A Qa-- -

- ide

+
re-
,
-.- . .
Guide
 O Angus and Dawn Marryshow 1996
Copyright Trinidad and Tobago

Illustrations d Angus and Dawn Marryshow (Publishers) 1996

All rights reserved. No part of this publication must be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the Publishers.

First Published 1996 and revised in 2000 by Angus and Dawn Marryshow (Publishers).
Corner Meade and Henry !3reet, Tunapuna, Trinidad W.1
Mail: adrnshow@tdt.net.tt
D 1-868-663-9295;
iax: 1-868-663-8434;

Typeset by Angus ad Dawn Marryshow

Art Work by Angus a d Dawn Morqhow 6 Vic Henry Nelson

~ h e by:d Zenith Services Limited

Building #22, Fernondes Industrial Centre,
Eastern Main Rood, Loventile.
Tel: 868-624-2841,62%2924/25
FOX:868-624-2831.
ents,

iith a

In o f

lically

~n is

ence

BEY

d the
.oper

Iver,

. We
3t0 ~y

1 the
 1WOW to Use This Book? I
- - ---
- -
.
- --z$*
- Study examples of each lab topic before each lab
Your teacher willlcan inform you of the specific lab topic and
you can therefore r e v i s wisely.

2. Review each SBA skill before labs ate given

me assessed. You
)se skills and then
criteria.

3. Assess your lab

By methodically going thmugn me q- w n cnecKllsT on eacn SKIII ana worwa pracnculs you can have a
sound ideo of your SBA mork for em h skill.

4. Use it along with your textbooks and respecwe syllabus

You need to have a aood understandina of vour science subiect before vou can a ~ ~vour
l v knowledae in a
lab environm

Material pert~nentto law are convenlenrlv vlaced a t tne back to orovlde a aulck reterence tor revlew ot
various topics
Table of Contents

Assessment of SBA Skills .....

Laboratory Behaviour and Safety Conduct .....
Safety Labels .....
Simple First Aid Precautions and Guidelines .....
. Sample Conduct in LabIField Checklist (CVF) ' .....
Just One More Thing .....
Measurement and Manipulative Techniques .....
- Sample ManipulationlMeasurement Checklist (MIM) .....
Some Common Laboratory Apparatus .....
A More Detailed Look a t Measurement .....
Use o f 5.1. Units .....
Interpretation of Scales .....
A Note on Circuits and Electrical Instruments .....
Guidelines for Diagrams and Drawings .....
- Sample Drawing Checklist (D) .....
Guidelines for Recording Results .....
- Sample ObservationlRecordingIReportingChecklist (ORR) ...
Analysis and Interpretation .....
- Sample Analysis and Interpretation Checklist (Al) .....
Planning and Designing .....
. Sample Plan and Design Checklist (PD) .....
0 Sample Plan and Design Experiment for Biology .....
0 Sample Plan and Design Experiment for Chemistry .....
0 Sample Plan and Design Experiment for Physics .....
0 Sample Plan and Design Experiment for Integrated Science .....
A n Explanation of Experimental Format .....
Writing Investigations in the Passive Form .....
Variables and Controls .....
Bidogy Labs
0 Format for Reporting Biology Experiments ..... 89
0 Sample Experiment on
. Photosynthesis
. Respiration
. Osmosis
 . Food Tests
. Enzyme Action
. Transpiration
. Response in Animals
. Response in Plants
. Locomotion
. Germination and Growth
. Dispersal
. Reproduction .Stosoge Organs
. Reproduction .Flowering Plants
. Soils
. Genetics
. Field Work
Chemlsty labs
.
.

0 Format for Reporting Chemistry Exp

o Sample Experiment on
5eparation
Non-Metals
Rates
Reactivity Series
.
Acids Bases and Salts
Heating of Compounds
Redox
Qualitative Analysis
Volumetric Analysis
Organics
. Energetics
. states of Maiter
a Physies Labs
- . -.

0 Format for Reporting Physics Experiments

0 Sample Experiment on
. Measorement
. Statics
. Dynamics
. Properries of Matter
Thermal Energy
. Reflection
. Refraction
 . Action of Lenses
. Current Electricity
. Magnetism and Electro Magnetism
. Radioactivity
. Waves

Integrated Science lab

0 Format for Reporting Integrated Science Experiments ..... 206
0 Sample Experiment on
Y
. Leaves ..... 207

.. .

.
Photosynthesis
Flowers
Respiration
.....
.....
.....
209
211
212
v
. Enzymes ..... 213
u
. Titration ..... 215
. Acids and Alkali ..... 217
. Soil ..... 219
(+ . Electricity ..... 221
Q
. Sanitation (Gathering Information) ..... 224
., . Respiration (Technology) ..... 226
d . Rain Gauge (Technology) ..... 228
-Appendix
..

ID and Uses of Gases

Laboratory Preparation of Some Common Gases
A Quick ID of Cations using Aqueous Sodium Hydroxide
A Quick ID of Cations using Aqueous Ammonium Hydroxide
A Quick ID of Anions 1 Solubilily Rules
Chemical Equations used in Qualitative Analysis
Reactiviv Series
Periodic Table
Some Commonly used Chemical Reagents and indicator;
Usefill Equations
Common Prefixes
Live specimen Collection. Equipment and Procedure
Common Instructional Verbs
Career Options
 ver the two-year period of your Science course you can be expected to complete a variely of practical
covering the entire CXC syllabus. The categories and quantity vary for each of the science subjects a
illustrated in the table below. A number of labs will be done to ensure that your SBA skills are proper1
developed and assessed.

School Based Assessment Subject Categories

At least 24 Biology At least 24 Chemistry At Lead 24 P h ~ i c s At Least 24 Integrated
Practicals from 14 Practicals from 13 Practicals from 13 Science Practicals from
- Categori~ Categories Categories 3 Categories
Photosynthesis Separation Measurement Investigationsllriformation
Gathering
-- -

Respiration Non-Metals Statics Technology

Di%sion,Osmosis Rates Dynamics

Food Test Reactivity Series Properties of Matter

Enzyme Action Acids. Bases, Salts Thermal Energy

Transpiration Heating of Compounds Reflection

Response Redox and Electrolysis ReFraction Practical Exercises (can

Locomotion Qualitative Analysis Action of Lenses be derived from
Categories in Biology,
GerminationlGrowth I Volumetric Analysis I Current ~lectritity Chemistw and Phvsics).
ReproductionDispersal Organic Chemistry Magnetism and Electro-
magnetism

Soils Energetics Radioactivity

Genetics States of Matter Waves

Field Work Other Other

Other I- I --C I
You will do well to thoroughly acquaint yourselves with labs on these topics for your respective Science subject.
Your teacher can conduct these andlor many other similar labs. -
For any given lab, a minimum of two (2) skills may be assessed. Therefore before you begin, you should find out
which skills are being assessed for the particular lab. Even if a lab would not be SBA graded DO NOT ESTEEM it
of less significance than others. Seek to practice and excel in your skills in all labs.

The skills that can be assessed include:

2. Obsenration/Recording/Repotting (ORR)
3. Analysis and interpretation (A/I)
4. Planning/Designing (P/D)

I 5.
6.
Drawing(D)
Conduct in Lab/FMd (CVF)

The various SBA skills are assessed at various points throughout the two-year period for the various Science
subjects.

SBA SKILLS ASSESSED FOR BIOLOGY

Form 4 or Yr. 1 Form 5 or Yr. 2

Total of 50 Marks

ORR Yes Yes

D Yes Yes
I I
MIM Yes Yes

. PID Yes
 SBA SKILLS ASSESSED FOR PHYSICS

I'
SBA Skills Term 2
Form 4 /Year 1
Total of 40 Marks

Term 3 Term 1
Form 5 /Year 2
Total of 40 Marks

Term 2

ORR Yes Yes

M/M Yes Yes

P/D Yes Yes

NI Yes Yes

SBA SKILLS ASSESSED FOR CHEMISTRY

Form 4 / Year 1 Form 5 /Year 2
Total o f 4 0 Marks Total of 40 Marks

SBA Skills Term 1 Term 2 Term 3 Term 1 Term 2

I ORR Yes Yes

Yes Yes

Yes Yes

Yes Yes

SBA SKILLS ASSESSED FOR INTEGRATED SCIENCE

I I
Form 4 1Year 1 Form 5 / Year 2
Total o f 3 0 Marks Total of 36 Marks

SBA Skills Term 2 Term 3 Term 1 Term 2

ORR Yes Yes

D Yes Yes

M/M Yes Yes

P/D Yes

NI Yes .. Yes
 ou are strongly encouraged to learn and understand what and when the appropriate SBA skills are
assessed so that you can particularize your efforts at the respective times. Moreover, you ought to be
mindful that your teacher submits marks to CXC at various times. These marks constitute part of your final
grade. Experimental skills account for 20% of your marks in Biology, Chemistry and Physics, and 25% in
lntegrated Science. Diligent and conscientious &rts should be afforded to SBA labs to secure the maximum % of
your grade before the final exam and to allow your teacher ample time to mark your lab books and submit your mark
before the stipulated times set by the CXC Registrar. tf no mark are submitted even if the final exam is written you
will still be awarded "U" or ungraded.
In addition, your teacher is required to submit five (5) books per subject for external moderation along with a
marking scheme for each lab done. CXC moderates your teacher's marking of lab reports to ensure that helshe is
not being too lenient or to serve in assigning marks. As a result, you are given every possible opportunity to
succeed in a just /fair and professional manner.
The five (5) books per teacher per subject are chosen as follows:
1. Highest Mark
2. Mark, middle way between (1 and 2)
3. Middle (median) Mark
4.. Mark, midway between (3 and 4)
5. Lowest Mark
Every student should aspire to have hisher book chosen as the one to which the highest mark has been assigned. It
is to your benefit then that you communicate d e n with your teacher with' respect to assignment of mar$ hisher
submissions of assessment records, sample books and marking schemes. This is to ensure that &er you have done
everything, you can coddently stand and await receipt of the best grade possible. You should aim to enter the final
-
exam with the full % possible, of your grade. You will then need to earn an additional at least (40 60) % in the
theory papers to secure a well d e s e d Grade I or II. 5BAs are an easy way to receive marks: Do them well and
you will be rewarded.

'TABLESHOWING APPRONMATE TARGET DATES FOR SUBMISSION OF SBA MATERIAIS

Assessment Record SBA Sample Books and

Subject
Form 4 1Year 1 I Form 5 /Year 2 Marking Scheme

Biology June April June

Chemistv June April June

Physics June April June

Integrated Science I June April I June

 General Instructions
he laboratory is a place for serious work. There is need therefore to follow instructions explicitly to obtair
appropriate experimental results and to minimize injury to yourself and others. Be safety conscious,
Minimize loud noises, pranks, careless rnovemerrk and other unacceptable behaviour as you work in the lab,
Here are some general instructions:-

Work attentively, considerately and persistently.

Be willing to share materials and data with team mates.
Be willing to repeat experimental procedures.

Prepare in advance by previewing the proposed topic and experiment.

Do not try to fix or adjust defective equipment, instead you should consult the teacher or lab staff.

D o not remove any equipment from the lab unless authorized by your teacher to do so.

Use the equipment carefully and all materials sparingly, Do not waste reagents and
other materials.

Tidy the work area before departing from the laboratory .

Dispose ofsolid waste in specified containers to prevent the clogging ofthe sinks.
Flush liquid waste down the sink.
Return all equipment used, to their appropriate location.
0 Report any broken glassware to teacher andlor lab staff.

Thoroughly wash hands afier working in the laboratory.

When you follow s a f m guidelines it shows outgoing concern for yourself and others, so:-

1- Do not attempt unauthorized and or unsupervised experiments.

a Follow all instructions ~pecifica//~
 P
Locate and learn the proper use of emergency equipment e.g. fire extinguisher, fire
blankets sand buckets, s a f e shower and the first aid kit.

Locate exits and plan escape routes in case ofemergency.

Consider all chemicals as health threatening.

P Do not taste, deliberatelysmell or touch them.
Do not mix chemicals unless told to do so, by your teacher.

Do not eat or drink in the laboratory to avoid accidental ingestion of chemicals.

Work in an adequately ventilated room.

P Use fume cupboards, when working with toxic gases.
Use a wafting motion of your hand to direct vapour towards your nose.

Wear safety glasses as much as possible while working in the laboratory.

Never lif? radioactive substances with forceps nor hold them near your
eyes.

Do not have open flames where flammable solvents are being used.

Ensure that burnlng Bunsens are always attended. Turn off gas supply when not in
use.

When heating test tubes, keep the mouth of the tube away from self and others.
D Heat from upper end of the test tube downwards,
Ensure that glassware for heating liquids are firmly supported by a tripod and/or evenly balanced retort
stand.

Allow hot tripods, beakers, thermometers and other hot objects to cool beforeattempting to move them.
Do not place hot glassware in cold water, The sudden temperature change will crack the glassware.

When heating glassware, use a "soft" or controlled Bunsen flame. This avoids creation ofa hot spot where
crack may originate. Always use tongs when handling hot glassware.

Never carry large bottles of reagent, by their necks only, support them with a hand underneath.
YET 3 cc;:mcec
myr ~ $ im ::cs o; c35e5. ~nsteaa,aliute ac~dsby caretilly adding ac~dsto
we-.
handle corrosive substances with extreme care.

Do not draw up chemicals with the mouth, use a pipette bulb instead.

Exercise the greatest care in arranging glass tubing.

Lubricate with glycerine before- inserting into rubber stoppers.
0 Do not use chipped or broken glassware. Do not atlempt to pick up pieces of broken glassware.
Instead, report immediately to teacher or lab assistant.
0 Secure fragile and delicate instruments and similar objects so that breakage is minimized.

Do not touch electrical equipment with wet hands. Disconnect all electrical equipment when
not in use.

Keep work area, uncluttered, i.e. free from bags, clothes, unused book and other personal items.

Secure long hair and loose clothing; avoid working with long nails.

Ensure all spillage on the tables and floor are immediately cleaned.

Consider all microorganisms as dangerous.

Avoid direct contact with a culture of microorganisms.
Wash hands with soap after experimenting with microorganisms.

Know how to recognize and avoid poisonous plants (e.g. some fungi) as well as thorny plants, during fleld
study.

Handle all animals with extreme care.

CI Treat them in as humane a manner as possible. Do not subject them to unnecessarily stressful
--
 ome experiments can be dangerous. Therefore it is in your interest to learn what each safety label
represents and to use chemicals, only as directed.

m- TOXIC e.g. chlorine and HARMFUL e.g. ammonia and dilute

u
cyanide. These substances are / \ sulphuric acid. These chemicals are not as
poisonous and can cause deadly as toxic substances but must be
death. The chemicals may show handled with care.
their effects when they are
swallowed, breathed in or
absorbed through the skin.

CORROSIVE e.g , concentrated FLAMMABLE e-g. sodium. These

NoOH and HCI. substances can easily catch fire in the
Thee substances destroy or lab under normal conditions.
burn away living tissue,
including eyes and skin.

OXIDIZING e.g. potassium

These substances may give o f
much heat as they react with'
other materials. They con be a
fire risk.
1 EXPLOSIVE e.g. hydrogen. These
I substances may explode if set on fire in
air or exposed to heat. A sudden shock
' or fridon may also h r t an explosion.

RADIOACTIVE e.g. uranyl nitrate solution. The radioactive chemicals used in schools have low activity. They
should be used by teachers only, for demonstrations. They are toxic and can cause cancer and burns.

International Colour Codes

Red Yellow Green

DANGER HAZARD SAFE

b

L
 offer First Aid treatment, it can maintain life, stop a condition from worsening and facilitate the
recovery. Now here is some useful information:-

I. Inform your teacher as to any medical condition you have, which may be aggravated as you perform
experiments eg: being asthmatic, suffering from allergies to sulphur and naphthalene (camphor) and other
sensitivities, or heart conditions.

2. Above all else, keep calm in case of injury to yourself andlor others.

3. Immediately report all injuries to the teacher and lab staff.

4. Seek professional attention as soon as possible for all injuries.

5. In the event of accidents involving chemicals:

(a) If chemical splashes on body parts or clothing, flood the affected area with cool, slow running water
until pain eases.
(b) If chemical splashes into the eye, hold the eye open, washing immediately with cool, slow running
water until the pain eases.
(c) If chemical is ingested, immediately drink large amounts of water and induce vomiting.

6. Minor burns to body parts should be immersed immediately in cool water until pain eases.

7. In the event that someone's clothing catches fire:

(a) Do not panic or allow the person to run about.
(b) Immediately lay casualty on the floor on the body part which is not affected,..
(c) Extinguish flames by either:
I. using a blanket to smother it or,
II. dousing the affected area with cool water.

8. In the event of minor cuts sustained:

Ll use direct pressure to stop the flow of blood, clean with cool running water and have some form oi
sterile dressing applied before continuing the lab.

9. In the event offainting:

the person should be provided with lots of fresh air, and placed in a sitting position, with his or her
head placed lower than the rest of the body eg. between the legs.
10. In the event of electrical shock 1electrocution:
The electricity should be immediately switched off if possible, andlor safely remove victim from the
source of electricity with a dry, non-conducting object. Breathing rate and heart rate should be checked.

Sample Conduct in Lab/Reld Checklist - 1

onduct in labltield is only assessed in Integrated Science. However, other Science students will do well to
abide naturally by these rules. Here is a possible checklist for assessing conduct in lablfield. ALL six
should be practiced I f you want to secure total marks.

Did you maintain a clkan and ordered work area?

Did you work effectively and co-operatively on your own or as part of a group?
Did you h o w persistence ( in the completion of the lab same day or over a period of time)?
Did you show care in manipulating apparatus?
Did you work economically?
Did you follow instructions methodicolly?

hdditional Notes -
s you begin, you should be prepared to derive the maximum benefit, from all lab work whether or not you are
being marked for SBA. You should use your lab time as an opportunity to satisfy your natural scientific
curiosity. What follows are some simple guidelines, that you can use to enhance your scientific research.

SEEK TO UNDERSTAND WHAT THE EXPERIMENT I 5 ABOUT

'See" the outcome of the experiment, before you actually start.
Know exactly what is expected of you. Clarifi, the procedure.
While experimenting, you should simultaneously record the necessary measurements precisely (in
the appropriate units), in your lab book.

ENSURE THAT YOU STUDY THE PROCEDURE OF THE EXPERIMENT

Know what to do, when to do it, and why you are doing it.
Beware of possible sources of error and the necessary precautions you may need to take, to
prevent them.
Don't be too rigid as you experiment, use your creativity.
Honestly record results.
Don't panic and become frustrated, if unexpected results arise.

USE TIME AND SPACE WISELY.

Organise your space to work effectively and effciently.
Use your time wisely. For instance while you are waiting for a liquid to boil, you can draw up a
required table, or a diagram for the lab.

DONT DISMANTLE APPARATUS IMMEDIATELY AFTER OBSERVATIONS ARE MADE.

Graphs should be plotted as soon as the points are derived from experimentation. This will heip
you to determine the pattern or lack thereof hence, any.~oint that is inconsistent, can then be
easily repeated, before the apparatus is dismantled.
 n the laboratory knowing what and how to handle equipment and materials is of tremendous signficance. In
your CXC Science Courses the two (2) skills which develop loborotory competence in handling equipment
and materials are Manipulation(M) and Measurement (M). Manipulation refers to your ability (how well or
low badly) you manage or handle equipment and materials. It includes your proficiency in laboratory techniques.
'leasurement refers to making accurate and precise readings with appropriate quantities and 5.1. units.

You should make every effort to use the teacher-guided opportunities to sharpen your abilities of laboratory
nanipulatiodmeasurement ski115. Whenever these skills are assessed it will be as you work (i.e.) a one-to-one
gbservation by the teacher. Familiarize yourselves with the general manipulation techniques of some basic laboratory
tquipment. However, understand that learning comes by DOING. Overcome your fears and inadequacy by much
practice. Mastery of these skills lay the foundation for the use of advanced equipment in Science and other careers.

Guidelines for theme of common bboratory Equipment

I, The Bunsen Burner Purple very hot flame

Behe ~4M4
i> Close air holes. This will produce a luminous
flame.
@FWN - LUMIN
Blue zone d
complete combustion
Flame cone :dour less
"cold' regionof unburntgas

S-W-LUME
m O P M AIRHOLES

ii) Light match immediately before turning on the / *o*

gas.
Yellow lumlnouszone of
incompletecomMon

Flame cone: colwrless 'col6 region

Once burnw I> It of unbumtgas

i) Slowly open air holes to obtain a non-luminous

flame. LUMINOUS BUNSEN FLAME
WITH CLOSED AIRHOLES
ii) Control flame heightlsize by adjusting gas supply
to produce a quiet flame.
iii) Always attend to flame.
iv) Extinguish flame by closing gas top.
2. The Measuring Cylinder ialass/plastic)

1) Rest the cylinder on a flat and horizontal surface.

ii) Read meniscus at eye level to avoid parallax.
X
iii) Read the bottom of the meniscus (a black or white background placed &.-"'
behind the meniscus makes it more distinct).
iv) Accurately readlinterpret the scale.
*
3. The Thermometer

Mercury is toxic so exercise great care when using the thermometer. THE THERMOMETER IS NOT TO
BE USED AS A STIRRER. unless specifically directed by your teacher andlor
procedure as in the case of 'rate' labs. A laboratory thermometer measures
temperature from -10 OC to 110 OC.

1) Immerse bulb completely in liquid.

ii) Ensure bulb is not in contact with container.
iii) Stir liquid to ensure even distribution of heat.
iv) Immerse bulb long enough for thermal equilibrium.
4 Take reading when bulb is immersed.
vi) Take reading at eye level to avoid parallax.
vi i) Accurately readlinterpret scale.
vi i i) Handle carefully and store appropriately.

4. The Triple Beam Balance

1) Ensure that you understand the calibration of the scale, befare you begin to experiment and that
the pointer is zeroed; i.e. All the riders are in their respective zero notches.
ii) Gently place the object to be weighed on the balance pan.
iii) Adjust the riders so that the balance is again zeroed.
iv) To read the pointer, ensure that you are standing directly in front of it.
v) The reading must be at eye level.
vi) Record the total mass indicated by the positions of the three riders.
5. The Eleetnnie / Anl?fieal Balance

i) Make sure that you understand the callbration ofthe scale, before you begin to experiment.
ii) Make sure the balance is placed along an even and horizontal surface.
iii) Switch the balance on, and check that the digital read-out shows a mass o f 0 . 0 0 0 0 g .
iv) Genflvplace the object to be weighed on f i e balall~epan. (Press the tare bar first, before
adding a solid sample to a container on the pan,)
v) Record the displayed value, &r it is stabilized.

6. Testin? with Limewater

i) Effervesce the gas to be tested Into the limewater; g

ii) Pour gas into limewaterltransfer gas to lirnewoter by a teat pipette; g
iii) Place glass rod dipped In limewater lnto the gas.

In the production of the gas to be tested. if tube is heated (e.g. thermal decomposition of a carbonate) the
limewater tube should be removed from the delivery tube before removing the heated tube from the flame.

iv) Ensure gas is tested while it is being made.

v) Properly assemble apparatus
vi) Pour and mix gas and limewater
vii) Place glass rod 50 that no contact is made with test tube or acid spray.

7. Testina fbt Oxy~en

0 Cover opening securely with thumb.

ii) Allow enough time for the collection ofthe gas.
iii) Use a glowing splint.
iv) Insert splint quickly (as thumb is removed) inside test tube.
v) Allow enough time for splint to re-light.
 Use of l e s t P a r t s

Test paper, should be used sparingly.

1) Moisten indicator paper with distilled water.
ii) Place test paper across the mouth of test tube in the gas without touching the sides of the test
tube.

Use of Eabotation Dish

i) Heat over a direct flame for stable substances.

ii) Heat over a water bath for substances that decompose on intense heating or to avoid spitting
e.g. when evaporating sodium chloride to dryness.

10. Use of Conical Flask ffbt tittation)

i) Rinse with distilled water only.

ii) During titration - hold flask near the top while swirling and to ensure it does not bounce the
burette tip.
iii) Position on a white background for observing colour change.

]""
) ~ J ~ IJ J 11. Use of a Water Bath

.iv) Point test tube away from self and neighbour. 1

12. use of Pi?ette/Pi?ette Fillets Heat

i) Pipette
- Rinse pipette with distilled water then solution with which it is to be filled.
 ii) Filling
- Keep tip below level of liquid.
- Adjust level of meniscus with fore finger.
- Hold pipette by stem and not by bulb.
- Read at eye level and ensure bottom of meniscus is level with mark (Eml)
- Remove all clinging drops by touching beaker. Avoid wiping which will soak up solution from
the pipette.

iii) Delivering
- Let tip of pipette touch inside of flask.

iv) Pipette Filler

- squeeze bulb to control influx and efflux of pipette contents.

I . Use of the Burette

i) Rinsing
- Rinse burette with liquid with which it is to be filled (the titrant), throw away the rinse.
ii) ~ifln~
- Use the funnel
- Remove funnel immediately afier use
- Ensure tip is full of liquid
- Ensure there are no air bubblesltap gently
- Remove clinging drops
I I

iii) Reading
,/'
- Ensure burette is erect / vertical (not tilted)
- Read at eye level
- Read bottom of meniscus for all readings.
~+''
,/i /'

i
iv) Manipulating
- Correctly position fingers and thumbs around the tap
Use of the Beaker

i) Wash beaker with clean distilled water before use. Remove any contaminating materials.
ii) Secure beaker in hand when pouring from spout.
iii) Accurately read meniscus at eye level.

Use of Mortar and Pestle

i> Cut up substances into small pieces and place in mortar.

I) ~ d water
d and gently grind mixture with pestle in a circular motion.

Filtering

i> Prepare filter paper by folding into a cone.

Fold filter paper in half.

1 u.
ii)
iii) Fold halved paper in half again.
iv) Open one end to form a cone and place in funnel.
v) Moister paper cone with distilled water to allow for adhesion to funnel. 1I
L
vi) Secure funnel in measuring cylinderlconical flasklboiling tube depending upon the volume used.

Filtering to obtain filtrate

1) Gently pour suspension into paper cone.

ii) Use glass rod to stir and to guide mixture to the centre of the cone. Do nof~uncfrlethe p e r .
iii) Wash residue with distilled water if needed. Filter paper
Suspension
iv) Observe filtrate and re-filter if needed. Solid
Filter funnel

Use of Test Tube I & Filtrate

i) Always use a clean test tube and have rack available for test tube.
ii) Test tubes should be angled awayoim
f self and neighbour whether heating in direct flame or in
water baths.
 iii) Test-tubes should be droledthrough the hottest region of the flame to m v e n t bredye.
iv) Position labels three quarters ofthe distance up the tube to avoid it being burnt soaked or
marred during pouring.

0 Heatins Solids (small amounts only)

- Use a dry test-tube.
- Angling is crucial: if liquid is observed condensing on the cooler part of tube, the mouth of
the tube should be slonteddownwordssjust enough to prevent liquid running back on the hot
part of the test-tube to prevent breaka4e.

0 Headna Liquids
- shake test-tube around, not up ondduwn.
- Volume heated should @be more than a 114 to 113 full of liquid.
- Control heating, especially size of flame. Do not boil, If instructed to warm; if boiling is
required, remove the tube at intervals to let boiling subside.

1 Handlina Reagents

)1 To prevent contamination ofchemicals:

- Always close reagent bottles with their wme covers immediately after use and before
opening another bottle.
- Reagents already poured out must not be returned to the stock container .
- Ensure that outer area of the cover rests on the work surface.
- Avoid direct contact between mouth of reagent bottle and rim of container (similar action if
droppen are used).
- Wash hands before and after the use of any reagent.

ii) Always pour from a labelled bottle with the label in a visible position;
- read labels before use.
iii) Use only small quantities of reagents.
iv) Dispose of waste I excess in the approved manner.
v) Return reagents to proper resting place immediately.
19. Use of a Vernier Caliper

i) Check for zero markfensure zero mark on minuscule lines up with zero mark on vernier caliper
(i.e.) avoid zero error.
ii) Gently close jaws to measure internal or external lengths.
iii) Read scale to avoid parallax.

Use of Stop Watch/Stop Clock

9 Check for zero error.

ii) Correctly operate the stop watchlclock by depressing the appropr
iii) Use the countdown method (if appropriate).
iv) Read scale at eye level to avoid parallax (if appropriate).
v) Return digitallhands to zero mork after use.

Use of a Micrometer
9 Check for zero error.
ii) Close the caliper gently.
iii) Read the scale to avoid parallax.

i) Ensure pins are far apart.

ii) Place pins vertically.
iii) Label position of pinsldraw appropriate lines.
iv) Place base line of protractor on line.
v) Correctly position the centre of protractor.

U) Use of Ammeter/Voltmeter
i) Chose AmmeterNoltmeter of suitable range or (if appropriate) connect appropriate scale on
metre and read (if relevant).
ii) Place ammeterlvoltmeter in correct position from circuit diagram.
iii) Connect ammeterlvoltmeter with correct polarity.
iv) Check for zero error.
v) Read scale to avoid parallax.
vi) Ensure all connections are tightened.
24) Setting up of an Electrical Circuit

i) Draw the correct circuit diagram (if necessary).

ii) Position electrical components from circuit diagram. I 9
iii) Connect components with correct polariv.
iv) Wire the circuit with the switch off.
v) Set Rheostat (or other components to limit current) at maximum -
-
-
-
I
vi) Switch off circuits between readings.
vii) Ensure connections are tightened.

U) Preparin~Slides
COVER SLIP MOUNTED NEEDLE SLIDE SPECIMEN

To prepare a slide for viewing

1) Place a thin specimen in the middle of the slide.
2) Add a drop of water or stain if necessary.
3). Use a mounted needle to gently lower cover slip and tap if air bubbles are trapped.

26) Use of the Microscope

Mount slide directly over the opening in the stage. Secure with clips.
Turn th e revolving nosepiece to lower the objective lens. Ensure that it click in place.
Do not touch lenses with fingers.
Adjust the mirror for adequate lighting.
Looking from the side of the microscope, gently bring the objective lens to about 5mm
above the slide using the coarse adjustment. Do not let the lens touch the slide. Look
through the eyepiece and adjust the lens upward until the specimen comes into clear
view. Turn the fine adjustment for clarity.
View at a higher magnification by following steps 3 to 6 for the respective lens.
When moving the microscope, carry with both hands, one hand on the arm and other
under the base.
 EYEPIECE (OCULAR) A

for viewing specimen

BODY T U B E COARSE ADJUSTMENT
seporote eyepiece E v e s tube verticoltj
from nose~iece
FINE ADJUSTMENT
for focusing and resolution
LOWPOWER OBJECTNE
iIGH POWER OBJECTNE contains shorter lens
contoins longer lens
ARM
CLIP supports body tube
holds slide in ploce
STAGE
SUBSTAGE CONDENSER supports slide
used to help focus on slide
U U
BASE 1

MIRROR / supports microscope

Additional Notes
 Sample Manipulation / Measurement Checklid
1

Use of a Thermometer in a Liquid !rep.)

CL Was the liquid stirred to ensure even temperature distribution

CL Was the thermometer bulb completely immersed?
Was the bulb in contact with the container?
CL Was the immersion time sufficient for thermal equilibrium to take place?
CL Did you take reading to avoid parallax (i.e. at eye level)?
CL Did you handle the thermometer carefully?

All six (6) should be practised to obtain the maximum ten (10) marks. Study and practise the manipulative and
measurement techniques as described above. Review the above checklist and devise your own for other pieces of
equipment that you use and you will better understand how your teacher assesses your skill in handling each piece of
apparatus and in using each measuring instrument.
 u L-2
BOILING TUBES BEAKERS FUNNEL WATCH GLASS
Used for healng Used for Used for f ~ l n gburette Used lor evaporaticg
solds cw lauids holdmg lquids and inl~iirdion a smal amount of somion

BUREHE

&
Used tor delvekg an
accuratevobme
of Iquid
(0 to 5Ccm3]
ij
ERLENMEYER FLORENCE FLASK GRADUATED CYLINDER TONGS
(CONICAL) FLASK Used for Used for debering an Used for holdingobjects
Used for holding lquids heoting lqcdds approximulevobme (polcubrl/ il hot.]
01 iquid

iJ € 2 3
VOLUMETRIC FLASK THISTLE FUNNEL RETORT STAND BUNSENBURNER PETRI DISH
Used for hdding lquids Used tor adding AND CLAMP Used for heating Ured to! cultivating
a lqu:dto a Ibsk Used for hok3ir.g micrwganisms
objects in pailion

U Qd
SPATULA TRIPOD EVAPORATING DISH CRUCIBLE VOLUMETRIC
Used for p!cking up a Used for supporting Used lor evaporot!nga solilion Used lor hedlng sokk PIPEHE
smal quonth of a sold wire guaze and to a high temperature Usedfor delvering a lixed
beokerswhen heuting vobme of iquid

u ----
FORCEPS DRESNEL B O H L E WIRE GAUZE DROPPER METAL BORING
To plck up and move Used foc passing QOS Used to sprend heal when For rroving smal TUBE HOLDER
smalanimak fhrough a lquii healing a (ksk of beaka amounts of Iquid Used for holding Wing lube
when healing
 Aeeuny versus FreeMon

xperimental data should be precise as well as accurate. Repeated measurements of the same
quantity are said to be precise, if they are close to each other. Moreover, precision of a reading
depends on an instrument's sensitivity, range and precision of scale reading.

