Final Msu Reviewer Hard Copy 2022

MSU SASE, SHSEE AND CET- MSSC
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College entrance exam and science high school entrance test tips. Conquer MSU SASE, SHSEE
UPCAT, ACET, USTET, DLSUCET, PSHS-NCE, and other entrance tests.
LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY
(Parts of Speech/General Grammar Rules)
Sentence Completion
Following are sentences that lack a word or a group of words. Taking account of the rules of
grammar, choose the word or group of words that best fits the sentence.
1. To the preoccupied Rose and __________, the lecture was simply gibberish.
a. I c. mine
b. me d. myself
2. Sakuragi did a slam dunk and the crowd roared ___________ approval.
a. his c. our
b. its d. their
3. ____________ Filipinos must learn to look out for our country’s interests.
a. Them c. Us
b. They d. We
4. My father left the decision entirely up to __________ and __________.

a. he – I c. him – I
b. he – me d. him – me
5. I bought twenty miniature _________ and ten model _________ for the house. Do you
have some _________ that could hold them?
a. dwarfs – elfs – shelfs c. dwarves – elfs – shelfs
b. dwarfs – elves – shelves d. dwarves – elves – shelves
6. Each of the alumnae looked for the complimentary ribbon to tie ______ hair. Later,
they found out that the scissors for cutting the ribbon _______ missing as well.
a. her – was c. his – was
b. her – were d. their – were
7. John and Susie own that yacht. _____________ yacht is a beauty.

a. John and Susie’s c. John’s and Susie’s
b. John’s and Susie d. both a and b
8. Among all the girls at the party, she was the ________________.
a. best dressed and most admired c. better dressed and most admired
b. best dressed and well admired d. well dressed and well admired
9. Lolita is going to Switzerland ___________ May next year. Particularly, she would be
leaving ___________ eight o’clock a.m _________ New Year’s Day.
a. at – on – at c. in – at – on
b. in – at – in d. in – on – on
1
10. Rita resides ____________ #312 Mahabagin Street, Teacher’s Village ___________
Quezon City.
a. at – in c. in – on
b. at – on d. on – in
11. Since my thoughts ___________ yours, I would like to _________ you on this matter.
a. differ from – differ from c. differ with – differ from
b. differ from – differ with d. differ with – differ with
12. Each year, the House members always _____________ the UP budget.
a. cut c. has cut
b. cuts d. have cut
13. He is going directly home, ___________?

a. aren’t he? c. isn’t he
b. doesn’t he d. isn’t him?
14. The word indices __________ the plural for the singular index.
a. is c. are
b. was d. were
15. A thousand pesos __________ not enough compensation and you _________ it.
a. are – know c. is – know
b. are – knows d. is – knows
16. Procter and Gamble __________ a lot of products. One of these products
___________ the famous bath soap Safeguard.
a. produce – are c. produces – are
b. produce – is d. produces – is
17. I used too ___________ of the bleach and so the stain remained on the shirt.
a. much b. many
English I
c. few d. little
18. ___________ are you deserting me __________ you are also taking our supplies.
a. both – and c. neither – nor
b. either – or d. not only – but
Correct Usage
Following are sentences that need a word or a group of words to complete them. Choose the
correct answer according to the rules of grammar.
19. _________ beauty cannot be measured.
a. Its c. It has
b. It’s d. It was
20. Did you see the several _________ on the aquarium at the lounge?
a. fish c. both a and b
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b. fishes d. none of the above
21. The student badly needs her teacher’s ___________.

a. advice c. advising
b. advise d. advisory
22. I must justify my position ___________ so that they’d understand.

a. farther
b. farthest c. further
d. furthest
23. You smell very ___________.
a. good
b. well c. both a and b
d. none of the above
24. I felt _________ after the spectacle I made of myself in school.
a. bad c. worst
b. badly d. none of the above
25. May I please request that each of the two groups take an ___________ position in the
issue now.
a. alternate c. alternative
b. alternating d. all of the above
26. Lito works at the supermart __________ moonlighting at the restaurant.

a. and c. besides
b. beside d. or
27. Macaroni and cheese __________ my favorite dishes.

a. are c. is
b. be d. all of the above
28. A large percentage of the class _______ fascinated by the museum.

