Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Ocean wave energy converters: Technical principle, device realization, and

performance evaluation
Yongxing Zhang a, Yongjie Zhao a, b, *, Wei Sun a, Jiaxuan Li a
a
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Shantou University, Shantou City, Guangdong, 515063, PR China
b
Guangdong Goldenwork Robot Technology Ltd, Foshan City, Guangdong, 528226, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: As a renewable energy with immense development potential, ocean wave energy has abundant storage. The
Ocean wave energy utilizations of wave energy technology to exploit wave energy resources have broad application prospects and an
Wave energy converters important realistic meaning. The researchers worldwide have designed many wave energy converters (WEC)
Technical principles
with varied and structures based on different concepts. In this paper, the principle of wave energy power gen­
Device realization
Performance evaluation
eration technology is reviewed and analyzed from basic structure and power take-off (PTO). Some typical WEC
and multi-degree of freedom WEC (MDWEC) and their realization are introduced. The analytic hierarchy process
(AHP) is employed to construct a comprehensive multi-index model and evaluate the present WEC from five
perspectives: energy capture, technology cost economic, reliability, environmental friendliness and adaptability.
Results show that in the field of wave energy utilization and development, the MDWEC has a good compre­
hensive performance and a wide application range. Qualitative and quantitative methods are adopted to find the
optimal WEC technical scheme based on the review and analysis of technology principles of wave energy power
generation and realization of devices, which can be used for the development of WEC.

research centers to design and analyze WEC [10,11]. In addition to

1. Introduction
Nowadays, the depletion of traditional fossil energy sources resulted
in the increasing prices of oil and natural gas, and the non-renewability
of fossil energy aggravates the energy shortage problem. Countries are
vying to develop new energy businesses and meet green sustainable
development. As the cradle of life, the ocean contains a huge amount of
energy, including marine currents energy, osmotic energy, ocean ther­
mal energy, tidal energy, and wave energy, all of which have received
extensive attention and research [1–3]. Table 1 shows the ocean’s
theoretical energy reserves. Comparing these energy forms shows that
wave energy has the advantages of large energy reserves, high density
and wide distribution [5,6]. Using wave energy to generate electricity is
more flexible. It can be used for marine buoys, lighthouses and
large-scale grid-connected power generation, which is slightly affected
by regions [7,8]. Thus, as a renewable energy with great development
potential, wave energy has gradually attracted the attention of various
coastal countries.
At present, Europe, the United States, China and India are at the
frontier of wave energy development, not only incorporating wave en­
ergy into their energy structure, but also entrusting relevant scientific
research centers commissioned by the government, several private or­
ganizations, universities and individuals are conducting relevant work
[8,12,13]. In the present research work on wave energy power genera­
tion, relevant scholars worldwide have designed many WECs with var­
ied forms and structures based on different concepts in combination
with local actual conditions. Statistics show that the patent applications
for wave power generation worldwide have exceeded 1000 [14]. Re­
searchers have carried out a series of research work on the character­
istics and mechanisms of numerous WECs. In terms of technical
principles and device implementation, Falcao et al. [15] discussed the
development of wave energy power generation technology, the char­
acteristics of wave energy resources and the development of corre­
sponding converters since the 1970s. Allen et al. [16] considered the
operating range at rated power according to the power matrix of the
devices and presented a new proposal for classification of WECs named
OPERAWEC (Operation Waver Energy Converters). Mohamed et al. [17]
introduced the development status of wave energy power generation
technology, summarized the current generator control technology and
proposed that robust nonlinear and intelligent control technology is the
development direction of future generator control. Ahamed et al. [18]
and Lin et al. [19] classified the PTO system of wave energy power

* Corresponding author. Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Shantou University, Shantou City, Guangdong, 515063, PR China.
E-mail addresses: 18yxzhang@stu.edu.cn (Y. Zhang), meyjzhao@stu.edu.cn (Y. Zhao), 18wsun@stu.edu.cn (W. Sun), 19jxli@stu.edu.cn (J. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.110764
Received 30 September 2020; Received in revised form 10 January 2021; Accepted 25 January 2021
Available online 16 February 2021
1364-0321/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764