1 Burette Readinas Iml I 22.5 1 23 1 23 b

Time for SO oscillations I 1 62.5 1 62.5 1 62.5 1

A length measured as 8.41 m would be more precise than the same length measured as 8.4 cm.

Measurements are said to be accurate if they are close to the true or accepted value.

Measurements uith Baod Aaeu~ey

The accepted value ofthe boiling point of pure water = 100.0"C or 373.0 K. A student's accurate
measurement of this same quantity was reported as 99.9 "C.
-
Caution: A series of measurements can be precise without being accurate due to various sources of
error.
E m
All measurements Iobservations made during laboratory work are subjected to error.
- degree of uncertainty - of one kind or another. As a result, there is the need to eliminate, decrease
andlor take account of errors likely to exist in any measurementlobservation. It is therefore compulsory to
include a mention of possible errors in writing up lab reports. There are two basic terms associated with
error that you as a student would need to become familiar with ...
1. Sources of Error
2. Percentage Error

S o u m of E
m
There are four maior sources of error.

1, Limitations oflor inherent in the measuring Incorrect instrument calibration.

instrument. b) Manufacturer's fault.

-
2. Limits to the skill and carefulness of the a) Misjudging of reading between two scale
experimenter markings.
b) Timing of repetitive processes.

3. Conditions of the environment in which the a) Temperature and Pressure conditions.

experiment occurs. b) Hurnidiv
c) Draughts

4. Limitations ofor inherent in procedure used. a) Is this the most accurate method of obtaining
results?
-- - - - - -

Errors ofthe experimenter can be decreased by ...

1. Taking several observations of the same reading and calculating the average (mean) after /

discarding 'off readings.

If the diameter of a wire was recorded as 4.6 mm, 4.5 mm, 4.4 mm, 4.4 mm, and 4.3 mm; The
mean is (4.6+4.5+4.4+4.4+4.3) i 5 = 4.4 mm. 1
2. Observing patterns in measurements to identify the '8
reading (as in graphs).
 3. Avoiding parallax. Parallax error refers to the apparent shifiing of an object when it is
viewed successively from two points which are in the same line of sight. Parallax error is an
error in a measurement due to the eye not being in the correct position when the
measurement is being taken.

DLACRAMS
SHOWING THE CORRECT EYE POStTION FOR NON-PARALLAX RWINGS

C Correct position
A to avoid parallax
I error

,
I

I w2
\
I Correct
I

1 reading 1

Percentage Ertw

Percentage error' help the experimenter to determine the accuracy of the experiment performed.
Percentage error could have either a positive (t) or negative (-) value.
Percentage Error = -
Observed Value True Value
- --
x 100
True Value
The observed value is based on the experimenter's work and the true value is based on the generally
accepted reference.
The b) plus or minus notation describes how much uncertainty there is in a measurement i.e the range
within which the measured value is believed to fall. This notation is used to precisely state numerical
results. When (k) is not used there is an implied range whlch goes with the measurement. (See page 36
for Scale Errors).

I
e.g. A measurement of 35.1 + 0.1 cm. means that ihe reading is correct to within O!. cm of 35.1 cm.
Therefore;
(a) The largest possible value is: (35.1 + 0.1) cm 35.2 cm
-
(b) The smallest possible value is: (35.1 0.1) cm = 35.0 cm

I Seientiic Notation / Standard h t m Notation C---

Numbers can be expressed in standard form; i.e. as a product of a power of 10.

e.g.
(a) 134.3 in standard form is 1.343 x lo2
(b) 0.0008461 in standard form is 8.461 x 10'

Beware when writing calculator generated numbers...

I (a) 8 . 4 ~ 1 0 ' not 0.4'
(b) 1.111 x 10'" not 1.111'~
 The laws of Indices

-
Rules I Examda
1. amxa a
n = rmn
I I O ~ ~ I O=lo5
~

I Significant F
Sometimes you may be asked to record measurements and results of calculations to a specific number of
si nificant fi ures s . Here are a few uidelines:

Non-zero digits are all significant

Zeros between non-zero digits are significant.

Zeros locating a decimal point in numbers less than one (1)

are not significant.
1264.0 I 3 I Zeros locating a decimal point in numbers greater than one
II I I (1) are not signiticant.

2-00x lo2 I 3 I Numbers in scie&c notation show the number of significant

I Working with Significant Figurer (sf) I

1. If the first digit to be dropped is < 5, drop Round off24.60a to four (4) significant figures.
'excess' digits (to the right) without chansinq The first digit tohbe dropped is 2, it is < 5, therdore
the previous digits. Ans: 24.60
2. If the fjrd digit to be dropped is ~ 5drop
, Round off24.60p to four (4) significant figures.
'excess' digits (to the right) oHer increasing The first digit tobe dropped is 7, it is > 5, therdore
the previous digit by 1. Ans: 24.61
3; If the first digit to be dropped is = 5, drop Round 8 2 4 . 6 0 5 2 to four (4) significant figures.
'excess1 digits (to the rlght) &er increasing The first digit to be dropped is 5, therdore
the previous digit by 1. Ans: 24.61
4. When adding or subtracting, round answer
so that it has the grr~number of decimal a. (534 t 9.3 t6.123) m = 20.8 m
places as the measurement having the b. (68.233 - 61.3) mg = 6.9 mg
number of decimal places.
5. When multiplying or dividing, rePo+ the
answer to the same number of sf as the a. (5.32 x 4.8) mm2 = 2 6 mm not 25.536 m d.
2-
quantity with the 5mallest number of sf. b. (4.29 x 3.24) cm' = 13.9 cm (not 13.8996 cm'.
Beware of retaining meaningless digits when c. 8.47 cm2 r 4.2 cm = 2.0 cm (not 2.0166667 an).
usina an electronic calculator.
-
I
Measurements in the SI system consist of a number and a unit. Numbers andlor quantities without their
units are mean~&lesss. Here are some guidelines in the use of Sl units.

Letters as symbols are only written in singular

form and do not need full stops to show
abbreviation except if the unit occurs at the Comet Use Incomct Use
end of a sentence. Words as units are
pluralised except if the name is a proper noun 20 mg 20 mgs.
(such as the name of a famous scientist). 300 J k i l K-I 48JlkgK
Separate numbers from it5 units by a space. 23 kelvin 23 kelvins
Each component unit in a compound unit is also 65.3 millilitres 65.3 mls
time Imin time min
separated by a space. Negative powers rather
than the solidus (Iare ) used. The solidus is
employed however in showing quantitylunits.

Use in
names as Units Give symbols and prefixes appropriate upper or lower case
Units initial letters. Capital letters for units are only used when
replacing proper nouns (such as names of famous persons).
60 kelvin When a proper noun is used as a unit, no capital letters are
29.9 picoCurie usd.
300joule
18 nanoseconds

The raised decimal point is incorrect and should not ComctUse Ineorrcetuse
be used. Separate very large or very small numbers
4.41 cm 4'41 cm
by spaces rather than commas. Such numbers can
also be written in scientific notation. 807 214 012 kg 807,2l4,012 kg
Comenion of Units

metres (m) I kilometres (km)

grams (9) I kilograms (kg)
centlmetres (cm)
I metres (m)

millimetres (mm) I centimetres (cm)

millimetres (mm) metres (m)

milligrams (mg) grams (9)
millilitres (ml) litres (I)
cubic centimetres (an3 litres(1)

Divide lhc I By

kilometres (km) metres (m)

* I+
Number ef

kilograms (kg)

metres (m) centimetres (cm) 1 100

centimetres (cm) millimetres (mm)

metres (m) millimetres (mm)

grams (9) milligrams (mg)
1000
litres (I) millilitres (ml)
litres(1) cub~ccentimetres (c?)
( Measurements and Units - A Quick look - 1
I
- -
Quantity1 Symbol I Unit I Symbol I Instrument Used t o Meaaire

i ~ r [ i m * e ( m ) Metre Rule. Vernier Caliper. Micrometer

z
0
Mass1 m - kilogram ( kg ) Beam Balance, Lever Balance, Top-Pan

Temperature I T kelvin ( K ) Thermometer, Thermocouple

- I ! ompere ( A ) !
1 .second(s)
Electric Current 1 Ammeter, Multimeter
m
.
.
I
Time 1t Clock. Stop Clock, Stopwutch

,w
=Luminous IntensityI 1V ( candela ( d) Lightmeter

I,
e
Amount of Svbstrmce mole ( mol ) -
I

Concentration I mole Icubic metre fmol mq I -

I Temperature 10 I cesius ( OC ) I Thermometer. Thermocouple

Speed metre 1second (m d) Speedometer

Volume 1 V cubic m@e ( m3 ) or cm3. dm3. I or L Measuring Cylinder, Burette, Pipette

Density 1p kilogrom /volume ( kg m" ) or g c i 3 Hydrometer

Areo 1A square metre ( m2) Metre Rule, Measuring Tape

I EnergyNorVHeatl UW I Joule ( J ) - i.e. kg $ i2

or USMJ -
Force 1F I ( N ) - i.e. kg m 4
NMO~ Spring Balance

Pressure IP Pascol ( Pa ) - i.e. ~m~~or kg m-' c2 Barometer. Manometer

Power 1P Watts ( W ) KPo, MPa Wattmeter

I Electric Charge IQ I Coulomb ( C ) - i.e. A s I -

--

Potential IV
volts ( V ) Voltmeter
Potential Difference / V

Electrical Resistance IR I
I
ohm (n)- i.e. m2 kg s d ~ - 2 I
Ohmmeter, Multimeter

Frequency I(for 4 I He& (Hz)-i.e.5

-1
I Frequency Counter

Radioactivity1A Curie or Becquerel( Ci or Bq) Geiger Counter

Loudness Decibel ( db ) Noise Meter

 he measuring instruments that you use, have scab on them. These scales are usually different from one
instrument to the next. Therefore, you must make sure that you understand and lor interpret each scale
befare you begin to experiment. Here are some guidelines ...

Most ofthe Scales you use will be one of the three main types illustrated below.

1) Each marking= 1 unit.

0 20 30

1) Each marking= 2 units.

1) Each marking= 0.1 unit.

 Pure water boils
(100%)
Scale readings of the instruments you
use, should be at eye level, to reduce
parallax errors. I
--

Hot water
(50
Normal body temperature
(373 Value = -
Room temperature
value =69 cm3

value =61.5 cmJ

Pure ice melts
(0 k)
Narrow capillary
tubing

Narrow capillary
tubing

IA x a e reading mnnotbe estimated to less than halfofthe smallest division on the scale. )

The correct scale readings for the voltmeter are indicated below ..

l.(a) 0.80 V (b) 0.85 V (c) 0.90 V

2.(a) 2.20 V (b) 2.40 V (c) 2.10 V

3.(a) 3.87 V (b) 4.00 V (c) 3;90 V

i
CAN YOU READ THESE SCALES CORRECTLV?

The stop watch reads ...

a)2s b)lOs c)l3s

The balance reads ...

a) 2 4 0 g b) 2 2 0 g c) 230 g

The ammeter reads ...

The barometer reads ...

The metre rule reads ...

a) 3.0 cm b) 3.1 cm c) 3.2 cm
 C Correct position
to avoid parallax
Scale readings ofthe instruments you error
use eg. the metre rule, thermometer, I

,
ammeter and voltmeter, should be
taken at eye level to reduce the.
, Correct

occurrence of parallox errors.

Incorrect Position to be read

reading I

A scale reading cannot be estimated to

less than half of the smallest division
on the scale. The scale error for the
I voltmeter can be quoted as f 0.1. I

Correct polarity must always be observed when assembling electrical circuits with ammeters, voltmeters
and transformers, otherwise pointers will move in the wrong direction and these electrical devices will be
ruined.

Ammeters must always be connected in series with other instruments, since they measure the current
through the circuit. Failure to do so will result in the destruction ofthe ammeter.

Voltmeters must be connected in parallel, or across any device of which the potential difference (P.D.)is
needed to be measured.

The switch, particularly in circuits where there are two or more branches, should always be connected to
the positive iide ofthe power supply or battery.

All connections must be made tight. Any corroded contacts must be cleaned.

When no readings are being taken, the power supply should be switched off, to prevent it from being
drained.

Whenever possible, a rheostat should be used to control the flow of current through the circuit since lorge
currents (greater than full scale deflections), may seriously damage the ammeter.
CONNECTING WIRE CROSSING WIRE 1 CELL 2 CELL
WIRE (NO CONTACT) JOINED

BATTERY OF CELLS a.c.SUPPLY d.c.SUPPLY RESISTOR

SWITCH (OPEN) VARIABLE RESISTOR BULB

GALVANOMETER FUSE VOLT METER AMMETER

EARTHED CAPACITOR ELECTRIC DIODE

MOTOR

n
GEN -
7
w'
-3
j
GENERATOR TRANSFDRMER LOUD SPEAKER VOLTAMETER
OR
ELECTROLYTIC
CELL

CLOCK HEATER COIL OF WIRE CONDENSER

a A drowiiy is a simple and accurate representation of the apparatus, specimen or model used in the
..
experiment. It should not be an artistic or stylized representation.
a A daqrum is nat a true representation. It is used however to show how one or more things relate to
each other as in the case of the biogeochemical cycles, food webs and food chains.

OmGEN1fl
BOILING TUBE

G
LIGHT SOURCE
1. Use a hurd5huru (Hapencil. Do not use
crayons, markers or coloured pencils.
2. The diagram andlor the drawing should be
loge, c/eu~; lobelledand uccmte.
3. Drawings should e r b e shaded. Instead
ATER PLANT use techniques of stippling, streaking,
(ELODEA)
cross hatching or symbols to achieve tones
of gray, differentiation and details.

DIAGRAM OF THE WATER CYCLE

Water
vapour

1
I n the a l r

Woler in
lokes. rivers. Symbols
SOII. S W

4. Line drawings /diagrams should be smooth, clean and continuous, i.e consider each line and draw
wlfhouf removing the pencil from the paper. There should be no gaps in the drawing.
5. Labels should either be in all CAPITAL LETTERS or all in script or common letters that are
u. The labels should be written horizontally, neatly, accurately and spelt correctly.
6. All label lines should be drawn horizontally with the use ofa ruler and a pencil with a sharp point.
They should point clearly to the intended part. Label lines should not be crossed. They should not
be drawn with arrow heads or dots. Arrow heads should only be used to indicate the direction
of movement in a diagram.
7. In drawing apparatus, use a longitudinal section, i.e. what is seen if the object is cut in half
lengthwise.
8. All drawings 1diagrams should have a
full underlined title written in CAPITAL

*
LETTERS, beneath the drawing. A
magnification factor, viewlsections and
HIND LEG
a full taxonomy if appropriate should
also be included.
9. Drawings should be functional and well
COCKROACH. DORSAL VIEW (X2)
proportioned to the specimen and
apparatus; i.e. no part should be too
large or too small in comparison to the Drawings 1 diagrams should have the
rest of the drawing. correct sizelscale; and should be
10. Student should always draw what is correctly placed in the available space to
before them rather than what they may allow for labelling. Label lines and legends
have seen in a text book. Each drawing can be used to clarify drawings where
should be an accurate representation of necessary. For instance legends can be
the specimen including any or all used to depict distributions ofplants in an
distinguishing features. area.

I Drawing Magnification= I
Linear dimension of drawing
Linear dimension of the ot&&

12. Drawing Magnification should be to one

(1) decimal place only. Simple fractions
such as (~1.5) and (xl~z) are also
acceptable.
3 Layers should not be represented by a
single line.
14. If annotations (explanatory notes) are
used they should be accurate and
APPARATUS USED TO M W U R E UPTHRUST concise.
 -
I Common Ettots to avoid in Biologieal Dtawings - 1

(,/ v
Scrappy lines that are
a/
/C
/
discontinuous
/// Hanging lines

Penetrating Lines

Poor (scratchy) line quality

0~ of uneven thickness.
(Unsharpened pencil used.)

Crossed label lines.

MEmbrane
lettering.
Magnification absent. membrane
Title not in caps and not nucleus
underlined. cytoplasm
Joined and inclined labels.
Animal cell Shading applied. ANIMAL CELL (x 05)
 Position and Orientation of the Sections of Specimen
h

WNSVERSE SECTION fE) / CROSS-SECTION

OF A M,4NrJO FRUIT

LONGITUDINAL SECTION (LS)I

DORSAL 1 SUPERIOR VIEW

4

ANTERIOR SURFACE +-- LA^-\ /

A POSTERIOR SURFACE

OPENED SEED OF RED BEAN WOWING

THE POSITION OF THE EMBRYO
EXTERNAL APPEARANCE OF LEAF
 rowing ski115 are assessed in Biology and Integrated science. This skill allows you to develop your powers of
detailed observation in representing specimens and the relationships between the parts of specimens.
Relationships between structure and function can be understood as you draw. Here is a sample checklist
you should develop to assess your drawing. The Aim of the lab is 'To illustrate the internal structure ofa leaf storage
organ - an onion bulb.'. Ensure that all items are checked to secure total marks. These items of the checklist can be
applied to ALL assigned SBA drawings. In addition to continually reviewing the Guidelines for Diagrams and
Drawings on paue38, you need to develop other sample checklists to master your skills in this area and do well in
you Drawing SBAs.

Clarity
Li Are the lines clem, and continuous and of even thickness?
CL 1s it of a reasonable size with enough spare left for right side labeling?
D 1s it shaded and filled with unnecessary and untidy details?
D 1s it a 2 dimensional representation?

Aeeurate
D Is it a faithful representation of the specimen?
D Are all distinguishing features noted?
D Is it in correct proportions?

Labeling
0 Are lines pointing to the correct part?
D Are lines horizontal, not crossing and without arrowheads or dots?
CL Are labels in script?
CL Are the labels accurate 1 un-joined, horizontal and spelt correctly?
D Are annotations written neatly and next to label?
CL Are annotations brief, informative (e.g.) structure and function?

Title
CL Is the viaulorientation stated?
CL 1s the name of identity of specimen accurate, self explanatorylmeaningful?
CL Is it all written In capitals, underlined and placed below the drawing?

MagniCsratlm
15 it accurately calculated?
0 Is it to one (1) decimal place only or a simple fraction eg. (x1.5) or (xl W )?
Experimental data can be presented in three main ways ...
D Prose
D Tables
D Graphs

When Copper (11) Sulphate crystals were

In wriiing prose, you need to be brief,
accurate, relevant and detailed as you
record your observations. It should be
written in standard English and in the third
person passive voice, past tense.
heated, the blue crystals changed to a white
powder. A steamy type of vapour was then
observedto be given 8,and then condensed
to a colourless liquid at the mouth of the
boiling tube.

When using a table to record records, ensure that it is drawn (with four distinct sides) in your lab book
before you begin your experiment.
1. Give all your tables brief yet accurate descriptive titles. Titles should be underlined,
written in CAPITAL LETTERS and centered above the table.
2. Avuropriatelv label each column and row using the correct metric units as is necessary.

3. Be sure to record each measurement promptly in the table drawn using consistent decimal
places and significant figures to reflect accuracy and precision of measurement.
 4.Place the independent (controlled) variable in the first column and use the other columns for the
measured values.
5.Use footnotes to explain abbreviations, changes and details where necessarj.
6.Have rulings to emphasize groupings and to differentiate items from each other.
7.Ensure that numerical values are written neatly and vertical, i.e. values should not be crooked.
- -
$.Leave no spaces in numerical tables for measurements not taken. Put instead ND No Data, or
record " 0 if the value is zero.

In certain experiments, e.g. Food Tests and Qualitative

Analysis, a Non-Numerical Table is used.
TABLESHOWING TESTING FOR SIMPLE SUGAR
5 cm3 Food Substance in Method Observation Inference
Test tube

Crushed Onion Solution 3 drops o f Benedict's The mixture turned blue- Reducing sugar present.
solution was added. The green, then yellow and
mixture was heated until finally an orange-brick
it boiled. red precipitate was
observed.

In other experiments a Numerical Table is used.

TABLESHOWING MEASUREMENTS OF THE AMMETER AND VOLTMETER IN

INVESTIGATINGTHE RESISTANCE OF NICHROME WIRE

CurrentlA VoltogeN ResistoncelR (VII)

 Using Tables

A table is the most appropriate way to present data in a concke. 5tructredand accurate manner. It allows the
results to be displayed in a meaningful way to communicate information and facilitate comparison. However here are
some.. .

Common Emn made in the Preparation of Tables

Presenting tables without titles.

Misconstruction of titles - inaccurate title, written in script.
Omitting column headings and incorrect headings.
Improper table arrangement.
Insufficient space In columns for data.
Incorrect quantities1 units and symbols.
Spurious accuracy - quoting values to more significant figures than necessary
Irrelevant and inadequate data presented.

A graph is used to give a visual impression of the content and meaning of results. It can be used to present detailed
results in a condensed form, displaying maximum data in minimum space. A model graph will combine accuracy, clarity
and simplicity. There are good reasons for using graphs to represent results.
Here are some ...

a. It gives the big picture

b. It shows patterns and trends in measurements taken.
c. Its shape can show the relationship behveen measured variables,
d. It can be extrapolated in any direction to predict results.
e. It shows up readings that are 'off.
f. It gives positive and negative correlations.
 Common b r o n made in the Preparation of braphs

1. lncorrect selection of axes.

2. lncorrect labelling ofaxes, including the omission of quantities and units.
3, lncorrect selection of scales for a x e - axes need not begin at zero.
-
4. lncorrect plotting of points dots too large.
5. Where more than one graph is plotted on the same axe, points are not distinguished i.e. both use
crosses or encircled dots.
6. lncorrect joining of points.
7. Omission of a scale and a key or figure legend where appropriate to provide explanatory detail.
8. Omission of an accurate title that is underlined and written in CAPITAL LETTERS.
9. Extrapolating beyond the upper or lower limit of measured values.
10. Omission of arrows to show the extension of Quantity 1Values along axis.
11. Plotted readings are rounded off.

Dlfferetit graphical forms can be utilized for various purposes, including...

1. Plotted curves or line graphs - used for data where the relationship between two (2) variables is
shown as o cam)'uum.
2. Histograms represent h e n o d4t~hfion5ofutnfihuou~wriabh: values of the independent
variable are grouped into classes of equal widths.
3. Bar chars represent the relationship between a continum dependent vmoble and o non-numenkd
independent variable.
4. Pie charts illustrate ~on~bn5 of a whole (frequency x 360" ).
5. Pictographs give a pk-tfonlrepresentation of data.

Questions have been and continue to be set on graphs as in the case of Data Analysis. These questions are
basically of two (2) types ...
 1. Data is given from which a graph must be plotted and Interpreted.
2. A graph is given which has to be interpreted and from which information is extracted:The shape of
the graph gives the relationship beiween the measured quantities.
. _.I.. .

The columns must be o@acem' to each other and of euuaf wlM thus making the height of each bar directly
proportional to the y-axis. Shading or stippling can be used to identify individual columns.
Data collected should be organized into a &table. The frequency is simply the number of times a value
occurs in the data and is therefore a count or tally. For large numerical data it is useful to group the numbers into
- -
classes or categories. The number of items belonging to each class a class frequency must be obtained.

TABLESHOWlNGTHE FREWENCY OF HEIGHTS OF STVDEMS IN A M S

1 H&HTOF,WUEmm 1 TALLY 1 FREQUENCY I

The shape of the histogram

conforms to the normal
distribution curve (bell
shape). There are a fm
170 - 174 Ill1
heights at the lower and
TOTAL
upper ends i.e. most heights
fall in the middle range. This
shows continuous distribution
and the total area of the
histogram represents the
total frequency. Continuous
gradation (variation) is shown
A pie chort or pie diagram, is a circular diagram divided into segmerrts or sectors (as in a pizza). Each sector
represents a proportion ofthe 360' in a circle and the angle of each sedor can be measured with a profroctor and
be used to show relative numbers / portions. The errtire quantity of what is being measured occupies the whole
circle and the various sectors depict a specific quantity. Calculations are b a d on the following relationship;

I Specific Quartity x 360'

Total Quafity
= Degrees in Sector
I
For example, a pie chart can be drawn to show the number of seeds that germinated in a packet. A count was made
and the packet was shown to contain 204 seeds. The whole circle of the pie will represent this total. The seeds
were planted and 139 seeds germinated and 65 did not.

The number of seeds that germinated can be represented by 139 x 360' 245

The number of seeds that did not germinate can be represented by b 1 &x 360'. 115' 1

PIECHAR SHaWINGTHE NUMBER OF

GEWINAT~NG
SEEDS IN A PACKET
A bar chart is useful for showing data collected in a number of discrete but reluted groups. It is used to show
comparisons between data or to display data that d m not continuously change. The bar graph is used when the
independent variable is non-numerical. The bars must be of equal widths and should not touch each other. For
example a bar chart can be used to compare the wax-melting temperature on certain insect exoskeletons.

Insect A Insect 6 Insect C

BARC W 5HaUllNG TEMPEWTUREAT WHICH THE WAX OF

THE EXOSKELETON Of THREE INSKX MELT
 Summay of Various Graphical Forms

STRAIGHT LINE GRAPH PLOTTED GGAPH

(SHOWING THE DENSITY OF (OXYGEN DISSOCIATION CURVE
WATER) - 1FOR HUMAN HAEMOGLOBN)
.t /
I /

Volume /cm3-> 02/KFo -

HISTOGMM PIE CHART
-- pp

(SHOWING THE NUMBER OF (SHOWING THE RELATIVE

STUDENTS WITH DIFFERENT ABUNDANCE OF BLOOD
SHOE SIZES)
18 men

Shoe size Icm >-

PICTOGWPH
-- BAR CHART
(SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF (SHOWINC -HE NUMBER OF LEAVES
PLANTS ON A SANDY SHORE) '? PER PLANT)
i
-
Y)

4 Species x o2
.L

.A Species y
J, z.--
0

Number of leaves ?-
 Each axis must be clearly labelled m d the appropridre quarrtities and metric units used.
The Dependem' Varbble(the variable being examined) is plotted along the v&~lox15(y).
The hde~endmfVanab/&e variable being controlled) is plotted along the hur/hm'a/a~l4/x~
The graph should be accurately titled having the relutionshlp between the independent and
dependent variables in the Me.
The x a l e you c h m should allow at least 75%ufthe graph page to be used both vertically and
horizontally.
The scale chosen should be easy to plot and read off. For instance 1:5; or 1:10.
Each co-ordinate should be plotted as soon as if 15ubfo/iredor at the latest before h
apmri5 13dlIsmaOnbd
Plotted points should be fine encircled dots or sharp upright u o s x s '4 whose intersection
exactly coincide with the two (2) values making the point.
Plotted readings should be rounded off.
A t least six (6) points should be u s d for a straight lined graph. You should draw the b e d
straight line. Which passes through most of the plotted points. It is possible that the use ofa
transparent ruler would be helpful here.
A minimum uffive (5) points should be used for a curve. You should draw the moothest curve.

Additional Notes
LTITLE I ) GRAPH TO SHOW THE RELATlONSHlP
SETWEEN EXTENSlON AND FORCE FOR A SPRING

-52-
 BlRVED LINE ORAPH STRAIGHT LlNE GRAPH

ORAPH SHOWlWO VOLUME OF HYDROBEW PRODUCED ORAPM Sl!OllWO AVEMBE INCREASE I N STEM H E l W S
WHEW A METIIL REACTS WITH A N B I D OVER A 35, PERIOD OF FIVE SEEDUIIOS OVER A 15 DAY PERIOD
 Cheeklist for Ob,mation/bmdinJ/Repcting (ORR)
+
t. Ouemll Organizatim ard Cmeiwnou of Report
D Is the report in a logical sequence? (E.g. Aim; Apparatus...)
D k each repott section name appropriately? (e-g. Aim: Diagram; Conclusion...)
D Are the appropriate forms of reporting selected and used for conciseness (e.g. graphs.
tables, diagrams, p r m in third person passive accurate recording of observations?
2. Graphs
D .Titles
a. Is title accurate /self-explanatory /meaningful?
b. Is it w r i i n in all capitals underlined and placed the labels of the
horizontal axis?
D Axes
a. Are they fully labeled with appropriate quantity for symbol and unit (metric)?
b. Is the dependent variable on the vertical axis (y) axis and independent variable
on the (x) axis?
D Accuracy
a. Are the plotted points accurate (not rounded off)?
b. Are the points plotted using fine encircled dots (0)andlor small crosses (t)
made with pencils with very sharp tips?
c. Are there about seven (7) .. points?
.
0 Curves / Straight Lines
a. is the curve smooth?
b. Are the points connected with straight lines?
c. Is it the line of best fit?
D Scale
a. Does the graph occupy at least 75% of the paper buth vertically and
horizontally?
b. Is it awkward or easy to read e.g. multiples of lo?
c. Is the scale box placed at the top right hand corner?
D Key (ifnecessary)
a. Are unique symbols chosen for each set of results defined?
b. Is the key box placed under the scale box?

3. Tables
Is it neatly conc.tructed with four (4) distinct sides?
 Is the title accuratelself-explanatorylmeaningful whether numerical lor non-numerical?
Is title written in capitals land underhlind? Is it placed &ethe table?
Do the columns have proper headings with quantity and unit (if necessary)?
Is attention given to kinds and relevant details of data (e.g.) correct and consistent decimal
pointslsigniflcant tlgures in each column Igood range and adequate numbers of readings.

Is diagram accurate and proportional?

Are label lines horizontal, not crossing and without arrowheads?
Does label line point to correct parts?
Are the labels accurate / unjoined, horizontal and spelt correctly?
Are all writings in script?
Is the title accurate 1self-explanatory /meaningful?
Is title written in all capitals land underlined and placed below the diagram?
Is it drawn in two dimensions?
Is it shaded?

5. Prose
D Is the third person passive past tense used?
D Is due attention given to kinds and relevant details of data?
D Is it written in Standard English?

Additional Notes

-
 he CXC Science syllabuses, for the skill of Analysis and Interpretation (NI).state that students should
develop the ability to

Identifj and recognize the component part of a whole and interpret the relationships between those
park.
Identifj casual factors and show how they interact with each other.
Infer, predict and draw conclusions.
Make necessary and accurate calculations and recognize the limitations and assumptions of data.
"CXC Syllabuses".

iaving accumulated data from experimentation does not conclude the scientific process. Data must be analysed and
nterpreted and a conclusion drawn. At this point, some data may be considered invalid as a result of Sources of
Error, Limitations and Assumptions in the experimental designs and procedures. As a scientist, you may feel that
nore data from repeated experimentation may be needed before the conclusions are considered, codrmed and
~eliable.

t is the development of the Grhcd fi~hhhgprocess that is necessary for you to excel in the skill of Analysis and
interpretation. There must be a shif) from just fact finding andlor data accumulation to productive intelligent and
neaningful application of existing knowledge and new knowledge to solve new problems.

With this in mind you should seek to ever develop your critical thinking abilities. Expand your data bank of knowledge
because these skills cannot be developed in a vacuum. You must have knowledge to apply. It is what you know not just
know about that will bring you into free expressiveness. Learn to think critically about all aspects of life and this will
serve to enhance your skills in the lab. This is a mental challenge and intellectual effort that extends well beyond recall,
zorrectness, of data or clear explanation. Moreover, miscalculations or inaccurate conclusions may arise from an
inaccurate problem solving approach or errant reasoning. Therefore it behooves you to be rightly adjusted in your
thinking t o 'see' the whole and the connectivity of the parts to the whole. This skill is not easy to develop but it is
possible to attain to and maintain higher and renewed thoughts in Science and life. Moreover, you need to see your
teacher as a guide at your side rather than as a sage on a stage. Take responsibility for increased learning.

It is to your benefit to consult your teacher to guide you. Do not be content to be passive, make no input and
spongingly receive your education. Challenge ybur self to expand the full width, length, breadth and heights possible
through your thinking.
 Critical Thinking Skills Defined
m

The use of your senses and instrurnerrb in noting a particular event and defining a
problem.

2. H-si - A possible explanation br an observation, which can be tested.

3. Interpretation - An explanation ofthe obsenrdion. It explains, the meaning ofthe results obtained
In understandable terms. It can include a correlation of variables.

4. Prediction - To foretell on the basis of observations, experience and scientific reason

5. Inference - An extrapolation. It is the act of moving from one premise considered true, to
another whose truth follows from the first.

6. Asumption - A speculation thot something is true and taken for granted without evidence.

7. Conclusion - A reasonablejudgement based on or drawn from the critical analysis of the results
obtained.

h a m i c Critical Thinkina Model Used in Exuerimentinq

This includes I - Observations iI

1. Mimnceptions
2. Preconceptions
3. Incorrect Informah
t-
Two-way interactions
each affecting the l
- Hypothesis Formath
- Expected Outcomes 11
4. Right Content Informution

Assumptions link existing knmvledge / observations/ aatd

resuk to o conclusion.