a. be c. were
b. was d. any of the above
29. According to Machiavelli, it is not imperative that a ruler _________ good, he just has
to appear so.
a. be c. was
b. is d. were
30. If I _________ a horse I would be running round and round this farm nonstop.
a. were c. is
b. was d. am
31. If we __________ harder we would have passed the UPCAT.

a. studied c. had studied
b. study d. have studied
32. _____________ mountains aplenty in the Philippines.

a. There is c. There was
b. There are d. There were
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33. She ______________ finished the project before tomorrow.
a. will have
b. would have c. should have
d. none of the above
34. I ___________ sick in bed last month.
a. laid
b. lain c. lay
d. lie
35. I thought you already ______________ that issue to rest.
a. laid b. lain
c. lay d. lie
36. According to Arsene Dumont, people have an irresistible urge to _________ the social
a. raise up c. rise
b. raised up up
d. risen
up
ladder.
Error
Detection
Following are statements that may or may not contain an error. Choose the letter corresponding
to the word or group of words that makes the sentence incorrect. Choose letter E if there’s no
error.
37. I believe that I am as good a singer as him. No error.

A B C D E
38. Whomsoever wishes to see a ghost is a fool. No error.

A B C D E
39. No one was lovelier or more strikingly intelligent than her at the beauty contest
A B C
yesterday. No error.
D E
40. Rowena announced that the bonus will arrive during the meeting
yesterday. A B C
D No error.
E
41. That work is more unique than the other one. No error.
A B C D E
42. The apparent heir to the throne of England is Prince Charles. No error.
A B C D E
43. Right now I am very angry at you, so please don’t come near me for I might hit you.
A B C D
No error.
E
44. The first group has begun to argue about the second group. No error.
A B C D E
45. The children were dismayed and depressed by the closing of the zoo. No error.
A B C D E
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46. I am looking forward and preparing for the Math Olympiad which will be held
A B C D next
week. No error.
E
47. The librarian went to Manila. New books were ordered by her today. No error.
A B C D E
48. Before yesterday, I have given up hope that you will come back. No error.
A B C D E
49. You do your homework right now or I won’t let you go out with your friends.
A B C D
No error.
E
50. The doctor as well as some of the best doctors in the Philippines is giving a free
A B C
medical checkup tomorrow. No error.
D E
51. The committee members but not the chair of the committee has agreed to go to
A B C
Palawan for the annual excursion trip. No error.
D E
52. Each man and each woman in the audience was affected by the passionate speech.
A B C D No error.
E
CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE EXPRESSION

Each item consists of a set of sentences. Considering the general rules of grammar, choose the
correct and effective sentence from the set of sentences.
53.
a. She only walked fifteen miles when her legs gave out.
b. She has walked only fifteen miles when her legs gave out.
c. She had walked only fifteen miles when her legs gave out.
d. She had only walked for about fifteen miles when her legs gave out.
54.
a. Father jogs exuberantly to the park every morning before breakfast to exercise his
heart.
b. Father jogs exuberantly every morning before breakfast to the park to exercise his
heart.
c. Father exuberantly jogs every morning to the park to exercise his heart before
breakfast.
d. Father, to exercise his heart, jogs exuberantly every morning before breakfast to
the park.
55.
a. My sister is going to take a little trip to Europe in Italy in June next year.
b. My sister is going to take a little trip to Italy in Europe in June next year.
c. My sister is going to take a little trip in June next year to Italy in Europe.
d. My sister is going to take a little trip to Europe next year, to Italy in June.
5
College entrance exam and science high school entrance test tips. Conquer MSU SASE, SHSEE
UPCAT, ACET, USTET, DLSUCET, PSHS-NCE, and other entrance tests.