2. Technical principle of wave energy power generation

List of abbreviations
As a result of continually changing sea states and seasonal variation
WEC Wave energy converter in the wave climate, the motion of the ocean wave tends to be very
OBWEC Oscillating buoy WEC complex. According to the mathematical description of irregular wave
OWCWEC Oscillating water column WEC introduced by St. Denis and Pierson [24], the wave motion specific
OWEC Overtopping WEC expression is as follows:
MDWEC Multi degree of freedom WEC ∑n
DOF Degree of freedom H(x, t) = i=1
ci cos(ki x − ωi t + εi ) (1)
HDE Hydrodynamic efficiency
PTO Power take off where H represents the wave surface elevation, x, t, n, ci, ki, ωi and εi is
AHP Analytic hierarchy process the wave direction, time, total number of partial waves, amplitude of the
GW Gigawatt ith partial wave, wave number, circular frequency and phase angle of the
TECO Technology cost economy ith partial wave, respectively.
ENFR Environmental friendliness The Schematic diagram of ocean wave motion can be plotted
CAPA Capacity approximately based on the above expression. As shown in Fig. 1, the
wave height and the wave period have continual change with the wave
motion. Considering the randomly characteristics of wave motion, and
the diversity of energy absorption methods, working depths and work­
ing sea areas, the types of wave power generation technologies are
Table 1 relatively complex, researchers generally classify wave energy power
Theoretical reserves of global ocean energy [4,9]. generation technologies from different perspectives such as working
Source Capacity (GW) Annual Generation (TWh)
methods, installation locations, power output forms and structural
characteristics in order to describe the technical characteristics of
Marine currents 5000 50000
various power generation devices. Falcao et al. [15] proposed a simple
Osmotic 20 2000
Ocean thermal 1000 10000 classification method which is widely accepted and based on the prin­
Tide 90 800 ciple of energy utilization technology, and divided wave energy power
Wave 1000–9000 8000–80000 generation devices into three types: oscillating body type, oscillating
water column type and overtopping type.
generation, analyzed and compared the advantages and challenges of
different PTOs. It is indicated that the hybrid power output system is an 2.1. Stages of wave energy conversion
important development direction in the future. In terms of performance
analysis and comparison, Ambuhl et al. [20] proposed the fatigue design The whole process of wave energy conversion generally consists of
factor for the wave load on the converter, conducted a reliability anal­ three energy conversion stages (see Fig. 2). The primary energy con­
ysis of WEC, and the effectiveness of the method was verified by ex­ version is a process that from wave energy into mechanical or pneumatic
periments. Aderinto et al. [21] proposed using Hydrodynamic efficiency or potential energy. The secondary conversion stage, a conversion of the
as the power performance parameter of WEC and discussed the issue of absorbed energy into useful mechanical energy using the specific PTO.
energy cost. The unit characteristic width efficiency ratio of the oscil­ The tertiary conversion stage, a further conversion from the useful
lating body system was believed to be the highest, and the wave device mechanical energy into electricity by connecting the PTOs to the gen­
was the lowest. Andres et al. [22] studied the applicability of WECs erators [6,14,21].
under different climatic conditions, and concluded that the main goal of Above the three-stage energy conversion devices are interrelated and
WEC design should be a structure with a suitable size and good adapt­ progressive. In order to improve the overall power generation efficiency
ability to wave climate. Haikonen et al. [23] studied the influence of of the WEC, it is necessary to improve the conversion efficiency among
electromagnetic effect, artificial reef effect and underwater noise of various levels as much as possible.
wave converters on the marine environment. The results showed that
transient noise would affect several kinds of fish and mammals. Re­ 2.2. Oscillating body type
searchers face difficulty in quantitatively analyzing and evaluating the
comprehensive performance of WECs due to the different power gen­ 2.2.1. Basic structure
eration technology principles, structural design ideas and PTO methods, Ocean waves have random irregular characteristics [25]. As shown
and the lack of corresponding technical parameters of WEC. As an in Fig. 3, a body has six degrees of freedom, namely, heave, surge, sway,
important equipment to exploit renewable energy, the commercializa­ yaw, pitch and roll. Considering the continuity in power generation, the
tion of WECs is the main goal for this kind of equipment. In the designing oscillating buoy power generation technology uses the body to make
and building of converters, some factors such as power generation heave, pitch or roll motions under wave excitation to drive the PTO
technology cost, power generation efficiency, environment, device
reliability and adaptability must be considered.
This paper is arranged as follows. The principle of wave energy
power generation technology is firstly reviewed and analyzed from basic
structure and PTO. Then typical WEC and MDWEC, and their realization
are introduced briefly. AHP is used to establish a comprehensive multi-
index evaluation model from five perspectives: energy capture, tech­
nology cost economic, reliability, environmental friendliness and
adaptability. Finally, the existing WEC is evaluated by virtue of the
model and the conclusion is presented.

Fig. 1. Approximate schematic diagram of ocean wave motion.

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Y. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764

Fig. 2. Stages of wave energy conversion.

Fig. 3. Basic structure principle of oscillating body technology.
device, thereby motivating the generator to generate electricity.
2.2.2. PTO
can be divided into gear drive, rack and pinion drive and ball screw drive
according to the transmission mode [27]. A one-way bearing and a speed
increaser are usually required to achieve continuous, stable power
generation.
The hydraulic/pneumatic system has flexible transmission, stable
energy storage and large torque, which is suitable for the random
characteristics of wave energy change amplitude and large change fre­
quency [28]. It’s shown in Fig. 5 that the wave energy is converted into
electric energy through the liquid/air pressure system, which can buffer
the wave energy to improve the power quality and accumulate wave
energy when the wave speed is low, thereby realizing the continuous
and stable conversion of wave energy into electric energy.
Direct drive transmission uses the undulating motion of waves in the
vertical direction to push the generator to make a reciprocating linear
motion [29]. It is shown in Fig. 6 that the captured wave energy is
converted directly into electrical energy. Compared to other PTO
methods, the advantage of direct drive is that it generates electricity
directly without transmission, thereby reducing design complexity,
operation requirement and maintenance cost.

(1) Mechanical transmission type

WECs need to use different PTO devices to convert energy and
generate constant electric energy. The mechanical gear type is one of the
commonly used PTO methods in oscillating body. As shown in Fig. 4, it
2.3. Oscillating water column type
2.3.1. Basic structure
The technology of oscillating water column power generation was
first proposed by Japanese military officer Yoshio Masuda [30] in 1940.

Fig. 4. Mechanical transmission [26].

