol !0 on 1 BENE x Ig IEF © Goo _ e ' Ly ! = 010008 RIO*39 be on i ‘ | J fj M1 = Ue x 10°°/ m3 : i; yo a8 From mass “action. Laven ln o eS > rs a ( Ws Oo. py VAC) WAZ mee VED) i toe { 7A} %. D oir ve. ee atean 4 Xn dovma 06 | WS x1oo WHS 210° okie TEE x, 12D eet io) 2 F evvgath CLAS» 10” dy By = iT nol dash Ya Re oe ’ ee to? =e NYAS 4. pl a> © 0468 ve igh ! ‘Vs Py o 19° * G08 wo lh 0 bis? Scanned with CamScannersas me Jeera Win dyad UN! nary | Qo Fend the concentradion oF holes and electron % P-type hermaniwn at gook + Assume a | Tey 106 Mere) Sobvens? tals Conduchyity os 190 /nern eobrensrcrancentyakrary ex ioe [ems and rob: hay of holes NP > + uid \eoocm / v-sec ‘ : ai oP = 100 [Ler => nf et aus x10> 1 ps igon Ora'd¥g, AL 24 shore. Dp Dyess Constant oF holes . “ \ 1 |B pe Uplet| Pa a sy PR elechons > i Da= pi Ffuston onstont ° é ¥ q UL. a 8 é i ; Dn = Unk T | 1 fro | yl ¢ é qh f all Effect $— coe abl © Steternent :~ TP! Shaenfeondatlor comsiying currentla) be placed fo mag netfe « HetalB)! and then elechfc Field Ce) gets Snduced PA “athe ‘Aivéctton of perperdieute to both TL andt& d*vections This phenomenun en - rt say Sern conductors 8% catled Hall efPect Ws 99 Application ons 1 ta » THRs used to detertoe Sten the given . Sem? conductoy % (s Aype ov Ne -lype Th Rs used to determine then the current 45 due 10 electons, ox holes s- gris used Jo deteVinine ‘donduthvity and. an mobil ty P 4 Scanned with CamScanner a.- S41 cxpeonimental detexrninatton of Be in “ie tt rigs peteermnation of Hal “ aig - os rectonguloat sent gevent 1) 2A positPve 7 the divechon of posh ye Yass » mag nelfe- i eh ge | Snduced eek ie fred (E).%, oe" ted °n9 | ~ negative yooh * ePect by fombine bie! Freld ome Fore of the change covviets, negative y -ax’s > The above Fogune Sh conductos be |: comningy © = As per hall force of electrfc. freld and magne hasge cari ets , i ieapect of dhe “a get pressed Joutands : PR they. ne, Jowords Surfoce =! micondectot mnosk of the carrenh . In p-type Se fg due to holed -and: by the combine S5rce they gef pressed Momals, SavFace-\ . Scanned with CamScanner+6), the holes ose “ciccamtilad bedi olong, the SaiPact-\) and thas the sorFore one becomes +ve oer surface - 2: the! potenhal diPPenence % developed vYarfoss I lavtare -tand Sarface-2 with athe folan ite | lok Hero, Ahpahe rtp nepal fevmfhaled Tno-type seri? Conductors mosd the ‘ayren} *S due to electyons and byt the combine for ee the - elayons qe “ectiendahe.d lon the suvtace—| and thus the surface! — becomes! we worl SruyPacey > het iad} aifference 28! develop, Pth the. Polanities..of net Ls neq ahve rt fo, I TEN KX oy yf * aiffexigip al 9 og To af ; coe “The? polascties oP 4o deerme the: qrven, iSesnicen ducfow “egy pe tyre oy N-type os dwba? voltage eu wr Bly ESpreSSION Foxsth ; TOR \ the, Foxe, on “Basel motle ie she "aidlet pay GQ ¢ equal she | ema by ‘the » magnelfe, fel Jens My changed postelel! Pbk aaa ond inathamatisally #48 given fey dat Shana 4 OY alt Wut ae oy rok “ge Bah, bus A Snide 