João P.
Trovão
Automotive Electronics
Trends in Automotive Electronics
Automative Computers
A utomotive computers have been
standard devices on cars since
the late 1960s. From the management
of engine emissions and fuel econ-
omy under increasingly stringent
standards to the control of the entire
driving process, automotive comput-
ers are used more and more. The first
use of a small computer in a car was
for an electronic fuel-injection system
developed by Bosch (Gerlingen, Ger-
many) for a 1968 Volkswagen (VW)
model. Because the computer was
devoted to engine control, it came to
be known as an electronic control unit
(ECU). Today, ECUs and, more recent-
ly, networked powertrain controllers
(xCUs) perform millions of calcula-
tions per second to solve long equa-
tions and decide the best output
reference values to maintain opti-
mum vehicle performance.
After VW, Ford (Dearborn, Michi-
gan) introduced its first computer-
controlled antiskid system in 1969,
and General Motors (GM) (Detroit)
announced a computer-controlled
transmission in 1971. The demand
for such systems increased, and GM,
in partnership with Motorola (Chica-
go), started to develop a custom mi-
crocomputer for its vehicles in 1976.
Two years later, GM introduced a trip
computer powered by a Motorola mi-
croprocessor in a Cadillac model. In
1981, all GM vehicles began using a
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Date of current version: 21 November 2019
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Motorola 6802-based ECU for emis-
sions control. Intel’s 8061 custom-de-
signed automotive microcontroller
chips started to be used in Ford vehi-
cles in 1983. Carnegie Mellon Univer-
sity (Pittsburgh) presented the first
self-driving, autonomous car, Navlab 1,
in 1986. The same year, Chrysler
(Auburn Hills, Michigan) introduced
multiplexing wire-communication
modules with chips supplied by Har-
ris Semiconductor (Melbourne, Flor-
ida), and, in 1987, the first automotive
microcontroller chips, produced by
Intel (Santa Clara, California) and Phil-
ips Semiconductors (Eindhoven, The
Netherlands), for controller area net-
work (CAN) vehicle-bus standards
began to be used.
During the early 1990s, Ford and
Motorola formed a partnership to
design and produce an xCU and
transmission microcontrollers. In
2000, Intel acquired Ford Microelec-
tronics. The first commercially avail-
able self-driving vehicle, the Navya
shuttle, was introduced in late 2014.
One year later, Daimler (Stuttgart,
Germany) presented its first road-
ready self-driving truck, the Freight-
liner Inspiration. Now, practically
all carmakers offer different levels
of autonomous-driving products, a
development that spurred Intel to
buy Mobileye, a developer of vision-
based advanced driver-assistance
systems, in 2017.
Automotive computers have come
a long way from the modest ECU in the
1968 VW, and their next generation
Senior Editor
will face complex requirements for
fully self-driving vehicles. Numerous
carmakers are working intensively
on their autonomous cars, which will
only add to the number of micropro-
cessors that they use. Up-to-date cars
include more than 100 microproces-
sors, and that kind of demand leads
tech companies to undertake huge
efforts in computer systems and sen-
sor development to push autonomous
cars onto our roads.
Autonomous Cars in Florida
Many of the obstacles that stood in
the way of companies hoping to test
autonomous vehicles in Florida have
been removed by governor Ron
DeSantis [1]. The legal framework for
self-driving cars to operate in Florida,
including prototypes and standards
for self-navigation without a human
operator, has been established. Car-
makers and tech companies will be
allowed to test autonomous cars on
Florida’s roads without anyone
behind the wheel or inside the cabin.
Prototypes will need to fulfill basic
safety and insurance regulations. For
instance, when a human operator is
behind the wheel, the autonomous
prototype must be able to produce
visual and audible alerts if it detects a
fault in the central system. If a prob-
lem occurs when the car is in full
autonomous mode, the vehicle must
be able to safely bring itself to a com-
plete and secured stop, meaning that
the system should slowly pull over
and activate the hazard lights without
slamming on the brakes in the middle
of a busy intersection.
The law considers the autonomous
driving system to be the car operator
when it is engaged, even if there are
passengers inside the cabin, mean-
ing that the company in charge of the
prototype is responsible in the event
of an accident, which forces engi-
neers to ensure that the technology
they develop is safe and reliable. For
autonomous-vehicle companies op-
erating in Florida, there is no excuse
if a driver—human or computer—is
not paying attention. However, the
law authorizes people behind the
wheel of autonomous vehicles in self-
driving mode to use wireless com-
munication devices and infotainment
(a portmanteau of information and
entertainment). So, for those drivers,
there is no more prohibition against
watching television shows, movies,
and any other broadcasts on the
state’s highways.