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(Syntax and Mechanics)
Sentence Completion
Following are sentences that lack a word, a group of words, or punctuation. In accordance with
the rules of syntax and mechanics, choose the letter of the answer which best completes the idea
of the sentence.
1. “With great power comes great responsibility__________ Uncle Ben said to

Spiderman.
a. ” c. .”
b. ,” d. No punctuation necessary
2. My mother___________ believes that getting into UP is the best thing that can
happen to me right now.
a. as well as my father c. , as well as my father,
b. as well as my father, d. –as well as my father,
3. Leonardo, Michelangelo, Raphael ___________ Donatello are the four members of

the Teen-age Mutant Ninja Turtles.
a. or c. and
b. , or d. , and
4. Time is gold__________ it waits for no man.

a. , c. :
b. ; d. None of the above
5. Aristotle is a great philosopher____________ Plato is, in my opinion, a better one.

a. however c. , however,
b. , however d. ; however,
6. Bryce is longing to visit European cities___________Paris, London, Vienna, and

Frankfurt.
a. namely c. , namely,
b. namely, d. ; namely,
7. I ordered a rare steak____________a well done one.
English II
a. not c. , not,
b. , not d. ; not,
8. _____________ he has been fond of playing tennis.

a. Ever since, c. Ever since
b. ever since, d. Ever since—
1
9. I have only one comment when you say, “All men are equal___________I wish it
were true.
a. ”: c. :”
b. ” d. ,”,
10. Cory is always looking forward to her ____________ and her ______________ visits.
a. sister’s / mother-in-law’s c. Sisters / mother-in-laws
b. Sister’s / Mother-in-laws’ d. Sister’s / mother-in-law’s
Error Detection
Following are sentences which may or may not have an error. Bearing in mind the rules of
syntax and mechanics, choose the letter corresponding to the word or group of words that
make the sentence incorrect. Choose letter E if there’s no error.
11. O Lord. What will happen to me now? No error.

A B C D E
12. Will you please count how many ands there are in sentence number
A B C D
thirteen? No error.
E
13. These are the government agencies that I can recall at this moment; DOLE, DTI,
A B C D
DOH, DILG, DFA, DENR. No error.
E
14. In exam-taking, concentration and clear thinking are essential. That’s why it is
A B C
necessary that you should be well-rested the night before a big exam. No error.
D E
15. She informed him “that she was sorry” and that she would like them to be friends
A B C D again. No error.
E
16. The Prince is a wonderful book written by Niccolo Machiavelli when he was in exile.
A B C D
No error.
E
17. It is my greatest wish that I get into the University of the Philippines, the university of
A B C D my
dreams. No error.
E
18. P250 is the price of one ticket to The Tempest and I am sad to say we can’t afford it.
A B C D
No error.
E
19. Your father talked to Jim when he was on his way to the country club. No error.
A B C D E
20. I have long prepared for tonight’s performance and I hope for just one thing;
2
A B C that I can give
you all my best. No error.
D E
Correct and Effective Expression