10 (pt “nt } By vij~we® Xt ee 4 ore Med radgnetic|freld all of q te pelosi 2 of chong @ ‘pax ile! Scanned with CamScannerge My © (ae}-© we know the current density ® ez Asean tooo uaa ANG Ane h Tenev Me density ) where age PF (Cchorg? Treo / under be sending @ ¢ @ fo- Eps _ i wed | * : e: £ | © J Ee ‘Scanned with CamScannerr Hall coceicrent (Ow): - iV \ el The rePprocal of change density 1% called Hall~ vu ‘ 1 coef fetent Vo fa yf Scanned with CamScanneren thewse We dee dae UNE +P. Junction drode ghana ctevist ies ee — poak=P Tn Gepletionvegians > pfs co) _Prseaction / deplet’ BY adhd Figs (a) ‘ie aa n" type gemPeonddctors when me Jotr 5 Fogethen os, Seon, as p-9 Jund on #8 formed: In P-type SemBeondgctor “the holes wie’ ‘wad jor and these one “ally Compensated by negaltve : Tons and %n n- type GoimPeonductor © athe “electyéns axe. majorthy Cont ens) and ‘hese dre Fully» 2he i a wad j cavers compensated ‘by positive” tons Scanned with CamScannerbecause oe Concentration afPerdnice ( acvass the Tonchon the holes axe alsoays trying to di Pfuse! Fronn P-vegion to a-vegion whee they ill vecortb ng sg ane - with electrons and ‘simillaxly te ‘electYon | - FR alooays syyiag to a PPase Fron v- ‘region to P- region | where Frey wil recombine ostth iho oF the holes moves’ from c svegion 49 and yecombined esith: Blectroiss ond seilanly Sore of the leleetyons) moves’ From at -vreging h is; like this Some Jo nl- ~region P-Yegion ands cgionbine eoith holed Bl We TRIS Yecorni tion, roa dledrons and holes acres “the Jancto stl Bey“ Vex Short Hme.- H APPL {ait O65 opposing. Porce automat eal ly f setup re, due to vecommbinahin of electrons And holes both gets 3Grepfeand The. tePt Over Components ome 4vetons tS sek up on o Ne-stde of the _segion neorf, he! “yunchion, and -ve OMS FS Setop on pss nie of the vegron nean the Junchron + i yet 1 she,x§ ego, sabi ch. | Cengis of encompensabed’ Peay oq pt called” deli thon req fon a » Space cherge, vegion fe) Aansihos regen! gat and IE shape foythen diff ast, oP aleaneanehs ,and., sholes Recads © sett hay ach 1 th Ln Sy Me a = any. additjonali holes. one, “doing, 40 diSiage ave, rand, TYE GFOOS i 2not lu Scanned with cambestiiernn: sR te tn tiade tN! aned Tons Stmillanly ef aiiy additional to diffuse towmasds preg Ve tons elechons try Fog fon and it ys Stopped by — The potentral, diffonence 5 setup between positverdnd’ negate, PONS across the fuck nq fs catled potential barrren.and PERS, about 282 LN OBV for Germanium diodes rand: o.6 wv OFM for silicon diodes. TH has too electrodes PO lone! oF the, terminal is taken ou fromm P-vaqton called “as | Anode CAyoand ranothey terminal % Aaten aut from! nvegion called, as cathode (¥) ‘ sa tee i Brased Pn Tunctfon 3 : T T, . ie , “a | | oo Forman bras +g # —— movernentoF electrons Ie LNs ao i We -@ Ps 'Tunction under Forenon + 7 al 5 ¥ bfas. t shows” p-¥ Junction under Forward, bfas —> figr¢ Today 20 af al éyssupply,. 