The law’s framework will help car-
makers and tech companies release
new and better autonomous models
to the public. The major players in
that high-stakes race pledge a new
category of drivers who consent to
be passengers, with the objective
of giving people more time to work,
read, and catch up on their favorite
television series during their daily
commutes. Therefore, the legislation
makes Florida one of the friendlier
states for autonomous-vehicle testing
and development. Figure 1 provides
an example of two autonomous vehi-
cles that people may soon encounter
on Florida’s roads.
Electronic Components, Sensors,
and Actuators
Waymo (Mountain View, California)
launched its Laser Bear Honeycomb
perimeter sensor (Figure 2) [2]. Its
three main characteristics are
■■ a wide field of view (FOV)
■■ multiple returns per laser-beam
pulse
■■ a minimum range of zero.
As specified by Waymo, the sen-
sor has a 360° horizontal FOV (the
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Figure 1  A prototype Waymo self-driving truck and Chrysler Pacifica hybrid autonomous
minivan. (Source: Waymo; used with permission.)
maximum possible), combined with
a 95° vertical FOV, which is unique
since most 3D lidar sensors have a
more limited 30° vertical FOV. Way-
mo’s product has a single Laser Bear
3D unit that replaces three more lim-
ited sensors stacked vertically. Fewer
pieces mean less to go wrong and eas-
ier calibration. All of these character-
istics make the Waymo laser unique.
The Waymo unit detects up to four
objects in its sight path. The extra data
from multiple returns per pulse create
a more highly detailed image and
can help in discovering otherwise hid-
den objects. That degree of accuracy
can improve the detection of people
and animals moving behind shrubs
and help systems anticipate deci-
sions. The feature is not just about
handsomer pictures. It has potential
in multidomain-environment d ­ riving,
where its minimum range of zero im­­
proves close vision and increases near-
object detection.
The sensor’s potential justifies
Waymo’s ambition to expand into
other applications, including robot-
ics, security, and agriculture. The
company is looking for partners out-
side the automotive sector to spread
the use of the sensor and help it
build applications beyond self-driv-
ing. The partnerships could develop
new technologies and increase the
demand for larger FOV sensors hav-
ing greater accuracy. That demand
Figure 2  The Laser Bear Honeycomb.
(Source: Waymo; used with permission.)
could make sensors more affordable
through economies of scale and there-
by help self-driving technology to de-
velop faster.
The quality of Waymo’s lidar equip-
ment has been instrumental in mak-
ing the company the first to put fully
self-driving cars on public roads (see
Figure 1). The company’s origin dates
to Google’s self-driving car project.
Google was immersed in developing
an autonomous vehicle when it de-
cided that none of the lidar solutions
on the market were good enough or
affordable enough, and so it started
developing its own sensor. Even as the
automotive lidar market exploded,
Google kept developing its own sen-
sors. Today, with the name Waymo,
the company has three sensors to
market for long-, medium-, and short-
range measurements.
Separately, Velodyne (San Jose, Cali-
fornia) announced a midrange lidar
sensor that provides high resolution and scans up to 1.2 million points per
from a small package. The latest addi- second at a 5–20-Hz refresh rate. The
tion to the company’s range of lidar sensor uses 905-nm class 1 eye-safe
sensors, the Puck 32MR, is pictured technology. According to Velodyne,
in Figure 3 [3]. It delivers high reso- the Puck 32MR can precisely detect
lution in real time for mobile robots, crosswalks, curbs, and obstacles in
shuttles, and autonomous-vehicle challenging environments, such as
systems. Weighing 925 g and fea- streets and warehouse aisles, due
turing a small form factor, the Puck to its combination of high-resolution
32MR provides precise, real-time 3D perception and a broad vertical
localization and object detection for FOV. It was designed to provide safe,
low-speed autonomous-vehicle mar- efficient navigation in roadway, com-
kets. Moreover, it was designed to mercial, and industrial settings.
extend vehicle operating time with- Innovusion (Los Altos, California)
in broad temperature and environ- released Cheetah, an image-grade,
ment ranges without active cooling high-resolution lidar sensor ­system [4]
and for scalability and price. that features a dual rotating-polygon
The sensor detects objects with- optical architecture and combines
in a 120-m range, with an accuracy the company’s detection electronics,
of up to roughly 3 cm; features a 40° optics, and algorithms. With a resolu-
vertical and 360° horizontal FOV; tion of 300 × 300 dpi (across the entire
100° × 40° FOV) [4], the system can ac-
curately identify a variety of objects
without missing any important ones,
as presented in Figure 4. Innovus
ion says the sensor can detect small
low-reflectivity objects as far away as
200 m and other obstacles at up to
280 m while receiving multiple points
back. That capability provides per-
ception systems with more time to
Figure 3  The Puck 32MR sensor from
Velodyne. (Source: Velodyne Lidar; used correctly identify and react to poten-
with permission.) tial road hazards.