Analysis and Interpretation

1. Predidions
2. Inferences
3. Conclusions
 t
Development of Citierl Thinking Skill
-

Scientific Outcomes and Critical thinking skills can be developed through

1. Having an Enquiring Mind

Q Ask questions
- How do we know ...3
- Why do we believe ...?
- What is the evidence for ...3

2. Distinguishing between Observations and Interpretations

3. Utilizing existing scientific concepts to draw conclusions and make predictions.

A. Be able to experiment (competence) and know (understand) how science works
considering limitations.

4. Poying closer regard to assumptions

A They must be dynamically and continually revised.

5. Employing data and experimental results to lead to meaningful and accurate conclusions
A. Based on the ability to think and act creatively.

6. Applying knowledge in sensitive awareness of neighbours, society , globe.

A. Carefir1 and responsible application of Science.

In Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Integrated Science, Analysis and Interpretation (NI)5kills must be mastered.
Along with critical thinking skills development a working knowledge of instructional verbs must be used (see Appendix).

You must first rightly-divide or interpret questions and statements to arrive at sure answers and facts. Faithfully
follow all instructtons given whether verbal or written. Give due regard to each word andlor crucial phrases which can
bring good understanding.
 I Analysis and lnterpretrtim in Physies 1-
The following is a list of areas assesed under Analysis and Interpretation in Phydcs.

1. Data Anabis of Grapk.

a. Derived Results
b. Gradients
c. Intercepts
d. Calculations

1. For increased accuracy, the slape orgradenf (m) of a straight line graph is defined from the co-
ordinates (x,,y,), (%, y), of ho w~e~seprofedpuhfs (large triangle) on the straight line. (x,,y,), (x2,
yJ, should mf be platted co-ordinates.

2 The equation ofa straight line can be written in the form indicated below

where 'm' is the slope or gradient and 'c' is the intercept on the Y axis.

3. Gradient (m) can be calculated from

Change in Hdrontal Change in Valw d X 01 -

Xz X,
 I

4. Gradients have units which come from the

/
units on the axes. If both axes have the same
units then the gradient is a pure number.
99
5. Gradient read-off must be
- From the graph - not the table:
- To the same number of significant I/v
A
figures as the plotted readings. STRAIGHT
LINE GRAPH PASSING THROUGH THE ORIGIN

6. For an equation like y = mx, where 'm' is

Gtample: the slope / constant, the graph is a
a. Force = m x Gttension straight line through the origin. The two
b. f=~d/grlength quantities 'x' and 'y' are said to be directly
proportional to each other.

POSITIVECORRELATION NEGATIVECORRELATION
Y
Y -axis intercept 4
Y
X -axis intercept

X X

STRAIGHT LlNE GRAPHS THAT DO NOT PASS THROUGH THE ORIGIN

7. Not all straight line graphs pass through the origin. Whenever they don't these graphs are
said to be linear but not proportional. Therefore the quantities are not directly proportional
to each other. Graphs of this nature may give rise to 'x' and 'y' intercepts.
 Intercept [c)

1. The intercept is read directly offthe graph. It is the point on either axis where the straight line cuts
(intercepts) the axis. Example: (x-axis, 0), (0, y-axis).
2. Intercepts have units same as for the axis that is cut.
3. The intercept must be calculated from the equation y mx + c.
4. Read-off must be to the same number of significant figures as the plotted points.
5. Care must be taken to avoid awkward scales, especially if the intercept has to be determined.

Nan - Linear Lines

v
Sometimes, a non-linear relationship can
be represented as a linear relationship, if
the variables involved are modified.

In addition to straight line graphs, your graph

may turn out to be a curve or non-linear
Yl /
graph, which may not pass through the
origin. These lines have slopes which are _naf
constant.

Unes of Best Fit

1. A thin line must be drawn which need not pass through any of the plotted points.
2. You should obtain the best graph (linear or non-linear), from a scatter of points using the least
squares principle. A transparent ruler should be used to draw a line so that the sum of the
perpendicular distances of points scattered on each side of the line is equal.
3. If a curve pattern emerges, do not force a straight line.
 SCALE I
X AXIS: 2 k = 5 am
v AXIS: 4 em = 0.5 em I

I : : : : : : : . . :.::::::::::.I.
In Biology, Chemistry and Integrated Science, you may be requested to
1. Describe a graph and explain some aspect of the graph. Example: In examining the rate of diffusion of
gases of different concentrations.
In addition, Analysis and Interpretation calls for
2. The proof of your existing knowledge and understanding of the theory on which the practical is based.
3. Your detailed and accurate explanation of each observation using your existing knowledge.
4. The making of conciusions which are directly related to the aim and hypothesis. They should take into
account observations without repeating all of the results. Where appropriate patterns and trends are
identified they shouid be clearly stated. Logical inferences, accurate calculations, predictions and
generalizations from the data should be made.
5. Limitations of the experiment should be discussed. You should show how uncontrolled variables and
sources of error may have affected the results.

General Checklist for

Analysis and Interpretation
a. Is background information provided?
b. Are limitations and the effect on results explained?
c. Are all the observations explained?
d. Is the conclusion stated and consistent with the aim?

Graphical Questions assessed i n A/I

Q1. Describe the graphs for QifFusimd

i) Diluted NH,OH and Hint- You need to focus on the
ii) haentrated NH,OH graph only. Use actual
figures from the graph and
Al. i) Diluted NH,OH - For the first 5 cm it took 0.6 s precisely state the effect of
for the litmus to change colour. -For the next 25
the independent variable (y
cm it took about 5.8 s for the strips to change
axis) on the dependent
colour. However, for the last 15 cm, it took about
variable (x axis).
4.6 s to change colour.
-
ii) Concentrated NH,OH For the first 5 cm it took
0.45 s for the litmus to change colour. For the next 2!? cm it took about 4.9 s for the strps to change
colour. However for the last 15 cm it took about 4.6 s to change colour.
 Q2. hplain the h at ,hap of tk graph.
Hint:- You need to focus on the graph
only. Give a reason for the A2. The concentration of the acid affkts diffusion rates (i-e.)
&ct of the changes in one the greater the incline of the gradient (the concentration)
variable on the other, using the fbster the rate ofdiffirsion. The lesser the incline ofthe
your previous knowledge. a gradient the slower the rate of diffusion. \

Check p q e 9 3 f o r an example on the other questions that can be asked on a graph.

Sharpening your MI

The following mini concept labs are given to help sharpen your A 4 skills.

I1. How does fertilizer affect earthworms in soil?

5tudents placed 100 earthworms on a balance and recorded their masses.

Data Analysis They also caIcuIated the average mass of one worm. 50 worms were placed
in treated soil and the other 50 in untreated soil. After one day, they
removed the worms and determined the average mass d o n e worm.

II T I
Soil
Conditions
Average Mass 1g
TABLE SHOWlNG A V E M E PIASS OF ONE WORM BEFORE
AND AFTER BEING PLACED IN TREATED AND UNTREATED
Treated

Untreated
 Interpret results based on existing knowledge of osmosis and
Inbr)ntl~~
observations.

i) During osmosis, water difiss across a selectively permeable membrane when one side has a higher
concentration ofa dissolved substance that cannot pass through the membrane.
il) In the treated soil, there was a decrease in mass of the worm but in the untreated soil there was an
increase in mass.
iii) The treated soil is hypertonic to the cells ofthe earthworm so water leaves the cells causing the reduction in
the mass of the worm.
iv) Users of fertilizers shouM be mindful of it5 effect on worms and the worms ability to aerate the soil.

12. How does liquid soop &kt the surface tension of water? 1
Students placed one drop of water on a piece of waxed paper. They observed
obse*aHen the drop +om the side and drew its shape. They dipped a toothpick into the
liquid soap and then touched the water drop while viewing from the side.

Q1. What wag the shape of the original water drop?

Al. Round.

Q2. itow did the shape ehange when oap war added to the Inflrpfhtlefl
watrt?
A2. The droplet became flatter

Q3. What do you think uucld thr ohan*?

A3. The soop bonded with the water and this cause the reduction in attraction ofthe water particles to itself.

Q4. What sonelu~ionern p a make about the fret of soap m 1& wrfau tendm of watet?
A4. Soap disrupts and weakens the surface tension of water droplets causing them to assume other shapes.
 1 3. How is the shape of a bird? wings related to its style of flight? I
TABLESHOWING WlNG MEASUREMENTSAND FLIGHTW S
OF 3 SPECIES OF BIRDS
~bsemtih

Species Wing Length I Wing Width Im Wing Am Im2 Weight IN Flight Traits
m

X 0.16 0.024 0.0041 0.7 Flies in wooded

areas

Y 2.9 0.213 0.44 24 Flies straight.

Carries load.

I 1 2.88 1 Om3' 1 1 1 Glides for long

distances.
I
.
Qt Calculate wing load C# eaoh bird.
Al. Wing Load W& Weight (N)
~ i n g ~ r (m?)
ea
Wing Load for Species X = 0.0110.0041= 24.59 Nlm
Wing Load for Species Y = 2410.44 = 54.55 Nlm' Analysis /
Wing Load for Species Z = 116/113= 102.65 N;/
Inhfprstatlan
Q2. Based on the infomatian given in the table, ommenf an what wing shapes wen best
whed C# each af flight?
142. A reduced wing size seems better for manoeuverability in congested areas. For larger birds, a small wing
loading works best when extra loads must be transported. Long wings seem best suitable for gliding across long
distances.

Q3. What aemplanes type$ sham these wing c h a p and flight traits?
A3. Fighter Planes - species X
Cargo Planes - species Y
Sail Planes - species Z
Q4. Hw ean the a m af an inrgularlv shaped bird wing be oaleulated?
A4. a) The outline d t h e wing span can be traced onto a graph sheet.
b) Multiply (the quares covered in the outline drown) by (the area d o n e square).
( Checklist for inalgis and Interpretation (i/l)- General -1
0 Are relationships, patterns and trends identified from data that is based on observations and
results?
Are accurate calculations made from observations and data?
Are logical inferences and predictions made from observationsldata?

2. Inte~fdahI

0 Are answered questioned based on resutsldata?

0 Is background knowledge, (ie) the theory of the experiment. used to interpret the results?
Is background knowledge used to fully explain the observationsldata?
0 Does conclusion /inference follow from data? Are they linked to the aim and hypothesis? Is the
control (if included) used to arrive at inferences from graphical data?
0 Are limitations discussed (ie) sources of error affecting data?
Are assumptions stated? Is the data evaluated?

I Sample Cheeklist for Analysis and Interpretation (A/\) - Physics 1-

0 Did you accurately read-of to appropriate number of significant figures?
u Was the correct unit for intercept used?
Did you deduce a quantity from intercept?
1, 1s it correct ?
2. Is the correct number of significant figures used?
3. 1s the'unit correct?

2. Slope / Gradient

Did you use a large triangle?

u Was the correct formula for gradient used?
Was an accurate read-off done?
Was the calculdon of gradient accurate?
 0 Was appropriate use of significant figures and units made?
D Did you deduce a quantity using gradient?
(a) Was the answer correct?
(b) Was the answer to the correct number of significant figures?
(c) Was the answer to the correct unit?

3. Calculations

0 Did you use the correct formula?

D Were correct substitutions made?
D Was the answer and unit correct?
D Was to correct number of significant Rgures used in the answer?

4. Conclusions

Did your conclusion follow from data 1 graph?

Was your conclusion justified from data / graph?
Did you identify sources of error 1 uncertainty in chosen method?

Additional Notes

=$?'
 he CXC Sciences for the skill of Planning and Designing (P&D) state that students should develop the ability
to:

0 develop hypotheses and devise meaw of carrying out investigations to test them.
0 pian experimental procedures and operations in appropriate sequence.
0 use controls where appropriate
0 execute the plan.
0 modit original plan or sequence of operations as a result of difficulties encountered in executing the
plan or obtaining unexpected results." CXC Chemistry Module 1.

Planning and Designing employ the scientific processes. Scientific methods are the common steps scientists
apply to gather information and answer questions or solve problems. As a science student you too can find
explanations for observations made. To arrive at an explanation, a hypothesis must be formed based on the
observation made. A hypothesis can be formulated from a number of sources. These include your experience, class
discussions, stimulus materials, observation of animal behaviour, advertisement claims, interesting phenomenon, and
wen misconceptions to name a few.
You can train your senses to recognize interesting scientific occurrences which can be tested. Your critical
thinking skills can be developed. This involves not just a simple recall of knowledge but goes a step further to an
application ofthat knowledge to solve problems presented.
The following important science processes are necessary to understand and obtain a good grasp of Pianning
and Designing.

1.OBSERVA~OW:- The use of all your senses along with instruments, in noting a particular event and the
definition of a problem. The problem stated as a question asks for an open ended
investigation. Moreover your perceptions of the observation are chosen and interpreted
and its importance is judged for enquiry.

A possible explanation for an observation made, which can be tested. The hypothesis
must be clearly stated and linked to the problemlobservation. It must be testable.
manageable, and sensible by means of predictions and investigations. A hypothesis must
deal with onb one variable or condition at a time. It should be noted that a hypothesis is
not appropriatk for novel measurement exercises.

An investigation in which one variable is altered to observe its effect on a specifk

process. Investigations fall into two categories:
i. The effect of experimental treatment on a variable ofa group.
ii. A comparisonlidentificotion of a variable of a group.
 An experiment set-up in duplicate in which a single factor is changed in one set-up but not
the other is a controlled experiment.

AIM:- A precise and clear statement about the reason for or object of an experiment. It must
be relevant to the problemlhypothesis.

APPARATUS:-- A list of all the scientific equipment used in conducting an experiment; Exam?le:
measuring instruments, tlasks, test tubes and crucibles.
MATERIALS:-- -
A list of substances exclusive of apparatus and reagents - that are used in conducting
an experiment. Example: storage organs, absorbent materials and anhydrous chemicals.
REAGENTS:-- A list of all aqueous chemical solutions, used in conducting an experiment. Examples: all
acids and bases.

METHOD/ A logical sequence of steps showing how the apparatus and materials will be used. It
PROCEDUREP should be written in the present tense with no essential step missing. The treatment of
all variables - manipulated, responding, controlled - should be mentioned.
The following should be noted. The duration of the investigation, number of trials and
treatment of results i.e. (1) Measurements 1observations taken; (2) Its display; (3) Its
interpretation

VARIABLE%-- A single factor that is changed in a controlled experiment. There are three types.
i. lndependenYM~~nlpulofed -
Vanable The variable that Is manipulated or changed in a
controlled way. The nature of the effect of altering this variable is examined.
ii. DependenVRe5pundng Vunbble- The variable that is being measured. It is any change
that results from manipulation of the independent variable.
iii. Confru//e#Con5fanf Vur/bble- These are all other variables apart from the manipulated
and responding variables that are kept constant throughout the experiment so that they
do not affect the outcome of the experiment.

&NTROU- The set-up of a11identical experiment in which all variables including the manipulated and
responding variables are kept constant. Any difference in the experimental results
between the control and the controlled experiment can be assumed to be as,a result of
the manipulated variable. The control therefore serves as a reference.

DATA:-- Quantitative or qualitative information gathered from your investigations. These must be
presented in an appropriate manner (see page 43.
10. PREDICTIOW:-- To foretell a possible outcomelconclusion on the basis of observations made, experience
and scientific reason. It must be correctly linked to a problemlhypothesis.

11. RESULTS:-- All resultsldata collected must be analysed and interpreted. They must be correctly
linked to the hypothesislproblem. You need to treatluse your results to support
Expected /maintained your hypothesis.
Unexpected results (i.e. results that do not support the hypothesis), should also be
reported. In cases like these either the hypothesis can be refined or a discovery was
made

12. LIMITATIOW:- A restrictive condition or variable which cannot be controlled and which can affect the
validity of the results. Limitations therefore introduce sources of error into the
experiment.

13. Assvnmon:- The supposition that something is true. A statement taken for granted without evidence.

Ideas for Investigations

-

Which brand of plastic wrap is most effective against preventing food from drying out?
What is the effect of sunlight on three different brands of dye?
Which (oftwo) paper towel brands is more water absorbent?
Compare the effectiveness of different brands of cleansing liquid.
Influence of age on pulse rate.
Compare the effectiveness of natural and artificial fertilizers.
Determine the density of aluminium using aluminium foil.
Effect of leaf size on the rate of photosynthesis.
How does leg length affect how far a frog can jump?
Compare the elastic limits (strength) oftwo materials. (eg. paper towels)
-
Steam is at a higher temperature than boiling water. Test Hypothesis.
Find the mass of a lump of Plasticine.
Is Vitamin C lost when food is cooked and 1or canned?
Do flowers produce insect repellants?
Is the resistance ofa wire related to its cross-sectional area?
"Bacteria are everywhere' - Test hypothesis.
 Test the effect of cola drink on teeth.
Which is the best tea stain remover (a) citric acid; (b) borax; (c) vinegar?
What type of beverage container conserves the most heat?
Determine the factors affecting distribution patterns of different and 1or identical animal species.
Is the gas from sol? drink carbon dioxide?
What is the efect of nicotine on fish behaviour?
-
Fishes prefer a moderate water temperature Test hypothesis.
/
Which is greater, the specifc heat capaciiy &(a) water or a (b) salt solution?
D o e light intensity affect photosynthesis?
Identifj the dissolved substances in water?
What is the effect of acid rain on organisms?
Is seed germination affected by water pollutants?
What is the best light colour for plant growth?
Which brand name oftable tennis balls give the highest bounce?
To determine the dciency of several inclined planes.
Determine the d e d of (a) oil; (b) water; (c) sand on friction. C

-
Which sample ofwater is hardlsol? (a) sea water; (b) rain water; (c) spring water; (d) river water?
What is the efficiency of three different kettle-fur removing solutions?
-
Which paint is more rust resistant enamel or acrylic?
Compare the burning rates of fabrics.
-
Which antacid is more effective Brand X or Brand Y?
Determine the effect of volume of water on seed germination.

Hypothesizing is an important process skill to plan and design experiments. A hypothesis is usually formulated from an
observed event. Observations are used to give a possible answer to a question or problem. Do not be frustrated by
not knowing how to create your hypothesis. You can formulate a simple hypothesis to test.
Here are some observations and corresponding hypothesis to stimulate and encourage you in your task.

OBSERVATION- Grass beneath a chain-link fence fails to grow where the fence travenes an
otherwise healthy lawn.
HYPOTHESIS- Zinc ions dissolved from the wire by the rain water, are poisonous to grass
plants.
 A gardener notices a greater number of earthworms in one area of his garden
thon in others.
Earthworm thrive in alkaline soils.

Brand X antacids tablets works more effectively than Brand Y antacids tablets.
Brand X antacids completely neutralizes the acid in the stomach (which causes
indigestion) than Brand Y.

Many foods are coloured to make them more attractive.

Colouhl foods contain organic d y ~ .

Dull black surfaces heats up more quickly thon bright shiny surfaces.
A dull black surface absorbs more heat than a bright shiny surface.

Cracks in the road tend to get bigger.

A joint or crack is a weak point.

It is easier to use an inclined plane to raise a heavy object than it is to lift It

directly off the ground.
The efficiency of an inclined plane depends o n ~ height
e ofthe plane.

Checklist for Plan and Design Ewperiments

-
HWOTHESIS Is your hypothesis clearly stated and linked to or based on observation3
Is it testable/sensible/manageable?
Does it deal with only one condition or variable at a time1 Is it a controlled
experiment?

AIM Is it relevant to the problem / hypothesis?

Are they listed and appropriate?

METHOD Are all steps written in a logical sequence using appropriate language and
present tense?
Is number of trials stated (if necessary) and duration of experiment?
Are precautions stated (ie) minimizing sources of error?
Is there a clear treatment of variables (ie) manipulated of independent, constant
or controlled, responding or dependent?
Is mention made of
I.How data can be displayed?
II.Type of data collected (ie) qualitative or quantitative?
1II.How data will be treated?
Is a control identified?

IHTERPRETATIOW Are they clearly stated and indicates how they support or do not support the
OF PREDICTED hypothais.
RESULTS How results will be used?
Is it written in the form "if .... Then"?
Is mention made of conditions which could not be controlled and could affect
results?

Are sources of error and assumptions stated?

Additional Notes

p\
r

A Diagnnnatie Representttiott of Plan and Design

Scientific Methods
begin with

Background knowledge1 Experiences

b ObservationsICasual questions

1 provokes a
Hypothesis 4
4

Experiment

I
\
affected
Data I Results
revises

T
Expected Unexpected
Assumptions Results

Hypothesis scientist
not supported experiment
and react

I
Conclusion
I
\ \
confirm after many tests
Publication of
theory
 A horticulturalist notices that insects are repelled by some flowers.

1. Insects are repelled by some but not all flowers.

2. Insects are repelled by all flowers.

To determine whether some flowers produce insect repellants or not (based on

Hypothesis 1).

Bunsen Burner, Tripod and Wire gauze. 3 covered petri dishes, 3 beakers, 3 test
tubes, filter paper, strainer

3 different species offlowers, 24 insects, alcohol

Obtain 3 different extracts (manipulated variable) by heating petals in

alcohol and leaving to set overnight.
Filter the extracts into three test tubes labelled A, B and C.
Soak additional halves of filter paper in plain alcohol and store in 3 plastic
bags labelled A. B and C.
Place filter paper (control) in one of the petri-dishes labelled A. Place
paper treated with a extract A in the other half of dish A.
Place filter paper (control) in one of tki petri-dishes labelled B. Place
paper treated with a extract A in the other half of dish 8.
Place filter paper (control) in one of the petri-dishes labelled C. Place
paper treated with a extract A in the other half of dish C.
Place 8 insects of the same species into the middle of each of the petri-
dishes. Place the 3 dishes in a dark drawer for 20 minutes (controlled
variable).
Remove petri-dishes from the drawer and count insect distribution
(responding variable) 1 (data collected) for each dish.
-
Repeat steps 4 8 for a total of3 trials.

1XPECTED RESULT5 AND If all insectsare found on the control filter paper in all ofthe dishes then hypothesis
JTERPRETATION. 1 is not supportedbut hypothesis 2 is supported.
If more insects are found on the control filter paper in one or two of the dishes and
not in the second and or third dish(es) then hypothesis 2 is supported and
hypothesis (1) is not supported.
LIMITATIONS/SOURCES OF Concentration and chemical nature of flower extract may be affected by
ERROR1ASSUMPTIONS extraction.
Extraction does not damage insect repelling properties.

Q U E S T I0 N S F0R 41, Why might a flower attract a specific insect and repel others?
ANSWERING 42. Could your findings be used to make an insecticide?
43. What advantage might organic repellants have over artificial repellants?
P
3
OBSERVATION The vitamin C in West Indian Cherry is dfected when it is cooked.

=
w

-
m
3
HYPOTHESIS Vitamin C content is affected by heat.

rn AIM To plan and design an experiment to investigate the effect of heat on the vitamin C
3 content of vitamin C tablets.
n
.
0
to
Z. APPARATUS Bunsen Burner, tripod and wire gauze, 3 conical flasks, 2 beakers, funnel, measuring
a cylinder, burette, retort stand, dropper.
3
MATERIALS Starch, vitamin C solution, 0.03M iodine.
=
w
to
1
.
3
to
METHOD Divide the solution ofvitamin C into 2 equal portions.
3
rC
Label one test tube A and the other 0. Place the first portion ofthe vitamin C
solution in test tube A and the second portion in test tube B.
3
% Using the funne!, fill the burette to the zero mark with the iodine solution.
C,
=r Use a measuring cyllnder to measure 20 cm3 of the vitamin C solution from
to
beaker A into a conical flask. Add 6 drops of starch to the flask.
3
Titrate until a blue-black colour is obtained. Note the amount of iodine used.
z
-0

-
Repeat steps 3 5 twice.
2
-
Heat test tube B with the solution ofvitamin C for 5 1 0 minutes.
-
Repeat steps 3 5 thrice.
Compare results noted.

DATA DISPLAY TABLE SHOWING W U L T S OF TITRATION VlTAMlN C SOLUTION IN TE!3T TUBE A

h
I
I
Rough 1 I 2
Final Volume of lodine/ cm'

Initial Volume of Iodine I c$

Volume of Iodine used / cm3

Average Volume of Iodine used 1; c

 TABLE SHOWING RESULTS OF TITWTING VlTAMlN C SOLUTION IN TEST TUBE B

Final Volume of lodinel cm3

Initial Volume of Iodine 1cm3

I Volume of Iodine used Icm3 I I I I

( Average Volume of Iodine used / cm3 I I I
TREATMENT OF 1. Calculate the number of moles in the volume of solution A.
RESULTS 2. Calculate the concentration ofvitamin C in solution A.
3. Calculate the number of moles in the volume of solution 0.
4. Calculate the concentration ofvitamin C in solution 5.

E X P E C T E D If the concentration for both vitamin C solutions differ, then the data collected
RESULTS supports the hypothesis. If the concentration for both vitamin C solutions are equal,
then the data collected does not support the hypothesis.

LIMITATIONS /: Determining the exact concentration ofvitamin C .

SOURCES OF
ERROR/
ASSUMPTIONS Vitamin C is not affected by shaking.
Starch is an efficient indicator for this experiment.
AIM To plan and design an experiment to determine the density o f a piece of cork.

APPARATUS AND Plece of cork, dlsplacement can, 100 g mass, 100 mL beaker, measuring cylinder,
triple beam balance, string.

Displacement -- Displacement --
can can

Water --
Strlng Beaker

100 g mass -- 2: displaced by

100 g mass
Cork L'
Water displaced by
I00 g mass and cork

DAGRAMCF APPARATLS USED TO DETERMINE DENSITY

METHOD 1.Fill displacement can and 1eave.t~stand until all the exce5s woter drips 8.
2.Set up apparatus as shown in the diagram.
3.Gently lower the 1 0 0 g mass into the displacement can and allow the woter
displaced to be collected in the beoker. Allow the apparatus to stand until the
dripping stops.
4.Pour the water from the beaker into the measuring cylinder and record the volume
of water displaced.
5.Using o piece o f string, tie the 1 0 0 g mass to the cork and repeat steps 1 - 4.
6.Repeat steps 13 twice.

DATA COLLECTED Mass /g 100 g

Mass o f cork l g -
Volume ufcorkl cm3 = Volume of cork and 100 g mass -
Volume of 1 0 0 . g mass

TREATMENT OF DAT, Density of cork Mass of cork (g)l Volume of cork (cm' )

LIMITATIONS 1 Inherent error in measuring cylinder.

PRECAUTIONS1 Measuring cylinder read at eye level to avoid parallax error.
ASSUMPTIONS Mass o f the string is negligible.
OBSERVATION Some plastic wraps are better able to prevent food from drying out than others.

HYPOTHESIS Plastic wrap can prevent food from drying out.

To investigate whether Brand A better keeps food from drying out than Brand B and
Brand C.

APPARATUS Rubber bands, scale, measuring cylinder.

MATERIALS 3 different brands of plastic wrap. paper towel panels from the same roll.

Choose 3 different brands of plastic wrap (manipulated variable). Label the

first brand A. Label the second brand 0. Label the third brand C.
Soak one poper towel panel with 15 cm3 of water (controlled variable) an1
place on sample of brand A. wrap the towel and plastic tightly together
Squeeze the air out and tightly tie ends together with a rubber ban1
(controlled variable).
Repeat step 2 using brand 0.
Repeat step 2 using brand C.
Soak a fourth poper towel panel in 15 cm3 of water but do not wrap it i
plastic wrap (control).
Weigh each of the packets (responding variable) and place in a dark area a
room temperature overnight.
Weigh each packet again.
-
Repeat steps 2 7 twice for a total of3 5ets of readings.

31SPlAY OF RESULTS
TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE CHANGE IN W S OF PAPER TOWEL PANELS

Paper Tawel Panels placed on

Mass / g
Brand A Brand B Brand C No Brand

Before placement in dark

Average

After removal from dark

Average
LIMITATIONS/ Room temperature variations.
SOURCES OF ERROR1 Inherent errors in measuring cylinder and scale and in taking the readings.
ASSUMPTIONS Paper towel is of a consistent texture and the samples of plastic wrap are each of a
consistent plasticity.

I N T E R P R ETATI 0 N / If Brand A weighs more than Brand B and Brand C then Brand A plastic wrap
EXPECTED RESULTS prevents food from drying out better than the two other brands of plastic wrap.
I WYmaESI$ I A possible explanation of an observation which can be tested.

A precise and clear statement about the reason for or object of an experiment.
i.e. What were you attempting to do or to find out? What problem were you trying to
solve? What hypothesis were you testing? Example:- To find the melting point of ...;
To investigate the relationship behueen..; To separate salt from ..; To determine the
centre of gravity of ..; To compare the bounce of ..; What effect does ..; To measure
the rate of ..;

1APPARATUS I A list of all the scientific equipment used in conducting an experiment. Example:
measuring instruments, flasks, test tubes and crucibles.

IMATERIAW I A list of substances - exclusive of apparatus and reagents- that are used to conduci
an investigationlexperiment. Example: Storage organs and absorbent materials.

A list of all aqueous chemical solutions used in conducting an experiment. Example: Al

acids and bases.

A simple two-dimensional illustration ofthe apparatus layout as used to conduct the

experiment. It is not a picture. (See Guidelines for Drawings on paae38and
Checklist for Diagrams on p o a e 5 4

I I METHOD OR
PROCEDURE
A brief description ofwhat you did. i.e. How you used the apparatus and materials anc
reagents. It should be concise and precise. It should be reported in the passive voice
and in point form, in the order in which each step was carried out.

I
These may be qualitative or quantitative and should be presented clearly and
precisely in appropriate forms such as graphs, tables diagrams, and prose. OeSERVATlOWS/
Averages should be calculated from repeated measurements (see p q e a . RESULTS/
READIWGS
I CALCUUTIOIS I Relevant calculations made from the results you obtained. Balanced ionic equations
and molecular equations con be noted here. (Refer to Appendix page A70 and
AB.

This should include the explanation of results obtained, based on background

knowledge. Here data is summarized. Patterns, trends and relationships are
accurately identified and inferences and predictions are made all based on the AIALYSIS OF
results. In addition, data is evaluated and sources of errors are stated. Be DATA / AIISWERS
careful not to repeat the results here, rather you should attempt to relate 'TO QUESTIOIS /
variables to the results obtained. Questions are answered based on
IWTERPRETATIOW
observations, results and predictions. Use existing concepts to explain and
interpret new observations. This section gives meaning to the results.

I I
COWClUSl0N
This should be included if there is a clear cut verification of the stated aim. No
sweeping generalized statements should be made. It should be specific to the
experiment done. It is a brief closing statement about the aim in light of the
results; It concludes the experiment.

Drawing labs
These labs are formatted differently from the other labs.

1. AIM
2. APPARAtl)s (If applicable)
3. MATERIALS
4. PROCEDURE (If applicable)
5. DRAWING
6. RESULTS (If applicable)
The Possive Form ofthe verb is just onother way
to describe o verb whose subject does not form Active Voice
the oction. The oction is done on it. That is, the The student broke the beoker.
subject is said to be passive. i.e., The student (subject) does the action of breaking.

The Passive Past Tense ofthe verb is used for

Passhe Voice the writing up of experiments becouse it focuses
The beaker was broken by the student. on the process rother than on the "I" or 'We"
i.e.,The breaking wos done to the beoker (subject). carrying out the process. This is necessary to
maintain the objectivity that science demands.

Verb Formation
i

resent Tense "to be" + Past Participle is grown

Past Tense "to ben + Post Participle was poured

Perfect Tense % be" + Post Participle hos been done

Active Voice Passive Voice

1. Pour the water into the beaker. I 1. The water wos poured into the beaker. I
2.1 held the boiling tube over the Buncien burner. 1 2. The boiling tube was held over the Bunsen burner. I
--

3. We measured and recorded the c u r r e d 3. The current was meosured and recorded.
4. We decolorized the leaf using ethonol. 4. The leaf was decolourized using ethanol.
A variable is any property or characteristic which can take one of a range of values. Variables can be clossified as
follows:

LLkl (Dependent ot Independent)

Variables may be independent or dependent. The varioble controlled by the experimenter is the independent or
manipulated variable (e.g. time and temperature) while the variable being measured is the dependent or responding
variable (e.g. changes in moss, height, etc.) The dependent variable depends on or responds to the independent
variable.

Quantitative Variables

Quantitative variables ore of two types.

1. Continuous variables are normally measured against a numerical scale (eg) length, height, time, current,
temperature, area, volume, mass, pressure, energy etc.
- The number of significant figures in the meosurement must be directly related to the accuracy of the
measuring instrument.
2. Discontinuous (discrete) variables such as the number ofstudents in a class are obtained by counting and as a
result the data must be integers or whole numbers.