(2) Hydraulic/pneumatic type

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Y. Zhang et al.
Fig. 5. Hydraulic/pneumatic transmission.
(3) Direct drive type
Fig. 6. Direct drive.
As shown in Fig. 7, this power generation technology uses air as a
conversion medium and sets up air chambers with open upper and lower
ends. The upper and lower parts of the air chamber are connected to the
atmosphere and sea water, respectively. When the incident wave passes
through the air chamber, it forces the water column to move in the
vertical direction. Then, the volume of the air chamber is changed to
produce an oscillating airflow, which converts wave energy into air
pressure energy and kinetic energy. A PTO device connected to the
generator shaft is installed at the nozzle to drive the generator to pro­
duce electricity.
Fig. 7. Basic structure principle of oscillating water column technology.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764
2.3.2. PTO
The air flow used in the oscillating water column power generation
technology is reciprocating. Thus, traditional one-way turbines are not
suitable for this type of power generation technology due to their
steering restrictions. Self-rectifying air turbines are generally employed
to solve this problem. The three air turbines that are commonly used for
oscillating water column wave energy generation are shown in Fig. 8.
They are Wells turbine, self-rectifying impulse turbine and Denniss-Auld
turbine.
(1) In the mid-1970s, Wells of Queen’s University Belfast in Britain
[32] invented the Wells turbine, as shown in Fig. 8 (a). The tur­
bine is an axial flow self-rectifying air turbine in structure, and its
torque is not easily affected by the direction of the air flow.
Hence, it has the advantages of blade-to-air velocity ratio, high
peak efficiency and low manufacturing cost [15].
(2) The self-rectifying impulse turbine was patented by Babinsten in
1975. In Fig. 8 (b), the rotor structure is the same as the tradi­
tional single-stage steam axial flow impulse turbine, and only a
set of guide vanes is installed symmetrically in the axial cross
section of the rotor. It has certain advantages in wave energy
absorption because the rotor blades of the self-rectifying impulse
turbine have a lower speed and a smaller centrifugal stress of the
blades compared with that of the Wells turbine [33].
(3) The Denniss-Auld turbine is an axial flow self-rectifying air tur­
bine developed by Oceanlix Company of Australia [34]. As shown
in Fig. 8 (c), the rotor structure is similar to that of a
variable-pitch Wells turbine, and the main difference lies in the
staggered angle of the rotor blades. In Wells turbines, the circular
leading edge of the rotor blades always faces the airflow, whereas
the edges of both sides of the Dennis Odd turbine rotor blades
must be the same to charge the leading edge or trailing edge
alternately according to the direction of the reciprocating air flow
[35].
2.4. Overtopping type
2.4.1. Basic structure
The energy carried by the wave movement includes the kinetic en­
ergy of the water mass point and the potential energy due to leaving the
equilibrium position. In Fig. 9 shows that overtopping type wave energy
power generation technology uses a sloped wave-type wave surface to
block wave motion. Then, the waves are guided to climb along the guide
wave surface and into the reservoir, and unstable wave energy is con­
verted into stable potential energy. Finally, under the action of the dif­
ference between the internal and external water heads, the water in the
reservoir flows along the outlet pipe, thereby driving the PTO device to
make the generator produce electricity.
2.4.2. PTO
The overtopping type wave power generation power PTO device is
similar to the traditional hydroelectric power station and uses an axial
flow turbine [36]. This type of turbine has been used in hydroelectric
power generation systems for many years and the technology is quite
mature. Three types of water turbines that are often used to generate
electricity from waves are shown in Fig. 10.
Pelton turbine, Kascheme turbine, and Francis turbines can be
divided according to different heights of the water head: high water
head, medium water head, and low water head. They can also be divided
according to the working principle: reactive turbine and impulse turbine
[38]. The specific classification is shown in Table 2. The reactive turbine
rotor is completely submerged in water and surrounded by a pressure
shell. When the water flows through the runner blades, its unique blade
form causes the pressure difference in the water flow to generate lift
which forces the runner to rotate. In addition, the impulse turbine is
different from the reactive turbine. Its runner blades are placed in the
Y. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764

Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of self-rectifying air turbines [15,30,31].

suitable for deep sea areas. Maximum power generation efficiency is

achieved when the float resonates with the waves [42].

3.1.1. Point absorber type

Fig. 9. Basic structure principle of overtopping technology.
air, and nozzles are set to make the water flow impact the runner blades
at high speed, thereby achieving rotation.
3. Realization of WECs
Researchers have designed and manufactured some WECs based on
different power generation technologies. WECs are the oscillating body
type, the oscillating water column type and the overtopping type. These
types of WECs are introduced as follows.
Canadian Finavera Renewables Limited developed the AquaBuoy
[43] point absorber WEC in 2000. It’s shown in Fig. 11 that the con­
verter is mainly composed of four components: buoy, accelerating tube,
piston, and hose pump. When the buoy moves up and down on the wave
surface, the hose pump contracts and expands through the relative
movement of the accelerating tube and the piston, such that seawater is
pumped to the turbine through the hose pump and drives the generator
to produce electricity. American Ocean Power Technologies developed a
point absorber WEC called PowerBuoy in 2005. In Fig. 12, the converter
is moored on the seabed, and the vertical movement of the piston in its
hydraulic system is motivated by the undulation of waves, thereby
driving the generator to produce electricity [44]. At present, point
absorber WECs built on the sea include the Archimedes wave pendulum
in the Netherlands and the Wavebob WEC in Ireland [46].

Table 2
3.1. Oscillating body WEC Classification of overtopping turbines.
Types High water head Medium water head Low water head (<10
The oscillating body WEC (OBWEC) is regarded as one of the most (>50 m) (10–50 m) m)
economical converters [39]. According to the shape, size and angle of
Impulse Pelton turbine
the relative incident wave direction of the body, the OBWEC can be turbine
divided into three types: point absorber, attenuator, and terminator [40, reactive Francis turbine Kascheme turbine
41]. In recent years, some scholars researched on MDWECs and designed turbine Francis turbine
their structures. The acquisition methods of this wave energy are more

Fig. 10. Schematic diagram of water turbines [37].