3s hy sabe terronal ‘oF pqvet> Ones, ss Pe se nt y. Shee cc adave ternal Scanned with CamScanner \ | | 1OF ‘power Supply Fe connected) to, ns region | under. ANS |teiiditton the pom Tunctfon FB safid: to be Forweoy — The vesult 8, the’ w¥ Fas > Me hol&si Se p-region axe repelled by positive texmfgal of the power supply ond “then? they ip ave Sxced +o move Adedaxtds: the Pen Sugetion, and Sinmllagily eléetvons %n jn=yegfon ore, xepelled by d+velterm@nal | of, the power supply and then they anes forced fo) ,move Jowards the giinehBn, Bats bong as: the | applred ‘Volkage eohes’/than . “the ‘bore? ex potential, n6 oe MOVES Foto he Junckon: ‘thas a2 Ip 22 Ly ; deplition vegion rematnS sore and the «ot ( Y rho elechvadg dnd sholegs.; "dthok sed yesullant curvent %s zero: 7 when the applied voltage —xduictes The iBorrPer,. Potential, the holes and electrons get oubPeoPent- enengy and $88 Nenough® to diffuse and holes Sato the “Snel In. | bg { Ath Gob deplit én region - begPnnes to Gebrease aed ithe, caxtent floed through a p-w Sunction’ staat} fo Ancveacse PotentPal . the cotdth oF deplitfon yegfon - Flow 2 sinch’“cavvent sbegPns, to flow Ps called a “cee Sen VoHlage: ‘ond. Ft,73_ about 0-2 ills v~ coy tof) os foy SF diodes? ie RAW alectyons wheo the applied Voltage “exceeds the barrfey Cor pleHy decreases. and athan large current ° gh a Pid Jenctiog. “The Voltage ab- ia id ta Pov Ge ade: ine nI9! ‘Scanned with CamScanner 4Beyond ahe eathag cat 3 ~Aetlsomllenmndicdan SNAbe A a anes 9 Voltage for every Small Fnevement %\ power Supply The current -Plote through & Pen Tunction Facveases vap?dly a >, Vader Forwasid: bia stry Condition the p-0 Tonckion - diode offers veny small vesrStance @n ovden . of Sus dhise CN) Vand Pdeally %,ofPers “zero * vegistance ie.) gt acts ia” short treutt Reverse Bias: s- - tlath of depletion ' xegion 1) de v ( Po sonchon undey revense bias . pen Senct?on. The nected’ t0> 2s Rg b- shows | revenge based ; ph power, supply % con n- regfon and Lve dex minal of yousen suPid pe vegton onder th¥s ton dite on, the 2 Go%d to be veverse bras on | one attvocted by -ve> ply and then they moves and ‘the electroins : ave terrnfnal- posihive LerenPnal connected to P= Tunctron > The holes %n Pr *es fevmnal of powei Sup awoy “Prom the yuaclton: Sn! ae lvegPon! one attvacted by C2 S& power supply ond, then they move ames - Prom the junction oa , Scanned with CamScannerfi . dy, he lhe [anajot hy onriers aay Pst janctron the _ idth of depletion: region Facveases wnagn tis" “age GegthlioP deplelon region makes vou ao PRotalt fov the? movement of majority corner etn adi de Lh é judch on sand ( Resultant erent due to 0a} ty icalvviens )|¥s, 28%’ Bol ARS 4 dephition Yegion always helps bp roo ois , ie, ‘Moveito cards the senchon: The “positive change due, pasthiye. Fen 4 *a9 athe electrons, Pron - P—xvegion oe fons crags the {hol m |n=vegioo we | PrmorPly carisiiens Ps very Small nq orden of qaeera Amphs Cun) far- germanium dtodes and” nano Amph (nA) foy Var EAY neibinat af ¢ silicon Atodes > The, carvett duiey ree ” The teyyent. aug | bo