Figure 4  Cheetah, the image-grade, high-resolution lidar sensor. (Source: Innovusion;
used with permission.)
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Innovusion plans to develop ver-
sions of Cheetah with increased
resolution and flexibility. The com-
pany is wagering on its products
finding applications in the nonau-
tomotive space, including autono-
mous trucking, construction, and
mining equipment; high-speed rail;
and everything-to-vehicle traffic-
monitoring systems for cities. Those
applications require picture-like,
long-distance, high-reliability lidar
systems. Innovusion believes Chee-
tah has the capacity to contribute to
the increase in vehicle automation,
especially after level 3, where safety
is paramount.
To support automotive designers,
Texas Instruments (Dallas) unveiled
an automotive system basis chip
that mixes a controller and trans-
ceiver for a CAN with a flexible data
rate (CAN FD). The TCAN4550-Q1 chip
was designed to meet the high band-
width and data-rate flexibility neces-
sary for improved vehicle networks.
It uses the serial peripheral inter-
face bus of almost any microcon-
troller to implement, with minimal
hardware changes, a CAN FD inter-
face or increase the number of CAN
FD bus ports in a system.
To overcome the challenge of amal-
gamating multiple discrete compo-
nents and changing microcontroller
setups when upgrading to or expand-
ing CAN FD functionality (often, a
time-consuming and expensive pro-
cess), Texas Instruments enables
designers to keep their existing micro-
controller-based architectures and
streamline the CAN FD upgrade or
expansion in electronics and several
automotive fields, including lighting,
advanced driver-assistance systems,
and gateway designs. That is a sig-
nificant improvement, considering the
fast changes that are systematically
required for automotive upgrades.
In the field of driver-assistance
systems, Renesas Electronics (To-
kyo) launched Perception Quick Start
software for its R-Car V3H system-on-
chip hardware [5], which blends com-
puter vision and artificial intelligence
 (a)
Figure 5  The (a) COD reference software, (b) LOD reference software, and (c) RFD reference software. (Source: Renesas Electronics; used
with permission.)
at low power levels for the front cam-
eras in level 2+ autonomous vehicles.
The software-hardware combina-
tion offers camera obstacle detec-
tion (COD), lidar obstacle detection
(LOD), and road-feature detection
(RFD). The R-Car V3H was adopted
for the Nissan Skyline’s ProPILOT 2.0
driver-assistance system, which com-
bines navigated highway driving and
hands-off, single-lane driving capabil-
ities. The R-Car V3H system on chip
was added to the RH850 automotive
control microcontroller to implement
the core xCU functionality required
to handle driving judgment and con-
trol targets.
To achieve state-of-the-art recogni-
tion technology, all Renesas systems
on chip have dedicated hardware ac-
celerators for key algorithms, includ-
ing convolutional neural networks
(CNNs), dense optical flow, stereo
disparity, and object classification.
Perception Quick Start provides an
end-to-end pipeline reference that
covers input from sensor and record-
ed data, at every processing stage and
displays outputs on screens. That ap-
proach enables customers to kickstart
their application design, whether they
are experts at using accelerators or
have limited experience. Renesas sells
three software packages:
■■ COD: This reference software uses
a CNN, a computer-vision engine
(CV-E), and image rendering (IMR)
to detect 2D objects, such as cars,
trucks, buses, and pedestrians. It
achieves approximately 30 fra­­
mes/s. An example is presented
in Figure 5(a).
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(b)
■■ LOD: This software uses a CNN
and CV-E to detect 3D objects,
including cars and trucks, achiev-
ing roughly 15 frames/s, with 3D
bounding boxes at 50 m, as pre-
sented in Figure 5(b).
■■ RFD: This reference software uses
a CNN, CV-E, IMR, and a versatile
pipeline engine to identify drivable
free space, lanes (crossable and
uncrossable), road boundaries, dis-
tances to lanes, and nearest objects
to support the New Car Assessment
Program 2020. It achieves approxi-
mately 30 frames/s. An example is
proposed in Figure (5c).
Recognition features are under
development for car interiors. Vayyar
Imaging (Yehud, Israel) claims to have
produced the first sensor capable
of meeting the industry’s dual-band
needs, specifically to increase safety
and passenger monitoring, as shown
in Figure 6 [6]. In-cabin safety op-
erations include seatbelt reminders,
Figure 6  An example of 360° in-car and out-of-car sensing. (Source: Vayyar; used with per-
mission.)