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Y. Zhang et al.
Fig. 11. AquaBuoy WEC [43].
Fig. 12. PowerBuoy WEC [44].
3.1.2. Attenuator type
The concept of attenuator WEC was first proposed by the British
Christopher Cockrell in the 1870s, and then he made the wave power
device named Cockrell raft [47,48]. This converter consists of several
free-floating rafts. Under the action of wave undulation, angular
displacement exists between adjacent rafts, and the hydraulic system
installed between the rafts drives the generator to produce electricity. As
shown in Fig. 13, the University College Cork and Queen’s University
Belfast developed the McCabe Wave Pump in 1996 based on this power
generation principle [49]. It’s shown in Fig. 14 that Ocean Power De­
livery developed the sea snake WEC named Pelamis [50] in 2006. This
converter is 120 m in length, 3.5 m in diameter and has a rated power of
750 kW [51].
3.1.3. Terminator type
The size of the buoy of the terminator WEC is larger, and its main axis
is perpendicular to the wave direction, which can absorb wave energy
with a larger wave width. Compared with the two other oscillating buoy
type converters, it has greater power generation efficiency. In the
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764
research of terminator WEC, Professor Trevor Whittaker of Queen’s
University Belfast developed the Oyster [41] terminator WEC in 2001. In
Fig. 15, the Oyster is fixed on the nearshore seabed and equipped with
hydraulic cylinders. When the waves flow through the Oyster, the
buoyancy pendulum swings, and the hydraulic cylinder transports
high-pressure water ashore and drives the hydroelectric generator to
produce electricity. In 2009, Australian marine energy company Bio­
Power Systems cooperated with German Siemens to develop BioWAVE
[52] terminator WEC. As shown in Fig. 16, the converter is installed on a
fixed platform on the seabed. The pendulum body can swing back and
forth with waves to generate electricity and rotate around the vertical
axis of the base to match the wave direction [53]. At present, typical
terminator WEC built offshore include the Langlee WEC in Norway [54],
the WaveRoller WEC in Finland [55] and the Duck WEC in the UK [56].
3.1.4. MDWEC type
Ocean wave motion is constantly changes due to the influence of sea
conditions and seasons. Typical single degree of freedom (DOF) WEC
cannot fully absorb the energy in all directions of waves, resulting in low
energy utilization. Several scholars proposed the concept of MDWEC,
which improves the hydrodynamic performance and energy utilization
rate of typical WECs by increasing DOFs [58–61]. In general, MDWECs
can be divided into two types according to structural characteristics:
multi-axis series structure and parallel structure.
(1) Multi-axis series structure WEC
Aggidis [62] developed a multi-axis WEC. It’s shown in Fig. 17 that
the power generation device is similar to the attenuated wave energy
power generation device. It can absorb and convert wave energy in
multiple directions by connecting multiple floating bodies in a cross-like
pattern. Chen [63] considered that the converter needs to conduct
reciprocating motion to generate power and designed a three-DOF
converter by selecting the three motion directions of pitch, roll and
heave. As shown in Fig. 18, the converter adopts a 4-bar mechanism to
capture heave motion and uses a two-DOF spherical hinge to capture
pitch and roll motion, and decouple the three motion directions in power
generation.
(2) Parallel structure WEC
Some schemes using parallel mechanisms were proposed, Zhao [64,
65] has designed the multi-DOF parallel WEC and shown in Fig. 19. The
converter connects the motion components with multiple DOFs through
a float pendulum. When waves flow through the converter, the float
pendulum starts to oscillate with the waves and drive the motion com­
ponents to work, thereby generating electricity. Lancaster University
[62] has developed the six-DOF WEC based on the parallel robot. In
Fig. 20, the converter wraps motion components with multiple DOFs
through a solid shell., which can theoretically absorb energy in six di­
rections of waves. Compared with traditional point absorber WECs, the
proposed parallel WEC structure can substantially improve the wave
energy utilization rate.
3.2. Oscillating water column WEC
Yoshio Masuda first proposed the concept of an oscillating water
column WEC (OWCWEC) in the 1940s. In 1965, the world’s first
OWCWEC called Masuda’s navigation buoys was built [66]. In the
following decades, the OWCWEC was continuously developed and
became the most widely used WEC in the world [36]. According to its
fixing method, the OWCWEC can be divided into floating type and fixed
type.
3.2.1. Floating type OWCWEC
After Yoshio Masuda developed Masuda’s navigation buoys, he led
Y. Zhang et al.
Fig. 13. McCabe WEC [49].
Fig. 14. Pelamis WEC [50].
his team to build Kaimei, the first large-scale floating OWCWEC
deployed in the ocean. As shown in Fig. 21, the power generation device
is a large barge (80 ​ m ​ × ​ 12 ​ m 820 t) with 13 air chambers in the
hull, and each air chamber occupies a surface area of 42–50 m2 [37]. At
present, other floating OWC devices in the sea include the Oceanlinx in
Australia [67,68] which is shown in Fig. 22, the OE buoy in Ireland [69],
the Mighty Whale in Japan [70], and the Spar buoy in Portugal [71].
Building a floating type OWCWEC along the coastline is unnecessary,
such that it has greater advantages in wave utilization compared with
near shore converters but has a greater risk of damage. Currently, with
the exception of the Oceanlinx which has been successfully tested and is
about to be commercialized, other projects have been disbanded or
suspended after a period of offshore testing [73].
3.2.2. Fixed type OWCWEC
The construction of the OWCWEC along the coastline can effectively
reduce the risk of damage to the device caused by huge waves. In 1991,
the European Commission decided to include wave energy in the
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764
renewable energy research and development programme, and the
research on the full-scale fixed type OWCWEC was conducted on Pico
Island in Portugal and Islay Island in the UK. The Portuguese Pico
OWCWEC [74] is shown in Fig. 23. The converter which is adjacent to a
vertical cliff, is built on the seabed, and its rated power is 400 kW [48].
The British LIMPET OWCWEC [75] is displayed in Fig. 24. Equipped
with a Wells turbine, the converter is built in a pit on a rocky cliff and its
rated power is 500 kW [49].
As an artificial structure built to resist ocean waves, breakwaters can
ensure the safety of ports, piers and human settlements. The fixed type
OWCWEC is easier to construct, operate and maintained whilst pro­
tecting the coastal ports by integrating it with the breakwater [36,73,
76]. In 2001, Spain established the Mutriku [67], the world’s first
breakwater oscillating water column converter, on the Atlantic coast.
It’s shown in Fig. 25 that the converter consists of 16 air chambers, each
of which is equipped with a Wells turbine, and its total output power is
300 kW. As shown in Fig. 26, Italian built a breakwater type oscillating
water column converter REWEC [77] with a U-shaped air cell
Y. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764