TaPAB a ty camsiiens fs nat 5 _appies vevense Mes, valhage and’ WW depentegt on jericho ‘ya lem protunce! °& constant the, current due tigen ty, carries vegans Constant aa SF 2!'calted ag reverse © ~? osohenglies *anknk 9 (Bein ee “2 TAP a af / ia bar — > Under} fs ayeise biaste | déiidy Soh dhe PN, Sunda ER Ses! very high, vedtsbavice, \nnovden. of several iMegach ms, (wa). Taealy ves otf rofinthy,: reseghance nd tt ok” ae Ren Prew Ka ~ Scanned with CamScannertthe ot Mee Mew endo. UN ane h ad Vea ‘choroctoitstres of. -Po, Sunchon di liode ak ‘The “Resporse / behaviour of plb Sanction diode when oh % Connected Pq electro cFreuPh can be Tadged by th vr chanactertetics. wrt to the “ Polovi hy” of applied voltage, there ome & types OF v-T chanoclerrstics aAbutE 2 nea, W Feta! Ver. chonactenishe, dD Revere veLlichonoctertshes, Fovwand Vit’ Chasiactenishesroiit col’k Insrens i @ Forvdaxd vet choos Fig a Shows the p-v sonection diode ‘under i Forward bPostetonditions whenethe applieds — fp Voltage % V, the voltage acress the diode f —_ Scanned with CamScannerwaged) VO LOY SAR = Ss VE ‘ond’ per current Plots “thro ae othe ploh of the Bovine, coven, Te ogan st Ss! ealled Fevsoon charoctexishel Phe voltage VE 19 dey lh “ted doiiefiqune, le Vd ‘bed and wf Ps Shown! Poitritg y be ond ; ea a iS r ive fe 1Uhie Bites Bhaswicteoastre cans FS 4) Sato ste00 segtons thatBB OB PB bs aends Coy Ae > AS long as We welteger beross the, diode ve 5 less than the’ ‘catting. Voltage Wir, the .. I current Flow through a diode, fs very small ( and Fdeally eb Rs assumed ty be Zero | > when the voltofe ve teaches the cattfn | wolloge Wy) the wnat, 4 (pp? deplehion vegton stat to decrease ot the corvent! Flow beginas 3 (| + Flows, ahen'the-voltage VP [bed exceeds the du Wy) cating Weltage” Tosige » curyent, fl ovos through pn diode 00) Pam { > TF the Bik oaall Noltage | 7ts 5 werblting beyond. a cextoPn Safe falue, ¢ Produdes an extremly | toxge current that may) destroy the Juachen: { due +0, over he ro Hae — Ge dFodes can ' orhghand qunclgon, stemprabne, wp fo 00 “dm landugy, dtg.des, can withstand 4, oPRut Pat ‘ Se. oihode7 bas boilagn adh ysdey f rob Scanned with CamScanner ih odf aan opotley' “ a ee ee Reverse: V-T chanacten?shy ay. _ © Pw diode onder \ Peverse biased condi Hon OY fy. plivik ao Tp (uo ) © Revers vrT chonactertshe ws The P-N sonchion diode onden reverse phere the vattage across sthe . + Pleo Abrough a. severse current Te => Fig gho! bfaste- condition drode 9S Ve ond the caren | diode 95 Ta the plot of - -agostst the vollog® Ve #8 calle yet chonacten? shies > As dhe xevense Noltage 9s Raereased abo’ zero, the veverse corvent ‘Therenses anttrally and gk reaches mas?mum value calted as Devers? saturation curve nt and wt gs mndependent ° | Ve es Scanned with CamScanner A Reverse -SPITE the Revere’ voltage exceeds certaPn Saf, value the pn Jvnctfon break down and Iotu;, excessive curvent Plows through Po Tenchn and diode pexminently. gees 4c damage ae wee * The Besishvity