(c)
optimized airbag deployment, ges-
ture control, driver drowsiness alerts,
and child occupancy and detection
alarms. Vayyar’s radio-frequency
sensor on chip has 48 transceivers at
the 60- and 79-GHz wide bands, en-
abling thousands of virtual channels.
The chip also consists of an internal
digital signal processor for real-time
signal processing, eliminating the
need for an external ECU. It is easily
integrated into existing automotive
frameworks and offers multifunction
capabilities to reduce the overall cost
and number of sensors needed for
a vehicle.
Vayyar’s sensors provide a meth-
od for manufacturers to maximize
in-cabin safety and prevent hot-car
deaths. They can detect children,
even those in car seats or covered
by a blanket, who have been left in
a vehicle, regardless of environmen-
tal conditions, including darkness,
and send a notification to a driver’s
Identify Position and Location
phone. That ability would help man-
ufacturers meet regulatory require-
ments, such as the Hot Cars Act of
2019, in the United States, and the
New Car Assessment Program, in the
European Union.
Recent infotainment developments
include the use of vehicle windows
to display information and adver-
tisements, turning standard automo-
tive glass into single- and full-color
dynamic displays. The two primary
applications powering this trend are
vehicle-to-pedestrian communication
and advertising, illustrated in Figure 7
[7]. The window displays must sup-
port two states: fully transparent and
dynamic and colorful. When they are
not displaying information, they are
transparent and, ideally, look identical
to the other windows in the car. When
they are communicating information
or playing a video, they display bright,
colorful graphics that pedestrians and
passengers can easily see.
A projector-based transparent
window display consists of a small
projector mounted to the interior roof
surface (or another location) and a
transparent film typically sandwiched
or laminated in a vehicle’s side or rear
windows or the windshield. The film
has several types:
■■ 405-nm emissive phosphor: Light
from a 405-nm-compatible projec-
tor excites the phosphor, which
diffuses the energy at a different
wavelength, such as blue or green.
Since the light is emitted in all
Figure 7  Two examples of advertising and
ride-hailing transparent displays. (Source:
Texas Instruments; used with permission.)
104 ||| IEEE VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY MAGAZINE | DECEMBER 2019
directions, the image is visible
from any viewing angle. It is pos-
sible to create multicolor displays
by using multiple films excited by
different wavelengths.
■■ Smart glass: This film has two
states, transparent and frosted,
that are controlled by voltage to
the glass, much like the films used
in e-tinting applications. An image
is projected onto the inside of the
glass during the frosted state, simi-
lar to the working of a rear-projec-
tion TV. The frosting provides a
good contrast, improving image
quality. A red-green-blue (RGB)
LED projector illuminates the film.
■■ Microlens array diffuser: This is an
engineered diffuser film that can
provide some amount of screen
gain, which results from diffusing
or concentrating light directional-
ly. Instead of transmitting the light
in all directions, the film is engi-
neered to define a viewing angle
where the image is visible. Out-
side of the viewing angle, there is
no visible image. An RGB LED pro-
jector can illuminate the film.
■■ Holographic film: This film has
unique features, such as the ability
to create an image viewable from
inside a car but not from the out-
side. An RGB projector illuminates
it. Achieving maximum efficiency
and brightness requires a careful
selection of the LED wavelengths
to match the holographic film and
the use of a true-green LED at the
appropriate wavelength.
All of the films have their strengths
and weakness. Depending on the ap-
plication, one type of film may be
better suited than the others. For in-
stance, digital light processing, from
Texas Instruments, is light-source
agnostic and can illuminate all four
of the film types [7].
In other developments, Porsche
(Stuttgart) unveiled its fully electron-
ic Taycan model cabin interior that
includes numerous screens and voice
controls, all of which aim to limit the
use of physical buttons and switches.
Taycan was inspired by the Porsche
911’s cabin layout but with a mod-
ern twist. It blends traditional and
digital elements, and the controls are
mostly accessible from a series of
displays, as presented in Figure 8 [8].
The instrument cluster consists of a
curved, rounded 16.8-in screen with
touch-enabled buttons on the side. It
will have four modes:
■■ classic: displays the car’s power
meters
■■ map: replaces the center power
meter with a map layout
■■ full map: replaces all of the gaug-
es with a navigation map across
the instrument cluster
■■ pure: displays only essential infor-
mation, such as speed, traffic
signs, and navigation directions.