Qualitative Variables

These are descriptive, non-numerical attributes which can not be measured by simple means (eg) colour, smell, taste,
humidity, viability (i.e. dead or alive), shape (i.e. oral, flat, elongated etc.), form or chemicol composition of a
substance or an organism.
 Group I
1. The effect of four different soils on the root length of tomato seedlings
2. The effect of concentrotion I on the rate of reaction of
3. The effect of the periodic time I varies with length on the pendulum I

All invedigations should be done in a carefully controlled manner. A controlled experiment is one in which all factors
are the SAME except the one being tested. An experimental group and a control group is needed.
Use of controls and using only one variable factor at a time are common features of scientific investigations because
they reduce uncertainty . The consequence of controlling variables ensures that the treatment, and the treatment
alone, causes the observed results.
In the experiment, to find out if a bright shiny surface heats up more quickly compared than a dull one, controls ore
needed.
Two cans, one with a bright shiny surface and the other with a dull black surface of the same size and shape, with the
same mass of cold water, starting ot the same temperature, placed the same distance from the same heat source,
with the temperatures taken at the same time must be used.
Biology experiments in general, should be reported in the format given below.

1. Aim
2. Apparatus/Material5Reagents
3. Method or Procedure
4. Diagram
5. Results and Observations
6. Analysis of Datallnterpretotionl Answers to uuemons

lrrespecnve or me rormm, all reporrs snoula ae neaTly ana sysTemamiy presented w m correct
grammatical constructions and spelling.
 To determine whether light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis.

APPARATUS1 Beakers, sprigs of Elodea (a pond weed), bench lamps, measuring cylinders,
MATERLALS distilled water, 0.3% sodium hydrogen carbonate solution (NaHCO,), plasticine,
balance, metre rule, stop watch, absorbent tissue, two test tubes.

,Bubbles

Light source
Pondweed ----
'lasticine weight - Water with extra
carbon dioxide

DMRAM SHOWNG BUBBLES BEING PRODUCED BY ELODEA AT VARIOUS DISTANCE FROM A LIGHT SOURCE

METHOD Two sprigs of Elodea (each about 8 cm long) of the same mass were
weighed. Each was placed in a test tube that contained 80 cm3 of0.3%
NaHCO,.
The test tubes were placed in a large beaker of water for a duration of 5
minutes as the sprig5 were left to acclimatize.
The control sprig was placed at a fixed distance of40 cm from the bench
lamp. After 5 minutes the bubbles released in one minute were counted and
noted. The bubbles released in a minute were counted a second time and
noted.
The experimental sprig was placed at an initial distance of 65 cm from the
bench lamp. A period of5 minutes was allowed to elapse, then the bubbles
released in one minute were counted. The bubbles released in a minute
were counted a second time and noted.
The experimental sprig was then moved 1 0 cm closer to the bench lamp and
after 5 minutes the bubbles released in one minute were counted. The
bubbles released in a minute were counted a second time and noted.
Step 5 was repeated until the experimental spring was at a distance of
5 cm from the bench lamp.
The bubble counts recorded for the control sprig and the experimental sprig
were compared and the graph of bubbles released / minute against distance
 from light source was plotted.

TABLE SHOWING BUBBLES PRODUCED BY ELODEA

FYPERIMENTAL SPRIG
RESULTS
Distance from Bubbles released 1 min I
Light 1cm
Count 1 I Count 2 I Mean I

10.0

ANSWERS TO Q1- What gas are the bubbles rich in?

QUESTIONS Al- Oxygen

42- 6im a simple test tor this gas.

A2- A glowing splint placed at the mouth ofthe test tube will rekindle in the
presence of oxygen.

Q3- Explain the tdlouing precautions

(i)The test tubes with the Elodea sprigs were placed in water.
(ii)lle addition ofNaHC03 to the test tubes.
A3- (ijThe water was used to maintain a constant environmental temperature
for the sprig since the lamps are also a source of heat.
(ii) NaHCO, was added to the test tubes to provide a source of carbon
dioxide (GO,) for continuous photosynthesis and to increase the rate at
which bubbles were given off.
 Q4- What was the rats of bubbling when the plant was 2 5 am
(mn the plant?
A4 15 bubbles per minute.

Q5- H a ht was the plant (mn the light swtce, when the
bubbling rats was 3 4 bubbles pet minute?
- 13 cm.

Q6- (I)Dewdbe the shape of thh gmph and

(11) Explain vvhy it Is shaped this m y b
A6- (i) tk the distance of'rhe plant from the light is reduced from 65 cm to
60 cm, no bubbles are produced, However, as the distance is further
reduced from 60 cm to 1 0 cm, the number of bubbles produced per
minute increased from 0 to 40. In addition, even though the distance was
reduced from 1 0 cm to 5 cm there was no further increase in bubbles.
(ii) The graph is shaped this way because, light intensity is a limiting
factor in photosynthesis. The greater the light intewity, (the closer the
light is to the Elodea), the higher the rate of photosynthesis. This is
demonstrated by the increase in the production of bubbles per minute.
However, there comes a point where a further increase in light intensity
does not affect the rate of photosynthesis.

Q7- What fit would sreen lisht have n the rate of

photoqnthesis?
A7- Green light will decrease the rate of photosynthesis since chlorophyll
mostly traps red light and blue light from a white light source.

Q8- Give one urn of lights in an aquarkn.

A8- The light facilitates continuous production of oxygen by the aquatic plants
for respiration in the fishes and other living organisms In the aquarium.

CoNCLUS1ON Based on the results obtained, the rate of photosynthesis indicuted by the bubble
count is inversely affected by the distance ofthe sprig from the light source. The
shorter the distance from the light source, the faster the rate of release of
bubbleslrate ofphotosynthesis. The longer the distance from the light source, the
slower the rate of release of bubbleslrate of photosynthesis.
 \

A 4 To investigate the effect of exercise on breathing rate.

APPARATUS Stop watch

METHOD A student was made to sit quietly for 2 minutes to ensure complete
reladon.
The number of breaths taken for a minute was recorded.
step two was repeated every other minute until o total offour counts were
completed.
The studentwas then made to do some vigorous exercise by stepping up and
down on a chair br 2 minutes.
Immediately following, the number of breaths taken for 'a minute was
recorded.
Step 5 was repeated every other minute until the breathing rate returned
to the level recorded prior to exercising.
A graph of the number of Breaths-per Minute against Time Elapsed was
plotted.

RESULTS TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF BREATHS TAKEN

BEFOREAND AFTER EXERCISING

BEFORE EXERCISE I AFTER EXERCISE I

7Time Elapsed / Breath Count / Time Elapsed /
min

1
Breath Count l
min

47

3 34
5 28

ANSWERS TO
QUESTIONS Ql- What does ratb d bnathing indicate?
Al- Rate of breathing indicates the rate at which omen diffuses into cells
during respiration.

Q2- What observationswen nshd about breathingrab dudng

and after emetcise?
A2- P h y h i exercise causes an increase in the rate and depth of breathing.
AXIS: 2 em = lmln
 The rate of breathing remained higher than normal for a while after exercising.
However, the breathing rate eventually returned to normal -the rate noted before
exercicing.

Q3- Account bt the observations of breathing rate recorded

befbm, during and after exercising.
A3- Breathing rate increases to allow more oxygen to be available to cells, for
the increase in energy demand. Additionally, the diaphragm and intercostal
musclesare made to work harder to enhance the breathing mechanism. The
extra energy needed by the muscles during physical exercise, was supplied
by anaerobic respiration in the tissue cells. A s a result, there was muscle
fatigue and a build up of lactic acid. The lactic acid needed to be broken
down by combining it with oxygen to repay the oxygen debt, hence the
increased rate of breathing (until the debt is paid). Then the breathing rate
returns to what it was before the exercise was done.

Q4- Why were several counts made?

A4- To increase the accuracy of the results.

QS- What was the average breathing rate at rest?

A5- The average breathing rate at rest was 22 breaths per minute.

Q6- Hovv may breathing rate ehanges b e f o and

~ after exercise
bt Others compare?
A6- Active / fit students may have a lower breath count before exercise and
they will take less time to normalise after exercise because they repay
their oxygen debt faster. However, less active 1fit students may have a
higher breath count before exercise and they will take more time to
normalise after exercise because they repay their oxygen debt in a longer
time.

COWJSlON Physical exercise causes an increase in the depth and rate of breathing. However.
after exercise, breathing rate eventually returns to normal.

60 To p p 2 t 2 k another experiment on Respiration.

A4 To investigate the effect ofdifferent concentrationsofsucrose solution on uncooked
potato tissue.

APPARATUS Cork borer, knife, four labelled petri dishes with covers, uncooked potato, metre
rule.
MATERIALS 200 cm3 of three different concentrations of sucrose solution labelled A, B and
C, distilled water.

METHOD 1) Eight cytinders of potato tissue were punched with a cork borer from an
uncooked potato. They were each cut to 5 cm.
2) Four petri dished were labelled A. 8, C and D. To petri dish A was added
sucrose solution A. To petri dish B was added sucrose solution 8. To
petri dish C was added sucrose solution C. To petri dish D was added
200 cm3 of distilled water.
3) The eight cylinders were washed in running water and then two cylinders
each were completely immersed in the solutions in the petri dishes.
4) The petri dishes were covered and left undisturbed for an hour.
5) The cylinders were withdrawn dried gently and each was re-measured to
detect length change. The texture was also noted.

RESULTS TABLE SHOWING CHANGES IN LENGTH OF TUCTURE OF POTATO CYLINDER5

BEFORE IMMEEION IN DIFFERENT SOLUTIONS

I BEFORE IMMERSION I
 TABLE SHOWlNG CHANGES IN LENGTH OF TEXTURE OF POTATO CYLINDERS
AFTER IMMEWON IN DIFFERENT SOLUTIONS

I AFTER IMMERSION I
[ Cylinders 1
48 49 53 53
DlSH C I DlSH D 1

I Texture of
Cylinders
/ flaccid I turgid turgid turgid

ANSWERS TO Qt- Why mr k.qffndem u d pw ash n t h than me?

QUE5TIONS Al- To improve the accuracy of results. Similar results should be displayed
by bath cylinders in each dish.

QZ-- Why Is tissue h m a eodrrd potato tw?usrd In thle

ewpdment?
A2- Heat destroys cells which are denatured in the cooking process. The cell
membrane then turns from being selectivelyto fully permeable, which u~ould
ddeot the purpose ofthe experiment.

43- ma# mabh ran be d m s b a

h mmm
dlstkmt is Ctshss B, W and C?
A3- Sucrose solution A is more corcentratecl than the potato cell solution
which is hypertonic to the sucrose solufion. Sucrose solution 8 is less
concentrated thon the potato cell solution which is hypotonic to the sucrose
solution. Sucrose dution C is equal in concentrationto that ofthe potato
cell solution which is isotonic to the sucrose solution.

04.1 F m fhs a ~ d a e d d rsrralb, M n e sern~ta

A4- Osmosis is the mwement of water only, through a selectively permeable
membrane from a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated
solution.
 Erpbin why haw of a wcumber beemes soft H lrif
lying on the kitehen table for a (n days but beenes
turgid if its eut end is plaeed in dirHlled water for the
same duration of time?
A5- Water is lost by transpiration (evaporation) to the environment and cells
become flaccid when the cucumber is left Igng on the table. However when
the cut surface is immersed in the distilled water a concentrated gradlent
is established which causes the flow ofwater into the cucumber.

CONCLUSION Osmosis occurs in the living potato tissue. Movement of water in and out ofthe
potato cells depended on the concentrations of solutions in which the potato cells
were immersed. Textural changes in the potato tissue accompanied osmosis.
 bplain why half of a auaumber beaomes MA if I&
lying m the kitahen table for a few days but betomes
turgid if its cut end is placed in distilled water for the
same duratim of time?
- Water is lost by transpiration (evaporation) to the environment and cells
become flaccid when the cucumber is left Iyng on the table. However when
the cut sorfoce is immersed in the distilled water a concentrated gradient
is established which causes the flow ofwater into the cucumber.

COUJSlON Osmosis occurs in the living potato tissue. Movement of water in and out of the
potato cell5 depended on the concentrations of solutions in which the potato cells
were immersed. Textural changes in the potato tissue accompanied osmosis.
L2 To find out what substances are present in various foods.

PPAWTUS Bunsen burner, boiling tubes, boiling tube holder, test tube rack, mortar and pestle,
3
knife, 10 cm measuring cylinder, spatula, gauze, tripod, beaker, glass rod, dropper,
syringe,
ATERIALS Absorbent.paper, red beans, potato, West Indian cherries, onion, bread, apple juice,
mauby solution, oil, sugar cane juice, orange juice, milk. water,
3GENTS Benedicts solution, iodine solution, hydrochloric acid (HCI), sodium hydrogen carbonate
NaHCO,), ethanol, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), copper sulphate (CuSOJ. DCPIP.

ESULTS
TABLE SHOWING TESTING FOR STARCh

(5 cm3) Food Substance in

Test Observation Inference
Test tube

Starch Solution Three drops of iodine Mixture turned blue- Starch present.
(standard) were added. black.
- - --

Crushed Potato Solution Three drops of iodine Mixture turned blue- Starch present
were added. black.

Crushed Bread Solution Three drops of iodine Mixture turned blue- Starch present
were added. black.

Orange Juice
were added. 1
Three drops of iodine Mixture remained
orange in colour.
No Starch present.

TABLE SHOWING TESTING FOR SIMPLE OR REDUCING SUGAR

(5 cm3) F O O ~ I

Substance in Test
tube
Test Observation
I Inference

Glucose Solution Three drops of Benedicts Mixture turned blue-green, S i mp l e S ug a r

(standard) solution were added. The then yellow and finally an present.
mixture was heated until it orange-brick red precipitate.
boiled.
I Substance in Test
tube
Test Obxrvation
I Inference

1crushed O n i o n Three drops Of Benedicts Mixture turned blue-green, Simple Sugar

Solution solution were added. The then yellow and finally an present.
mixture was heated until it orange-brick red precipitate.
boiled.

Orange Juice Three drops of Benedicts Mixture turned blue-green, S i m p l e Sugar

glution were added. The then yellow and finally an prexnt.
mixture was heated until it orange-brick red precipitate.
boiled.

Three drops of Benedicts Mixture turned blue-green, No Simple Sugar

solution were added. The then yellow and finally an present.
mixture was heated until it orange-brick red precipitate.
boiled:

TABLE SHOWING TESTING FOI WEIN

(5 d)Food
Test Obxrvation Inference
Substance in Test tube
~ -

Egg Albumin Solution Three drops of NaOH and three Mixture slowly turned Protein present.
(standard) drops of CuSO, were odded. purple.
The mixture was shaken
together.

Red Bean 5olution Three drops of NaOH and three Mixture slowly turned Protein present.
drops of CuS0, were added. purple.
The mixture was shaken
'

togelher

CrushedPotato Solution Three drops of NaOH and three Mixture remained blue in N o P r o t e i n
drops of CuSO, were added. colour. present.
The mixture was shaken
together.
 (5 cm3) Food
Substonce in Test tube
Test Observation II Idirence

Mllk Solution Three drops ofNa0I-l and three

drop of CuSO, were odded. purple.
The mixture was shaken

TPBLE SHOWlNG WTING FOR FATS AND UFlDS

Test Observation lrrference

in Test tube

Corn Oil (standard) 5cm30fethanoland5cn3 A cloudy white Fat present.

test tube and vigorously

shaken.
I
of cold water were odded to suspension.

Peanut Solution 5cn3ofethanoland5c~ A cloudy white Fat prewt.

ofcold water were added to suspension.
test tube and vigorously
shaken.

Melted Margarine 5cm30fethanoland5cm3 A cloudy white Fat present.

of cold water were added to suspension.
test tube and vigorously
shaken.

Orange Julce 5 cm3 of ethanol and 5 cm3 No cloudy white No Fat present.
of cold water were added to suspension.
test tube and -vigorously
shaken.

Olive Oil Placed on absorbent paper 1 Translucent grease Fat present

 TABLE SHOWING m T I N G FOR C O M m OR NON-REDUCING S U G M

(5 cm3) F W ~
Substance in Test Test Observation Inference
tube

(Analar) Sucrose (i)Three drops of Benedicts (i) Mixture remained

Solution (standard) solution were added and blue in colour.
heated to boiling.
an'
(ii)1 dilute HCI was odded
and boiled for one minute. This
Complex Sugar present.
mixture was carefully
neutralizedwith NaHCO, until (iii) Mixture turned
fining stopped. blue-green yellow and
(iii) Three drops of Benedicts finally orange-brick red
were odded and boiled. precipitate.

Sugar Cane Juice Same as above Same as abwe Same as above

Crushed Potato Same as abwe Same as abwe Same as above

Solution

Orange Juice i)Three drops of Benedids Mixture turned blue- Simple sugar present and
solution were added and green yellow and finally complex sugar absent
heated to boiling. orange-brick red therefore there Is no need
precipitate. to do further testing.

(5 c?) Food
Substance in Test Observation . Inference
Syringe
-- -- pp~

0.1% k o r b l c hiA2 cm3 DCPIP solution was added Blue colour of-dye Vitamin C present.
Solution to a test tube. The acid was (DCPIP) vanished to
(standard) carefully odded a drop at a time, leave a colourlesg
to the test tube and gently solution.
stirred. k i d was odded until the
blue colourjust disappeared. The
volume of acid used was noted.
 (5 c d Food
Substance in Test Observation Inference
Syringe
West Indian Cherry 2 cm3 DCPIP, solution was Blue colour of dye Vitamin C present.
Solution , added to a test tube. The acid (DCPIP) vanished to
was carefully added a drop at a leave a colourless
time, to the test tube and gently solution.
stirred. Acid was added until the
blue colourjust disappeared. The
volume of acid used was noted.

2 cm3 DCPIP solution was Blue colour of dye' Vitamin C present.

added to a test tube. The acid (DCPIP) vanished to
was carefully added a drop a t a leave a colourless
time, to the test tube and gently solution.
stirred. Acid was added until the
blue colourjust disappeared. The
volume of acid used was noted.

Mauby Solution 2 cm3 DCPIP solution was Remained brown in No Vitamin C

added to a test tube. The acid colour present.
was carefully added a drop at a
time, to the test tube and gently
stirred. Acid was added until the
blue colourjust disappeared. The
volume of acid used was noted.

It should be noted that iodine instead of DCPlP can be titrated against a named fruit juice to determine its
vitamin C content.
A4 To observe the effect oftemperature on the rate ofan enzyme controlled reaction.

MATERNLS Graph page, drawing instruments

METHOD A graph was drawn from the data given. Analysis of the data was then done.

RESULTS TABLE SHOWING RATE OF ENZYME ACTION ON A SUBSTANCE

UNDER DIFFERENT TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS

Time taken for

Temperature I
Reaction to occur/
OC
min

0
5

ANSWERS TO Ql- At what tnnperatcn. (the optimal temperature) did

QUESTION5 the reaction take plaae in the shortest possible time.
 Al- 35'~

Q2- Deseribe the pattern of this graph.

A2- Temperature is inversely proportional to enzymic reaction until the optimum
temperature is reached. Afier this, a direct relationship betweenthese two
variables occur. This is rdlected in the "V'shaped pattern ofthe graph. As
the temperature increased from 5 ' ~to 3 5 ' ~(which was the optimum
temperature) the time taken for the enzyme to react with the substrate
decreased from 13 minut& to 2 minutes. After the optimum temperature
was reached, as the temperature further increased kom 3 5 ' ~to 6 0 ' ~
the time taken for the enzymic reaction increased from 2 minutes to 13
minutes.

Q3- &plain these results fully.

A3- Heat increases molecular motion in the enzyme and the substrate
increasing their frequency of collision and the rate ofenzymic reaction. At
the optimum temperature the frequency of molecular collision is at its
maximum and so too is the rate of enzymic reactivity. As the temperature
increase beyond the optimum temperature the molecular structure of the
enzyme is destroyed (denatured) therefore the frequency of molecular
collision decreases and so too the rate of enzymic activity.

Q4- State two h c t m (other than tempwtura) that

afPeats the way enzymes w d .
144- Substrate concentration and pH.

Q5- l n optimum temperature fot another enzyme was found

to be 60%. Using this additional data along with the
previous data given, what conelusion can be dmwn aewt
the optimum temperatuns of enzyme aonhdled
nactians?
A5- Optimum temperature for different enzymes can vary. Their denaturation
points are specific to the enzyme in various organisms.

CoNCLUS'oN increase in temperature increased this enzyme reaction rate to its optimum point
of 35'~. The subsequent increase in temperature decreased the rate of this
enzyme reaction.

-107-
60 To p ~ #213k another ezperiment on Enzyme lalion.
To investigate the percentage ofwater loss from two species ofplants.

Graph page, drawing instruments

A Graph was drawn from the data given. Analysis ofthe data was then done.

TMLE SHOWING mRCENTAGE OF WATER LOSS OF MASS

FROM TWO SPECIE OF M S OVER A SIX AND A HALF HOUR ERlOD

I I LOSS of mass% I mm-' I

Time 1 h
species A species B

Q1- (i)6im the name of the process investigated

(ii)Name the speifie site o# water loss h these
plants.
A1- (i) Transpiration (ii) Leaves

Q2- State three precautionsthat should be taken in carrying-

wt this ezpriment.
A2- (i) Leaves must be picked immediately before experiment is done.
(ii) Several leaf samples from each species should be used.
 GRAPH SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE WATER LOSS OF MASS
FROM TWO PLANT SPECIES OVER A SIX AND A HALF HOUR PERIOD
 Q3- D e ~ r i b ehaw you would measure water loss hn these
leaves,
A3- Unblemished leoves ofsimilar sizes from well watered plants ofeach ofthe
two species should be chosen. Each leaf should be weighed at pre-
determined intervals. The average loss ofwater from each species should
be calculated.

Q4- Suggttst why the p e m t g r lms ef mass tar both spdes

was quick tar the first half-hour.
A4- For the first half-hour while the stoma was opened, water was rapidly lost
from the air spaces in the spongy mesophyll by diffusion and from the cell
walls ofthe spongy mesophyll by evaporation.

QS-Deseribe the paitem efwater loss hn both plant speaies.

P5- For species A - Within the first three hours there was an 11% water loss
but from 3 hours-6.5 hours there was a 3%water loss.
For species 0 - Within the first half hour there was a 12%water loss but
from half hour to 6.5 hours there was a 16% water loss.
There was a faster rate ofwater loss from species B than from species A.

46- Explain the shape ef the graph.

A6- Over the 6.5 hour period the water loss from the leaves increased until
the leaves internally and structurally adapted to compensate for the water
loss by stomata1 closure.

Q7 --State some possible stwtural adaptationsoteach species.

A7- For species A - Leaves have thick cuticles and sunken stomata in hairy
epidermis with effectively a reduced surface area.
-
For species B Leaves have a thin cuticle with flatlun-sunken stomata in
a hairless epidermis with efedively an increased surface area.

Q8-- State the aonditions that affect transpiration rate.

A8- Temperature, humidity, air movement an

CONCLUSION Based on the results, species B had twice the % water loss (28%)than species
A (14%).
A4 To investigate the sensitivity of invertebrates to presence /absence of three
different conditions -
1.light 2. moisture 3. chemical
APPARATU5
Three petri dishes with covers

MATERIALS
Eighteen invertebrates (woodlice or mole cricket), paper towel, black paper,, tape,
scissors, water, sawdust, pesticide.

METHOD
The petri dishes were labelled A; B and C.
Petri dish A was lined with paper towel. Three drops of chemical (a dilute
solution of pesticide) were added to one side of the towel and the other side
was left without pesticide. The dish was then covered.
Halfofpetri dish B was covered with black paper while the other side was left
uncovered.
The base of petri dish C was covered with dry saw dust. Half was then
dampened with water while the other was left dry. The dish was left
uncovered.
Six invertebrates were placed into the centre ofeach petri dish and given one
minute to become accustomed to their new environment before testing. Each
dish was covered.
After ten minutes each petri dish was uncovered and exomined and the
invertebrate distribution was noted and counted.
Steps 5-6 were repeated two more times and recorded the averages were
calculated.
DIAGRAM , Partition
Invertebrate

,
\,
" \

t
i
,
-
,
7, Petri dish
and cover

Towelled side
Towelled side -. with drops of pesticide
without drops of pesticide - Black cover
,

Transparent- , I Y.
side I 1 /"
I ?

,
-.
Dry __J

i--Damp
- sawdust
sawdust
DIAGRAM
SHOWING THE RESPONSE OF INVERTEBRATE5 TO THREE C O N D l m
-111-
RESULTS TABLE SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTIONOF INVEREBR4TE-SIN THREE CONDITIONS

I I Distribution of the six Invertebrates I

~ E T RDISH
I A FETRIDISHB PETRI DISHc
T w
CHEMICAL MGISTUE LIGHT

AB5EM PRE5EM ABKNT PRESENT ABSENT FTE3ENT

1 6 0 0 6 6 0
2 6 0 0 6 5 1
3 6 0 1 A -
5 6 0 -
_ _ _ R -

TUTAL 18 0 1 17 17 1
AVEMGE 6 0.0 0.3 5.7 5.7 0.3

ANSWERS TO Q1- han the data state the odenntial distributiar of the
I

QUESTIONS invertebratea.
Al- Invertebrates seem to prefer chemical-free, moist and dark environmental
condtitions.

Q2- flame the s p i A e tawis to whieh the inwrtebrates a n

8) Positive Hydrotaxls

43- Gtplain the ahdws made by invertebmtes fat each

eandiiian.
- (A) A chemical-free environment was chosen to prevent poisoning ofthe
animal's system.
(ii) A wet environment was chosen to prevent animal from dehydrating.
(iii) A dark condition was chosen to assist the animal to camouflage itself
and hide from its predators.

04- Suggest a possible habitat fat these invertebrates.

A4- A dark moist area far removed from any artificial chemicals as under logs.

95- hplain wh t h m trials rather than just are was used fat
each erper lment.
- To avoid chance results and to help establish an average sampling which
gives a more accurate result.

CONCLUSION These invertebrates respond better to a chemical-free. wet and darkenvironmental

conditions.
-112-
 To observe the effect of light on a seedling.

Measuring cylinder.
Two cardboard boxes, two styrofoam cups with soil and seedlings, black paper,
water, light source.
METHOD
1. The insides oftwo cardboard boxes (labelled A and B),were lined with sheets
of black paper.
2. A distinct opening was made on one side of box A .
3. One seedling was placed in box A, which was then sealed and then placed
close to a light source.
4. Another seedling was placed in box 0 which was then placed in a cupboard.
5. For a period often days, the seedlings were watered with the same amount
ofwater at the same time, daily. Each box was resealed after watering.
DIAGRAM

LJ j

DURAM SHOWING GROWTH OF SEEDLING IN THE DARK (ETOLIATW)

Light Source

Cut
show
ANSWER5 TO Q1-(i) &plain the uw of the black paper
QUESTION5 (it) What purpase did the hde in made In the side of
Bart A senre?
Al- (i) The black paper was used to prevent the internal reflection of light in the
box.
(ii) The hole at the side of box A, served to allow the unilateral entrance
of the light m r c e into the box.

Q2- Hame the specif'ie nsponse of the seedling to light

entering box A.
AZ- Positive phototropism.

Q3-How wwld the growth of the medling in bw A be afteatad

if for the duration of the enprimant
(I) The seedling was rotated daily.
.,.
(Ii) The baa was rotated daily.
(iii) The box was I&unsealed.
143- (i) The seedling will grow vertically because the constant back and forth
change in bend ofthe seedling (toward the consistently changing direction
ofthe light source) will cancel out each other.
(ii) The seedling will grow toward the direction of the light source i.e.
toward the hole.
(iii) The seedling will grow (vertically) toward the direction of the light
source.

Q4- &plain what is happeningwithin the stem of the seedling

in ban A,
A4- Auxin, the growth hormone in plants(which is manufactured in the shoot
tips) diffuses to the darker side ofthe plant. The presence ofthis hormone
stimulates greater cell elongation in this region ofthe stem and this causes
this side of the shoot to grow faster and as a result the shoot bends
towards the light.

05- What is the impwtance of this response In seedlings?

P5- This response ensures that the leaves ofplants are always directed toward
the best available light thereby facilitating photosynthesis and the survival
of the plant.

Q6- What purpose did the ~ s e d h gin bw B strue?

A6- This seedling was the control for the experiment.

Seedlings display a positively phototrophic rsponse in the presence of unilateral

CoNCLUSloN light source.
To observe and draw mammalian bones.
-greater tuberosity

head

lesser tuberosity

DRAWINGOF A POSTEWOR VlEW OFTHE LEFT HUMElZUSOF A RABBlT h3)

neural spine
neural arch
-,podeorir articular surface

/* etapophysis

L napophysis

\ C o n w e v s e process
 posterior articular surface

/ neural spine

neural arch

neural canal

anterior articular surface

vertebrarterial canal

transverse process

centrum

DRAWINGOF AN AMENOR MEW OFTHE CERVlCAL VERTEBRA OFA R4881T (fi)

neural arch

transverse process

anterior articular surface

neural canal

dernifacet
centrum

D W ~ GOF Ah AMEROR MEW OFTHE % O W C VERTEBRA OFA WBT (~4)

 To investigate whether light is important for the germination and development of bean
seedlings.

APPARATUS Metre rule, mebsuring cylinder.

MATERIALS 14 Red Bean seeds from the same pack, 14 identical containers (eg styrofoam cups of
the same size). water, tissue paper, light source, string, distilled water.

METHOD 1. Each ofthe 14 Red Bean seeds was soaked in distilled water for 24 hours.
2. The same amount of tissue paper was then placed in each of the identical
containers anda soaked bean was planted in each container at that time. They
were all placed in a dark cupboard and allowed to germinate.
As soon as the seedlings had germinated, they were divided into two equal
groups.
Seven ofthe containers were positioned close to a light source so that they were
each exposed to the same amount of light.
-
The other seven containers were placed in a dark cupboard away from a light
source.
Each bean was watered daily at the same time with the same amount ofwater.
Using a piece of string, the height of each ofthe seedlings was measured at the
same time daily and noted every day for fourteen days.
The results were tabulated and a graph ofthe average increase in height for both
sets of seedlings over a fourteen day period was plotted.

RESULTS
TABLE SHOWING GROWTH IN HEIGHTS OF SEEDLINGS V 'OSED TO THE SAME LIGHT SOURCE
I I
Day # + 2 4 6 8

Heights of
Seedlings1
crn

Average
2.3 55 8.4
Height Icm
I11 GROWN IN THE UGH1AND (2) GROWN IN THE DARN OVER A 14 DAY PERIOD
 TABLE SHOWING GROWTH IN HEIGHTS OF %EDLINGS PLACED IN THE DARK

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS
Q l What wen the geaeral obaermtians made for eaah set of seedlings?
Al. (1) For seedlings placed in the dark - Seedlings grew tall with white spindly stems. Leaves grew green
but became small and yellow and sparse as time went by. Seedlings also grew quicker but were etiolated.
(2) For seedlings placed in the light - Seedlings grew green with relatively thick stems. Leaves were
healthy looking, evenly sited, green in colour with evenly spaced internodes..

42. State three pncautions erplaining the importance of each.

A 2 (1) Ensure that seedlings placed away from the light source were not exposed to any light but were
treated exactly like those placed close to a light source. This will emure that results obtained were as
a result of the presence or abmce of light only.
(2) Ensure that plants are not given too much water as this may c a u z them to rot.
(3) Ensure that seedlings are free from harmful pests which will affect healthy
plant growth.

Q3. Esplain another way in whhh plant g w t h can be measuml. (Un a llmitatim to
this method of measu~~ment.
. Measuring the dry weight of the plant can be used as a measure of plant growth. However the process
involves the removal of ail water from the plant which results in the death of the plant.
Q4. Deseribe the paftern of growth of the plants gmwn in the light.
A4. On the 2ndday, the seedlings grew to a n average height of2.3 cm. This then increased to 8.4 cm by
the 6' day. From the 6' day to the 14' day the average increase in seedling height increased to 18.7
cm.

Qs. Compare the growth of the two sets of mdlings mt the 14 day priod.
A5. From the 2ndday to the 14' day theseedlings in the llght experiencedan avemge increase in growth from
2.3 cm to 18.7 cm. while the seedlings in the dark experienced an average increase in growth from 2.8
-
cm. to 14.3 cm. From doys 2 8, growth rate for seedlings in the dark exceeded thtfor those in the
light. From days 9 - 14, growth rate for seedlings in the light exceeded that for plants grown in the dark.

46. Aacaunt fat the differences between the heights of the two sets of csadlingg
-
k e e n days 2 6 and days 10 1+ -
A6. Between days 2 - 6. in both plants, the digested materials fioin their seeds are transported to their
growing points. Additionally, the growth hormone auxin, stimulated growth of& region behind the shoot
tip causing cell elongation for seedlings grown in the dark and the light. For the seedlings in the dark,
this however is nat true growth but a 'crisis growth spurt' by the plant in an attempt to obtain light.
Etiolation allows for maximum growth in length with minimum use of food reserves. For the seedlings
-
grown in the light true growth in a normal controlled way is experienced.
Between days 10 - 14, for plants grown in the dark etiolation is still taking place. The chloroplastfailed
to develop. As a result the plant has a few yellow leaves and the stem is weak and spindly. Food reserves
are now depleted and 'growth' ceases and the plant dies. For the plants grown in the light, the
chloroplasts develop normally and true growth continues to take place. Although food reserves are
depleted the plants are at a stage where ihey begin to photosynthesise. And true growth is maintained.