Sweden Sea Power for offshore operations [81]. As shown in Fig. 27, the
converter is composed of a floating pool supported by four ballast tanks,
and the ramp and water tank are located in the middle of the structure.
The ramp of the device can face the direction with the strongest wave
energy due to its special anchoring system. The Wave Dragon is another
floating type OWEC developed by Denmark [82]. In Fig. 28, the main
structure of the power generation device is composed of double ramps
and a pool with concrete structure. Curved reflecting walls are installed
on both sides of the ramp such that the incident waves are concentrated
on the ramp, which can effectively increase the wave energy acquisition
rate.

3.3.2. Fixed type OWEC

Norwave AS built the world’s first fixed type OWEC named TAP­
CHAN [45] with an installed capacity of 350 kW near the MOWC power
station in 1986. It’s shown in Fig. 29 that the opening of the constricted
channel of the converter is about 60 m wide and about 30 m long, and
gradually narrows in a horn shape. Similar to the fixed type OWEC,
Fig. 15. Oyster WEC [57].
Norway established a fixed type OWEC SSG [80] combined with the
breakwater. As shown in Fig. 30, the converter has multi-hierarchy
water tanks where seawater can be stored at different heights and can
cross-section in Civitavecchia Port, Rome. The power generation device
has 17 caissons and 136 air cells [78].

3.3. Overtopping WEC

According to the fixed method, the overtopping WEC (OWEC) can be

divided into floating type and fixed type [45]. The floating type con­
verter on the sea surface and is fixed by an anchoring system, which can
operate in deep water with abundant wave energy resources. Its energy
utilization rate is high and less affected by tidal range [79]. Fixed type
converters are commonly installed in coastal or nearshore waters, which
are easy to set and maintain. In addition, the converters do not require
anchoring and laying long-distance submarine cable equipment in deep
waters. However, their wave energy utilization rate is lower than that in
deep water due to the limitation of installation location. They are also
restricted by many factors such as coastline topography, tidal range and
coastal protection [80].

3.3.1. Floating type OWEC

Fig. 17. Brunel multi-axis WEC [62].
The floating type WEC ship is an overtopping converter developed by

Fig. 16. BioWAVE WEC [52].

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Fig. 18. Three-DOF WEC [63].

Fig. 19. STU multi-DOF WEC and mechanical transmission PTO [64,65].

Fig. 20. TALOS II multi-DOF WEC prototype and damper configuration [62].

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Y. Zhang et al.
Fig. 21. Kaimei WEC [72].
Fig. 22. Oceanlix WEC [67,68].
better adapt to various sea conditions better. Moreover, it has the ad­
vantages of reliable structure, easy installation and maintenance.
4. Performance evaluation of converter
Since the publication of a paper on wave energy by Stephen Salter in
1974 [83], the development of WECs has been paid increasing attention.
Many works have been done on the oscillating buoy type, oscillating
water column type, overtopping type and MDWECs, some engineering
prototypes and demonstration power stations have also been developed
and tested. Large differences exist in power generation technology
principles, structural design ideas and PTO methods of various WECs. In
order to comprehensively compare the performance of different WECs
and do further in-depth research, it is particularly important to
comprehensively evaluate the performance of various existing WECs.
4.1. Evaluation criteria
WECs need to meet multiple index requirements to transition from
prototype stage to commercial deployment and establish their engi­
neering application value. Many detailed parameters are relatively
scarce because wave power generation technology is not yet fully
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764
mature, and successful commercial development has few cases. Thus
this study only discusses the technical aspects related to wave power
generation, and the factors involved in the commercial deployment
stage are temporarily not considered, such as power generation costs,
transmission and transformation costs, and power scheme engineering
costs. Considering the actual needs of wave power generation and the
complex and unstructured special offshore working environment, en­
ergy capture, technology cost, environmental friendliness, technology
reliability and adaptability are selected as five indicators for further
analysis. To make the performance evaluation results more authentic
and credible, efforts are made to select two typical engineering pro­
totypes or demonstration power stations for each type of power gener­
ation device, and unify the research cases into projects which were
carried out in the same ocean area within 10 years. Given the limited
research on MDWECs and lack of relevant sea trial prototypes, theo­
retical analysis and model experiment results in relevant literature are
introduced to address this research gap. The specific converter types and
corresponding parameters are shown in Table 3.
4.1.1. Energy capture
Regardless of the cost factor, energy conversion efficiency is a rela­
tively important consideration in the commercialization of WECs. A
Y. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764

Fig. 23. Pico WEC [74].

Fig. 24. LIMPET WEC [75].

Fig. 25. Mutriku WEC [67].

11
Y. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764

Fig. 26. REWEC WEC [77].