Apart from the touch display on
the instrument cluster, a central
10.9-in display acts as the main info-
tainment control and includes Apple
Music integration. An optional, iden-
tical display serves the front passen-
ger. There is an 8.4-in touch panel
with haptic feedback located directly
below the center touchscreen and
within the driver’s reach, while a
5.9-in display is available for rear-seat
passengers to adjust the climate and
other comfort settings. Taycan en-
ables drivers to access apps through
a customizable home screen.
Regarding actuators, Kongsberg
Automotive (K A) (Norway) devel-
oped an automated manual trans-
mission (AMT) that combines the
fuel economy and performance of a
manual transmission with the driv-
ing simplicity of an automated one.
The AMT changes gears quickly and
smoothly with minimal power inter-
ruptions, which is valuable for large
trucks, especially in dense traffic
and when climbing hills where a lot
of shifting is required. The AMT’s
actuation technology can fit any me-
dium- and heavy-duty transmission
application and be used in combina-
tion with hybrid traction systems.
To design the AMT, KA focused
on smart system integration, reduc-
ing the number of components and
the weight, and ensuring durability.
The transmission requires minimal
service, which is important as man-
ufacturers increasingly adopt AMTs
for heavy-duty trucks. The KA ATM
is presented in Figure 9 [9], and its
features include
■■ a computer-operated clutch that
does not require a pedal
■■ higher fuel efficiency than manual
transmissions
■■ increased driver comfort
■■ improved driveline durability and
lower maintenance costs.
ZF Friedrichshafen (Germany)
developed a two-speed gearbox for
electric vehicles (EVs). At 70 km/h,
the taller second gear can be en-
gaged to lower the EV’s speed and
increase efficiency. A side effect is
that the gear also increases the vehi-
cle’s top speed. The two-gear design
enables a vehicle’s torque to be opti-
mized, making it easier for a truck to
pull a trailer.
Today’s EVs do not have shifted
gearboxes but use a single gear stage
that reduces their high speed to a
rotational speed that the wheels can
handle. That forces EV makers to
choose between a high initial torque
and a fast top speed. Two-speed gear-
boxes are considered too expensive
and heavy while doing nothing to
improve efficiency and range. That is
why ZF’s is considered to be a nov-
elty (see Figure 10). Unlike traditional
ones, ZF suggests that its two-speed
drive increases efficiency enough to
make a difference, in part because it
can be connected to digital maps and
GPS [10]. For example, a vehicle could
compute the distance to the next
charging station and, if necessary,
switch to an economy mode. It could
shift gears more effectively by know-
ing and accounting for the topography
of an Interstate and by using routing
and traffic information during inter-
city journeys. EV manufacturers are
likely to be interested in the product,
which could enable them to reduce
battery sizes without shortening their
vehicles’ range.
Looking at machines, Magna x
(Kortrijk, Belgium) says its yokeless
DECEMBER 2019 | IEEE VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY MAGAZINE ||| 105
Figure 8  Porsche’s fully electronic Taycan model cabin. (Source: Porsche; used with per-
mission.)
axial flux motor has 98% efficiency
[11]. The motor’s design provides
more power density and less weight
than radial motors. Its wiring has a
rectangular section rather than a
round one, which saves space, makes
filling more effective, and reduces
copper losses. There are two perma-
nent magnet rotors, and the stator is
yokeless to shorten the flux paths as
much as possible. The coils rely on a
cooling system to maintain the rated
temperature for normal operation, Figure 9  KA’s AMT. (Source: Kongsberg
Automotive; used with permission.)
but, most significantly, it is the axial
flux that gives the motor an interest-
ing power-to-weight ratio. While the
radial electric motors normally used
in EVs offer roughly 120 kW of pow-
er and 250 Nm of torque and weigh
50 kg, a Magnax axial flux motor with
the same torque level can provide
power up to 200 kW at only 16 kg and
is, therefore, very compact, as shown
in Figure 11. Since mass is one of the
three pillars of efficient vehicles and Figure 10  The ZF two-speed transmission.
(Source: ZF Friedrichshafen; used with per-
EVs already have to deal with heavy mission.)
battery packs, any weight advantage
is always welcome. motor is ideal for cars, motorcycles,
Its lightness makes the Magnax mo- and airplanes, with a peak power ratio
tor less demanding of natural resourc- of roughly 15 kW/kg and a nominal one
es, which is an important issue for EV of 7.5 kW/kg [11]. The company is pre-
mass development. It requires less pared to begin its first prototype mo-
neodymium, a rare material, for its per- tors by the end of 2019, with the goal
manent magnets, than traditional elec- of unveiling them next October, as pre-
tric motors do. Magnax claims that the sented in Figure 11. Two prototypes
are under development. The first will
be a 275-mm-diameter motor weigh-
ing 22.5 kg and capable of 300–408 kW.