Q7. Explaln wwots and potatoes may spm and develop yellow leaves while kept
fw a period of time in the &gemtar.
A7. The growth hormone auxin, stimulates growth causing leaves to sprout in a crisis growth phase. The
sprouted leaves is not, however, exposed to a light source and eventually turn yellow.

CONCLUSION
Light is not needed for the germination ofseedlings. HoHiever light is necessary for the healthy growth and
development of seedlings. Plants in the dark experienced a faster initial growth rate and seedlings in the light
experienced a slower but healthier growth rate.
To observe, draw and record the adaptdons of seeds and hits dispersed by
a) wind; b) water; c) animal; d) explosive mechanism;

seed
/

OPENLEGUME OF PEA AFIER MPUXNE MECHANISM W E TWGGEiZED (XI)

testa

scar of attachment

EXTERhAL VlEW OF A WlNGED SEED OF CEDAR DISPERSED BY WlND (XU

fleshy mesocarp
jdMsh aril around seed

hard testa of seed

placenta to which seeds are uttached

- /
1- ovary of many compartments

TRANSVERSESECTION OF A TOMATO- ANIMAL DISPERSED (Xf)

 pubs VI VllUClllllGtll

mesocarp

embryo

milk

tega
solid white flesh
endocarp

water proof epicarp

\ remains of styie

VERllC4l SECllCN OFA CGCONUT - WATER DISPEEED (X l)

E

TABLESHOWING ADAPTATIONS /INFERENCES FOR

DFFERENT MPES OF SEED DISPEEAL

Siructural Features and Adaptations

I Dispersal

Cedar
I Very light weight dry fruit with small food reserve; hairy and winged brown fruit.
Easily transported by wind currents.
Wind

1 Coconut I Light weight brown fruit with large food reserve; Loose fibrous middle pericarp that
traps air spaces to facilitate floating. I Water

I Tomato I Edible fruit with ffeshy pericarp and attractive skin colow; pleasant smell to attract
animals.
Animal

I Legume I Light weight dry pericarp containing seed with limited food reserve; Inherent line of
weakness along which rupture occurs.
Explosive
Mechanism
 To draw a variety of storage organs.

rhizome - swollen underground

stem storing starch and oils.

scale leaf
axillory bud
lateral bud
adventitious root

EXTERNAL V I E W O F GINGER
- A RHIZOME (X 05)

scale leaf

fleshy storage leaf - storing glucose

developing apicul bud

reduced stem

adventitious root

VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH AN ONION

- A BULB (X 0.5)

short stem

cortex - sugars stored

pith

conducting strands

lateral root

VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH A CARROT

-A TAP ROOT (X 05)
 adventitious root

root tuber - starch and protein

stored

EXTERNAL VlEW OF A CASSAVA

ROOT TUBER (X 0.5)

terminal bud

s~ollenunderground stem - storing starch

adventitious root
lateral bud

node from which buds and

scale leaves arise

EXTERNAL VlEW OF DASHEEN

- CORM (X 051

A
/ --A-
remains of attachment to parent

lateral bud and scale leaf (eye)

swollen stem tuber - storing starch and protein

n m shoot -grows from a lateral bud

- adventitious roots

EXTERNAL VlEW OF IRISH POTATO

-STEMTUBER (X 1)
To draw and observe a whole view of
1. The Flamboyant and
2. The Pride of Barbados

White petal with red and yellow marking

(honey guide lines )

honey guide lines on petal

red and pink petals

onther
carpel
filament
sepak

DRWNG OF A WHOLE VlEW OF A FLAMBOYANT (X 1)

one carpel

stamens
sepak

one petal forms a

tube with nectar

[X 2)
OF A SIDE VlEW OF A PRIDE OF BARBADOS
DRAWING
 To observe and draw a wind pollinated flower.

many spikelets ( infbrescence )

flower stalk (stem)

leaf blode

D W I N C - OF THE WHOLE VIEW OF AN INFLORESCENCE OF A G W S ( X 0.5)

purple feathery stigma

anther

flbrnent

CLOSED SPIKELET (X 61
OPENED SPIKELET 8 6)
AIM 1. To draw a whole view of Crotalaria
2. To draw an annotated half view ofthe Crotalaria

wing

keel

DRAWINE OF A WHOLE FLOCLER OF CROAMIA ( X 2 !

-
stmdard petal brge and curved
//- upwards to &trodbees

-
wing petal one of lwo, together
farm hnding stage far bees

stigma weives p&n, sh& fmrd

to touch bee as it bnds

keel petal

-
anther part of stamen which produces
pollen (cowains mak gametes)

m l e inside h r y , contoins fernole

gamete, fertilised ta f a n seed

-
fibmew holds anther where it can best
dekver pollen

-
receptacle bears h e r parts

pedbl - fbwer stalk

D W I N G OF A HALF FLOWER OF CRMAIARN !X 2 1

 To investigate the water content oftwo unidentified soil samples.

Oven, desiccator, scale.

Two cans of soil samples.

One can was labelled A and the other was labelled 0. The masses ofthe soils
and the cans were weighed and the measurements noted. Each can of soil
was then placed in an oven set at 1 0 0for
~ a~duration oftwenty-four hours.
The cans of soils were removed and cooled in a desiccator and weighed and
the measurements noted again.
Each can ofsoil was then returned to the oven for a second twenly-four hour
period.
The cans of soils were removed and cooled in a desiccator and weighed and
the measurements noted.again.
~ach'canofsoil was then returned to the oven for a third twenty-four hour
period.
The cans of soils were removed and cooled in a desiccator and weighed the
measurements noted again.
The water content of each soil sample was calculated.

TABLE OF MASS OF TWO EQUAL SAMPLES OF SOIL HEATED IN AN OVEN

Masslg
ESULTSI
ALCUIATIONS I SampleA I Sample 0 I
Mass ofsoil and can 1 280 I 280 I
Mass of can only 1 90 I 90 I
Mass ofsoil only 190 190
.
Mass of dry soil (day 1) 141 160
Mass of dry soil (day 2) 133 157
Mass of dry soil (day 3) 133 157
Mass ofwater 190-133 57 190-157 33
% Water 57A90 x 100 30% 33A90 x 100=17.4%
ANSWERS TO Ql- Why war the om's temptaturn maintained at t00 OC
QUESTIONS Al- The boiling point ofwater is 1 0 0 ~ keeping
~ . the oven at this temperature
will ensure that all the water is evaporated from the soil sample and that the
organic substances would not burn.

02-State Iwe assumptions ma& in the enpriment.

A2- i) All mass loss was due to water loss.
ii) All the water was evaporated by the third day.

43- Whid of the two m p l o of aN ir lees likely to become

waterlogged.
A3- The percentage ofwater to soil porticles in soil sample A is greater than
the percentage for soil sample 0. This sugges-k that the soil porticles are
not as closely packed and therefore this type of soil is able to hold more
- water without becoming water logged. A loamy type of soil is indicated.

CoNCLUS'ON The water content of soil sample A is 30% and the water content of soil sample
0 is 17.4%.
4 To examine the variation in heights of students (aged 14-17), in a class.

MATERIAL5 Metre rule, writing instruments.

METHOD 1. The heights of all the students in the class were obtained.
2. The range ofheights were organized into intervals so that 10-15 groups were
established.
3. All the results were tabulated and a histogram constructed.

TABLE SHOWING HEIGHT OF STUDENTS

I I I I
RESULTS/ Students I Height! cm I Student5 I Height / cm I
1
I I I
CALCULATIONS
Andy I 146 Marshall I 152
6e.W 150 Marlon 174
Delerina 161 Nadia 158
Daniel 159 Nadine 153
Edward
I
185 I
Opal
I
166
Earlene I 147 Paul I 173

Gillia 1 163 1 Quincy

Harry 1n Ronele 164
Jeon-Marc 159 Sandra 158
Jerome I 168 1 Sdly I 158
I
Janice
I 165 Timmy
I 157
I
1 187 1 Wendy 1 165 1
Kent

Keron 1 165 1 Sherry-Ans 1 168 1

Kizia 1 186 1 Sara-Lee 1 175 1
 1 Hei;htrtcm 1 v1
1
1
Students Height I cm

Helen Salime

Nickitta 180 Arnandolyn 178

TABLE SHOWING FREQUENCY OF OCCUWNCE OF HEIGHTS

I I I
Group Height of Students
Tolly Frequency
I cm

146-151 II 2

152-157 IU 4

158-163 11111 Ill 8

164-169 11111 11111 I 11

170-175 11111 II 7

176-181 11111 5

182-187 111 3

ANSWERS TO Q1- What kind of v a r i a t i ~it there in the heights?

QUESTIONS Al- There is a continuous variation in heights. Some students are short, some
students are tall and others vary in heights in between.

Q2- Why was thema large samplesize?

A2- A large sample size gives a more accurate representation ofthe
distribution of the trait within the populdion.

43- What is the height of most students?

A3- (164-169) cm

Q4- Demrik the genenl shape of the histognm.

- A normal distribution bell shaped curve is observed where a fw individuals
appear at the lower and upper ends. Most fall in the middle range. This
confjrms a continuous distribution.
 Complete the table given belar stating m e ttatts
that ean be enamined h eaah plant part given.

Part of TtaItr that can be

Organlam enam1nod
batma length, colour, width

Pod8 length, width, number of seeds

Ssed8 size, mass, shape, colour

Hands finger length, size of hand

46- What advantage cwld the t d l d n g traits be to the

arganism.
A6 a) Larger leaves
b) More seeds in the pod
c) Larger hand span
- Greater surface area for trapping
sunlight for manufacturing food.
- More seeds for the reproduction of the
plant.
- Hold more things and reach further.

Continuous variation was observed among the sample group studied. Gradations
C0NcLU5'0N
between the two extremes (146-187) cm.
 ,..

41M 1. To find out the

1. (a) Frequency (b) Density (c) Size of population
of two species of plants in a particular area ofthe school's compound.
2. To investigate some abiotic factors influencing three random sites of the playing
field.

4PPARATUS Measuring tape, thermometer, measuring cylinder, funnel, beaker and stirring rod.
YATERlALS One 1 m2 quadrat or grid, litmus paper.

The species of plants under investigation (mimosa and nutgrass) were identified
YETHOD in the playing field. The dimensions of the field was measured with the use of a
measuring tape.
The quadrat was randomly thrown within the designated area of the field. The
species density (number of plants for each species found in the quadrat) was
counted and the data recorded.
Step two was repeated for a total of three times.
The data recorded was used to determine the frequency and the total of the ten
quadrats was calculated.
A graph of Amount per Quadrat against Number of Quadrats was then
constructed.
Some abiotic factors of three random sites were investigated and recorded.

TABLE SHOWING REULTS OF TWO PLANT SPECIES RANDOMLY SAMPLED FROM A PLAYING FIELD
I I I
1 I No. of Individuals /Percentage Cover I

I. A) Species Density (Mimosa) Total No. of Individuals 1 No. of random quadrat

tosses
-- 220no = 22

0) Species Density (Nutgrass) = Total No. of Individuals 1 No. of random quadrat

tosses
-- 92AO =a
Population Size - Species Density x Area of Field
A) Population Size (Mimosa) = 22 x 24m x 100m = 52800m2
0) Population Size (Nutgrass) = 9.2 x 24m = 1001 = 22080m2
 2. Species Frequency (the percentage of quadrats in which a particular species was
found)
for Mimosa 80%
for Nutgrass = 8 0 %

TPBLE SH3WINC- SUMMAR CIF ,GKJTYFKTCIRS

, IAFLUENCING
T-IREE %VMMSITE5 OFA FMWG F E D

Abiotic

Sotl Tempenlurelt
Air Temperalure I t
pH
Armnlml%

Vatme dwam
Nutgloss Mmw re!aid horn SO&
Species Ighlinlensitq

HISTOGRAM SHOWING SPECIES -

DENSW OF NUTGR455AND

NTERPRETATlON From the random sampling done it seems that Mimosa is the dominant plant species in
the field over Nutgrass. Moreover the abiotic factors measured seem to indicate that
Mimosa flourish best in a slightly alkaline soil at 25'~.The air content ofthe soil seems
adequate to provide oxygen for plant respiration. The Mimosa was able to obtain enough
water by osmosis and adequate lighting to allow for photosynthesis. The Mimosa plant
was able to successfilly photosynthesize having a suitable temperature.

C ~ ~ K ~ E J ~ OTheN abiotic factors examined would have influenced the distribution of both species
studied. A field study conducted on the Mimosa species of grass and the Nut grass
species of grass yielded the following results:

Plant Species

Mimosa Nutgrass
I
I Frequency I 80% I 80% I

I Population Size 1 52.800 m' 1 2.080 m2 I

Refer to Appendix, pap R1%
Chemistry experiments in general, should be reported in the format given below.
!PI To separate the coloured substances in leaves using the process of
chromatography.

PPAWTUS 10 cm3 beaker and cover. mortar and pestle, dropper,

IATERIAE Ethanol, chromatography paper or filter paper, green leaves, scissors, glass
cover, purified sand.

IETHOD 1) A few green leaves were cut into small pieces and placed in the mortar.
2) The pieces of leaves were grounded with purified sand In 3 cm3 ofethanol,
until a green extract was obtained.
3) A spot ofextract w& placed 2 cm from an end-ofthe chromatography paper.
More spdTS were added at the same point and allowed to dry.
4) The paper having the green extract was then attached to a glass cover and
suspended in the beaker which contained ethanol.
5) The green spot was positioned abwe the surface of the ethanol and the
bottom edge ofthe paper just below the surface (see diagram).
6) The solvent (ethanol) was allowed to move up the paper. After this, the
chromatogram was removed from the beaker and hung up to dry before being
placed i.n lab book.
lAGRAM Cover---------
n
100 ml beaker-
Chromatography paper
(stationaty phase)
Pigment spot (chlorophyll)-
-4- j !
1
(mobile phase)

.'..-.
Solvent (ethanol)------
DIAGRAM
OF APPARATUS USED FOR PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

ESULTS The solvent rose up the paper and after a while green and yellow bands of colour
were seen. The two colours moved at different rates. with the yellow colour having
moved further away from the original green extract than the green colour.

,NSWERS TO Q1- M n e (i)Chromatography and (ti) Adsorption

!UESTIONS A1- (i) Chromatography is a technique used to analyze and separate
substances in a mixture (based upon their different rates of adsorption)
into constituent parts in one or more sharply defined often coloured
bands.
 into constituent parts in one or more sharply ddned oben coloured
bands.
(ii) Adsorption is the process of one substance being attracted and held to
the surface of another substance.

Why is ethand used as a solvent?

Ethanol is used to decolourize leaves. The separation into constituent
parts is partly dependent on their differences in solubility in ethanol.

What other substances can be a n a l y d , identified

and separated by the process d chromatography? State
what type of chromatogtaphy is used tar each.
(i) Black Ink (paper chromatography)
(ii) protein / steroids (column chromatography)
(iii) pesticides (gas chromatography)

~ ~ ~ ~The method
~ of~separation
~ usedl here
O was Npaper chromatography . The colours
dissolved in the solvent, and moved at different rates. These rates depended on
the solubility of each solute. The green extract of leaves contained green
chlorophyll and yellow carotenes;
a (i) To demonstrate the laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide.
(ii) To investigate some physical and chemical properties of carbon dioxide.

APPARATUS Thistle funnel, spatula, flat bottom flask, gas jar, U-tube.
IATERLALS Silica gel, universal indicator, candle, matches, magnesium ribbon,
ZEAGENTS Dilute hydrochloric acid, limewater, sodium hydroxide, marble chips (calcium
carbonate),

INGRAM

Marble
Carbon
Chips
Dioxide

Silica
Gel

DLAGRAMTO SHOW LQORATORY PREPARATION OF CARBON DlOXlDE

1) The apparatus was set up as shown, to prepare carbon dioxide.

2) Three spatula measures of marble chips were added to the flat bottom flask.
3) Dilute hydrochloric acid was then poured into the top ofthe funnel to cover
the lower end of the funnel and the gas evolved was collected in gas jao.
4) Various tests were performed on the gas collected, as indicated in the table
following.
i) One ofthe gas jars was uncovered and the hands were used to gently
waft the gas towards the nostrils to determine whether or not the gas
had an odour. The gas was also observed for colour. The results were
noted.
ii) Lime water was added to one of the gas jars and the mixture was
gently shaken:The results were noted.
iii) One of the gas j a n was uncovered and placed over a lit candle, the
results were noted.
iv) A piece of magnesium rlbbon was lit and placed In a gas jar. The
results were noted.
v) Universal indicator was added to an uncovered gas jar (to determine
its pH) ~ n the
d mixture was shaken. The results were noted.
RESULTS TABLE SHOWING VARIOUS TESTS DONE ON CARBON DIOXIDE

Test I Observation

Smell I Odourless
Appearance Colourless

A white precipitate was formed in the solution

Limewater which became clear as excess C0,was bubbled
through it.

Burning Candle The burning candle was extinguished

The ribbon burnt with a crackling sound to form

Burning Magnesium Ribbon
a white solid and black speck

Universal Indicator I The mlxture became yellow

ANSWERS TO
QUESTIONS Q1-State five (5) ways in whieh carbon dioxide is
released into the atmosphere?
Al- (I) Respiration in living systems
(ii) Burning of fossil fuels
(iii) Decay of organisms
(iv) Volcanic Eruptions
(v) Degradation of carbon compounds such as limestone.

Q2-Which process remwes earbon dioxide from the

atmosphe&
A2- The process of photosynthesis.

43- Which environmental condition is linked to increased

atmospheric earbon dioxide?
M- Global Warming / Greenhouse Effect

Q4- State two uses of earbon dioxide.

A4- i) Fire Extinguishers ii) Refrigerant

05- Write out the chemical equation Ca the laboratory

preparation of earbon dioxide.
A!?- Ca C0,(5) t 2HCl(aq) +CaCl,(aq) + H,O(L) t CO,(g)

CONCLUSION
Carbon Dioxide can be prepared in the laboratory and some of its chemical and
physical properties can be examined.

-141-
-
Mr to Appendix h _ o s A3 & A5
 To investigate the effect of concentration on rate of reaction.

2 measuring cylinders. 3 beakers, 2 retort stands, 2 burettes, 1 conical flask, 1

funnel, 1 glass rod (for stirring),
Filter paper(with cross drawn on it).
REAGENTS 16.0 gdm"ofsodium thiosulphate (Na2S203). 0.5M sulphuric acid (H2504).

METHOD 1) Using a measuring cylinder. 50 d

of Na2S203was poured into the empty
beaker which was then centered onto the cross drawn on the sheet of filter
paper.
2) 50 im3 of H2504was added to the beaker and the stopwatch was started.
Viewing the beaker fiom above the watch was stopped when the cross
disappeared. The time was recorded.
3) The beaker was emptied, rinsed and the procedure repeated six (6) times.
Each time the volume of Na2S203was reduced by 5 cm3 and water was
increased by 5 cm3 to maintain the measuring cylinder's volume at 50 c?.

TABLE SHOWING RESULTS OF THE RATE OF REACTION AT VARIOUS VOLUMES

1 Experiment Vol. of
No. l + fS2H
'

crn
I I Vol. of
Na2S2F31
crn
Vol. of
H20J
crn
Time I I 1iTirne 1

ANSWERS 01
A1-
- ~eewnttor the disappakg ems.
In each experiment when H2S04wasadded to Na2S203it precipitated a
creamy yellow colloidal suspension ofsulphur which dispersed light causing
the cross to disappear from view.
USED TO FORM SULPHUR VARIES WITH TIME
 GRAPH SHOWING HOW VOLUME OF SODIUM THIOSULPHATE
USED TO FORM SULPHUR VARIES WITH TNE INVERSE OF TIME [RATE)
 Q2- Write the M e equation for this experiment
P2- 5,0&$ t 2~'(aq)-'s(s)J t SO, (a$ t H,O(E)

Q3- Identify the following variables in this experiment

I. Manipulated Variable
11. Responding Variable
Ill. Canttolled Variable

A3 (i) The manipulated variables were the volume of Na2S203and H20

ii) The responding variable was time
iii) The controlled variable was the volume of H,SO,

CONCJS~ON The rate of reaction (l/t) increases as the concentration of Na2S203increases.

To investigate the reaction of some metals Mg, Zn. Al, Fe, Pb, Cu, with
hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid.

Bunsen burner, spatula, 6 test tubes, test tube rack,.

Metals of Magnesium (Mg), Zinc (Zn), Aluminium (Al), Iron (Fe), Lead (Pb),
Copper (Cu), splints.

Dilute hydrochloric ocid (HCI), dilute sulphuric ocid (H,SO,),

1) A test tube was half filled with dilute HCI.

(ii) A spatula with a measure of magnesium turnings was added to the acid and
observed for effervescence of gas.
(iii) The test tube was gently warmed using a lit Bunsen burner, if the reaction
was slow or if no gas was being produced.
(iv) The Bunsen burner was then removed. The gas produced was trapped by
placing a finger over the test tube.
(v) A lighted ?lint was then placed at the open end of the test tube, and the
reaction noted.
(vi) Steps 1 - 5 were repeated using the other metals and then the entire
experiment was repeated with all the metals using dilute H,SO, and the
results noted.

TABLE SHOWING REACTIONS OF SOME METAL5 WITH

HYDROCHLORIC ACID AND SULPHURIC ACID

Reaction with lit

Metals Observation Inference
s~lint

( Mg I Vety I 1
strong reaction: Went out with a Hydrogen gas I
Effervescence occurred; pop. present.
Test tube became warm;
Mg turnings diminished in
quantity.
 Reaction with lit
/

Metals Observation Inference

splint

Al S t r o n g r e a c t i o n ; Went out with a Hydrogen gas

Effervescence occurred: POP- present.
Test tube became warm.
A1 turnings diminished in
quantify.

Zn Strong reaction; (but not Went out with a Hydrogen gas

as strong as that of Al) POP- present.
Effervescence occurred;
Test tube become warm.
Zn granules dissolved.

Fe M i l d r e a c t i o n ; Went out with a Hydrogen gas

Effervescence occurred; POP. present.
Fe filings diminished in
quantity after being
heated.

Pb W e a k r e a c t i o n ; Went out with a Hydrogen gas

Effervescence occurred; POP. present.
Pb foil gradually diminished
in size after being heated.

Cu No Reaction No Reaction No Reaction

ANSWERS Q1- Write the mdeeulat equations tor naetion with HCI
QUESTIONS and H,SO,
Al- (i) Mg(s) t 2HCl(aq)+MgC12 (aq) t H, (g)
Mg(s) H2S04 (aq)'Mg504 H2 (g)

(ii) Zn(s) t 2HCl(aq)+ZnC12 (aq) t H, (g)

Zn(s) t H2S04(aq)+ZnS04 (aq) t H2 (g)

(iii) 2Al(s) t 6HCl(aq)+2AIC13 (aq) t 3H2 (g)

2Al(s) t 3H2S04(aq)+A12(S03, (aq) t 3H2 (g)

(iv) Fe(s) t ZHCl(aq)+FeCI, (aq) t H2 (g)

 Fe(s) t H2S04(aq)+FeS04 (aq) t H, (g)

(v) Pb(s) t 2HCl(aq)+PbC12 (aq) t H, (g)

Pb(s) t H2S04(aq)+PbS04 (aq) t H, (g)

(vi) Cu(s) t HCI(ad+ No Reaction

Cu(s) t H2SO4(ad+ No Reaction
Q2- Write the ionic equation for reaction with HCI and H$O,

A2- 2Ht(aq) t M(s)+ ~ ~ ' ( ta H,

~ (g))
where M = Mg, Zn, Fe, Pb
6~'(aq)t 2AI(s)+ 2~?(aq)t 3H2(g)

Q3- Arrange the metals tested in order of decreasing

-
reactivity.
A3- Mg; Al; Zn; Fe; Pb: Cu
+.

Q4- A strip of copper was placed i n a sdution of AgNO,

and left for an hwr.
a) What w w l d be formed? Write the equation.
b) What w w l d be obswed during this reaction?
c) What conclusion can be drawn fmin this obsenratien.
M- a) A solution of blue CuNO, and silver metal is formed. The equation is
Cu(s) t &NO3 +CuN03(aq) t Ag(s) t

b) A solution of blue copper nitrate and needles of silver metal around the
copper strip.
c) It can be concluded that metals higher in the reactivity series displaced
A solution of blue CuNO, and silver metal is formed those lower down
from aqueous solutions of their salts.

CONCLUSlON The metals tested with the acids reacted in accordance with the reactivity series.
Ag To investigate the reaction of acids with
(i) Carbonates;
(ii) Hydrogen Carbonates and
(iii) Bases;

APPARATUS 3 test tubes, test tube rack, spatula,

REAGENT5 Dilute hydrochloric acid (HCI), dilute nitric acid (HNO,), lime water Ca(OHl2
dilute sulphuric acid (H$OJ marble chips Isodium carbonate (Na2C03). sodiun
hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO,). Copper(l1) Oxide (CuO).

METHOD 1) Three test tube5 were placed in a test tube rack. The first test tube was ha
filled with HCI, the second was filled with HNO,, and the third with H250,
(ii) A spatula measure of Na,CO, was added to the first test tube containin!
HCI. A gas evolved. This was tested with lime water and the results wen
noted.
(iii) A spatulo measure ofNaHC0, was added to the second test tube containin!
HNO,. A gas evolved. This was t e h d with lime water and the results wen
noted.
(iv) A spatula measure of CuO was added to the third test tube containin,
H2504, The mixture was gently shaken and allowed to settle and th
results were ndred.

TABLE SHOWING REACTIONS OF ACIDS

WITH SALTS AND BA5ES

Reaction of gas
Reaction Observation
with lime water

Na,C03 and Strong reaction; A white cloudy Carbon Dioxide

dilute HCI, E f f e r v e s c e n c e p r e c i p i t a t e was present
occurred. formed. Mixture
became clear
when excess gas
was added.
 Reaction
I Observation
I Reaction of gas
with lime water
Inference

Carbon Dioxide
II
was present
occurred. formed. Mixture
became clear
when excess gas
I I was added.
CuOand Black CuO A blue copper(l1)
H2S04 dissolved and a blue ---- salt was present
solution resulted. (CuSOJ

ANSWERS T&
QUESTIONS
Qt-Wrife the mdecular and ionic equations fw each
reaction.
Al.1- (i) 2HCl(aq) t Na2CO3(5) j 2 N a C I (aq) t GO2 (g) + H20 (0
2~'(aq)+ GO, '(aq) + CO,(g)) + H 2 0 ( 0

(ii) 2 HNO,(aq) t NaHCO, (5) +2NaN03 (aq) + CO, (g) + H20 (4

~'(aq)t HCO3- (aq) GO2@)) + H 2 0 ( 4

(iii) H2S0.(aq)CuO (5) +CuSO,(aq)

t t H20 (0
2~'(aq)t 0 " (aq) + H 2 0 ( 0

A1.2- When excess carbon dioxide is passed through limewater, it changes from
a cloudy liquid to a clear liquid.

See pop 2I7 k

(ii) 6 C 0 , (s) + H20 (4 + CO, (5) '
(i) Ca(OH),(e) t C0, (9) + CaCO, (s) + H,O (0 (cloudy)
Ca(HC03)2 (aq) (clear)

another bxperirnent
42- Describe one cmmetcial use of Na,CO,
with Acids and Alkalis
A2- It is used as a fmretardant in the control of large and small chemical
spills involving acids.

03- Describe how baking soda/powder is invdved in

bread making.
A3- Baking soda is NoHCO, and baking powder is a mixture ofboking soda and
cream of tartor (KC4H,0,). This produces GO, that causes the dough to
rise.

The substances tested reacted with the acids in accordance with expected
CoNCLuSioN Chemistry for inorganic substances.
 To observe the efect of heat on five substances.
(i) Copper(1l) Carbonate;
(ii) Calcium Hydroxide;
(iii) Sodium Nitrate;
(iv) Sodium Carbonote;
(v) Hydrated Copper(l1) Sulphate;

APPARATUS 3 test tubes, Bunsen burner, delivery tube test tube holder, splints, matches,
MATERIALS Cobalt chloride paper,
REAGENTS Samples ofCopper(l1) Carbonate (CuCO,), Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH),. Sodium
Nitrate (NONO,). Sodium Carbonote (Na2C0J; Hydrated Copper(l1) Sulphate
(CuS0,sH2O)

METHOD 1) A sample of CuCO, was placed into a test tube and was carefully heated. A
gas evolved. This was tested with lime water. The result was noted.
2) A sample of Ca(OH), was placed into a test tube and was carefully heated.
A gas evolved. This was tested with cobalt chloride at the top of the test
tube. The result was noted.
3) A sample of NaNO, was placed into a test tube and was carefully heated. A
gas evolved. This was tested with a lighted splint. The result was noted.
4) A sample of CuSO, was placed into a test tube and was carefully heated. A
gas evolved. This was tested with lime water. The result was noted.
5) A sample ofNa2C03 was placed into a test tube and was carefilly heated.
A gas evolved. This was tested with lime water. The result was noted.

RESULTS TABLE SHOWING THE EFFECT OF HEAT

ON FOUR SUBSTANCES

Substance Gas evolved

Observation Inference
Heated tested with

Effervescence occurs in
Carbon Dioxide
lime water and a white
present;
CuCO, lime water precipitate is formed:
Copper Oxide
Remaining substance in
was formed.
test tube turned brown.

-151-
 Substance
Heated
Gas evolved
tested with
Observation Inference /
3teamy vapour evolved;
Water vapour
Blue paper turned pink;
blue cobalt present.
Substance in test tube
chloride paper Calcium Oxide
remained the same white
formed.
colour.

O x y g e n
Glowing splint rekindled;
present;
glowing splint Remaining substance was
Sodium Nitrite
liquified.
formed.

Blue crystals changed to a

Water vapour
white powder; Steamy
present;
vapour evolved but
blue cobalt Anhydrous
condensed to a colourless
chloride paper copper (11)
liquid at the mouth of the
sulphate
test tube; Blue cobalt
formed.
chloride changed to pink.
-

Na,CO, not
No visible reaction was
lime water decomposed by
seen.
heat.

ANSWERS TO Q1" L- i d the subdanus which &con posed and which didn't
QUESTIONS deempose.
Al-

I Substances that I Substances that didn't I

I decomposed ! decompose
I

42- Write the mdecular equatians of these deempositians.

A2- (i) CuCO, (5) + 6 0 (s) t GO2 (g)
(ii) Ca(OH), (5) t -> CaO (5) t H20 (g)
(iii) NaNO, (s) t -> NaNO, (s) t 0, (g)
 (iv) CuS0,.5H20 (5) -+CuSO, (s) t 5H20 (g)

03- Write mdeeular equations for reactions with lime water

and hygmuopic cobalt chlrride.
A 3 &(OH), (0 t GO, (g) + CaCO, (s) t H20 (0 (milky)
CoC1, (5) t 6 H20 (0 CoCI2.6 H20 (5) t heat
-+

(blue) (pink)

Q4- Write mdecular equations far the action of heat on

(a) Lead(ll) Nitrate Pb(NO,),
(b) Manganese(l1) Nitrate Mn(NO,),
A4- (a) 2Pb(N0J2 (s) + 2Pb0 (5) t 4 NO, (g) t 0, (g)
(b) 2Mn(NOJ2 (s) + 2Mn0, (5) t 4 NO, (g)

The effect of the heat on the five substances were in accordance with expected
CONCLUSION Chemistry of inorganic substances.

R&r to Appendis Page A 13

&l To perform and describe tests for oxidizing and reducing agents using solutions of
acidified potassium iodide, acidified potassium manganate(Vll), acidified potassium
dichrornate(Vl), hydrogen peroxide and household bleach.

APPARATUS 5 test tubes, glass rod, test tube holder, test tube rack,

REAGENTS Hydrogen peroxide (H202), household bleach (NaCIO), acidified potassium

rnanganate(V1l) (KMnOJ, sulphuric acid (H2SOJ, acidified potassium dichromate
(VI) (K2Cr20,), acidified potassium iodide (KI), acidified Iron(ll) Sulphate (FeSO,).