Fig. 27. Sweden overtopping WEC [81].

WEC generally includes three parts: an energy capture mechanism, a 4.1.2. Technology cost economic
transmission mechanism and a power generation mechanism. Energy As a matter of fact, industry experience would indicate that cost is
conversion efficiency is the product of the efficiency of each link. the most important factor in developing a viable WEC. However, wave
Considering the otherness of the existing PTO systems and scales and energy is not commercialized yet in any part of the world, such as the
sizes of different WECs, the energy capture performance index Hydro­ detailed parameters of manufacturing, installation and operational costs
dynamic Efficiency (HDE) is defined as follows: are hard to obtain. In relative terms, it would be preferable to look into
⎧ identifying technical and economic performance. Historically, it was
Pd
⎪
⎪
⎨ HDE = P D usual to consider the ratio between the absorbed power and the scale
w
(2) displaced by the converter, following the idea that the manufacturing
⎪
⎪
⎩ Pw = 1
ρg2 H 2 T cost is proportional to the scale of the machine. Therefore, the perfor­
32π mance index technology cost economy (TECO) is defined as follows:
where Pd is the mean absorbed power, Pw represents the incident wave HDE
TECO = (3)
power per unit of wavefront width, D, ρ, g, H and T express the width of S
the device, seawater density, gravity, wave surface elevation and wave
period, respectively. where S is the scale of WECs.
According to the data in Table 3 and Eq. (2), the HDE of various WEC Combining with Table 3 and Eq. (3), the TECO of various WEC can be
can be obtained (see Fig. 31). In terms of HDE, the MDWEC has the acquired (see Fig. 32). It shows that the MDWEC type has the optimum
highest efficiency, followed by the terminator type, the point absorber TECO, followed by the point absorber type, the terminator type, the
type, the overtopping type and the oscillating water column type, and overtopping type, the oscillating water column type and the attenuator
the lowest is the attenuator type. type.

12
Y. Zhang et al.
Fig. 28. Wave dragon WEC [82].
Fig. 29. TAPCHAN WEC [45].
4.1.3. Reliability
As one of the key issues of energy conversion, the reliability of WECs
mainly depends on the material and structure of the device. Materials for
converters are required seriously due to the high-corrosive and high-
pressure environment of seawater. Considering that different con­
verters can select high-strength, good corrosion-resistant materials,
material factors are not considered important. Conversely, the reliability
of the device structure based on the technical principle is more critical.
In structural design, more energy conversion links of the converter, more
complicated mechanism transmission and more parts in contact with
seawater will increase the probability of failure and worsen the reli­
ability. Such as the oscillating water column type converter has fewer
parts in contact with the seawater and can be combined with the
breakwater, the overtopping converter can also accumulate seawater by
combining with the breakwater, thereby driving the turbine to work.
Therefore, both have high reliability. The energy capture components of
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764
the point absorber, terminator, attenuator and multi-DOF devices are
directly in contact with the seawater. When the waves are large, various
failures are prone to occur. Among them, the multi-DOF converter has
the most complicated structure, resulting in the worst reliability.
4.1.4. Environmental friendliness
As a clean energy, the environmental friendliness of wave energy is
an important aspect that must be considered in the development and
utilization of this energy form. Compared with the traditional fossil fuel
power generation form, the WEC does not theoretically emit pollutants
but effects the waterway, ecology and fishery of the occupied sea area. In
order to evaluate the environmental friendliness, the performance index
Environmental friendliness (ENFR) is defined as follows:
CAPA
ENFR = (4)
S
Y. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764

Fig. 30. Norway SSG WEC [80].

of working position and environment, due to the multi-DOF, terminator,

Table 3 point absorber and attenuator devices, either fixed installation or
Comparison of parameters of several converters.
floating installation can be used. The requirements for terrain and
Name Category Location Data HDE Scale Capacity environment are relatively low, and the adaptability is strong. Although
(%) (m) (kW)
the oscillating water column type and overtopping type devices also
AquaBuoy Point Canada 2000 20 6 250 have floating type devices, the combination with breakwaters is the
[85] absorber current development trend of these two types of converters. The terrain
Wavebob Point Ireland 2007 40 15 1000
[86] absorber
and environment requirements are relatively high, and the applicability
Pelamis [50] Attenuator UK 2007 15 150 750 is relatively weak.
DEXA [87] Attenuator Denmark 2011 8 22 160
Biowave Terminator Australia 2008 45 16 250 4.2. Model construction and result analysis
[88]
Oyster [89] Terminator UK 2005 40 18 315
Mutriku OWC Norway 2011 7 180 300 The commonly used comprehensive evaluation methods include
[67] AHP, grey comprehensive evaluation method, data envelopment
Pico [74] OWC Portugal 2000 20 48 400 method and principal component analysis method [89,90]. Several of
Wave OWEC Denmark 2009 26 300 1200
these theories are very cumbersome, such as the resolution determina­
Dragon
[82] tion of the grey comprehensive evaluation method is complicated,
SSG [80] OWEC Norway 2008 23 54 350 several theories have difficulties in actual operation, such as data
Three-DOF MDWEC NA NA 80 10 152 envelopment method and principal component analysis method which
WEC [63] rely on a large amount of statistical data and numerous samples. As a
Six-DOF MDWEC NA NA 54 10 831
WEC [84]
multi-criteria decision analysis method that combines quantitative and
qualitative analysis, AHP does not require much data to carry out the
optimization and ranking of different options. It also has the advantages
where CAPA is the capacity. of simple operation and clear structure, and is widely used in pro­
As shown in Fig. 33, the MDWEC type has the optimum ENFR, fol­ gramme selection and comprehensive evaluation. For the wave energy
lowed by the point absorber type, the terminator type, the attenuator power generation technology which has not yet been fully commer­
type, the oscillating water column type and the overtopping type. cialized, selecting AHP for the multi-criteria comprehensive evaluation
of WECs is appropriate because the available device parameters are
4.1.5. Adaptability relatively few. The following is a detailed description of the AHP model.
Waves are unstable, and their size, flow direction and frequency vary
randomly and are affected by the location of the sea and the environ­ 4.2.1. Hierarchical structure and judgment matrix establishment
ment. The WEC needs to adapt to the complex, changeable wave con­ The AHP is divided into three levels: goal hierarchy G, criteria hi­
ditions of the ocean and the unstructured working environment. Under erarchy C and scheme hierarchy S. The first step is to establish the
the conditions of large waves, the adaptability of various WECs is good if weight relation ship between the factors at each hierarchy, and
the movement distance is sufficient. However, the oscillating water construct the following judgment matrix.
column, overtopping and attenuator type converters are limited by their ⎡
a11 a12 ⋯ a1n
⎤
power generation technology and need to work well under larger wave ⎢ a21 a22 ⋯ a2n ⎥
conditions, whereas the multi-DOF, terminator, and point absorber An×n = ⎢
⎣⋮
⎥
⎦ (5)
⋱
converters can also operate well under small wave conditions. In terms an1 an2 ⋯ ann