Each item consists of a set of sentences. Considering rules of syntax and mechanics, as
well as general rules of grammar, choose the correct and effective sentence from the set of
sentences.
English II -
21.
a. After running very rapidly his legs throbbed with pain.
b. Running very rapidly, his legs throbbed with pain after.
c. Very rapidly his legs throbbed with pain after running.
d. After running very rapidly, his legs throbbed with pain.
22.
a. Pre-Platonic Greek philosophers believed that knowledge can be gained only
through experience, while Plato believed that there is an absolute truth and it
cannot be learned through experience.
b. If Pre-Platonic Greek philosophers believed that knowledge can only be gained
through experience, Plato believed that there is an absolute truth and it cannot
be learned through experience.
c. Knowledge can be gained only through experience, the Pre-platonic Greek
philosophers believed, while there is an absolute truth and it cannot be learned
through experience, Plato believed.
d. Pre-Platonic Greek philosophers believed that knowledge can only be gained
through experience, while there is an absolute truth and it cannot be gained
through experience, according to Plato.
23.
a. I couldn’t believe the sight that met my eyes. Chaos reigned. Debris all over
the place.
b. I can’t believe the sight meeting my eyes for chaos reigned and debris all over
the place.
c. I couldn’t believe the sight that met my eyes; chaos reigned and debris all
over the place.
d. I couldn’t believe the sight that met my eyes. Chaos reigned and there were
debris all over the place.
24.
a. The happiest way to live: to forgive and to forget.
b. To forgive and forget. That’s the happiest way to live.
c. To forgive and forget, that’s the happiest way to live.
d. To forgive and to forget. That’s the happiest way to live.
25.
English II
a. Being truly generous means giving with your right hand without your left hand
knowing what your right hand’s doing.
b. Give with your right hand, without your left hand knowing what the right hand
is doing, then you’re being truly generous.
3
c. Being truly generous means giving with your right hand, without the
knowledge of your left hand.
d. Give with your Right hand without the knowledge of your Left hand, and you
are then being truly generous.
26.
a. A truly academic spirit persists on searching and finding the truth, even at the
cost of your personal convictions.
b. A truly Academic spirit persists in finding the truth and searching for the truth
even at the cost of one’s personal convictions.
c. Even at the cost of your personal convictions, a true academic spirit persists
on finding and searching for the truth.
d. A truly academic spirit persists in searching for and finding the truth, even at
the cost of one’s personal convictions.
27.
a. Sisa kept calling out to anybody who would listen, kept seeking out her lost
sons. She was getting desperate and she was losing her mind.
b. Calling out to anybody who would listen, seeking out her lost sons. Sisa was
getting desperate and she was losing her mind.
c. Sisa was getting desperate and losing her mind; calling out to anybody whp
would listen, seeking out her lost sons.
d. She was calling out to anybody who would listen, seeking out her lost sons.
Sisa was getting desperate and was losing her mind.
28.
a. For getting the first prize in the 46th International Investigatory Project
Competition, the school gave Gregory the Most Outstanding Student Award.
b. For getting the first prize in the 46th International Investigatory Project
Competition, the School gave Gregory the Most Outstanding Student Award.
c. For getting the first prize in the 46th International Investigatory Project
Competition, Gregory was given the Most Outstanding Student Award by the
school.
English II
d. As Gregory got the first prize in the 46th International Investigatory Project
Competition, the Most Outstanding Student Award went to him from the
school.
29.
a. To get what is dreamed of, all avenues must be explored and all fights fought.
b. To get what you dream of, explore all avenues and fight all fights.
c. To get what is dreamed of, you must explore all avenues, you must fight all
fights.
d. One must explore all avenues, fight all fights, if you are to get what you dream
of.
30.
a. When a young girl, her grandfather was lost in the war and her grandmother
died of heartbreak. She is inconsolable.
b. When a young girl, her Grandfather was lost in the war and her Grandmother
died of heartbreak. She was inconsolable.
c. When she was a young girl, her grandfather was lost in the war and her
grandmother died of heartbreak. She was inconsolable.
d. When a young girl, she lost her Grandfather to the war. Her grandmother died
of heartbreak and she was inconsolable.
31.
4
a. The Institute for the Blind proudly stood on the plaza grounds and it was made
possible through the efforts of the city officers.
b. Through the efforts of the city officers, the Institute for the Blind proudly stood
on the plaza grounds.
c. The Institute for the Blind, through the efforts of the city officers proudly stood
on the plaza grounds.
d. Through the efforts of the City officers, the Institute for the Blind proudly stood
on the Plaza grounds.
32.
a. Last year, the Department of Education moved for the closure of ABCD school
because it found out that it had no business registration and none of its
teachers has a license to teach.
English II -6-
b. Because the ABCD School and its teachers had no business registration and
license to teach, the Department of Education closed it down last year.
c. Last year, the Department of Education shut down the ABCD School because
it found out that the school had no business license and the school’s teachers
had no teaching licenses.
d. The Department of Education shut down the ABCD School last year because it
has been found out that the school was not registered and that its teachers
were not licensed to teach.
33.
a. Everyday I went there, and everyday I sought forgiveness, however,
everything was in vain. I gave up all my pride, only for it to be thrown back
at my face.
b. Everyday I went there and everyday I sought her forgiveness. However,
everything was in vain. I gave up all my pride, for it to be thrown back only
at my face.
c. I went there and sought her forgiveness everyday, but everything was in vain.
I gave up all my pride, only for it to be thrown back at my face.
d. I went there and sought her forgiveness everyday. But everything was in
vain. I gave all my pride up, for it to be thrown only back at my face.
34.
a. Three automobiles—a sedan, a truck, and an SUV—can be seen on the road.
b. Three automobiles; a sedan, a truck, and an SUV, can be seen on the road.
c. A truck, a sedan, and an SUV, three automobiles, can be seen on the road.
d. There are three automobiles that can be seen on the road; a sedan, a truck,
and an SUV.
35.
a. I would like to extend my gratitude to Mr. Stevens, the chairman, Mr. Johnson,
my supervisor, and last but not the least, my father.
b. I thank you whole-heartedly Mr. Stevens, the chairman, Mr. Johnson, my
supervisor, and last but not the least, my father.