of puxe germanfum..fs €oJecm ¥ The Desistvily of “Pane “sFlecen ‘es 6000 -crpy ee £ P ¥ THe Impurity evel %n an extrensic SemFeonduct, Ss about 4 torn fox ever we of pore Serfconduchy; S¥ar Scanned with CamScanner, ; nord Forward statte Reststance cot) reood De Resistance oven ~~ Cee) my Tt as’ defined. Prom vthe chostacleustic Curve” Sag shown’ 80" Fig Go) { 4 Oogles aes ag. ve Cv) 1 Foredosid vr choractenistte cave From “the “choracterishe .. Conve, the forward ohabte | a defined af any pont on chonacterishe) Resistance ‘cae ak porn B 4h 3s defined as the. For edample dhe diodé to -the corresponding voltage acyoss current flow j-- ¢ — mathameicaly YH % given by | —> ASter culf-In-Voltage for every gmall Socrement 90 power Supply , me current Flow through o “P "diode Pneveases raptd ly Axo 0 Ths we coo. Say that ahe diode Teststance + | ohms +H faa Fe an f 4 Scanned with CamScanner 8% very small ta ordet'of 5 8db peel Taiey Ffpaal sidvidu:n.ra! Resistance so abe Bos d dy na. na%estor),, Pex HSIStaNGs jhe Stas FEY: NO. TE VTL Is defined from the chanactexisHe the change ma Volfage Prom i point | 8 te im ve) change } dO conan Flow Gai Curve | to the conrerongg , wastharnad eadly The diode Reverse Pesistance pe aL ai hia i TH ts the Prsellocs ©: Pexed « by 0 a pv dfode i when +he diode #é legfinedhed Sh @everse biased. fons Hon’. Tk, 45 defined’ Broth Sana his ste curt Frog, 4 "ohich. fs "chocon n° UPeuste { Bitte SHINS 6a Dnotefea4 IVro> 9 Prog 44 dh al WOKS 97 F leothemnadinan’ NA? F405 vehi GQ “e~ 2H0F AF baamori? aa? ob vith lap) 2 Apvovdts isheaectenste: 2,Cosy, Crk, a? Homes AF ang point Peon the eustve - v0, 2erke Sv af j oy extarn ple “at point nthe vottage across the Scanned with CamScannerVode to “the corresponding carvent flow raatharnabically his given by Ry: NO man : ¢ 2 Ze. e ollod y nents f— ar curvent comnponen —— Ts adio® 5 son pos xe Tog Zpo Ba ¥S9r7 fq: Current corn ponents gna pn drode under forward bfased” _ condition _ gs Forward biasing ' when ao P= Jonction diode pecomed vexs thin Fhe width of deplition region St qegutts lenge covrent Foe Ahrough o pen dtede ¥ tondthon lenge aio of holed and > Ip forwoxd bease imeves Prom P-region 4oin=regton: and this movernent chitutes. hole current ~ of holes p.veqion Con presented. by tpp Cre) Sn P-vegion and it fs ve +) and ofter diffusing Sato the A- Pegion, atheble- > tarvend yn n- region Gs represented by Irae reo lLestly the electrons’ movement fn n-vegion - Congtihtes electyon covvent * and @f.25 represented é By ton Cong.) ont after aitfasing Soto, p-region.” edn Scanned with CamScannero- or" ' 5 resentedh. BF © ahi. cledydb?! Ewrrent fo | nego vept _ i pl nvidong a , “beetanils = Ad the. holes nove) Fro p-regi or groseall. Tonchon, the concentration oF holes véatan tite decrease, and ofler diffusing Prlo O- e ei? Concentyabion of holes Farther decrverks FHP i move? From n- region 2 ) 1 , Tap feos rf] ed ae SimPllarl y dhe electrons), 0 Fowards the Tonctdn the concentration of - electrons