14
Y. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764

Fig. 31. Histogram of various WEC’s HDE.

Fig. 32. Histogram of various WEC’s TECO.

where aij represents the importance of the i-th factor relative to the j-th
factor for a certain goal factor in the upper hierarchy. The scaling
method is shown in Table 4.
According to the preferred goal of the WEC, a comprehensive per­
formance evaluation hierarchical structure diagram is constructed and
shown in Fig. 34.
Pairwise comparisons of elements at the same hierarchy are carried
out to construct the judgment matrices, based on each performance
index’s analysis results in section 4.1 and combined with Table 4 and Eq.
(5). Table 6 shows the judgment matrix (AGC) of the criteria hierarchy
(influencing factors of the performance of various WECs) relative to the
goal hierarchy (the preferred scheme of WECs). The judgment matrices
(AC1 S , AC2 S , AC3 S , AC4 S and AC5 S ) of the scheme hierarchy relative to the
criteria hierarchy are constructed in sequence, as shown in Tables 7–11.

15
Y. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764

Fig. 33. Histogram of various WEC’s ENFR.

Table 4
Table 5
Scaling method of judgment matrix aij [91].
Stochastic index RI of n-order matrix [91].
Scale Meaning
Order 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Indicates that the two factors are of equal importance
RI 0 0 0.58 0.9 1.12 1.24 1.32 1.41
3 Indicates that one factor is a little important than the other
5 Indicates that one factor is more important than the other
7 Indicates that one factor is important than the other very much
9 Indicates that one factor is absolutely important than the other
2,4,6,8 The median value of the above two adjacent judgments
Reciprocal The importance of the i-th factor relative to the j-th factor is aij = 1/ aji
Table 6
Judgment matrix AGC.
4.2.2. Weight calculation and consistency check G C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
In AHP, the most important calculation task is to find the maximum C1 1 1/2 2 3 4
eigenvalue of the weight vector Wand the judgment matrix λmax [92]. C2 2 1 3 4 5
The specific expression is as follows: C3 1/2 1/3 1 2 3
C4 1/3 1/4 1/2 1 2
C5 1/4 1/5 1/3 1/2 1

Fig. 34. Hierarchical structure diagram of comprehensive evaluation of WEC performance performance.

16
Y. Zhang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764

Table 7 Table 11
Judgment matrix AC1 S . Judgment matrix AC5 S .
C3 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 C5 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6

S1 1 6 1/2 3 4 1/5 S1 1 2 3 4 5 1/2

S2 1/6 1 1/5 1/2 1/3 1/8 S2 1/2 1 1/2 3 4 1/3
S3 2 5 1 5 4 1/4 S3 1/3 2 1 4 5 1/4
S4 1/3 2 1/5 1 1/2 1/7 S4 1/4 1/3 1/4 1 3 1/5
S5 1/4 3 1/4 2 1 1/6 S5 1/5 1/4 1/5 1/3 1 1/6
S6 5 8 4 7 6 1 S6 2 3 4 5 6 1

where RI is the value of the stochastic index varies with the order of the
Table 8
judgment matrix, as shown in Table 5.
Judgment matrix AC2 S .
If 0 ≤ CR < 0.10 the corresponding weight vector is a suitable so­
C4 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 lution, and the judgment matrix is a satisfactory consistency matrix.
S1 1 5 1/2 4 3 1/4 Otherwise, the judgment matrix needs to be reconstructed.
S2 1/5 1 1/6 1/2 1/3 1/7 According to the judgment matrices (AGC, AC1 S , AC2 S , AC3 S , AC4 S and
S3 2 6 1 4 3 1/3
AC5 S ) and combining with Eq. (6), Eq. (7) and Table 5, the weight matrix
S4 1/4 2 1/4 1 1/2 1/6
S5 1/3 3 1/3 2 1 1/5 W can be acquired as follows:
S6 4 7 3 6 5 1 G
WC = [ 0.2634 0.4174 0.1602 0.0975 0.0615 ] (8)
⎧ ⎡ ⎤
⎪ 0.1537 0.0329 0.2123 0.0509 0.0697 0.4805
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ W = (w1 , w2 , ⋯, wn )T ⎢ 0.1650
⎢ 0.0359 0.2248 0.0551 0.0843 0.4350 ⎥
⎥
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
C
WS = ⎢
⎢ 0.1430 0.0689 0.0945 0.3814 0.2697 0.0426 ⎥
⎥ (9)
⎪
⎪ /∑n ⎣ 0.2564
⎪
⎪ wi = wi
⎪ i=1 wi
0.1079 0.1661 0.0510 0.0351 0.3835 ⎦
⎪
⎨ 0.2485 0.1256 0.1535 0.0605 0.0360 0.3760
√∏ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ (6)
⎪
⎪
where the weight matrix G WC represents the criteria hierarchy relative
⎪ n n
⎪ wi =
⎪ j=1 aij
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ∑ (AW)i to the goal hierarchy, the weight matrix C WS is the scheme hierarchy
⎪
relative to the criteria hierarchy.
⎪ n
⎪
⎪ λmax = i=1
⎩ nwi