c. Mr. Stevens the chairman, Mr. Johnson my supervisor, and last but not the
least my father, I thank you all.
d. I would like to thank the chairman, Mr Stevens; my supervisor, Mr. Johnson;
and last but not the least, my father.
English II -7-
36.
a. Everyday, all I do is wake up to work, to work, to work, and to work.
5
b. Everyday that’s what I do: to wake up, to work, to work, to work, and to work.
c. To wake up to work, to work, to work, and to work—that’s what I do everyday.
d. To wake up, to work, to work, to work and to work—that’s what I do everyday.
37.
a. I hurriedly placed the precious book, which I had brought back from the
library, on the mantel.
b. I hurriedly placed the precious book on the mantel which I had brought home
from the library.
c. Hurriedly, I placed the Precious Book on the mantel which I had brought home
from the library.
d. I brought back from the library a precious book I hurriedly placed on the
mantel.
38.
a. We camped on the edge of the cliff, in a small cabin which had been
uninhabited for years.
b. On the edge if the cliff on a small cabin which has been uninhabited for years
we camped.
c. We camped in a small cabin on the edge of a cliff which had been uninhabited
for years.
d. We camped in a small cabin, which had been uninhabited for years on the
edge of the cliff.
39.
a. Don’t ride the clutch; you should keep your left foot off the pedal.
b. Don’t ride the clutch; keep your left foot off the pedal.
c. You should not ride the clutch; keep your left foot off the pedal.
d. Don’t ride the clutch. Keep your left foot off.
40.
a. Nurses do a necessary job, and doing what the doctors tell them to cure the
patients and making them feel better is their business.
b. Nurses do a necessary job: doing what the doctors tell them to cure the
patients and making them feel better.
English II
c. Nurses do a necessary job. They do what the doctors tell them, to cure the
patients and to make them feel better.
d. It is the nurses’ job to do what the doctor tells them to cure the patients and
make them feel better, and their job is necessary.
41.
a. The answer to your question is so obvious that a child, who’s still in his cradle,
can apprehend it.
b. The answer to your question is so obvious that it can be apprehended by a
child who’s still in his cradle.
c. It is so obvious, the answer to your question, that a child who is still in his
cradle can apprehend it.
d. A child who is still in his cradle can apprehend the answer to your question,
being obvious.
42.
a. You are always taking me for granted and I couldn’t have stood it any longer
now.
b. You were always taking me for granted and I couldn’t stand it anymore.
c. Always, taking me for granted. You were always doing that and I couldn’t
stand it anymore.
d. Taking me for granted. I couldn’t stand it anymore.
6
43.
a. Some Education has and always will be important to anyone with any ambition.
b. Some education is and always will be important to anyone with any ambition.
c. Anyone with ambition, some education has been and always will be important.
d. To anyone with ambition, some Education is and always will be important.
44.
a. He is always disapproving of and disagreeing with me; for some reason I don’t
know.
b. He has always disapproved and disagreed with me, for some reason I don’t
know.
c. He always has disapproves of and has disagreed with me, for some reason I
don’t know.
d. For some reason I don’t know, he has always disapproved of and disagreed
with me.
45.
a. Janella is as stubborn, if not more stubborn than, Rusella whom I thought was
the most stubborn girl in this class.
b. Janella is as stubborn as, if not more stubborn than, Rusella whom I thought
is the most stubborn girl in this class.
c. Janella is as stubborn as, if not more stubborn than, Rusella whom I thought
was the more stubborn in this class.
d. Janella is as stubborn as if not more stubborn than Rusella, whom I thought
is the most stubborn girl in this class.
46.
a. My pride in the boat I made myself is greater than that of those who sail
manufactured boats.
b. My pride in the boat I made myself is greater than those who sail
manufactured boats.
c. My pride in the boat that I made myself is greater than those who sail
manufactured boats.
d. My pride in the boat I made myself is greater than those who sail
manufactured boats they have made themselves.
47.
a. With large numbers in a class also makes it impossible for the teacher and
student to discuss problems.
b. With large numbers in a class, it is impossible for the teacher and student to
discuss problems.
c. It also makes it impossible for the teacher and student to discuss problems,
with large numbers in a class.
d. It also makes it impossible for the teacher and student to discuss problems
with large numbers in class.
48.
a. The meadow was surrounded by tall blossoming trees which gave off a sweet
fragrance which lent an atmosphere to the grove which seemed to make it an
ideal place to hold a concert.
b. The meadow was surrounded by tall blossoming trees which gave off a sweet
scent, lending an atmosphere to the grove that makes it an ideal place to hold
a concert.
c. The meadow seemed an ideal place to hold a concert because it had an
atmosphere lent to it by the sweet fragrance given off by the trees surrounding
it.
d. Surrounded by trees which gave off a sweet fragrance, the meadow had an
atmosphere that made it seem an ideal place for a concert.
7
49.
a. One hundred fifty years is a twinkle to a star, but to a man it is three lifetimes.
b. 150 years is a twinkle to a star, but to a man it is three lifetimes.
c. A twinkle to a star and three lifetimes is 150 years.
d. One hundred fifty years is a twinkle to a star but to a man it is three lifetimes.
50.
a. The reason the population is increasing very rapidly is because people are no
longer dying like flies, not because they are reproducing like rabbits.
b. The population is increasing very rapidly, not because people are reproducing
like rabbits, but because they are no longer dying like flies.
c. Because people are no longer dying like flies, not because they reproduce like
rabbits; that’s why the population is increasing very rapidly.
d. Very rapidly, the population is increasing because people are no longer dying
like flies, not because people are reproducing like rabbits.
8
(Diction and Vocabulary)
Sentence Completion
Following are sentences that lack a word or a group of words. Choose the letter of the
answer which best completes the idea of the sentence.
1. The children were so ____________ that the teacher had to yell to be heard.
a. discreet c. obstreperous
b. morose d. truculent
2. Coach Calhoun tried to ___________ his team to try harder in the face of
overwhelming odds.
a. emulate c. flout
b. exhort d. instigate
3. I don't think these flowers are __________ to New England. At least I've never seen
them.
a. exigent c. indigenous
b. fluent d. ingenuous
4. Roberto pretended to know a lot about the opera, but he was really just a
___________ .
a. catalyst c. dilettante
b. chimera d. supernumerary
5. The professor became so forceful, so _________ in his expression of opinions, that