The second will be a smaller version
weighing 7 kg with a diameter of
185 mm and a peak power output of
up to 84 kW.
Semiconductor Technologies
Several changes in the automotive
industry are expected during the
coming years, including develop-
ments in the semiconductors used in
vehicles and related products. Infine-
on Technologies announced a part-
nership with VW’s Future Automotive
Figure 11  Magnax’s yokeless axial flux motor concept. (Source: Magnax; used with per-
mission.)
Figure 12  VW’s MEB. (Source: VW; used with permission.)
106 ||| IEEE VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY MAGAZINE | DECEMBER 2019
Supply Tracks (FAST) strategic sup-
plier network [12], which builds co­­
operation in key future fields. As a
semiconductor supplier for electro-
mobility, Infineon plans to contribute
to electric drivetrains, in partnership
with VW (Wolfsburg, Germany), the
world’s second-largest carmaker. Infi-
neon power modules will control the
electric drive in VW’s modular elec-
tric drive matrix (MEB), displayed
in Figure 12, which the automaker
intends to be the industry’s largest
common electrification platform.
As part of FAST, Infineon and VW
will discuss future semiconductor
requirements to create products that
increase EVs’ range and reduce charg-
ing times. Infineon produces its elec-
tromobility semiconductors from bare
dies, discrete components, chips embed-
ded in printed circuit boards, and
power modules. Its portfolio includes
products based on silicon as well as
silicon carbide (SiC).
To cater to the automotive in-
dustry’s growing demand for power
electronics, Infineon is expanding
its production capacities. The sector
needs innovative power semiconduc-
tors to reduce energy losses when
electricity is converted between a
charging station, battery, and motor.
The use of SiC accelerates the transi-
tion to EVs through efficiencies that
give cars longer ranges and faster
charging times, while reducing cost
and weight and saving space. But
the SiC technology has been pushed
practically to its limits, and replace-
ments are under development, such
as the gallium nitride (GaN) high-
electron-mobility transistor.
VW is also collaborating with Cree
(Research Triangle Park, North Caro -
lina) to engineer SiC-based com-
ponents for future vehicles. Cree is
expanding its SiC capacity by develop-
ing an automated 200-mm SiC fabrica-
tion facility and a materials factory in
Durham, North Carolina. The com-
pany has largely bet on its Wolfspeed
SiC and, more recently, GaN business.
[13]. Upon completion in 2024, the fa-
cilities will substantially increase its
SiC-materials capability and wafer-
fabrication capacity for wide-bandgap
semiconductors for the automotive
market’s shifting technology.
Vehicles and Energy-Storage
Systems
EVs are on the road to dominating the
global sales of passenger cars and
buses by 2040 and significantly en­­
croach on the market for vans and
short-distance trucks, according to
the latest forecast from research firm
Bloomberg New Energy Finance (New
York) [14]. Based on an analysis of
the evolving economics in different
vehicle segments and geographical
markets, the report shows electrics
taking up to 57% of global passenger-
car sales by 2040, slightly higher than
it estimated a year ago. Electric buses
are expected to hold 81% of municipal
bus sales by the same decade [14].
Equipment manufacturers and
re­­searchers have worked hard to
overcome EV technical hurdles. The
driving range and battery price have
long been the hot points of EV de-
velopment, and energy-storage ad-
vancements seem promising. During
the transition to lower-carbon ener-
gy, the demand for lithium-ion bat-
teries will grow significantly. Driven
by EVs and energy-storage demands,
the worldwide battery market is ex-
pected to reach roughly 600 GWh/
year by 2025, compared to fewer
than 200 GWh in 2018 [15]. There is
still a lot of important work to do in
this field, and it will require innova-
tion and modern, efficient facilities
to answer the demand.
A year ago, Saft Batteries (Lev-
allois-Perret, France) set out to de-
velop a new generation of lithium-ion
batteries that use solid-state tech-
nology; this involved a partnership
with the European Battery Alliance,
through which the company works
with four European industrial heavy-
weights. Two are Brussels, Belgium-
based producers of chemicals and
materials, Solvay and Umicore. The
others are Manz (Reutlingen, Ger-
many), a provider of battery cell and
module assembly equipment, and
Siemens (Munich, Germany), which
offers products, among others, for
Industry 4.0 facilities.
The consortium strives to improve
batteries for multiple markets, from
e-mobility to energy-storage systems
and specialty industries, through a
two-path strategy. First, it wants to im-
prove existing lithium-ion technologies
by increasing their energy density—in
other words, to manufacture batteries
that are more compact, lighter, and
also cheaper but able to deliver more
power. Battery-cell electrochemistry,
design, and manufacturing processes
DECEMBER 2019 | IEEE VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY MAGAZINE ||| 107
are the main areas of focus (see Fig-
ure 13). This part of the plan is slated
to last three to five years.