4.2.3. Hierarchy total ranking and result analysis

where i = 1, 2, 3⋯, n and (AW)i represent the i-th portion of the AW The total ranking of hierarchy indicates the importance of each
vector. specific scheme in the scheme hierarchy relative to the goal hierarchy,
The consistent matrix method is used to establish the judgment which is obtained by multiplying the weight vectors of each hierarchy
matrix of the AHP. If the inconsistency of the judgment matrix is outside and expressed as follows:
the allowable range, the evaluation result will be incorrect. The con­
sistency ratio is introduced to indicate the degree of compatibility de­ WE = G WC C WS (10)
viation and is expressed as follows:
⎧ where weight matrix WE represents the weight matrix of the scheme
⎨ CR = CI/RI hierarchy relative to the goal hierarchy. The specific operation steps is
(7) shown in Fig. 35.
⎩ CI = λmax − n
n− 1 The performance of the wave energy power generation device is
evaluated according to the results of overall ranking. The wave energy
power generation programme, which has better comprehensive perfor­
mance, possesses a larger corresponding combination weight value and
Table 9 better development potential.
Judgment matrix AC3 S . Substituting Eq. (8) and Eq. (9) into Eq. (10), the weight matrix of the
C3 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 scheme hierarchy relative to the goal hierarchy can be expressed as
S1 1 2 3 1/4 1/3 4
follows:
S2 1/2 1 1/2 1/5 1/4 2
WE = [ 0.1725 0.0529 0.1905 0.1062 0.1024 0.3754 ] (11)
S3 1/3 2 1 1/4 1/3 3
S4 3 5 4 1 2 6 According to Eq. (11), the comprehensive performance evaluation of
S5 3 4 3 1/2 1 5
various WECs can be obtained (see Fig. 36). It shows that the overall
S6 1/4 1/2 1/3 1/6 1/5 1
performance of the terminator type is the best among various typical
WECs, followed by the point absorber type and the OWC type. These
three types of WECs have been extensively studied by scholars in this
field worldwide, which confirms the research findings well. In addition,
Table 10 as a new type of converter that has emerged in recent years, the MDWEC
Judgment matrix AC4 S . has a good comprehensive performance and substantial advantages in
C4 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 various converters.
S1 1 3 2 5 6 1/2
S2 1/3 1 1/2 3 4 1/4 5. Conclusions
S3 1/2 2 1 4 5 1/3
S4 1/5 1/3 1/4 1 2 1/6 This paper analyzes the WECs in the existing literature, reviews the
S5 1/6 1/4 1/5 1/2 1 1/7
technical principles of wave power generation from the basic structure
S6 2 4 3 6 7 1

17
Y. Zhang et al.
Fig. 35. AHP operation flow chart.
Fig. 36. Comprehensive performance evaluation of various WECs.
and PTO, and briefly introduces the realization of typical WECs and
MDWECs. Using the AHP evaluates the performance of existing wave
energy power generation devices comprehensively from five different
perspectives: energy capture, technology cost economy, reliability,
environmental friendliness and adaptability. The following conclusions
are drawn:
(1) In terms of technical principles, wave energy power generation
technology can be divided into three types according to the en­
ergy utilization technology principle: oscillating buoy type,
oscillating water column type and overtopping type. Different
power generation technologies are used to develop correspond­
ing converters.
(2) In terms of device realization, OBWEC can be subdivided into
point absorber type, attenuator type and terminator type ac­
cording to the designed float size and the angle of relative inci­
dent wave direction. OWCWEC and OWEC can be divided into
floating type and fixed type according to the fixed method. The
18
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 141 (2021) 110764
fixed converter combined with the breakwater protects the
coastal port and makes the construction, operation and mainte­
nance of the converter more convenient in the meanwhile.
MDWEC can be classified into multi-axis series structure type and
parallel structure type according to structural characteristics. Due
to the configuration of multi degrees of freedom, the MDWEC can
generate power more consistently and efficiently than most single
DOF WEC.
(3) In terms of overall performance, the terminator type of various
typical WECs is the most advantageous, followed by the point
absorber type and the OWC type. The MDWEC is a new type of
converter that has emerged in recent years. its overall perfor­
mance has substantial advantages in various converters, which
can provide a reference for future research and development of
WECs.
CRediT author statement
Yongxing Zhang: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Yongjie Zhao: Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review &
editing. Wei Sun: Investigation, Resources. Jiaxuan Li: Visualization,
Investigation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (Grant No. 51375288), the Science and Technology Program of
Guangdong Province (Grant No. 2020ST004), the Department of Edu­
cation of Guangdong Province (Grant No. 2017KZDXM036), and the
Y. Zhang et al.
Special Project for Science and Technology Innovation Team of Foshan
City (Grant No. 2018IT100052). We want to thank the In addition, we
would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful
comments.
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