gradually decrease) “and offer di iFFosing | Fnto pe region the Beet of tlectyons Rurthe, decreases exponentially” 2“ ihr > she, octotal carent 2 Poe 5s given by Ds. Tet) "r Top Gd" oe —~ te Py carve” in n-vegton Bs glyenby po ani, \ , 4 ot or Foo CD) abatpls Gelbsnct 9 « 4 SY Lymored 1 2 asda he totals wer Matas do jy me" 7 ‘tattentb lak. fist eb given by Blo, Ho rey 46 lo om = prLpn Code SEnplo) basr 49°#, Fame seq ail 2aid | ae, Z Caw ent! déento, ielectvons and’ Koles af. Cary ny “afb tance he! blang the. Pp a sorte 4 dvode ertaes! constant, YF AR Za) 6 et 21 NBipoY..q "Tones Capaablance prion ar 7 vole of chatige” “oP chooge ait bubicn bo Apple ipitaqer ts,falted “as Fmt Y lien Ie “capadPtene’? ban toys norbse} i 9 al ‘ahene! one! “foporieanpéres by ye, nearly ne hat Ms "seaained with CamSeaanerwala et aA Aes SN AAA, onder Sr ward Biasfareon ditton the pn SonctPon exhibits capactlive effect called ox “diffusion ox: Sprage Capadtance and) Under Reverse Biosed . teadition the. pn Tonchon exhibits Capacitive effect and vt % called Transition Capaetlance con pepldion Capacitance * pCa poctrance \ Aracsihen Caparttance (cx) \\ e: deptitionregion Figi- the concept of Transition capacitance > when a Pen Tunction connected Yn averse , biake d- tondition the width of deplibion. veagon Pocveases an Yotum the holes concentrotién In P-regton and the electrons concentration ?n n=vegion decrees — The vote of change of charge dectePbutfor Pn both pand n regions utth respect forthe applied « weverse bPay Veltage’ %% called as Trans?tfon - Capa efkance Mathe ina} Sally shhs given by ee Scanned with CamScannerExpression fay Transihoo opactlance "f WH.» Deeephy, v. rage ster graded Prgonckon BS eee ts Or 4 af > The above’ fa? Shows Shep gyaded Ph Sunchon, thabi bs poveien Ps \sghily, doped and Heregion ¥S heavily doped when such type of Pin Tunchan \ fs connected fn vevertse biaged conditon the , wtdth of depleton yegron ldeev deeply extends , MF »¥nte abe Prregfon as competed eotth the . , Aeregfon FONE 8 fay > BY cons? Lydg 1 9 den? 9g PotSons £905, Vey i ¥ Ay ; Adina y., +o : i) bherel! Poy chevige denstty vF a0 nour ah} bad Shi, Fe Aina & ~Penmtiity Np sf wie sfe CNW. 29): 5) : es Rs, ay. 4 GNA gee ee a dv en; “Qs Ap Ye —@ Scanned with CamScannerushere AY 88 eleclr¥c Reld nlensity an : over adistance o> x ° by integ scaling, ean) ! i ‘ j a wade gl gy N vey 20 ae | eB ra - : Ste Dna w5anlonafpyiotzo! be] | FF a Bama@eeinns, | — 1 al 7 Me chove eqn %S age sof Me ' | MH Oct ee cc TA Tig oe ] she av qnoto Fe aw > ev x TTS Tega arte of « TPA! Fs the, ross secPonal' Area 16 i ‘ 4 WO sh sepithton scegtor due Dita yd ee nly yo tala achentg, e car’ aotfiiendll par aaihleall Io ) be pene regi balbny » : ' Se 2 fidhO o£. 