DIAGRAM
/I- Dropper
ii

-
\
-
/ \ I

ip
I
\
i
lest
Reducmg
tubeAgent
wlth

'
i

DIAGRAM OF APPARATUS USED TO OBSERVE REDOX REACTIONS

METHOD Using a dropper, acidified K2Cr20, was added to a test tube containing a
solution of KI and the colour change was noted.
Using a dropper, acidified KMnO, was added to a test tube containing a
solution of KI and the colour change was noted.
Using a dropper, acidified KMnO, was added to a test tube containing a
solution of H20, and the colour change was noted.
Using a dropper, NaClO was added to a test tube containing a solution of KI
and the colour change was noted.
Using a dropper, H202was added to a test tube containing a solution of KI and
the colour change was noted.
Using a dropper, acidified K2Cr207was added to a test tube containing a
solution of H202and the iolour change was noted.
Using a dropper, acidified 4 C r 2 4 was added to a test tube containing a
solution of FeSO,, NoOH was then added to the solution of FeS0, and the
colour change was noted.
RESULTS TABLE SHOWING TESTS FOR OXlDlZlNG AND REDUCINGAGENTS

Test Observation Inference

- - -

I(1Cr207 and KI Turned from yellow- K$r,O, was the oxidizing agent;
orange to red-brown Cr207 -+ c?: Cr ion reduced
from (t7) to (t3) ;
21' -+ I, gives red-brown colour
oxidized from -1 to 0; KI was
reducing agent.
- ~

KMnO, and KI Turned from purple to KI was oxidized and became the
red-brown reducing agent;
21' (aq) - 26 + I, (aq);
KMnO, was reducedand became the
oxidizing agent;
Mn'*(aq) + 5h Mn" (aq)
-+

KMnO, and Turned from purple to KMnO, was reducedand became the
4
' 202 colourless; oxidizing agent;
Effervescence occurred. Mni'(aq) t 5h M? (aq):
-+

H,O, was was oxidized and became

the reducing agent;
0 -
-; (aq) 2 i 0, (g) -+

NaClO and KI Turned from yellow t o KI was oxidized and became the
colourless reducing agent;
-
2r (aq) 26 + ,I (aq):
NaClO was was reduced and
became the oxidizing agent;
2o2- (aq) - 4e- + 0, (g)

KI and H202 Turned from clear t o KI was oxidized and became the
yellow-orange reducing agent;
2i(aq) - 2h + ,I (aq);
H202was oxidized and became the
reducing agent;
-0; (aq) - 26 0, (g)
-+
 Test Observation Inference

H202and Turned from orange to H 0 did reduce K&r20,.

22-
&Cr207 dark-blue then to light Cr207 (aq) t 4 H202(aq) t 2Ht
green (oxidation) +
2wo3, (4 + 5 40 (0.
2Cr0(02), is a very unstable
chemical substance that is dark blue
in colour. It quickly decomposes to
.c': HO, , acts as a more potent
oxidant than K,Cr,O,.

Turned from a very pale F?oxidized to F?. F? can be

NaOH and green to yellow brown. confirmed by adding NaOH(aq).
FeSO, FeSO, was a reducing agent.
&Cr20, was reduced and became
an oxidizing agent.

NB: F? can be reduced to F?, it turns from yellow to green as an oxidizing

agent,

CONCLUSION
According to the results potassium iodide (KI) was found to be the reducing agent
and potassium manganate(Vll) (KMnOJ, and potassium dichromate(K2Cr20,)were
found to be the oxidizing agents. Hydrogen Peroxide (H202) acted both as an
oxidizing as well as a reducing agent.
&I To perform qualitative analysis on compound R in order to identift the cations and
anions present.

APPARATUS Bunsen burner, test tubes, glass rod, test tube holder, test tube rack, matches
MATERLALS Red litmus paper, blue litmus paper, splint.
REAGENTS Dilute nitric ocid (HNO,) silver nitrate (AgNO,), distilled water (H20), dilute
hydrochloric ocid (HCI), barium chloride (BaCI,), lead nitrate (Pb(NO,), sodium
hydroxide (NaOH). ammonia solution (NH~OH)~ potassium iodide (KI).

RESULTS TABLE SHOWlNG QUALITATIVEANALYSIS OF COMPOUND R

Test Observations Inferences

1. Solid R was heated in White solid dissolved

o dry test tube. The quickly to form a
gas(es) evolved were colourless liquid.
tested with litmus paper Effervescence occurred.
and a glowing splint. 1) The gas(es) evolved 1) NH, and/or SO,
were colourless with a present.
pungent / choking odour,
and turned moist red
litmus paper blue
2) The gas(es) relit a 2) 0, present,
glowing splint.

2. To a solution of R A white precipitate was

distilled H20 and dilute formed.
HNO, was added
'

followed by AgNO,

3. Dilute HNO, followed A d e n s e w h i t e SO: present.

by BaCI, was added to a precipitate was formed. ~ a * ( a ~ ) S
tO@
:$ +
solution of R In distilled BaSO, (s)
water.
 Test Observations Inferences

4. Dilute HNO, foliowed A white precipitate was 50-; present.

by Pb(N0,) was added formed which was ~b"(aq)+sO;-(aq) -'
to a solution of R in insoluble in Pb(N0,) PbSO, (s)
distilled water and and was not affected by
heated. heating.

5. To a portion of R in A white precipitate was Indicates the presence

distilled water, NaOH formed which was of A'+. ~ b ? .Z?
(aq) was added in soluble in excess NaOH
excess (using a afier heating.
dropper) and heated.

6. Excess Ammonia A white precipitate was or ~ bpresent.

*
solution was added to a formed which was
solution of R in distilled insoluble in excess
water. NH,OH.

7. To a solution of R No precipitate was A? present. pb2+

Kl(aq) was added. formed. absent.

8. NaOH was added to A gas was evolved. NH3 (g) t HCI (g) -+
R and heated. Dense white fumes were NH, GI (5).
formed with a rod dipped NH; present.
in HCI. The gas had a
pungent odour and
turned red litmus paper
blue.

CoNCLUS'oN The cations present in the compound R were A,' and NH.; The anions present
were 50;- and CI'.

Refer to Appendix P ' e A t - At0

 To determine the relative atomic mass of a metal x by titration and hence identifjl
X.

APPARATUS Burette, pipette, 2 conical flasks, 2 beakers, retort stand.

REAGENTS 0.1 rnol dm" HCI. 3-09 d k 3 of the hydroxide xOH, methyi orange indicator,

1) Flasks and beakers were rinsed in distilled water and dried.

2) 100 ml of acid was poured into the first beoker which was then labelled A.
100 ml ofthe base was poured into the second beaker which was then labelled
8.
3) The pipette was then rinsed with its base and likewise the burette was rinsed
with its acid. The apparatus was then set up as shown in the diagram.
d
4) The burette was filled with acid t o the 0 cm3 mark and 25 ofthe base was
pipetted into the conical flask. Two drops of methyl orange were added t o this
and the solution turned yellow.
5) Acid was then slowly titrated from the burette into the flask (which was
constantly shaken) until the end point was reached.
6) The level of acid in the burette was noted and the titration was repeated one
a i d calculations done.

DIAGRAM

mol dm3HCI
I

r
i
;
i
,
... 1j
II Conical Flask
-.--- \.. I1 1I with 3.8 g d6 of XOH
.- -.- -.-- -.
r--
L_.___>'
)

DWWM OF APPARATUS FOR TITRATION

 TABLE SHOWING THE TTWTION OF A HYDROXIDE WITH HYDROCHLORIC ACID
RESULTS AND
CALCULATIONS I Burette Readings 1 c d 2
I Final Reading Icm3 1 24.00 1 23.80 1 23.80
I Initial reading I cm3 1 0.00 1 0.00 [o.oo
I Volume used ~ c d 1 24.00 1 23.80 1 23.80

Molariiy of acid (Mo) = 0.1M Mo Vo Mb Vb

Volume used (VJ = 23.8 cm3 therefore ...
Molariiy of base (MJ 3M 0.1 x 23.8 ='M, x 25
3
Volume used (V,) = 25 cm M, = (0.1 x 23.8) 1 25
0.0952M
Mass of1 mole of xOH 3.89 dme3/ 0-0952 mol dm-3 39-99
since the mass of OH is 16 t 1 = 179, the atomic mass of x = 39.9 - 17 22.9g
An equation of the titration can be written as ..,
HCI t NaOH -) NaCl t H,O

The atomic mass of metal x is 22.94 (auuroximately 23g). Therefore the element
CONCLUSION x is sodium.

M r to Appendix h p A t 9 a n d See pad 2 t S k anotherl'ittatbn experiment,

A 1 To produce soap in the lab.

APPARATUS Tripod and wiregauze, beaker, Bunsen burner, evaporating basin, 2 measuring
cylinders, glass stirring rod, spatula, filter funnel and paper, 2 test tubes with
bungs, test tube rack.

MATERIAL5 Castor oil, distilled water, dye, perfume.

REAGENTS Concentrated sodium hydroxide (NaOH), saturated solution ofsodium chloride
n.

DIAGRAM

+---------I Boiling water

L--___----J

. D ~ R AOFMTHE APPARATUS USED IN THE MANUFACTURINGOF SOAP

METHOD
A beaker was half filled with tap water and set to boiling.
2 d of castor oil was placed into the evaporating basin. A measuring
cylinder was used to carefilly pour 1 0 cm3 of concentrated NaOH onto
the castor oil.
The evaporating basin was then placed atop the beaker of boiling water.
The mixture of oil and alkali was stirred with a glass rod for 1 0 - 15
minutes.
1 0 cm3 of the saturated salt solution was added to the bosin and the
mixture was stirred.
~ k Bunsen
e burner was turned OR and the evaporating basin was left to
cool for 2 - 3 hours.
A spatula was used to scrape ofthe crust ofsoap which formed in the
evaporating bosin.
Water was then added to the skimmed OR material and then heated in a
beaker. A few drops of dye and perfume were added.
RESULTS A white curd was formed after the heated mixture cooled.

A N5W ERS TO Q1- What b the name given to this process?

QUE5TIONS
Al- ' Saponification

Q2- Write the word equation for this reaction.

A2- Fatsloils t NaOH -+ glycerol t soap (sodium salt of the acid)
CONCLU5ION soap can be manufactured in the lab by heating a mixture of concentrated
NoOH saturated NoCl and a fatloil.

Go To p q e t&Wfotexperiment on Food Tests:

 To determine the enthalpy change for a reaction between a strong acid and a
strong alkali.

APPARATUS 2 burettes, 2 retort stands, 1funnel. 2 beakers, 1thermometer, 1 stirring rod,

MATERtALS 2 styrotex cups.
REAGENTS A 2.OM HCI solution. a 2.OM NaOH solution.

METHOD 1) 40 c? of alkali NaOH was measured in the iirst burette and poured into
a styrotex cup. The temperature was recorded.
2) 40 c d o f a ~ i dHCI was measured in the second burette ond poured into
another styrotex cup. The temperature was recorded.
3) The contents of the Rrst cup (40 cm3 of alkali NaOH) was added to that
of the 40 cm3 of acid HCI. and the mixture was stirred using the glass
rod. The temperature was recorded.
4) The experiment was repeated another two times and the results were
recorded.

TABLE SHOWING TEMPERATURE CHANGE WHEN

RESULTS A N D STRONG ACID AND STRONG ALKALI WERE MIXED.
CALCULATIONS
Experiment lnitiai Temperature I OC Final Temperature IOC
Number
NaOH HCI NaOH t HCI

1 29 29.5 43
2 28 28.5 43
3 28 28.5 43
The heat released
since 100 cm3 g of solution
40 cm3 alkali t 40 c? acid

The Specific Heat Capacity(c) ~~ooJK-'~~ -'

, Change in temperature (AT) Final Temperature -
Av. lnitiai Temperature
= (29+2&28+29.5+28.5+28.5)
6

Change in temperature (AT)

Heat energy released

 The Enthalpy change mcaT / no. of moles
40 c 2 2 M acid/base contains (2A000) x 40
= 0.08 moles
0.08 moles H,O 4828.4J
1.0 moles H,O = 4828.4J 10.08 = 60480J = 60.5Kl

Q1-- Was the reaction emthermie or endethermiel

ANSWERS TO Explain.
QUESTIONS Al- Heat was loss from the mixture to the environment, therefore the
reaction can be described as exothermic and we can write ...
AH -60.5Klmol-'

02- Write the mdecular and ionic equations for the

reaetion.
A2- NaOH (aq) t HCI (aq) -+NaCl (aq) t H20 (I)
~ ' ( 0 ~t) OH-(aq) -+H20 (I)

Q f -- What precaution was taken in the experiment to

reduce heat loss to the atmosphere?
- Styrotex cups were used to minimize heat 1055 to the environment.

CONCLUSION The enthalpy change for the reaction between a strong acid and a strong alkali
was calculated to be -60.5KJ

-
R e h to Appendi~ Page A19
A4 To investigate the effect of concentration on the rate of diffusion.

APPARATUS Corks, stop watch, retort stand.

MATERIALS Long glass tube, cotton., strips of red litmus paper, tweezers.
REAGENTS Concentrated ammonia solution (NH,OH), dilute ammonia solution,

Cotton wool soaked in

concentrated Idilute
ammonia solution

DIAGRAM

slass Movement of Damped litmus

tube ammonia gas Paper

DIAGRAMOF M E APPARATUS USED TO SHOW THE DIFFUSION OF AMMONIA

METHOD
1) A long glass tube was fitted with nine strips of red litmus paper at 5 cm
intervals.
2) One end was plugged with a cork and the other end was plugged with
cotton wool soaked in dilute NH40H and a cork.
3) The length of time for each strip at each interval to change colour was
recorded:
4) Steps and 3 were repeated for concentrated NH40H.
5) The results were tabulated and a graph of time against distance was
plotted.
RESULTS
TABLE SHOWING TIME TAKEN FOR LITMUS PAPER
TO CHANGE COLOUR AT DIFFERENT CONCENTRATIONS.

Diffusion Time 1s
Strip intervals 1cm
Diluted NH40H Concentrated NH40H

5 0.6 0.4
10 1.7 1.I

15 2.6 1.9
 - -- -

Diffusion Time I s
Strip intervals I cm
Diluted NH40H Concentrated NH40H

20 3.9 2.9

ANSWERS TO
QUESTIONS Q1- What d o u r ehange should acwr as ammonia gar
reached each strip?
Al- The red strips should turn blue.

Q2- State two preeaulions that should be consi&red in

conducting this enpriment.
A2- i) Care must be t a h n td ensure that each d r i p changed cobur entirely
before recording time.
ii) For consistency in volume, the exact number of drops are to be used
for each concentrution.
43- 6ive a definition of dihdon.
- Diffusion is the movement of molecules or ions from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration along a concentration
gradient.
44- Give two examples of diffision in living things.
A4- i) The release of oxygen and uptake of carbon dioxide by leaf cells.
ii) The absorption of oxygen from alveoli in the lungs by red blood cells
in mammals.
QS- Oiwuss one hetar that afbets the rate of diffision.
-
A5- The concentrafion gradient The steeper the concentration gradient
the faster the rate of diffusion.

CONCLuS'ON The greater the concentration, the faster the rate of diffusion.
All Physics experiments, should be reported in the format given beiow.

Aim

Apparatus

Diagram

Method or Procedure

Results or Readings

Calculations

Precautions

Sources of Error,

Conclusion

Irrespective of the format, all reports should be neatly and spternatically presented with correct gramrnatica
41M To investigate how the periodic time varies with length of pendulum and to use the
results to determine the periodic time at a length of (0.55) m.

4PPARATUS Nylon string, split-cork, pendulum bob, retort stand, metre rule, stop watch.

ILAGRAM
cork
retort
stand

bob

A SIMPLE PENDULUM

METHOD 1) The retort stand with the attached pendulum was set up and plated on a rigid
and horizontal surface, as shown above.
2) The length ofthe pendulum, (taken from the base ofthe cork to the centre of
the bob), was then adjusted to (0.50) m, in the first instance.
3) The pendulum was then pulled from the retort stand, at an angle of
- measured with a protractor- and released.
approximately ten degrees (V),
4) With the bob at eye level, as it passed from let3 to right across the vertical of
.
the retort stand, counting was begun at zero (0) and the stop clock was
started. On completion ofthe fifieth (50') swing. the clock was stopped and the
time recorded. The clock was reset and the procedure was repeated for the same
length.
5) Steps two (2), three (3) and four(4) above, were repeated for various lengths.
6) The resuk were then tabulated and a graph off vs L, was plotted and the
gradient (m) determined.
RESULTS TABLEOF OSCILLATIONS OF A
SIMPLE PENDULUM AT VARIOUS LENGTHS

From the graph off vs L

CALCULATIONS 1. Gradient (rn) (2.0510.52) = 3.9-:lm

2
using this in the equation: g = 4 11 IS
= 4 x (3.14f13.9
2
g=lOmIs
2. Interpolating from the graph, for a length of 0.55 rn,
T? = 2.2 42
therefore, periodic time '2 = =&

PRECAUTloNS 1- The pendulum was hung vertically and the string securely supported.
2. The count dawn in timing was used, complete oscillations were counted
and each stop clock reading was repeated.
3. A small amplitude was used and co-planar o~illationswere attempted.
4. The lengths ofthe pendulumwere measuredfrom the point of suspension
to the CG of the bob.
SOURCE5 OF 1. It was difficult to determine the exact centre of the bob. During its
-
ERROR motion, the string was subjected to tension and so a possible change in
length.
2. Draughts ofair could have affected the coplanar swing dthe pendulum,
3. The weight ofthe string was not taken irrto account.
4. Errors may have arisen in the timing of oscillations, along with the
inherent error in the metre rule.

CONCLU5ION
The straight line graph shuws that the square of the periodic time v) is
proportional to the length ( C) ofthe pendulum. As the length ofthe pendulum
increased, the periodic time also increased. Furthermore, since the value for (g)
is obtained from the slope ofthe graph, it blowsthat the percentage error in (g)
is the %me as the percentage error in the slope. The periodic time for a length
of(0.55) m was interpolatedfrom the graph to be 1
.5Moreover, the value of
(g) was calculated to be 1 0 m / 2.
To investigate the relationship between the extension and load for a spring, and to
use the result to determine an unknown mass.

5piral spring, metre rule, slotted masses, retorl stand, pointer (optical pin), hook
(hanger), unknown mass (lump of plasticine).

G spiral sprlng

hanger

Load or stretching force

I m
SO
- mm scale
I

APPAR4TU5 TO VERIFY HOOKE'S LAW

The apparatus was set up as shown above.

The unsbetched (unloaded) length ofthe spring was noted.
A slotted mass of0.05 kg. was then carefully afiuched to the hanger, and
the new length dthe spring was noted. The mass was then removed and the
length before if was added, re-measured.
This procedure was repeated for other slotted masses, and the new length
ofthe spring was noted at each instant. Finally, the procedure was repeated
for the unknown mass.
The results were tabulated and used to plot a graph of Extension against
5tretching Force fmm which the unknown mass was deduced.
 GRAPH TO SHOW THE RELAnONSHlP
--
BETWEEN €%TENSION AND FORCE OF A SPRING
RESULTS TABLE SHOWING THE EXTENSIONS OF A SPRING
TO WHICH VPRlOUS WSE.5 WERE ATTACHED

I Mass of
Hanger I Stretching
Force I Scale Reading
I Extension of
h Spring I (Force 1
Extenion) I

CALCUUTIONS From the graph dExtension against Stretching Force

1. -
Gradient (m) = (y2 y,) / (x2 - x,)
= 40/0.80 = 50 mm 1 N
from the equation of proportionalit):
Stretching Force (F) = constant (k) x Extension (x)
k=F/x
= 1 / gradlent 1 / 5 0
0.02 N / mm
2. ~kensionfor unknown mass was noted as 60 rnm
Force read from graph is 1.2 N
Since Force (F) m x g, and g = 1 6 N 1 kg
The unknown mass (m) = F / g = 1.2 I 1 0
= 0.12 kg

PRECAUT~ONS 1. All readings were taken when the system was at rest. ,

2. Care was taken in loading and unloading the masses.

3. The spring was securely suspended.
 4. Pointer readings were taken at eye level, to decrease the chances uf
parallax error.
5. The forces c k e n did not exceed the elastic llmlt ofthe spring.

5OURCES OF 1. Inherent error In the metre rule.

-
ERROR 2. Parallax error in the reading ufthe pointer.

CONCLUSION The straight line graph through the origin indicates t h the Extension ofthe spiral
spring is directly proportional to the Stretching Force that was applied to It.
Further, from the graph; the unknown mass was deduced to be 0.12 ka.
 To demonstrate the law of conwrvation of linear momentum.

P PAR A T U 51 Two trolley(j of equal masses, ticket tape timer and tape, masses, wooden plank,
ATER l4L5 metre rule.

lAGRAM

Inclined Ifriction
compensated runway

DWRAM OF APPARATUS TO DEMONSTRATETHE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

The apparatus was set up as shown in the diagram above with the plank
being used as a Friction Compenated Runway (F.C.R.). One trolley was
labelled as (0) and placed stationary midway along the (F.C.R.).
The other trolley was labelled (A), to this the ticker tape was attached to
the trolley with a pin and then placed at the top ofthe (F.C.R.).
Trolley A was released and allowed to roll along the (F.C.R.) where it
impacted trolley 0 and the two t r o l l q were allowed to continue to the
base of the (F.C.R.).
The velocity before impact (v,) and the velocify after impact (v,) were
obtained from the ticker tape, and the results were tabulated.
Masses totalling 2 0 0 9 were added to trolley and It was returned to its
original position.
Steps 3 and 4 were repeated urrtil a total of six sets of readings were
taken.
A graph of combined mass (Ma t against combined velocity (v2) was
plotted and calculations were done to obtain the momentum after collision
(PJ
The momentum before collision (p,)was also calculated and a comparison
of p, and p, was made.
RESULTS Time for 10 tick = 116 s (using 60 Hz).
TABLE SHOWING THE CUES TO DETERMINE THE MOMENTUM OF TROLLEY A BEFORE COLLISION
Ave. length of10 tick
on tape / crn

I
r
TABLE SHOWING THE VALUES TO DETERMINETHE MOMENTUM OF TROLLEYA AND B AFTER COLLISION
Ave. length dl0 tick,
on tape Icrn
I

V, x Im d
I

(Mo+Mb)/k!3
1

1 I(M, + M, )
Ikg-'
I

CALCULATIONS

MOMENTUM AFTER COLLlSlON - FROM GRAPH

Grdient ( P,) =-(Y, - -
Y,) [V, I(Mo + M, )]I
k$
(3-3
MOMENTUM BEFORE COLLI5ION
PI = M, Vl
= 1.0 kg x 50.3 x m c1
= 50.3 x 16' kg m d
= 0.50 kg m s"

CONCLUSION From the re5ult5 and calculations

PI = 0.50 ka m i1 and
Pz = 0.50 kg m i1
This is in agreement with the law of conservation of linear momerrturn.
qtJ To investigate the relationship between the volume and pressure ofa gas.

cc-h
4PPAWTUS Thin stemmed plastic pipette, glass beaker, box ofmatches, glass rod, metre rule,
water, methylene blue, 8 textbooks of equal size and mass.

%GRAM
Thin stem 7 , ,
pipette I
, Air column length

\L

DMPAM OF SET UP OF APPARATUS AND BOOKS TO VERIFY A GAS LAW

Y ETHOD 1) 20 ml ofwater was added to the beaker and a few drops of methyiene blue
were added to colour the water.
2) The bulb (only) of the pipette was filled with the blue coloured water.
3) The tip of the plastic pipette was then sealed by heating it slightly to d e n
it and then a rod was used to squeeze the ends together. The pipette was
allowed to cool.
4) Two textbooks were placed on the bulb of the pipette and the air column
length was measured.
5) A graph of volume against llpressure was plotted.

RESULTS TABLE SHOWiNG THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

THE PRESSURE AND VOLUME OF A GAS

Pressure 1 Length of air column 1 11Pressure I

Books mm pad
 Pressure / Length uf air column / 1IPressure /

0.13

PRECAUTIONS 1. Care was taken when heating pipette for it not to catch fire.

SOURCES OF 1. Limitations inherent--inthe metre rule.

ERROR 2. Limits to the skill and carefirlness uf the experimenter

COJCLUSlON There is a direct proportional relationship between the inverse ofthe pressure and
the volume ufa confined gas at constant temperature.
 3?JIISS3?JdJO 3WAWI 3Hl HUM S3I?JWA
?JIV40 3WfllOA 3HI MOH 9NIMOHS HdW9
m
A To determine the specific heat capacity by the method ofmixtures.

APPARATUS A piece of metal, styrofoam cup, thermometer, stirrer, beaker (250 cm3), tripod,
wire gauze, Bunsen burner, balance, thread, glass-rod, cloth (for wiping up).

Thread
Boiling water
Metal Thermometer Stirrer
Cover

Tripod Styrofoam cup

Burner Water
Metal

APPARATUS TO DETERMINE THE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACIN

BY THE METHOD OF MIXTURES

1) The mass ofthe piece of metal was recorded and it was suspended in boiling
METHOD water.
2) The mass ofthe dried and empty styrofoam cup was then taken. ARer this the
cup was filled with suficient water to immerse the metal. The temperature of
the water was noted. The mass of the cup and water was noted.
3) Afier at least five (5) minutes, the solid suspended in the boiling water was
removed from the boiling water. The excess water was shaken ofthe metal
and it was quickly transferred to the empty styrofoam cup.
4) The woter in the styrofoam cup was carefully stirred and the highest
temperature reached was recorded.

REs uLT5 Mass of piece of metal (MJ = 60.3 g

Mass of empty styrofoam cup =29g
Mass of empty styrofoam cup and water 180 g
Mass of water (MJ = (180 - 29.6) g
150.4 g = 0.1504 kg
Initial temperature of metal =1 0 0 ~ ~
Initial temperature of cup and water 31°C
Highest steady temperature reached by 35%
water in the styrofoam cup
Change in temperature of metal = (100-35fC = 6 5 ' ~
Change in temperature of water = (35-31fC = 4OC
CALCULATIONS Heat loss from metal = Heat gain by water
-
MmC,(lOO t2)=MwC,(t2-tl)

PRECAUTIONS 1. The transferral of the metal from the boiling water to the styrofoam cup was
done as quickly as possible.
2. A cup of low heat capacity and good insulating property to reduce heat loss
to the environment, was chosen.
3. Care was t a k n to prevent the metal from touching the sides of the beaker
which may have been above 1 0 0 ' ~ .
. 4. Excess hot water was shaken ofF the solid before transferring to the
styrofoam cup, to obtain the temperature ofthe metal only.

SOURCES OF 1. Loss of heat from the styrofoam cup to the environment.

ERROR 2. Loss of heat from the metal to the environment during transfer
3. Some heat was lost via the thermometer and the stirrer.
4. . Errors in the reading of the thermometer and balance.

CONCLUSION The specific heat capacity of the piece of metal using the method of mixtures is
645J K< K-'
&l To investigate the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of
reflection.

APPARATUS Four optical pins, protractor, optical board, sheet of paper, metre rule, plane

DIAGRAM

Plane mirror
Holder Reflecting
c l i n e drawn
on paper

Pin 1

OF APPARATUS USED TO SHOW IAW OFREFLECTION

DLAGR~M
METHOD 1) A plain white sheet of paper was fastened onto an optical board. A
horizontal line (representative ofthe mirror line) was drawn 3" from the top
of the sheet of paper.
Using a protractor, a normal was drawn midway along the horizontal line.
An angle o f l o ofrom the normal was measured and a line (representing the
incident ray) was drawn on the paper.
Pin (1) and pin (2) were inserted into the poper along the path of the
incident ray drawn.
The mirror was then centered along the mirror line.
With eye at table level, a position was observed in the mirror where the
imoge of pin (1) was in line with the image of pin (2) so that only one image
was seen.
Pin (3) was then inserted into the sheet of poper so that its image was in
iine with pins (1) and (2) so that again only one imoge was seen.
Pin (4) was then inserted into the sheet of paper so that its image was in
iine with pins (I), (2) and (3) and only one imoge was seen.
The pins and the mirror were all removed. A straight line (representing the
reflected ray) was drawn to connect points made by pins (3) and (4) to the
mirror line.
The angle of reflection was measured using the protractor and noted.
Steps (2) - (9) were repeated for other angles of incidence.
 Plane mlrror

Reflectionline
DIAGRAM drawn on paper

RAY DWWM TO SHOW REFLECTION

TABLE SHOWING ANGLES OF INCIDENCE AND ANGLES OF REFLECTION

RESULTS
Angle of Incidence (i) Angle of Reflection (r) O

1) Parallax error was reduced by viewing image alignments at table level and
PRECAUTIONS
protractor readings vertically above.
2) The blank sheet of paper was firmly fixed to the optical board before
experiment began to prevent it from shilling.

1) Inherent error in protractor.

SOURCES OF
2) Error in judging the position of no-parallax.
ERROR

From the experiment we can conclude that the laws of reflection are true because
CONCLUSION
1. The incident ray. the reflected ray and the normal were all in the same plane
since it was possible to draw them on paper.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
AM To investigate the laws of refroction using a glass block

APPARATUS Four optical pins, protractor, optical board, rectangular glass block, sheet of
paper.

DlAGRAM Normal and incident ray

directions drawn on paper
Air

Lines drawn on paper

to mark the sides of
the glass block
I

U
i1
i
Lines joining x and y
'
,

drawn after the glass

block has been
removed

DIAGWMOF APPAWTUS USED TO SHOW REFR4CnON

METHOD A plain white sheet of paper was fastened onto an optical board. The
rectangular glass block was then centered on the sheet, outlined, and
removed.
Using a protractor, a normal was drawn to the outline of the block. An
angle of4-0' from the normal was measured and a line (representing the
incident ray) was drawn on the paper.
Pin (1) and pin (2) were inserted into the paper along the path ofthe incident
ray drawn.
The glass block was then returned to the sheet of paper and fitted onto the
outline drawn.
With eye at table level, a position was observed in the glass block where the
imoge of pin (1) was in line with the image of pin (2) so thot only one imoge
MS seen.
Pin (3) was then inserted into the sheet of paper so that its imoge was in
line with pins (1) and (2) so thot again only one imoge was seen.
Pin (4) was then inserted into the sheet of paper so that its image was in
line with pins (1). (2) and (3) and only one image was seen.
The pins and the block were all removed. A straight line (representing the
refracted ray) was drawn to connect points made by pins (3) and (4) to the
outline ofthe block. A normal to the outline ofthe block was drawn at the
point at which the refracted ray and the outline ofthe block met.
Finally a straight line was drawn to connect the incident ray and the
-189-
 refracted ray. The angle of refraction was measured using the protractor
and noted.
-
10) Steps (2) (9) were repeated for other angles of incidence.

RESULTS

TABLE SHOWING ANGLES OF INCIDENCE AND ANGLES OF R E M I O N

Angle of Angle of
Sin(i) Sin(r) Sin(i)/Sin(r)
Incidence (i) O Refraction (r) O

PRECAUTIONS 1) Parallax error was reduced by viewing image alignments at table level and
protractor readings vertically above.
2) The blank sheet of paper was firmly fixed to the optical board before
experiment began.
SOURCES OF 1) Inherent error in protractor.
ERROR 2) Error in judging the position of no-parallax.

CONCLUSION From the experimentwe can conclude that the laws of refraction are true because
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal were all in the same plane
since it was possible to draw them on paper.
2. The sine of the angle of incidence and the sine ofthe angle of refrodion are
in a constant ratio.
41M To measure the focal length of a convex lens.

4PPARATUS Convex lens, holder, metre rule, two pins.

MGRAM Real image

Object pin Convex lens Search pin

U
t---------------+ t---------+
v
FOCAL LENGTH FROM U AND V BY NO-PARALIAX METHOD

METHOD 1. The object pin was set up in front of the convex lens so that a real image
was formed, as shwn in the diagram above.
2. Using the no-parallax method, the search pin was moved until it was in
line with the real image.
3. The distances ofthe object pin from the lens (u), along with the
corresponding distance ofthe search pin from the lens (v), were
measured and recorded.
4. 5teps two (2) and three (3) above, were repeated as (u) was varied.
5. The tabulated results were used to determine the image size (r), which
was in turn used
a) in the plotting ofthe graph shown and
b) to calculate the focal length of the lens

RESULTS TABLE OF OBJECT AND IMAGE DISTANCES AND IMAGE SIZES

CALCUlATlONS The equation of the line is r (1 / f )v -1
from the graph:
1. Gradient (m) (1.3 / 13) 0.10
based on the equation ofthe line, m = 1 1f
1 / f = 0.10
f=1/0.10=~
alternatively
for r 0.7 and v = 17,
substituting in the equation ofthe line
0.7=(17/f)-1=1.7=17/f
f=17/1.7=h

2. The intercept on x / (v) axis 10

the intercept on y 1 (r) axis -1

PRECAUTIONS 1) The no-parallax method was used when moving the search pin to
coincide with the image and also in taking metre rule readings.

SOURCES OF 1) Inherent error in metre rule.

ERROR 2) Spherical and chromatic aberration in lens.
3) Error in judging the position of no-parallax.

CONCLUSION
The focal length (9, of the convex lens was 1 0 cm.
A4 To find the resistance 1 metre of wire A0

APPARATU5 Dry cells, resistor, ammeter, resistance wire (120 cm. in length),
jockeylcrocodile clip, metre rule, connecting wires.

Cell

Voltmeter Fixed

- Ammeter

DLAGR4M OF THE APPAWTLJS LJSED TO FIND THE RESISTANCE OF WIRE A6

METHOD 1) The circuit was connected as shown in the diagram above and the E.M.F. of
I
the cell was measured.
2) The current (A), flowing in the circuit, was recorded for different lengths (x).
3) The value of 1 1I was calculated for each reading.
4) The graph of 1 1Iagainst (x) was plotted and the slope calculated.

TABLE OF CDRRENT THROUGh A WIRE AT VARIOLJS LENGTHS

 From the graph d(l/ I)vs (x)
Slope (w)

- The E.M.F. (E) d t h e cell

From the equation,
The resistance / m (p)

PRECAUTIONS 1. Circuit connections were tightly made.