students began to leave his course.
a. credible c. dormant
b. dogmatic d. lucid
6. The older child had a reputation for ________ trouble in high school, but he calmed
down in college.
a. appeasing c. instigating
b. curtailing d. mortifying
7. The professor got in trouble for making __________ remarks about the Dean of
Faculty.
a. benign b. blithe c. pejorative d. pensive
8. My uncle has never been to an art museum; in fact, when it comes to matters of art,
my uncle is a real _________ .
a. hedonist c. patrician
b. martyr d. philistine
9. The jury ___________ the mayor of all wrongdoing.

a. augmented c. expatriated
b. exonerated d. subjugated
10. A __________ seemed to befall the entire community as it heard the horrid news.
a. blasphemy c. malaise
b. largess d. malfeasance
11. A kind of ____________ seemed to occur when David graduated from high school. He
became a serious student all of a sudden.
a. accolade c. metamorphosis
b. epithet d. milieu
1
12. Esmerelda's dissertation was on such an ___________ subject that no one could
understand it.
a. auspicious c. equitable
b. austere d. esoteric
13. Sherman's hold on his job has become so _________ that no one is sure he'll be
working there next month.
a. eminent c. serendipitous
b. putative d. tenuous
14. The Ateneo University basketball team's perfect season ___________ in a