4 baa ha LAO. | da. €A 4 i a wa a A Scanned with CamScanner| r e TWanhsitro, fdth of . From the above eh fe oh sag that 7h Capacitance $s’ - pavensly’ propational: tow | deplitfon region The vote of change oF ‘change captsuers CrossPa i ond i the gun chon wrt the applPed voltage es ected” diffus ton Capacttance, Cp Wik : jab on matharad ically | th 2s “iver by 25] e vb ! fp = ar : pe oe | —O he movement of chasge: Coxyiers wrth to hme . Constitufer . elec teen ond FH Yegiven by ny <~} 4b ET | Y Vi 4 Scanned with CamScannerig _ gothsides of the above £¢n : , 7 |_— @) bine / f -| 9s divided with | 19 phere picks ndiode.* Teg teyoed algo veapressed by) mip NOiPIKea dt aocorgae here eg gst Lis sith, «ih for SR diodes ote Gea noats” 2 4h bas capa amt onal A Hes LYrough Pon oe gies 2 Faavynd ad? f-~ 5) Cada 7 aed, (0) 09k itis Mays Ca) 19 = Co) gat b> ) qot ad} ee blod ban eaorpols éiciiohy ack Ln Hy. ferv\\ - evens loot of Pe FA a} Co) qa J mavip 2 Scanned with CamScannerr Dfode current Cquadion © €gual to i P-veg?on — under onbfosed condPifon Some of the electrons move Proc: nt Vegion to Poregion and +hrs concentra PS represented By oy | Ad ii > Under. eset bras?!” 4 Conditislt the ° Naxge-ne of electrons pmaeves From, ne eqion fo p-reqion a th $ Concen tyafion is disgaated | by Mp(o) and it PS ? Jit) Bp, > uN Lal NPY MY plo) = where Do noi oF Se a i “edt | Slmilldaly tonge. 96 of diFSusion Oran balsag vb fe vegron = Siekildly Some of the Noles moved From P-¥eg}q (bo n-regton and thes Vbconlentration is represent] Lwby Pho j ' b ales .nnoves fron pryegion 4o n-vegton and th?s "topeelthatiéi/te srep resented “by P (0) and it PS - "eg iol’ 40 (5) ar? ) Fo (0) =~ Diffaseony Jen 3 th Shatb qo —X the current due toclechors np (0) = nplo)> (eh) Top CO Sie 7. M7 | | fe total current due to cle 9s gven by T = Wate No: aon ( Ln “of holes sen #3 Diffustog length of pli rovih hole. Damtisc s) Pout fel catventidue fojholes Ten (o) = Polo) (eA) _ zs ctrons and holes np (o) err}, Polo) ey ') + Poo: (eh) Scanned with CamScanneroT = G vivt- A [e= Aa.Do. < Pro Ag De ' as. to.(e“At-") where To= Po Ag Po Poo Ag DP, i up By considering the vate af recombination hich is Le! for Ge diodes: Ve Por sf diodes and % 3S “Yoke n ‘Sato’ const I< x (e4-") y Vy | 1-454") “Sho hh | Zeney dPode and gts prenedowne pvechant gras — rT =. ——__ | sdenakion foto Cunsen £20 +) 5 § yetial diode & Hea wy > Spell mode fot Rew } : xe 0 foge a” avoloagh Bkeake- dowd 7 6N Cobh do efeias” 1 & ia Zenet Break down oe 4 a i \ ad J yl! ww | of zener diode 20 * Pevense Ces =a Sloe cae a Ms | Sy t eat | nos s KS Fig Reverse V-r chaxacderista Scanned with CamScanner"4 3 24 doiday“aapioatd ene TIE 18, svat JS everse eyes? i} Easy a oneee VI Moreieyy OF gulireherdiode An ¥ | wy ¥ ( Vibes, gration HF ( Lr “1 Leght emetting Dfode (ued) i AD, iH Mm 0. roy du, ebb Hass By LED oF ir © (aoa a+ Prnegple of -LeD: ¥ fh? San | oe oy" ‘s xc Bus ote 4 os cr gs | pS oe as + ver s™ re symbol of LED oe os ° Oe / i Scanned with CamScannerseir Ps — fabedden energy 90? ZEA conductor ay \J! bana . Th Meg : ited. ght oF Oentyy i ce bs Process of Lelectro, Lumina Seen Go As —> Infrared Fahey Cafsp —> Ged, ent yelloge 20017 Hooqnd ¢ @ ~ PrPnctple we photo d%sde more heavily do ped diode Ts p9n% 