Afterward, the alliance’s focus will
be on solid-state batteries, which re­­
present a paradigm shift in battery
technology. In solid-state batteries,
the liquid electrolyte is replaced by
a solid compound into which lithium
ions are able to migrate. The solid-
state design offers a huge advantage
for safety at the cell and battery lev-
els. Inorganic solid electrolytes are
nonflammable when heated, unlike
their liquid counterparts. Lithium-ion
batteries are subject to many con-
straints to ensure their stability and
safety. Solid-state technology would
remove those obstacles and produce
nonflammable batteries that would
be denser, have a longer life, and cost
less to manufacture. The development
of new, better-performing, and safer
batteries will be the consortium’s goal
for the next decade.
Ultracapacitors, also known as
supercapacitors (SCs) and electric
double-layer capacitors, have been
used for their high power density,
exceedingly long lifetimes, slow deg-
radation, and wide operational tem-
peratures. The automotive sector is
a key market for capacitors and SCs
due to the wide number of applica-
tions that can take advantage of their
capabilities. Start-stop functions and
power steering make use of capaci-
tors, whereas hybrid electric drives
require the increased power capa-
bility of an SC. As EVs continue to
develop and start entering the main-
stream market, SCs will be used more
extensively. Future advances could
result in storage systems that com-
bine SCs and lithium-ion batteries.
New storage systems are appearing,
at a small scale, with the denomina-
tion lithium-ion capacitor, which is
targeted to deliver high power and
energy capabilities.
The announcement that Tesla (Palo
Alto, California) acquired Maxwell
Technologies, a San Diego developer
and producer of SCs, provided a
clue to the technology’s potential.
The deal extended Tesla’s capabilities
in electrification at the mobile and
stand-alone levels. Maxwell’s prod-
ucts are used in the start-stop appli-
cations in some GM and Groupe PSA
models. While a battery is appropriate
for powering a car during the long run,
an SC provides a more transient push.
One way that SCs can be recharged in
a vehicle is through regenerative brak-
ing, which captures kinetic energy to
reuse for traction. SC banks are very
suitable for the fast dynamics of those
operations, and Maxwell is working
with Lamborghini (Sant’Agata Bolog-
nese, Italy) in that area. SCs could be
used in EVs to manage peak transient
load requirements and thus increase
battery life; research is ongoing.
Several carmakers are s­ tudying
SC high-power storage systems as a
potential candidate for their prod-
ucts. The railway industry has be-
gun to realize the potential of SCs,
too. Some trams use an SC bank (see
Figure 14) situated in the upper part
of the carriages to recover braking
energy, leading to electricity savings
of 35%. The SCs can charge at stops
and run between certain stops with-
out the need for overhead cables
[16]; this constitutes an interesting
approach to light-rail operations in
city centers (see Figure 14).
Electric Buses for Public
Transportation
More and more electric buses are on
the road, especially in large cities.
Abellio (Utrecht, The Netherlands)
confirmed an order for 34 Caetano
electric buses to join its fleet in
Figure 13  Saft’s medium prismatic MP
series and small, cylindrical VL series
rechargeable cells. (Source: Saft Batteries;
used with permission.)
London [17]. The buses will enter zero-emission heating and is devel-
service during first quarter of 2020 oped by Caetano (Vila Nova de Gaia,
and be the first Caetano electric Portugal) to comply with Transport
models in the United Kingdom. Abel- for London’s latest specifications. The
lio selected the e.City Gold model, buses will provide a number of fea-
at 10.7 m long, which holds 60 pas- tures, including camera monitoring
sengers and has a low floor from systems, intelligent speed assistance,
front to back (see Figure 15). It is a an acoustic vehicle-alert system, and
100% electric urban bus that includes a revised front design to improve pe­­
destrian safety. The battery capacity
is modular, with energy between 85
and 250 kWh, providing a range of up
to 200 km per charge. The buses are
powered by one synchronous motor
rated at 160 kW at its nominal speed
of 1,500 r/min. The electric motor has
a maximum torque of 2,500 Nm and a
maximum speed of 2,500 r/min [17].
Abellio operates bus services
across London on behalf of Trans-
port for London, plus rail replace-
Figure 14  The Bombardier MITRAC Pulse
for light-rail based on SCs. (Source: Bombar- ment and event services throughout
dier Transportation; used with permission.) the United Kingdom. It is responsible
Figure 15  The Caetano e.City Gold transit bus. (Source: Caetano; used with permission.)