championship win over De La Salle University.
a. alleviated c. fomented
b. culminated d. fulminated
15. The jury was able to see through the ___________ argument of the defense lawyers.
a. onerous c. specious
b. palpable d. stoic
16. Maria was so _________ that she couldn't follow even the simple directions on the
cake box.
a. candid d. opulent
b. obtuse
c. officious
17. It's not a good idea to take a balloon ride in _______ weather conditions.
a. adverse c. malleable
b. affable d. onerous
18. How my brother ever became a priest is an __________ to all of his high school
friends.
a. antipathy c. enigma
b. archetype d. idiosyncracy
19. Benson's essay was ____________ with punctuation errors of all kinds.
a. opulent c. resolute
b. replete d. virulent
20. The prime minister bowed and scraped and behaved ___________ before the new
queen.
a. obsequiously c. resolutely
b. ostensibly d. sinuously
21. Rhonda's behavior only _____________ an already bad situation.

a. exacerbated c. obfuscated
b. flouted d. preempted
22. George had the ___________ to suggest that we hire a new coach.
a. discretion c. surfeit
b. disdain d. temerity
23. The philosophy lecture was so predictable, so _________, that everyone fell asleep in
five minutes.
a. ascetic c. astute
b. banal d. ineffable
24. The Darwin couple ______________ upon their future for months before deciding to
get married.
a. deferred c. precluded
b. incited d. ruminated
2
25. The ____________ of the task before them would prove a challenge to their
imagination and patience.
a. enormity c. lethargy
b. hiatus d. omen
26. The mysterious, ____________ music floated through the trees and charmed the
listeners.
a. esoteric c. sanguine
b. ethereal d. viable
27. The ____________ facts of the matter were obvious to most of the witnesses.
a. bodacious c. perfunctory
b. gratuitous d. salient
28. The first-grade teacher attempted to __________ his pupils in the virtues of playing
fair.
a. comprise c. exonerate
b. edify d. stipulate
29. In an attempt to _______ the effects of a bad year, farmers planted a second crop.
a. censure c. mitigate
b. decimate d. obliterate
30. Clarence was well known for his __________, his ability to lie on the couch and watch
TV all day.
a. animosity c. lethargy
b. futility d. reticence
Analogy
Following are pairs of words that express either a synonymous or an antonymous
relationship. From the choices, choose the pair that expresses a similar relationship to the
given.
31. cacophony : harmony

a. education : edification c. miniscule : gargantuan
b. equality : order d. subjugation : labor
32. vacillating : indecisive

a. capricious : predictable b. impecunious : impoverished
c. inept : competent d. vacant : brilliant
33. disparage : commend

a. auspicious : favorable c. relegate : send away
b. obscure : hidden d. surreptitious : candid
34. condone : overlook

a. assiduous : ambitious c. frenetic : serene
b. erudite : scholarly d. sagacious : obtuse
35. innate : inherent

a. corporal : spiritual c. exigent : demanding
b. ephemeral : eternal d. spurious : authentic
36. scrupulous : lackadaisical
3
a. extraneous : irrelevant c. impetuous : impulsive
b. immutable : impermanent d. inane : senseless
37. abstemious : ascetic

a. amorphous : distinct c. negligent : conscientious
b. dubious : positive d. virulent : deadly
38. assuage : provoke

a. abstruse : straightforward c. lugubrious : morose
b. belligerent : quarrelsome d. mercurial : unpredictable
39. cryptic : definite

a. arduous : easy c. gregarious : severe
b. diffident : timid d. purported : supposed
40. vilify : malign

a. exuberant : ebullient c. vitiate : purify
b. surrogate : original d. zealous : indifferent
Error Detection
Following are statements which may or may not have errors. As you bear in mind the
rules of diction, choose the letter corresponding to the word or group of words that make
the sentence incorrect. Choose E if there’s no error.
41. I am quite crabby today so please don’t try my patience. No error.