99D) aldo Sie, Go? —> Greek hkt- stabs ot Phels /Afod&® OPEN Jadaap? @ Pook A nor if yoton) J spe tov Scanned with CamScanner _vr a aoenno tran J] | ay i Ait e bk to ww) “be hablo Ouch |), Dsaal | wd Nooiactoy dto de 3 MEIN hsiedat ec 9 boll yy n CY) AgY bona 4 : K / pH Asai) Wah ® symbol lofrveoractovdtode ae fel & eceit OF transt4on capac?Fance MB ose ee Fe ohh gt A = veeloy Vontackoy CMP te). ©) => vontap 4 lbp els live —z No ltage Veo able Capac? to. Scanned with CamScanner® CocktFrers oa 4 - | —— Defattion te Rectifier %& an electvon?e cireutt, which. the, current fo one diveclPor offers low yesistance 4 ti e to abe curvent ? but tt offers bigh 3 jess ve ‘ancl opposite divectfon: ° 1 — Bectifex % on adeiednte etveutt Ase to pulsating De Typed of reclffrexs Beck frer§ Hal? wave 2 PectiPeiy \ Pat wave -Ps Cooly onediode | : Rect Ren not used Fp practicle ! cases] 3h es Lp} center taped Bridge Full wave Full wove vector wectifrey [oe “3 Savodey 7 sya diody, rN | + centex Tr oped no need of tronsformet) | | Center tapped Hy used 1} | Avansformey * most | mostly used Sn procidel in practPe i cogs | Cost a I aly pHod sy. 459 { rm Scanned with CamScannerY tal eanko2or yal 210 y HP tad Bone . SoHD noPhra rit ok?2qqqa I ) 10) bot > ty 2? orlihag ee ® Beste naitwave FehiheWr oF 34 eraViloge | bé (04pm PAT 9 Yorvi a L Pvaw Wott : fig Tibyo4 i aboib ong vlaa) Ablsurg 0 4 6 aly +e alk eye cyde ‘beau boa [29209 bodiqay? ben) © For -ve halPeycle A nen oucnc~ @+ tle Kelp pave FO -5Fig ca), shows the creat, dPogvarn of Half toave - cectifier Sk consist of | step down brangPormet to step down the ac Voltag® to, the vequived lewel of the pe Voltage » dhe diode 10, and the toad Resistor: Re ' — For “ve halt cyele o the Yap poste. cett bo kerminad 8 ahus. aaid bio TH offers ut wove form , the Aesminad A Ps. athe diode “5 "goes b Pov gnple veststante- gdeally 22%? chen and OF Jocts ,a short etreutt > Dusttng ory gs. cand? 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Secondary ufndtng) 9s +ve wort to termPra\ y The diode p, goes to faked BIOS and Sdealty | F octs as a Shovt) cheat Tord dosed cfreuiE onde ‘the diode Dy qoes to ~evense bias and ‘deally 2 ‘ Fads asa open cPreutts —> Hence the ” conventional iguivert Flou Hhroagh eo _ bead Reststar Qu, the diode (0), load Beststor and oppen hal? of the Secondoxy. wthding 7 The di For -ve half cycle of e[p the teren?ral Bok Secondasey winding. 2s ve cork to bevintnals —™ The diode Do goes \ to Povwosd bias and Pteally | Wacks as a cloced ct and “the /Diode Oy fers to xeverse bios and rdeally Pt acts asa open { arcu? FE ‘y rtf ‘a Trea > ~~ Hence Fhe! tohvemtisnal cutest £60 through + diode Cd2), Load Pecistor Cec) and Lousen 5 half ‘of THe? Cecondasp winding 2 , > Tekd"the Mapoxton ty pslat, shateven the Fpab Wales Foxit} the z,fonyentional | ab Foes Asoagh'n lon a HK Suvndl chy Resistor (Bey e vat dived Tomah aitpyt : acvoss Pepa Resistor (Pu) Regs C91 1649 noyp odk ty theoq Jowg g 523 Byte (opahiay ote Scanned with CamScanner