2. Readings were taken over a wide range of lengths.

SOURCE5 OF 1. Inherent error in the metre rule as well as the range and sensitivity of the
ERROR ammeter.
2. Parallax error in reading the metre rule and ammeter.

CONCLUSION The resistance per unit length of the wire AB was determined to be 3.9 R / m

k To pae 221fbr another experiment an Eleettieity.

QRAPH SHOWINO HOW THE INVERSE OF CURRENT
V8RIES WITH THE LENQTH OF A WIRE
-197-
41M To plot the magnetic field around a bar magnet.

4PPAWTUS Bar magnet, plotting compass, blank sheet of paper

Plotting

dot
Bar magnet

Dww OF APPARATUS USED TO SHOW MAGNETIC FIELDS

/
DIAGRAMTO SHOW MAGNETIC R E D S
METHOD A bar magnet was positioned on a plain white sheet of paper and its outline
was traced and labelled.
At the north pole of the magnet a small dot was placed on the drawing.
The edge of the needle labelled (5) of the plotting compass was then
positioned at the small dot drawn. The position of the other edge of the
needle labelled (N) was marked with a dot.
The compass was then moved so that the edge of the needle labelled (5).
lined up with the last dot made. The position ofthe other edge ofthe needle
labelled (N) was again marked with a dot.
Step (4) was repeated until the south pole of the magnet was reached. The
points were joined to represent the magnetic field line.
The experiment was repeated starting at different points around the magnet
and ending when either the other side of the market or the edge of the page
-198-
 was reached.

RESULTS + n

DIAGRAM
TO SHOW MAGNETIC FIELDS
PRECAUTIONS
Care was taken to ensure that the position of the needle of the plotting compass
was correctly marked by taking reading vertically above.

SOURCES OF
1) Inherent error in experimenter.
ERROR
2) Error in judging the position of no-parallax when reading the compass

CONCLUSION
From the experiment we can conclude that
1. Magnetic field lines of a bar magnet never cross.
2. Magnetic field lines run from the north pole of a bar magnet to the south pole
of a bar magnet.
AIM To show radioactiviiy decay and determine the half life of the decay.

MATERLALS 260 coins

METHOD The coins were shaken and thrown onto the table top.
All the coins that had the birds facing upwards were removed the
remaining coins were counted and recorded.
The remaining coins were then gathered shaken and thrown onto the ta
top.
Steps (2) and (3) were repeated.
The experiment was repeated until very few coins were left.
A graph was plotted of number of coins remaining against throw number

RESULTS TABLE OF NUMBER OF COINS REMAINING AGAINST THROW NUMBER

i

Number of coins
Throw Number
showing Numbers
GRAPH SHOWING HOW THE NUMBER OF COINS REMAININB
VARIES WITH THROW NUMBER
CALCULATIONS 1" Half Life Number of throws required for remaining coins to be reduced from
260 to 130
1.0 unit.
zndHalf Life = Number ofthrows required for remaining coins to be reduced from
130 to 65
-
2.1 1.1 = 1.0 unit:
3rdHalf Life = Number of throws required for remaining coins to be reduced from
65 to 32.5
-
= 3.1 2.1 1.0 unit.

CONCLUSION This experiment represented a true model of radioactivity decay because values
were close enough for half life to be taken as constant. The half life ofthis decay,
(t,) is approximately 1.1.
A 1 To estimate the speed of sound in air.

A P PA R A T U S l Stop watch, 2 wooden blocks, metre rule, thermometer, a high wall.

MATERlALS

METHOD 1) The experimenterlstuderrt was made to stand 1 0 0 m from a high wall.

2) The environmental temperature was taken.
3) A loud sharp sound was made by banginglclapping the two pieces and wood
together. and the echo was observed.
4) Step 2 was repeated until the echo heard was loud and distinct.
5) The rate of banginglclapping was increased until each clap just coincided
with the echo heard.
6) The time for 50 claps was measured and noted and the time for one clap
was calculated.
7) The environmental temperature was taken.
8) The average environmental temperature was calculated and the speed of
sound for the echo was calculated.

R E S U L T S I Initial temperature 31°C

CALCULATIONS Final Temperature = 31°C
Mean Temperature 31°C

Distance from wall 100m

Time taken for 50 claps 30.0 5.30.0 5,30.0 5
Ave time for 50 claps = 30.0 5
Time interval between claps = 30.0150 = 0.60 5
Speed of echo Distance travelled (m) 1time (5)
2 x distance between wall and wooden blocks
Time interval between echoes
2 x distance between wall and wooden blocks
(Ave. time for 50 claps 150)
 1. Extraneous noise and other echoes were minimized as far as possible.
PRECAUTIONS 2. Timing was conducted at times of relative mild wind currents.

Limitations inherent in the stop watch

SOURCES OF 1. Limits to the skill and carefulness ofthe experimenter
ERROR 2. Environmental conditions (windltemperature)

The speed of sound estimated in this experiment was 333.33 m 1s at a mean

CONCLUSION temperature of 3 f ~ .
tegrated Science experiments, should be reported in the format given below;

1. Aim
2. Apparatus/MaterialslReagmts (these can be separated).
3. Diagram (If required)
4. Method or Procedure
5. Observations andlor Results
6. Analysis and lnterpretotiort of Data (including Swrces of Error) Answers to Questions
7. Conclusion

he previous headinos shwld be stated where aoolicoble. Consult moes8384: for an exdondrim of each headinq.
 (9. To draw and compare the features of four (4) different leaves.
(ii). To draw the upper sudace ofthe Hibiscus leaf and annotate the drawing to show its
adaptation for photosynthesis.

MATERIAL5 Hand Lens, passion fruit leaf, Hibiscus l e d lawn grass, chive plant.

METHOD 1. Each leaf was obtained and identified.

2. With the aid uf a hands lens, the features uf the leaf were observed and recorded in
a table.
3. Each leaf was drawn and labelled.
4. An annotated drawing was made of the Hibiscus leaf showing its adaptation for
photosynthesis.

OBSERVATlONS TABLE SHOWINGA COMPARISON OF THE FEATUW OF FOUR DIFFERENT LEAVES

Features
I Leaf Characteristics I
I Chive Passion Fruit Lawn Grass I Hibiscus

I 1
.- - --

k
I
Shape

Margin
I
1
cylindrical

rounded

smooth
club-s haped

pointed

serrated
flame-shaped

pointed

hairy
I
1
flattened

pointed

serrated

1 I
- - -- -

Lamina thin and smooth thick hairy flat and thick

dark green dark green dark green

I Venation neiwork parallel network

I Petiole absent thick thick and purple short

DRAWINGS

smooth lavina
5tl~l;Ies

DRAWING OF THE QPPER 5URFACE OF

A ?A'ASSIGN FWIT LEAF ( X 2 >
 -., green simple led munaed o p x

. tt--- pointed apex

\
paralkl veins

Rm hoiry bmino

boir) rnoqin
purple caburej siolk

hora textcrre stern

DiZA\&ING OF THE UPPER SURFACE C)F

4 RUNNER OF LAWN GFASS SHOWING
FOUR LEAVE ( X 05)

-
mid rib tmnsporis wier
removes monhctured food

serroted margin

-
Branched veins forming o nehvork
thot reoclies close to oll cell;

Lomino- broord and %T pt-ovid~s

a brge sudoce area TO absorb sunligM
and corbon doxide

petiole - holds leaf a:9oUto sunlight

to maximise exposure
-. .-...
'.._ oxilbv bud

C24WING OF THE UPPER SURFACE

OF A HIBECUS LEAF ( X 2)
 To find out if chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

APPARATUS Bunsen burner, beaker, test tube, tripodlgauze, forceps. petri dish, hands lens, stop watch,
white tile.
MATERIALS Water, ethanol, a freshly picked variegated hibiscus leaf, iodine solution.

1. The variegated leafwos observed, drawn and labelled before a test for starch was done
METHOD on it by adding a few drops of iodine. The leaf was observed using a hands lens.
2. The leafwas then placed in boiling water the stop watch was started. After thirty seconds
the leafwas removed from the water.
3. The leafwas then decolourised by placing it (for ten minutes) in a test tube containing
ethanol. The leafwas then returned to original beaker ofwater to wash it.
4. Finally the leafwas placed on a white tile and tested for starch again and drawn.

Variegated leaf
i

I
Warm water
Iodine
i]
:,I
!i
-fk Bunsenburner removed 3 i

!&j
i , ...-
I ,- ,,--
I'
-%en .-c>
Variegated
. ,----
Watch
leaf
glass
-.*
,
,* ,.,,.,/,.-
!i
,,.., tTripod
.~,...:~',,..,,,,,~,.. ,:,, .,,:,/
t&g
','./'kL=====
L
\:- *s,G<.+-
,
-,p,Ezl ..'/.::,'./,/.,.'.- +\& ,,.., .-.
/./;.~:..~;~,.' ?
;',
..
-,.
- White tile

APPARATUS
AND tlATERW TO TEST FOR STARCH IN A LEAF

DRAWING OF M E UPFER SURFACE OF

A VARIEGATED HIBISCUS LEAF (X 0.5)
OBSERVATIONS The course texture ufthe leaf changed ofler boiling. The green sections ufthe variegated leaf
turned blue-black, when placed in iodine. However the un-pigmented (white parts) of the leaf
took on the yellow-brown colour ufthe iodine solution.

ANSWERS TO Q1. Why was the leaf placed in

QUESTIONS a) boiling water b) ethanol
Al. a) The leafwas placed in boiling water to kill the leaf cells and expose the chloroplast and
therefore make the leaf fully permeable.
b) The leaf was placed in ethanol to extract the green chlorophyll from the chloroplast.

Q2. What bod substance is the iodine test done for?

A2. The iodine test is used to test for the presence ufstarch. Starch substances turn blue-
black in iodine solution.

Q3. Why was nocontrol used in this experiment?

A3. A variegated leaf was used thus providing areas of the presence (green) and absence
(white) of chlorophyll.

04. Would you expect to f'ind starch in leaves that are neither green at
white?
. Yes; The other coloured pigments in leaves mask green chlorophyll.

CONCLUSlON Chlorophyll (characterised by the green part uf the leaf), is necessary for the process of
photosynthesis (for the production of starch). This is supported by the results that show that
only the green part of the leaf tested positive for starch.

60To pqe 90for another experiment on Photoynthesir

AN To draw a whole and half Hibiscus flower.

MATERIALS Hibiscus flowers, sharp kniie/scalpel

METHOD 1. A Hibiscus flower was obtained and its major parts were identified.
2. A whole view of itte flower was drawn and labelled.
3. The flower was cut vertically, drawn and labelled.
--- Stigma

guide l i n ~
'
'\

,: .
, ;:,:
. ;
. , I
'--- -----
. \.,\
, : :;. ' . Style

Pedicel
OR~WINOOF A WHOLE FLOWER OF HIBISCUS (X 0.5)

? ..:i ,&-- ---------------- stigma

...--..-... . -.---. receptacle

. . . pedicel

DRAWING
OF A HALF FLOWER OF HIBISCUS (X 0.5)

Go To pape f25fw anather experiment with flawers.

-211-
A4 To make an annotated drawing of
(1) A Fish head and
(2) The respiratory surface of the Ssh (gill)

APPARATUS Watch glass

MATERIALS Fish head, fish gills.

DRPIWlNG >.,
--
., nostril use for smelling
_s
,./- not for breehing
< ,.-' ./

eye with
,--- out liZs

pectoral fin- ~overslowt~ to br~ilgnew oxygenated

water near tc the fish when it is resting
Mouth - use for fsecing ond breathing

..- -..
'-.--
operculum covering gill

SIDE VlEW OF FISH H E W SHOWING POSITION OF GILLS (S 31

gill raker - fitters solid

particles f-,omwater

gill fibments otrsorb

oxygen from wafer

gill bcir suppcrts filaments

and 'rgkers
I

DRAWING OF A SIDE VlEW OF A SINGLE FISH GILL (K 1)

A4 To investigate the action ofthe enzyme catalase (found in living tissue) on hydrogen peroxide,

APPARATUS Beaker, tripod, Bunsen burner, gauze, t e d tubes, boiling tube, mortar and pestle.

MATERIALS Potato, cork borer.

4
REAGENTS Hydrogen peroxide (H,O,), water

METHOD 1. A cork borer was used to obtain four strips from the potato.
2. One strip was placed in a test tube containing 10 cm3 of water.
3. The second strip was crushed using the mortar and the pestle. It was the placed in a
test tube containing 1 0 cm3 of hydrogen peroxide.
4. The third strip of potato was placed in a test tube containing 10 crn3 of hydrogen
peroxide.
5: The fourth strip of potato was placed in a boiling tube and boiled for five minutes. It
was then transferred to a test tube containing 1 0 cm3 of hydrogen peroxide.

OBSERVATIONS
1
1

Test tube C) Test tube (2)

1-
Water I . Much effervescence

I
-,; 1 occurs
Potato cylinder Crushed potato
strip

1 Test tube (4)

I 1
Froth (Icm)
Effervescence occurs
Hydrogen peroxide

Uncrushed potato Boiled potato cylinder

)-
L,,
cylinder
L x '

DIAGRAM
OF TEST TUBE5 SHOWING REACllON OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE WTH POTATO

60 To pap 94k anather esperimen) on Respiretion.

ANSWERS TO Q1. Write a ward equation for this euperiment.
QUE5TION5 A1. Hydrogen Peroxide ,
Water and Oxygen.
in Uving Tissue

brplain the dlfferenae in height of bubbles behen the seaond and

third test tubes. 1
The crushed potato strip in test tube 2 affarded a greater release ofthe enzyme (than
for the uncrushed potato in test tube 3) as well as a greater surface area for the
enzyme to react.

brplain the observation noted h the fourth test tube.

When the fourth potato strip was boiled, the potato tissue was killed and the enzyme
catalase was denatured and hence no reaction was forthcoming thereder.

What test can vw use to mArn whether ot not q e n was produee

in the reaction?
Oxygen gas would relight a glowing splint placed at the mouth of the test tube.

Why does potato last longer when &igeraW

The low temperature ofthe refrlgerator renders the enzyme catalase inactive.

CONCLUSION Catalase found in living tissue causes hydrogen peroxideto decompose into water and gaseous
oxygen. The rate of decomposition is greater when the living substrate is crushed thereby
effectively increasing the surface area for the reaction to take place.

So To pp 2Mfor another experiment on fiotaspthesis.

 To determine the concentration of sulphuric acid using 0.05M sodium carbonate solution.

APPARATUS Retort stand, burette, pipette, three conical flasks, beaker.

REAGENTS Sodium carbonate (Na2C03), sulphuric acid (H2S0d.

DIAGRAM

DWRAM OF APPARATUS TO SHOW TITRATION

METHOD 1. The burette was rinsed with H2S0,. It was then filled with the same solution.
2. 25 cm3 ofNa2C03 was pipetted into the$xk.
3. Two drops o f r n l y l orange were added to\the Na,CO,.
4. Titrotion was done until the Na2C03~ust'qyrnedpink. The reading was recorded.
5. Steps 2-4 were repeated until a total ofthke sets of reading were taken.

RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS

TABLE SHOWING BUREllE READINGS FOR Trt'WTlON OF kso, WlTH NO,&.

Trial 1 2
Final Volume 25.20 25.10 25.10
Initial Volume 0.00 0.00 0.00
Volume of acid used 25.20 25.10 25.10
ANSWERS TO Q1 What was the average amount of acid used for the t i t r a t i d
QUESTIONS A1 The average volume of acid used = (25.10 t25.10 t25.00) 13 = 25.10 cm'
4
Q2. Write the mdecular and ionic h u l a for the titration.
A2 Molecular Equation:
Na2C03(aq) t H2S04 (aq) + Na2S04 (aq) t GO, (g) t H20(I)

-N~;co;~ (aq) t ZH'(aq) --+ ~(ez'(aq) t CO; @as) t H2o0(I)

Q3. What is the mdar ratio of this titratim?

A3 Na,CO, : l$S04
1 : 1

Q4. HI many mdet are present in 2scm3 of 0.05111 of L,CQ,?

- (1) 1000 ck = 0.05M ofNa&O,?
1 cm3 = 0.05/1000
25 cm3 = 0.05AOOO x 25
= 0.00125 moles

QS. Calculate the concentration of acid used in 1000 om3.

A5 25.1cm3 = 0.00125moles
1 cm3 0.00125125.1
1000 cm' 0.00125m.1x 1000
= 0.05 moles
Concentrationof H2S04in 1000 cm' = 0.05 mol d i 3

CONCLUSION The concentration ofsulphuric acid used was 0.05 mol dm".

66 TOp89 159hanother aperiment on litmiton.

 To determine the pH of some household substances.

APPARATUS Test tubes, test tube rack, measuring cylinder, dropper, petri-dish.

REAGENTS Household su'bstances (labelled 1-15), red and blue litmus paper.

METHOD 1. 15 test tubes were labelled 1-15 and 5 c d ofeach household substance was placed intl
corresponding labelled test tubes.
2. Each test tube was started and strips of blue and red litmus was alternately dipped intc
each household substance.
3. Observations ofcolour changes were noted and recorded in a table.

TABLE SHOWING THE EFFECT OF VARIOUS HOUSEHOLD SUBSTANCES ON LTTMUS PAPER

READINGS

Obsetvations with Litmus Paper

I 5ubstance -

Blue Litmus
-

Red Litmus 1
Inference
- - - - ~-

1. Bleach remains blue turns blue alkali

2. Milo (liquid) remains blue remains red neutral

3. S& Drink turns red remains red acidic

4. Shampoo turns red remains red acidic

5. Milk (liquid) turns red remains red acidic

6. Hair Conditioner remains blue remalns red neutral

7. Lipton Tea (liquid) turns red remains red 1 acidic

1 8. Dish Washing Liquid
-

remains blue turns pale blue slightly alkaline

1 9. Soap Powder Solution

-

1 alkali
p~

remains blue turns blue

1 10. Vinegar turns red remains red

I

acidic

I11. Alcolado turns a pale red remains red slightly acidic

I 12. Alcohol remains blue remains red ( neutral

turns red
-remains red
F
"
acidic
 Observations with Litmus Paper
Substance Inference
Blue Litmus Red Litmus

14. Dettol remains blue turns pale blue slightly alkaline

15. Nmema ( remains blue Iturns blue 1 alkali

ANSWER5 TO Q1. Why is it important to know the pH d household ahemieald

QUESTIONS Al. The pH ofa substance determines Its usage. For instance a wasp sting is alkaline and can
be neutralised by a weak acid vinegar.

42. Suggest an alternative to be used in plaw d litmus paper.

A2. Universal indicator paper.

CONCLUSION Soft drink, shampoo, milk. tea, cdee, and vinegar are acidic household substances. Alcolado
is slightly acidic. Dettol and dish washing liquid are slightly alkaline. Noxzema, bleach, soap
water solution, milo (liquid), hair conditioner and alcohol are neutral substances.

60To 189 M 9 k another ewparlnenf m Aoiddbsea and Salts

and Appendix 15 k Universal lndicatw sale.
m
A To determine the amount of air present in two different samples of loamy and clayey soil.

APPARATUS Two measuring cylinders, funnel.

MATERl4l5 Water, two 50 cm3 cans. samples of loamy soil and clayey soil, stirrlng rod, hammer, nail.

METHOD Holes were inserted in the base ofeach tin with the use ofthe hammer and nails.
The first tin was turned over (with the base upwards) and pressed firmly into the samplr
of loamy soil until the base d t h e tin wa5 horizontal to the level d t h e soil sample.
The tin was carefully withdrawn and turned right side up with the sample of loamy so
intact.
The first measuring cylinder was then fllled to the 50 cm3 mark and the soil in the tin wa!
poured into the measuring cylinder. The mixture was gently stirred, and the new wate
level in the measuring cylinder was noted and used to calculate the % of air in each so
sample.
-
steps 2 4 were repeated for the sample of clayey soil.

I I- 2nd level of water

r*
i

-
7 1st level of water

i _I

, . .....;,:.:.!,
st
soil
is. ,
',.. ::... :';:..+y---
; *., ,..I

,, f: ;
. ',,.:...,
,:..,-*.
Measuring cylinder
. , '

DLAGRAM
OF APPARATUS TO TE5T AIR CONTEM OF SOIL
RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS

TABLE SHOWING THE CHANGE IN V O L U M m L J J U L U U

hmy Soil Clayey soil
Volume of soil sample Icm) 50 50
final volume reading in measuring cyiinder I cm3 78 90
Initial volume reading in measuring cyiinder 1cm3 50 50
Change in volume reading in measuring cyiinder Icm) 28 40
a) Volume of air in loamy soil Ic? = Volume of soil sample - Change in volume reading in cylinder
50-28=22cb
% of air in loamy soil 22/50 x 1 0 0 = &h

b) Volume of air in clayw soil Ic b -

Volume of soil sample Change in volume reading in cylinder
= 50-40=10cm3
% of air in loamy soil = 10150 x 1 0 0 = 22%

ANSWERS TO Q 1 What obsenrations wen ma& when dl was added to water and
QUESTIONS stiwed. Grplaln the obsemtions seen.
A1 Bubbles were seen rising to the surface of the water. This was caused by the
displacement of air spaces in the soil being filled with water.

42. Of what Importance is soil air?

A2 Soil air contains oxygen which is vital for respiration of the plant's roots a5 well as soil
organisms and aerobic humus. The nitrogen in soil air is necessary for nitrogen fixing
bacteria to form nitrates.

Q f hom the nsults obtained,

(1) What conclusion can be made about the particle size of each
sample of soil?
(2) Which type of soil is better for h r n l y ?
A3 (1) Clay with 20% air has a smaller particle size than loam with 44% air. Air content is
directly related to the particle size ofthe soil.
(2) Loam is the beiter soil type for farming since it provides more air for soil organisms
and plants.

CoNCLUSloN (1) The percentage of air in the loamy soil sample is 44%:
(2) The percentage ofair in the clayey soil ample is 20%.
A 1 1. To investigate the relutionships between voltage and current in a coil.
2. To calculate the resistance of the coil.

APPARATUS 1 ammeter. 1 voltmeter, 1 variable resistor,

MATERNE Connecting wires, 1 battery (2 x 1.5V cells), 1 coil ofwire, 1 switch.

DlAGRAM r Battery
1I Variable resistor

I Connecting wire
~ m m e t e r -A Ii

T--c$-
6
,/ Switch

- 'vY
+
Vottmeter
METHOD 1. The electrical circuit was set up as shown in the circuit diagram above.
2. The variable resistor was adjusted and the currerrt through the coil was measured anc
recorded. The voltage across the coil was also measured and recorded. The variable
resistor was readjusted.
3 Step 2 was repeated until a totd ofsix sets of readings ofcurrerrt and voltage had beer
obtained.
4. A graph with the line of best fit ofvoltage against current was plotted.

READINGS TABLEOF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT FOR A COIL

I I 1
Voltage 1V Current 1A
0.85 0.16
QUESTIONS1 Q1 What was the largest vdtage and owresponding autrent readed?
ANSWERS Al. Largest Voltage =
Largest Current 0.30 A

Q2. Write the equation for Ohm's law.

A 2 Voltage Current x Resistance

Q3. Calaulate the resistanae eaah voltage and aurrent reading teaded.
A3. Ohm's Law states: Voltage = Current x Resistance
Resistance = Voltage 1 Current

Voltage / V Current 1A Resistance I 'n

Q4. What is the relationship befween voltage and cumnt? Glve a ream
A4. Voltage Is directly proportional to current as shown by a straight line graph through the
origin and the constant value ofthe resistance (slope of graph).

Q5. What's the resistance of a blender that draws a current of 1$A when
connected to a 120V eirauit?
A5. Resistance Voltage 1Current
120A5 &Q

SOURCES OF 1. Inherent error in ammeter, voltmeter and variable resistor

ERROR 2. Parallax error in reading of ammeter and voltmeter.

CONCLUSION The voltage in the coil was directly proportional to the current. The resistance of this coil is
1.82n.
60 To pa# f 9 5 b another expedment on Beatdeity.
 1. To collect and classifi materials collected as trash on the school compound in one day.
2. To classii materials according to (a) reusable (b) non-reusable (c) biodegradable (d) non-
biodegradable.

MATERLALS Garbage bags, rubber gloves.

METHOD 1. Trash (for a day) from a school compound was collected, classified and tabulated.
2. The trash was classified into four (4) groups ReusablelNon-Reusable, Biodegradablelnon-
biodegradable.

RESULTS
TABLE SHOWING TYPE AND T O T f f i OF TRASH COLLECTED
I I I
Trash Groupings Types of Materials Collected Totals Collected

Cloth Handkerchiefs, Rags, socks

Glass Soft Drink Bottles, Fruit drink bottles

Metal Fruit drink tins. soft drink tins, chair leg. aluminium foil
- -
I 133 I
Plastic B d e Covers, straws, bags, cutlery, styrofoam cups

Paper Copy book pages, gum wrapping, fruit drink boxes

Wood rulers,

Rubber sneakers, e r a w , rubber band

Bones chicken,

Food Scraps pizza, roti, bread

TABLE SHOWING CWSIFICATION OF COLLECTEDTRASH IN FOUR GROUPS

Trash Groupings Reusable Non-Reusable Biodegradable Non-

Biodegradeable

Cloth d d

Glass d d

Metal d d
 Trash Groupings Reusable Non-Reusable Biodegradable Non-
Biodegradeable

Plastic d d

Paper d d

Wood d d

Rubber d d

Bones d d

Food Scraps d d

QUESTIONS AND Ql. Based on the results obtained, what advice aan you give to the
ANSWERS students / teachers and cafeteria staff about theft environmental
responsibility.
Al. They should seek to purchase and use items which are reusable and biodegradable.

Q2. Why is it neeessay to inform those around us about the

environment and environmental eonseiousness?
A2. Non-reusable and non-biodegradable trash quickly accumulates and is unsightlyto look
at and offensive In smell. It therefore acts as a breeding ground for vermin, pests and
diseases. Additionally, it destroys and upsets the ecological systems.

Qt. In addition to being an informed citizen what can be done now

improve our environment?
. One should choose to Reduce their use of Non-reusable and non-biodegradable and
increase their use of Reusable and Recyclable materials.

Q4. What are the steps invdved in the reeyeling process? List them.
1. Collect
2. Sort
3. Clean 8 Process
4. Re-manufacture
5. Transport and Sell

c0NCLUSlON Trash collected can be classified to show trends in human consumption and thls information can
be used as a knowledge base to determine the impact of humans on the environment,
 To design a model respiratory system of man and to use it to illustrate the mechanism of
inhalation and exhalation.

"lATERLAE One plastic two litre bottle, two straws, two small buttons, cork, one pair of rubber gloves,
scotch tape, glue, knife.
YETHOD
1. The bose of a plastic two litre bottle was carefully cut away with a knife.
2. A rubber glove was cut stretched and secured aver the opening created at the bose of
the bottle using the scotch tape.
3. The corkwas then pierced and the straws were fitted into the hole and arranged as shown
in the diagram below.
4. One small balloon was then secured at the open end of each straw.
5. The entire model was the sealed with ihe use d t h e tape to prevent air from entering the
system.

JLAGRAM
I

,,,:
.
7./ ,
Stopper
- Glass tubes or
plastic straws
i
i
Balloon deflated \,

I
Balloon inflated
Rubber sheet , _ _ - -- -
,, .
@
\
\
If
-

pushed up
\ Rubber sheet
pulled down
DIAGRAMOF MODEL RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

b n p l d e the fable shownig what eaoh part of the plastic model represents
in the human body.

Plastic Model Human Body

1. Balloon Lungs

2. Rubber Glove Diaphragm

3. Vertical Tube Trachea

4. Branching Straws Bronchi

5. Plastic Bottle Rib Cavity

 82 &plain what happens when
(1) The rubber base is gentIy pulled down
(2) qhe mkbet base is g e d r released or pushed up
A2 (1) The balloons inflate (2) The balloons deflate

43. bglatfi hew Ohe mJ e t relates to the m s p f r a ~ q s f e m in man.

:3 Curing inhalation, ?he ciiaphragni +loitens causing the volume of air inside ihe lungs i o
increase dnd the pressure in the cclvity to decreese. As a result air is drawn into the
iungs. During exhalation the diaphragm domes upwards causing the volume d'oir in the
lungs to decrease and the pressure t~ increase. A s a result air is pushed out of the
lungs.

164Whaf are the IinRafisns 8 &Is rndal?

,u 'The model c r z o t ~ ddoes not .d~owthe movement oftie ribs clnd sternum.
COMCLir5lON .rj
nodei d!he respirntop sytern was used to success~ullyillustrate the mechanism of
i lie

inhaiing and exhaling,

h To pap 948 2l2b dhet expdmsnts an Wespirath,

f-j To make a simple rain gauge and to use it to observe and predict weather variations.

PPARATUS Measuring cylinder.

ATERNLS 1 hacksaw. 21 bottles with covers,, narrow cylindrical flat-based bottle, epoxy glue.

lAGRAM

Inverted tbp of Jaliter

to serve as a funnel

Narrow clear container

for calibration to
measure volumes

1 0 mm of w a t e r from
rain poured into the narrow
container. rise to new depth "L"

DLAGRAM
OF MODEL RAIN GAUGE

IETHOD 1. The top of a 21 bottle was cut to use as a funnel.

2. The top of the narrow cylindrical flat-based bottle was cut off and the funnel was glued
on as shown in the diagram.
3. The narrow cylindrical bottle was then calibrated using a mm scale.
4. The model rain gauge was then placed in a safe outdoor location and the rainfall over a
four month period was measured and recorded.
5. Students worked in groups to daily record levels drainfall and to calculate totals while
also monitoring and noting the same kom the news media.
RESULTS TABLE SHOWING CdMULATIVE MINFALL OVER A 4 MONTh PERIOD

I Months
Cumulative Rain Fail 1 mm

School News Media

March 40 52
April 18 23

May 22 24
June 50 48

Q1 During whieh month was the heaviest rainfall reaorded in (a) sehod
ANSWERS 3 and (b) the news media.
QUESTIONS Al. (a)June (b) March

Q2. Describe the weekly process of cdleeting and measuring the rainfall.
A2. A pipette was used to extract the water from the rain gauge. This water was then
placed into the measuring cylinder to be measured.

Q3. Canment on the difference recorded between rainfall measured at

shod and that reported by the news media.
A3. The variations were as a result of (1) - The use of more sensitive and accurate
instruments by the meteorological department and (2) - The difference in rainfall of the
areas in which the school and meteorotogical department instruments were placed.

Q4. What are the limitations of this model?

F.4. Inability to prevent water from being evaporated and condensing.

QS. From your model, predict the weather pattern for July.
A!?. It is predicted that there will be an increase in rainfall in the month of July.
The model rain gauge was used to successfully collect and measure rain fall over a four-month
CONCLUSION
period.
1. A mixture of this gas and air
explodes with a 'pop' when a flame is
applied.
1. Splints glows brighter and is relit.
1. In the manufacture of NH, gas.
2. In the manufacture of margarine.
3. To fill weather balloons.
1. In Oxy-Acetylene flame for
welding.
Oxygen (0,) present. 2. In oxygen tanks for diving,
mountain climbing, aircrafts and
hospitals.

1. Lime water becomes cloudy A

white precipitate is formed in lime
water. When an excess of the gas
1. In fire extinguishers.
is bubbled through the lime water,
2. Manufacture of carbonated
the solution becomes colourless.
drinks.
2. Bicarbonate indicator turns
3. In refrigerants.
yellow.
3. Moist blue litmus paper turns
red.

1. Characteristic choking smell.

2. Changes red litmus paper blue.
3. When mixed with hykogen
chloride, ammonium chloride is given
8.
1. In the manufacture of plastiw.
2. As a refrigerant on a large scale
NH, present.
in ships.
NH, (g) I HCI (g) -> NHJI (s)
3. In the manufacture offertilizers.
4. In the manufacture of HNO,

1. Characteristic pungent smell.

2. Turns moist blue litmus paper
red. 1. In food preservatives.
3. Changes moist potassium 2. As a bleaching agent in the
SO, present
dichromate (Vl) paper from orange manufachire of paper.
to green..
4. Decolours acidified potassium
manganate (VII).
 Obmvation 1 6as Identified Use of Gas
1. Smells like rotten eggs.
2. Turns moist blue litmus paper
red. HS, present
3. Turns moist lead (11) ethanoate
paper black.

1. Forms steamy fumes in moist air.

2. Turns blue litmus paper red.
3. Forms a white precipitate with
HCI present
silver nitrate.
4. Gives o f dense white fumes with
NH, gas. I
1. Suffocating odour. 1 1. In the sterilization ofwoter in
2. Turns blue litmus paper red and
homes and swimming pools.
bleached / smells of bleach. GI, present
2. Manufacture of organic
3. Starch-iodide paper turns blue-
chemicals such as bleach.
black.

1. Choking smell.
2. Turns blue litmus paper red. NO, present
3. Dark brown gas.
1. Turns blue cobalt chloride paper
I pink.
i HO
, present I 1. Universal Solvent.
1 2. Turns white anhydrous copper (It)
1 sulphate blue.