(a) (b)
Figure 16  The (a) APM and (b) Toyota Concept-I for the 2020 Olympics in Tokyo [18].
(Source: Toyota; used with permission.)
108 ||| IEEE VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY MAGAZINE | DECEMBER 2019
for more than 8% of the London bus
network, with 700 vehicles and 2,500
staff at six depots in central, south,
and west London. The company ad-
vocates for public transportation as
a vital part of community life [17].
The Massive Deployment of EVs
Toyota (Aichi, Japan), an Olympic
and Paralympic Games partner, will
provide EVs, including unique ver-
sions of certain models and specially
developed vehicles, to the Tokyo
games in 2020. With that lineup, Toy-
ota, along with the Tokyo Organizing
Committee of the Olympic and Para-
lympic Games, aims to achieve the
lowest emissions of any official fleet
used during the Olympics and help
the games remedy their environmen-
tal issues.
Toyota will supply 3,700 mobil-
ity products and vehicles for Tokyo
2020. Nearly 90% of the official ve-
hicle fleet will be electrified. The EVs
include hybrid EVs (HEVs); fuel cell
EVs (FCEVs), such as the hydrogen-
powered Mirai; plug-in hybrid EVs
(PHEVs), including the Prius PHEV;
and battery EVs (BEVs), including an
accessible people mover (APM), the
e-Palette, and the Toyota Concept-I
[18]. Two of the vehicles are present-
ed in Figure 16 [18]. The unique fleet
will include approximately 500 FCEVs
and roughly 850 BEVs, the largest EV
roster for an Olympics to date.
During the games, 2,700 vehicles
will offer transportation between
venues. They will be commercially
available cars, such as the Mirai and
Prius, and preliminary estimates sug-
gest that their carbon-dioxide emis-
sion will average fewer than 80 g/km,
a roughly 50% reduction compared
to a similar group of conventional
gasoline and diesel models [18]. Fur-
ther reductions are anticipated from
the other mobility products and EVs,
some of which were designed specifi-
cally for the event.
To help avoid collisions and re-
duce/mitigate damage and injury,
the commercially available vehi-
cles for staff transportation will be
equipped with Toyota safety tech-
nologies: Toyota Safety Sense and
the Lexus Safety System+. Nearly
all of those vehicles will have intel-
ligent clearance sonar that applies
the brakes in the event of an unin-
tended application of the accelera-
tor. Besides the official fleet, Toyota
will support the Olympics with oth-
er vehicles. These include the mass-
transit fuel-cell bus Sora, devices
that help passengers into their seats
and when obtaining wheelchair ac-
cess, and fuel-cell forklifts.
The World’s Largest Electric Truck
An interesting demonstration of how
strong an EV can be concerns the
eDumper truck. It claims the title of the
world’s largest EV (Figure 17). Devel-
oped by Swiss universities, eMining
(Heimberg, Switzerland) and Kuhn Sch-
weiz (Heimberg), the EV operates in a
quarry in Péry, Switzerland. It is 9 m
long, 4 m wide, and 4 m tall, according
to eMining [19].
The eDumper began its life as a
Komatsu HD 605-7 powered by a 23.1-L,
straight-six turbodiesel. Kuhn Sch-
weitz replaced the engine with electric
motors supplied by a 4.5-ton, 600-kWh
lithium-ion battery pack. To add con-
text, the battery pack in the second-
generation Nissan Leaf is 15 times
smaller in capacity (40 kWh). The pack
operates with regenerative braking to
give the eDumper an infinite driving
range. No breakthroughs in battery
technology were involved: the devel-
opment was accomplished through
simple physics. The 45-ton eDumper
climbs a 13% slope to pick up its 65-ton
loads of lime and marl for delivery to
a nearby cement plant. It is so heavy
that, when it travels back down the
hill, its regenerative braking system
produces and stores enough energy
for the next trip.
To guarantee longevity, the Inter-
state University of Applied Sciences
(Buchs, Switzerland) studied the bat-
tery pack’s thermal management and
calculated the necessary strength of
the battery holders as well as the de-
sign of the welding seams. The school
DECEMBER 2019 | IEEE VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY MAGAZINE ||| 109
Figure 17 The eMining eDumper. (Source: eMining; used with permission.)
was also responsible for monitoring
the eDumper’s battery during real-
world use. To ensure fire safety in the
event of a short circuit or mechanical
damage, the Swiss Federal Laborato-
ries for Materials Science and Tech-
nology examined the behavior of the
lithium-ion cells. Never has a land ve-
hicle been equipped with such a huge
battery pack. The eDumper is now de-
signed in such a way that a failing cell
cannot affect adjacent cells.
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