Additional Notes:-
 LABORATORY PREPACaAnON OF CARBON DIOXIDE
Dilute

Marble
Carbon
Chips
Dioxide

Silica
Gel

Carbon dioxide may be prepared by the action of dilute acid on carbonates. Marble chips (calcium carbonate) and
diiute hydrochloric acid are the common reagents.

2HCl (aq) t CoCO,(s) --, Cu4 (aq) t H20(l) t GO, (9)

-
The drying agent could be silica gel, anhydrous calcium chloride or cold concentrated sulphuric acid.

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF AMMONIA

Ammonia

Calcium Oxide

Ammonium
& Calcium Hydroxide

Ammonia may be prepared by heating a mixture ofan ammonium salt and a hydroxide, e.g. calcium hydroxide

Calcium oxide is the only suitable drying agent.

 LABORATORY PREPARATION OF CHLORINE

Concentrated
Hydrochloric
A c i d a n d
Manganese(lV)
Oxide

Water
/ Concentrated
Sulphuric Acid

Oxygen may be prepared by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (10 volume), potassium chlorate (V) or
potassium nitrate. The safest method is the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. Manganese (IV) oxide catalyses
the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.

Silica gel, anhydrous calcium chloride or concentrated sulphuric acid can be used as a drying agent.
N.B. 1 0 volume hydrogen peroxide gives ten times its own volume of oxygen.

LABORATORV PREPARATION OF CHLORINE .

Concentrated
Hydrochloric
A c i d a n d
Manganese(lV)
Oxide

Water
/ j
C ncentrated
Sulphuric Acid

Chlorine:the oxidation of concentrated hydrochloric acid using manganese (IV) oxide will produce chlorine. The
gas is passed through water to remove hydrogen chloride and then dried with concentrated sulphuric acid.
 Confirmatory Confirmatory ' Confirmatory Confirmatory Confirmatory Confirmator
Add ' Add Add Add Add Add
K (F%(CN) b KCNS or KJFe (CNF K4(Fe ((Nu KJFe (CNL) HCl or H2Sa
Add NHACNS ,

v .
- - -v- -- v --
Rust brown
- --
f -
No ppt. Dirty green 8
, White ppt. Sky blue ppt.
NH : ' p p t Insol. In xs
, '
!
ppt. Insol.
In xs ' zn2pb'* Cu '+
-- Fe
-- *' -.- 4 _ Fe?+ __ r
1
4.
ca1-~l3'

Add xs
NaOH

ppt. Dissolves White ppt.

Pb2'~n2-A13' . CaZ' .

Add NH,OH

-. v
White ppt. , ,
' ..
white ppt.
'

Sol. In xs I Sol. In xs
-
znB
.- -
~
-
i~ 6j-:

Confirmatory
ppt. Preciptate
xs Excess
' I v KI or K,CrO,

1nsclInsoluble
' 1 - Yellow ppt.
I pb2+
 Cation in aqueous solution

1cm3

1 Add 2M NH OH

171 f+lj
Sky Blue ppt.

1 Addxs
Rusty Red ppt Dirty Green ppt

1 Add xs
:
Zn,Pb, Al 0 No ppt.

1 NHOH
4

ppt. does not dissolve(

( I but rusty cobured I Add xs

White ppt.
Sol. In xs
. _jl
Add
KI to a
fresh sample
of solution

Yellow ppt.
 warm HN03 + AgNo3 +
HCI BaCb
HCI HCI I 7

0
3
co'

wan- FeSCj + H4S04

HCI

(I) if a t e ppt Seen

<*la2
boil... Look f0rCO2

SOLUBIUMRULES OF COMMON SALTS AND BASES

Soluble
Salts / Bases in
Water?

Chlorides and Iodides AgCI, Agl, Hg2C12. and Hg212 are insoluble. PbCI, is
insoluble in &'water and soluble in&water.

Sulphates
Yes I PbSO,, Hg,S04, SrSO, and BaSO, are insoluble.
CaSO, is sparingly soiuble.

Nitrates No I None

Carbonates
Yes I Only those of group 1A (see periodic table) as well as
(NH$,CO, are soluble.

Potassium, Sodium,
and Ammonium Salts
Yes I None

Oxides No I YO. Na20 and COOform corresponding hydroxides.

Hydroxides No
I NH,OH and those of group 1A (see periodic table) are
soluble. Those ofgroup II A are moderately soluble.
ACTION OF HEAT ON SUBSTANCES

OBSERVCLTION I INFERENCE I IONIC munnons

c0-; (5) -> 0" (5) t GO2(g)
1. GO, gas evolved CO;-O~ HCO, not of K or Na
2HC0; (5) -> GO-: (5) t GO, (g) t H@ (I)
2. 0, gas evolved NaNO,, KNO,. HgO. H,O,. PbO,, 2NO;(s) -> 2N02-(5) t 0,b)
KCIO, Pb,O, 2ClO; (5) -> 2CI- (5) t 30, (g)
3. SO, gas evolved A so4'- or So3'- SO,'-(^) -> d(5) t SO, b)
2FeSOA(5) -> Fe,O, (5) t SO, (9)SO, (g)
4. NO, and 0, evolved NO; of Ca and below in reactivity series 4NO; (5) -> 20'-(5) t 4NO; (5) t 0, (g)
5. HO
, gas evolved Hygroscopic or hydrated substances, 2OH-(5) -> 0'-(5) t H 0 (4)
acid %Its, some OH-, some GO3-, SO;-.~H,O (5) -> SO:-(^)
t 5H20 (I)

6. White sublimate NHAtsalt NH,'(~) -> H'@) t NH,(~)

7. Yellow when hot, ZnO residue
ND
whiie when cold
8. Red when hot.
yellow when cold
/ pbo reddue

9. Black residue CuO, FeO, NiO, COO, FeS ND

10. Red-brown residue Fe,O, ND

iCllON WITH DILUTE HCI fHEAT IF WECESSARQ

---

1. GO, qa5 evolved GO-: (or HCOJ GO+:) t 2Ht (aq) -> H,O ( I ) t GO, (g)
2. H, gas evolved Some Free metals eg: Zn. Mg, Al Metal (5) t 2Ht(aq) -> Metal salt + H,(g)
3. SO, gas evolved SO,-' (or HSOJ SO,'$) t 2~+(04)-> H,O (1) t SO, (g)
4. H,S aas evolved s2- 5" @aq) t 2Ht(aq) -> H S (9)
5. SO, and S so,-: I SO,: (aq) t 2Ht(aq) -> S (5) t SO, (g) t HO, (I) I
ACTION WITH CONCENTRATED H$O, [heat if nesessarv)

OBSERVATION INFERENCE
HCI GI- 2Cr(s) t H,S04 (!)-> 50-: t 2HCI (g)
I
I SO, I so:-

HBr is oxidized by conc. H,5O, to Br,

2I-(s) t H,S04 (I)-> 504'-(s) t 2Hl (g)
HI is oxidized bv conc. H-50.a t ,I I
I
I

NO, t 0, NO3 NO;(s) t H2S0, (I)-> HN03(aq) t HS04-

HNO, decomuoses to release NO, t 0,
qs) H ~ (aq)O -> ~so:-t H,S (q) I

Observatioa/EhtdSi~ Idweme loaic Equafioa Observah / m e t af

Nitrate Sdutian
White precipitate - turns purple in
sunlight
Cream precipitate -turns yellow-
green in sunlight
Pale yellow precipitate
A q u m s Ammonia
GI- Agt(aq) t Ci' (aq) ->. AgCI(s) White Precipitate soluble
Bf Ag' (aq) t Bf(aq) -> AgBr (s) Cream Precipitate slightly soluble
I_ A; (aq) t (aq) -> Agl (5) Pale Yellow Precipitate insoluble
EFFECT OF BaINOJ1jaq) or BaC12jaq) followed bv a dilute acid

Obsewation / Effeet aC
' Obsewation / Effeet af Inferente
lonit Equation
b(HO,),(aq) or BaCl,(aq) HCI (aq) or HMO, (aq) (Anidn)
Bd'(aq) t so4'-(aq) -> BaSO, ( 5 )
White precipitate Precipitate sohble SO-: White. BaSO, does not react with dilute
acids.
BOi'(oq) t Co3"(aq) -,BaCO, (5)

White precipitate

White precipitate Precipitate insoluble

I so: I White.
BaSO, (5) t 2HCI (aq) -> BaCl, (aq) t

I I I HO, (1) t SO, (g)

Canfirmation Test tw NitratelN0;)ions

1 TEST OBSERVATIONS IONIC EQUATIONS 1

Add concentrated Blue solution forms and Cu(s) t 4HN0, -> Cu(NO&aq) t 2 HO, ( I ) t 2N02(g)
sulphuric acid and copper nitrogen dioxide is
turnings to solid. Warm evolved.
gently

Brown Ring Test: Make a Sulphuric acid sinks,

solution of the soiid. Add brown ring forms
saturated iron (11) between the two liquid
sulphate solution and layers.
mix. Add concentrated
sulphuric acid down inside
of test tube.
+ Decreasing activity
Increasing activity b

R e a c t i v i t y Series
 Periodic Table of Elements

0
metals
U

non-metals

Croup Group Group Group Group Croup

Group
L-liquid
II KEY Ambo' t-and

5 Relative atomic mass (Ar)

Peroid

,
1= Atomic (proton) number (2)
-9',,,,A
.. -- element

Peroid
2= l m s i t i o n Elements
Peroid
3= VB VIB IIB
Peroid Cats)
4= 10
Cd< Lm
88
Peroid Sro
5= 38
Slrontii

I I
137
Peroid Bats) Reu Oso nIre
6= 56 75 76

Peroid
7=

*
58-71 Lanthanum series
t
90-103 Actinium series
 Chemirl/Reagent Uses/Cornrnents

1. Acetone (propanone) 4n inflammable organic solvent used in extractions.

2. Acetic Orcein Biological reagent, stains root tip (used in the observation of mitosis).

3. Agar (nutrient) 5omplex sugar extracted from red algae and used to solidify a bacterial
nedium.

4. Alcohol (ethanol 1 methyiated Used to decolourize leaves in photosynthesis experiments; used along
spirits) vvtih cold water, in the emulsion tes? for the preence of lipids (fats). P
:loudy white suspension indicates a positive tet result; this substance
is inflammable.

5. Ammonia solution Used in qualitative analysis experiments to detect the presence of some
zations.

6. Aniline Hydrochloride Biological reagent; lignin (wood) stains yellow.

7. Barium Chloride 1 Nitrate Reagents used in quaiitative analysis to detect some cations in solution.

8. Benedicts Solution / Fehling's Tests for simple or reducing sugars like glucose. A change in colour
Solution From blue to green to yellowish to red is seen. A red precipitate ic
Formed.

9. Bicarbonate Indicator Solution Used in photosynthesis and respiration experiments. It identifiec

changes in GO, concentration as follows:

< CO, +O.05%CO2 +CO,

pqle orange-red yellow
pH9 pH8 pH7

10. Biuret Reagent Used in biuret test for the presence of proteins. A purple colour
indicates a positive test result.

11. Borax Carmine Biological reagent, used to stain whole mounts of animal material,
Nuclei stain pink.
12. Bromothymol Blue Solution pH indicator (range 6.0 - 7.6); Used in respiration experiments; i t
turns from blue to yellow or green, if GO, is present.

13. Bromine A brown toxic gas. It is used to demonstrate diffusion ofgases. It is

used as a bench reagent in chemistry.

14. Calcium Chloride A drying agent used in dessicators.

15. Calcium Hydroxide (Lime Water) Tests for C 0 , T u m s from clear to cloudy if GO, is present.

16. Catalase Enzyme found in living tissue which decomposes H, 0,into 0, and
H,O.

17. Chloroform (Trichloromethane) A non-flammable organic solvent which is used as an anesthetic when
preparing organisms for dissection.

18. Cobalt Chloride ldentifjes the presence ofwater, It turns from blue to pink when HO
, is
present. It is used in transpiration experiments.

19. Copper (11) Sulphate Identifies the presence of water. It turns from (anhydrous) white to
blue when H,O is present. It is used in food tests.

20. Dimethyl Ether (ethoxyethane) A highly flammable organic compound; It is an anesthetic which is also
used in extractions.
21. Diphenylamine
An insoluble organic compound used as a dye. It is also used as a test
for nitric acid.

A blue reagent used to test for Vitamin C. It decolouration indicates a

positive test result.
23. Disinfectant
A chemical substance that inhibits or kills the growth of bacteria.

24. Eosin A biological reagent that causes cytoplasm t o stain pink. It causes
cellulose to stain red.
25. Formaldehyde Used as a preservative for tissuelorganisms.
(Methanallformalin)

26. Hydrochloric Acid (dilute) Used to hydrolyse a non-reducing sugar such as sucrose. It is used in
qualitative analysis and titration. It is also used to make stains.

27. Iron (11) Salts A reducing Agent which turns from green to yellow.

28. Iron (Ill) Salts Oxidising agent that turns from yellow to green.

29. Iodine Solution Used to test for starch. A colour change from yellow-brown to blue-
black indicates a positive test result. It is also used to stain
organelles.

30. Litmus An indicator which turns red in acids and blue in bases.

31. Methyl Orange An indica'tor which turns red in acids and yellow in bases.

32. Methylene Blue Used to stain organelles by irrigation.

33. Paper (Cellulose) Used to test for fats. A translucent mark indicates a positive test
result.

34. Phenolphthalein An indicator that is colourless in acidic solutions and pink in alkaline
solutions.

35. Phiorogluclnol Biological reagent that causes lignin (wood) to stain red.

36. Potassium Hydroxide Absorbs GO,. It can be used to neutralize acid used in test for a non-
reducing sugar.

37. Potassium Hexacyanoferrate (11) & Used in qualitative analysis to detect ~2and ~ e >ions.
(111)

38. Potassium Iodide A reducing agent which turns from a colourless substance to brown.
It is used in qualitative analysis to identifi cations.
39. Potassiunt Manganate (Vii) Used to show diffusion
(y0.J

40. Acidified Potassium Hanganate An oxidizing agent which turns from purple to colourless.
(Vii) (KM,OJ

41. Acidified KjCr207 A n oxidizing agent which turns from orange to green.

42. Potassium Pyrogallol Used to absorb 0,and GO,.

A biological reagent that stains plant nuclei red.

44. Screened Methyl Orange An indicator which turns light red in acids and green in bases.

A biological reagent that stains cellulose purple and lignin (wood)

yellow.

46 Silica Gel A drying agent.

47. Sodium Hydrogel Carbonate Neutralises acid. It is used in tests for non-reducing sugars.
(Baking Soda)
Absorbs CO, and can be used to neutra!ize acid. It is used to test for
48. Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda) non-reducing sugar.

49. Soda Line Absorbs GO,.

50. Sudan Black (IV) Used to test for fats which stains ed for a positive test result.

5i. Universal Indicator Defects pH. (See table below.)

52. Water The universal solvent. It turns anhydrous Copper Sulphate blue and
Cobalt Chloride paper from blue to pink.

Yellow I Green I Turauoise I Blue I

Pressure (p) = Force (F) 1Area (A) F=pxA;A=Wp
Liquid Pressure = Depth x Density x g
Physical Density (p) = Mass (m) 1Volume m = p x V ; V = mlp
Relative Density = (Density of Substance) I(Density of Water)
Volume of rectangular solid Length x Breadth x Height
Volume of Cyiinder n x ~adiu; x Height
Volume of Sphere = 413 x n x ~ a d i u s '
Volume of Cube = Side3
Volume of Irregular Solid = Volume, - Volume,
Area of Circle = I7 x ~adiu:
Area ofa plain figure = Length x Breadth
Kelvin = Celsius t 273
Fahrenheit = (1.8 x Celsius) + 32
Increase in Length = Linear Expansivity x Original Length x Temperature Rise
Voltage (V) Current (I) x Resistance (R) ! VIR; R= VII
Electrical Power (P) = Voltage (V) x Current (I) V = PI!; I = P N
Charge (Q) = Current (I) x Time (t) l=Wt;t=Q/I
Electrical energy (W) = Charge (Q) x Voltage (V) V=W/Q;Q=WN
Energy Consumed = Power (KW) x Time (h): Cost = No. uf K w h x Price per K w h unit
Total Series Resistance (R) R t R, t ...Rn
1/(Total Parallel Resistance) = 11 R, t 1/R, + ... 1/R,
Root Mean Square Vaiue = 0.7 x Peak Value (Alternating Current)
(Secondary Voltage), I(Privary Voltage), = (Secondary Turns), I(Primary Turns),
Work Done (w) = Force (F) x Distance Moved (5) F = Wls; s=W/F
Power (P) = Work (W) 1Time (t) t=W/P;W=Pxt
% Eflciency = (Energy Output)/(Energy Input) x 1 0 0
5tretching Force = Constant x Extension Constant = Stretching Force IExtension; (Extension is
proportional to Stretching Force)
Weight, x Distance1 = Weight, x Distance, (Law of Levers)
Force (F)= Mass (rn) x Acceleration due to gravity (g)
Speed (v) = Distance (5) / Time Taken (t)
Velocity (u) = Displacement (AS) 1Time t ~ k e n( ~ t )
32. Accelerafion (a) = Change in velocity (AU) / Time taken ( ~ t ) AU=~XA~;A~=AU/~
2
33. Height Fallen = H g x ~im' (Acceleration due to fra fall) ag=2h/t
34. Momentum (p) = Mass (m) x Veloclty (u)
35. Kinetic Energy (EJ = H Mass (m) x [Velodty (v)]
36. Change in Potential Energy (AEJ= Mass (m) x g x Height (h): h = A E /~mg
37. Pressure (P) = Constant 1Volume (V) V = Const. I P; PV = Const.; (Boyie's Law)
38. Volume (V) = Constant x Temperature (9 T = V / Const.; V 1T= Const.; (Charles' Law)
39. Pressure (P) = Constant x Temperature (9 T = P 1Const.; P / T = Const.; (Pressure Law)
40. (Pressure, x Volume,) / TemprPture, = (Pressure2 x Volume2) ITemperature2
41. Heat Energy (En) = Mass (m) x Specific Heat Capacity (S.H.C. or c) x Temperature Change ( ~9
c=E,/maT
42. Heat Capocity (C) = (S.H.C. or c) x Mass (m) c=Clm
43. Energy (EJ = Mass (m) x Spec8c Latent Heat (L or 5.L.H) t?=E,Im
44. Optical Formula: lht l/u =;fl f = w Iutv; where v = image distance; u = object distance; f = focal length
45. Magnification Formula; m = v / u; where m = magnification; v = image height; u = object height
46. ReFractive Index (n) = Sin i 1Sin r = Real Depth / Apparent Depth = 11Sin c
47. Wave Speed (c) = Frequency (f) x Wovelength (A) F=clA; A=df
48, Sin 0,l Sin 0, = Velocity, I Velocity, = Wmelengh, I WavelengtJ
49. [Periodic Tme (91'= [4112x Length (l)y g; g = [4$x I] l f = 4n' 1gradient
50. Mass or Nucleon Number(A) =Atomic or Proton Number (2) = Neutron Number (N)
2
51. Energy (E) = Mass (m) x Speed of light (cf m=Elc
52. Amount of electric charge (C) = Number of Electrons (mot) x Faraday Const (CIMol).
53. No. of Faradays = Number of Coulombs I96500
54. Equivalent Weight = Molecular Weight x Net positive Valency
55. Mass of deposit (in grams) = Equivalent weight x Current (in Amps) x Time (in seconds) 196500
56. Relative Molecular Mass ( M j or Relative Formula Mass = Sum of each component Atomic Mass (A)
57. Number of Moles = Mass IMass of1 mole ofthe element
58. Number of moles Mass / Mass of mole ofthe compound.
59. Given number of particles (Y) = Number of Moles x 6.02 x loz fL)
Particles may be atoms, molecules or formula units
r
a. No. of Moles = Y 1 1
b. Mass = Y x Mass of1 Mole of compound 11
 c. Mass = Y x Mass of 1 Mole of element I L
d. Y = L x (Mass of Substance I Mass of1 Mole of substance)
59. No. of Moles = Volume of gas 122.4 d d at s.t.p.; Volume of gas = No. of Moles x 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p.:
60. No. of Moles = Volume of gas 124 dm3 at r.t.p.; Volume of gas = No. of Moles x 24 dm3 at r.t.p.:
61. No. of Particles = Volume of gas 1 2 4 dm3 x L
62. Volume of gas = (Mass of g w I Mass of1 mole of gas) x 22.4 dm3; Mass of gas = (Volume of gas x Mass of
1 mole of gas) / 22.4 dm3.
63. Total Mass of solution = Mass of solute + Mass of solvent.
64. % Mass = (Mass o f d u t e / Mass ofdution) x 1 0 0
65. % Volume = (Volume of wlute I Volume of Solution) x 1 0 0
66. No. of Moles = Molarity x polume(in cm3 )y 1 0 0 0
67. Molarity = Mass I RMM x Volume (in litres)
68. Concentration in moles (mol dm? = Concentration (g dm? I RMM
\
69. Mass of1 mole of solute (g) = Mass Concentration (g dm-? I Concentration (mol dm?
70. volume,^ MolariityJ / (Volumeb*x Molarityd = Mole, 1 Molek
1. % Element = (Total Mass of Element present 1 Mass of Compound) x 1 0 0
72. n x (Empirical Formula) = Molecular Formula where n = integer.
73. Rate of Reaction = Change recorded in any property I Time taken for change.

Some Common Ph@wl Constads

QliaW Sn
lu Vah
Acceleration due to gravity 9 ION/$
Velocity of light in vacuo c 3.0 x lo8m s?
Air pressure at seal level - IO~Nrn-2
Electron Charge e - 1.6 x lo-''c
Electron Mass Me 9.1 x 10" $
Specific Heat Capacity of Water c 4 2 0 0 J kg-' 41-'
 I FACTOR I PREFIX I SYMBOL I
1018 exa E exagram - Eg 1Olbg

1oi5 peta P petametre - Pm 1o~~~

I 1012 I tera ( T I terametre - Tm I 1012m

1 lo9 1 giga I G I gigawatt - GW I ICI~W

1 lo6 1 mega I M I megajoule - MJ I 106~

171 I k I
--

kilo kilogram - kg

I lo2 I I h I I
--

hecto hectametre hm- - 10'm

I lo1 I deca I da I decagram - dag I 10lg

I 0 I deci I d I decimetre - dm I 10-'m

I 1 0 I centi I c I centimetre - cm I IO-~~

10-' milli m millilitre - mL 10-'L

1o4 micro CI microcouloumb pC - 104c

1o-' nano n nanosecond - ns 1o-'~

1d2 I pico I p I picoCurie - pCi I IO-~'C

1 10-15 1 femto I f I femtoAmpere -fi I 10-l~~

10-l8 I atto I a I attoqram - aq I 10-l~q

Additional Notes:-
 DA
I GMM I NCIME USE
to pick up and move around organisms
- into containers
scissors to cut of leoves, flowers ond fruits

Rg& 1 kdfe 1 to xmpe off mosses, barnacles fmm

rocks

I to observe smoY orgonisms

C A ~ I B11
-- I I

pbstic bogs1tins1jorsl tubes to transport organisms

@ tope Ibbeb t o idenfib orgonisis In containers

Spoon 1trowel t o dig up pionts ord soil samples

1 to store and classify organisms

b b book, writing implements to record organisms in habitat I diet

Addiial Hok- .
 SAMPJNGVEGETATION BY UNE TRANSECT / HEIGHT PROnLE
I

I 20 m Line transect

ikh
Fern
Weed
.A Savannahgrass

A line transect (string) of known length is extended across an area of distinct change in conditions and distribution
of plants and sedentary animals from 2 definite points eg seashorehlopes etc. Record organisms at determined
intervals touching the fine. A belt transect is more accurate than a line transect.

STUDYOF PLANT DISTR1811TION BY QUADRAT W E D UPON THEM

Where N and T represent species being sampled.

A Quadrat of known dimension is randomly thrown several times in a uniform ecos~terns(e.g. grassland/playing
field). Counts are made of parlicular species for determining species density I cover I fi-equency. It can also be
used to sample organism attached to stone sudaces in water. However the quadrat is inappropriate for sampling
vegetation that can be damaged by the throwing ofthe quadrat eg: eggs on cabbage in a cabbage field.
I Diagram
1
I. Sweep mouth of net through vegetation to collect insects
[e.g. butterflies, grasshoppers)
2. Place in river to collect mobile organisms
3. Place over some crawling animals e.g:crabs

N.B. various net size will determine sizelquatity of organisms

captured. 5weepnets can be u 9 d with quadratsltransects.
Bottles 1buckets Place bottleslbuckets horizontally on the ground to attract
small animals with baitlfood left overnight. Nocturnal animals
4
(e.g. millipodes, spiders, beetles are drawn and trapped)

Dig a hole in ground and place bottle containing water and

hvo (2) drops of detergent; cover with a stone to prevent
rain getting in and to camouflage trap. Nocturnal organisms
fall into jar.

Suck up small organisms from bark of trees, soil and leaves.

1. Encourage female mosquitoes to lay eggs

2. Collect butterfly eggs and store in aerated
containers with leaves to observe life cycles

Pick up small organisms with hands from leaveslshrubs,

garden, seashore

Dig up small organism from gardens, sand or mud

 Diagram

Sticky fly paper

Small flying insects are stuck to sticky fly paper

Hit branches of trees 1 shrubs and allow small animals to fall

over white sheet.

Tullgren funnel 1 lantern 1. Organisms from heap litter are extracted using
heat and light. They show negative phototaxis
2. Moths and other insects show positive phototaxis.

--

Additional Notes:-
 F

Account for Give satisfactory reasons or explanations for. 1

Annotate Add brief notes of explanation.

Apply Use knowledgel principled information given to solve problems. I

Appraise To judge the quality or worth of.

Assess Present advantages and disadvantages for the significance of particula r
structures, relationships or processes.
Calculate Use of equations to arrive at the solution to a numerical problem.
Classify Put into groups based on observable characteristics.
Comment / Make remark and observations on, giving both sides of an argument.
Give Opinion on
Compare Point out the similarities and differences.
Contrast / Compare to highlight differences.
Distinguish
Construct Use a specific format to make andlor draw a graph or other illustration using
data/material provided or obtained t o m practical done.
Correlate Establishlshow the relationship between two (2) or more variables. Example:
How one implies the other.
Criticize Judge and discuss the merits and faults of.
Deduce Make a logical association between two or more pieces of information to
derive a conclusion by reasoning.
Define Explain or identify the nature or essential qualities of; 5tate briefly t,he
meaning ofwords or terms.
Demonstrate Show clearly by giving proof or evidence.
Derive To deduce as from a premise; to draw a conclusion from data by a set of
logical steps.
Describe To give an account of, using factual descriptive detail (words, annotated
diagrams). Example: The appearance, nature and attributes of speciflc
structures or steps or processes.
Determine Find the value ofa physical quantiv. Example - The specific Heat Capacity.
Design Plan and present with the appropriate practical detail.
Develop Extend or expand an idea or argument with supporting reasons.
Devise Construct, compose or make up.
Differentiate Make distinctions between; Point out the differences.
-A27-
Discuss Debate; Give the various viewpoints 1 arguments both for and against;
Explain the merits ofa situation. Explore solutions.
Draw Make a line illustration (from observed specimen or apparatus) which depict a
correct relationship between parts.
Enumerate List various events descriptions, things, ideas etc.;
Estimate Make an appropriate quantitative judgement.
Evaluate Appraise the worth and value of an idea or comment etc. It includes a
justification of your conclusion.
Explain Make the meaning clear, plain and intelligible and understandable; Show how
and why; Give reasons based on recall.
Extrapolate To project values that lie beyond the range of known values on the basis of
those known values.
Find Locate a feature or obtain data as from a graph.
Formulate Devise a hypothesis; express in a formula or in a systematic manner.
Identifj Name or point out specific components or features.
Illustrate Use speciflc examples or analogies to clarifj or explain by the use of figures,
drawings and diagrams etc.
Interpolate To compute intermediate values in a series. In graphs it is the read off values
from the x and y axes.
Investigate Use of simple logical procedures to observe and record data and drawing
concIusions.
Justifj Defend or uphold a statement, decision or conclusion, with supporting
reasons.
Labe1 Use of label lines to place names and identifj structures or parts indicated.
List Itemize without detail; (Usually a vertical sequence).
Measure Use approprigte instruments to make accurate quantitative readings.
Name Give the word or phrase by which a person, substance or process etc. is
known 1 called.
Note Write down observations.
Observe Use of the senses to pay attention to details which characterize a specimen,
reaction or change taking place.
Outline Give the main points of.
45. Plan Prepare to conduct an investigation.
46. Predict To foretell on the basis of observations; Use information to arrive at a likely
conclusion or to suggest a possible outcome.
47. Prove Establish the truth or genuineness of, by evidence or argument.
48. Record Write an accurate description of the full range of observations made, during a
given procedure.
49. Relate Give an account of happenings, events andlor circumstances usually to
establish associations, connections or relationships.
50. Sketch Make a quick representation / drawing, showing proportions and other
important details: A general impression.
51. State P r e m t the facts concisely and clearly.
52. Suggest To put forward possible ideas, thoughts and hypotheses from information
presented or previous knowledge.
To set forth a generalisation which offers a likely explanation for a set of data
or observations.
54. Tabulate To arrange / present Information in a table.
55. Test To find out by following set procedures.
56. Trace Follow the course / development of an occurrence / idea etc.

Additional Nates:-
--
The education that you obtain in pursuing a science SBA related course prepares you to make'a living i.e. to earn
~ersonallmonetaryincome and to make a valuable contribution to society and the world. Seek not only to know how
P make a living but also to know how to live. The world awaits your unique contribution. You were placed here to
n a b a positive difference. whatever, career path you pursue do it with all your mind and heart. Here are some
~ossiblecareers you may consider wen while at school. The list is not exhaustive but it can give you a vision and
;ontribute to you intelligently fulfilling your purpose.

Inalyzer Compounder Lithographer Research Nutritionist

lnolytical Chemist Cosmetologist Meteorologist Teacher
Inneoler Welder Criminological Chemist Marine Chemist Scientific Assistant
+=vr Dentist Metallurgist Science Writer
hcteriologist Electrician Osteopath SurgeodPhysician
3io-C hemist Extermincrtor Paint Chemist Veterinarian
Zeramic Engineer Forester Pharmacist Surveyor
Zhef Forensic Chemist Photographer Water Treatment
Zhemicol Salesman Geologist Quality Control Worker
Zhemical Engineer Loborcrtory Technician Attendant X-Ray Technician
Research Chemist Zoologist

Inaesthesiologist Dental Hygienist Horticulturist Occupational Therapist

I~ropologist Dietician Immunologist PhysicianlSurgeon
3acteriologist Entomologist Laboratory Technician Practical Nurse
3io-Chemist Farmer landscape Architect Registered Nurse
3iologist Fish /Wild life Service Marine Biologist Teacher
3otonist Forester Medical Secretary Veterinarian
Zhiropractor Game Warden Nuturalist Virologist
Zollege Professor Gardener Neuroscientist X-Ray Technician
Zurotor Geneticist Neurosurgeon Zoologist
lental Assistant Home Economist Nursery Worker
 I PHYSICS I 16
Aeronovtical Electron Microscopist Navigator Seismic Observer
Airplane Pilot Electronics Engineer Nudear Engineer Seismologist
Architect Engineer Ophthalmologist Shed Mdal Worker
Architechml Engineer Geneticist Optometrist Ship Pilot
Astronomer Geophysicist Photographer Sound Specialist
Civil Engineer Laser Surgeon Physic01Chemist Teacher
Computer Engineer Magnetic Engineer Physicist Telexopist Technician
Draftsman Mechanic Plumber Ultrasound Technician
Electrial Engineer Meteorologist Radio-TV Repairman TV Camera Operator
Electrician Mining Engineer Rocket Scientist Virtual Reality Designer
X-Ray Technician

Aerobics Instructor Environmentalist I Loboratory Technician Secretary

Air Condition Repairperm F o r m Equipment Lifeguard Seismologist
Mst Mechonic Mason Service 5tdrion Attendant
Computer Salesperson Farm hand Mechonic Soil Scientist
Cosmetologist Flight Attendant Model Supermarket Attendant
Cruise Ship Attendant Florist Painter Surveyor
Desktop Publisher Forester Petroleum Engineer Teacher
Dietician Geographer Plumber Rodio-TV Repairman
Electrician Geologist Photographer Word Processor Operator
Entertainer J o c k Physical Education Welder
Teacher

Additional Note=-
 Bstudents with '\\,
eit Lience SBA. \
\\
\
\
I1that the student

Iamplr labs
\ \

\
mistty, - ',\

finger tip,
.m .. -
r SBA

a w n Marryshow, a husband /
iuccess of hienee students
1.
I
/
istant uaminer far C.X.C. 1
parhnent at the El Damlo
edvcator at the primary, I
eleven (11) patsmShe is
3taphie Artist in her owg
I
n bpotts.
and Graph /,
,;
/
/

nits ,