A B C D E
42. Dhona has to make a few adjustments to the product of her baking skills. No error.
A B C D E
43. The secret I have told you should be entre nous only. No error.
A B C D E
44. The next matter under our agenda is the matter about the amount of taxes that
A B C
shall be levied on each member. No error.
D E
45. What is your domicile made of? I need your answer for my project. No error.
A B C D E
46. Now and then I read poetry, but it has never had any affect on me. No error.
A B C D E
47. Turn at the corner; the store is further down the road. No error.
A B C D E
48. Renesa is an alumnus of the University of the Philippines, and she is coming back
A B C
to the university to teach. No error.
D E
49. He cited only four sources in his research paper, so his teacher gave him a
A B C D
reprimand. No error.
E
4
50. I inferred from his remarks that he was unhappy with my draft. No error.
A B C D E
5
READING COMPREHENSION
(Coherence, Unity, Analysis, and Inference)
Critical Reading
Each passage in this subtest is followed by questions or incomplete statements. Each
statement or question is followed by lettered words or expressions. Select the word or
expression that most satisfactorily completes each statement or answers each question in
accordance with what is stated or implied in that passage. Blacken the corresponding circle
after the appropriate item number on your answer sheet.
BEGIN HERE:
Selection 1: From Wolfgang Langewiesche’s A Flier’s World.
A puff of wind comes down on the street. An old newspaper stirs in the gutter, jumps
up on the sidewalk, spirals up to second-story height and flaps about there for a moment;
then with a new burst of energy, it sweeps upward again, and when you last see it, it is
soaring high above the rooftops, turning over and over, blinking in the sunlight.
The wind has picked up a piece of paper and blown it away. A generation ago, in a
philosophical discourse, one might have chosen this as an example of an event completely
devoid of any significance, completely chance. But not in the air age. The tiny occurrence
demonstrates an important fact concerning the air ocean – one that is only now becoming the
practical knowledge of practical airfaring men: there are winds which blow neither east nor
west, neither north nor south, but in the third dimension: straight up.
1. The scene in the first paragraph could be best described as ______________.

a. frantic c. indifferent
b. idyllic d. philosophic
2. The newspaper was lifted by a particularly _____________ wind.

a. gale c. puff
b. mild d. strong
3. The author’s main point was that ______________.
a. a piece of paper is buffeted by the wind

b. there’s a third dimension to wind movement
c. about how a philosopher’s discourse is done
d. it is easy to fly airplanes.
4. Which of the following statements describes the organization of the passage?

a. A generalization is made and examples are given
b. Something specific is discussed to exemplify a generalization
c. The passage moves from the least to the most recent event.
d. Something specific is discussed, its components are given.
Selection 2: by E.B. White
Preparation for fighting a war is like preparation for taking a cruise in a small sailing boat—
there is no end to it. It is possible to get so absorbed in the details of preparation as to lose
sight of the trip. Anyone who has ever had the experience will know what I mean. If you
were to wait until both of you and the boat were really ready to put to sea the summer would
pass and the autumn would find you still at your home mooring. No boat is ever entirely
ready to put to sea, no country is ever fully prepared to go to war; always there remain things
which should be attended to, contingencies which should be provided for. But there comes a
1
moment when you have to forget about preparations and think about the stars and the sea
and the lengthening nights. You know that if you don’t go now you will never go. So you
drop off your mooring and shape your course to the wind. From then on things begin to
move; you may not be ready for every particular, but you are under way and the ship is alive.
And something vital in the ship imparts sudden life and resourcefulness to her crew.
5. What is the general tone of the author?

a. advising c. pessimistic
b. forbidding d. whimsical
6. To what is fighting a war compared by the author?

a. Endless sailing c. Preparation for taking a cruise
b. Sailing a small boat d. none of the above
7. The author believes that ____________________.

a. no country can win a war
b. a boat is never ready for a sailing trip
c. a boat is never totally ready for a cruise
d. one should be completely prepared before going to war
8. What is the main point of the passage?

a. Drop off your mooring and sail now.
b. Think about the view and your motivation to sail will rise.
c. Preparing for every contingency in a war and a cruise take a long time.
d. Postponing a war because one isn’t wholly prepared is tantamount to not going to
war at all.
9. Based on the context of the passage, what does “lengthening nights” symbolize or refer
to?
a. boredom c. the coming of winter
b. the coming of night d. the passing of time
10. From what you have read, what could be the motto of the author?
a. A country must be decisive in matters of war.
b. Diffidence is an effective war attitude.
c. A sailor’s life is the best life.
d. A warlike attitude is a virtue.
Selection 3: by Kahlil Gibran
Love and Lovelife
“When love beckons you, follow him,

Though his ways are hard and steep
And when his wings enfold you yield to him
Though the sword be hidden among his opinions may wound you.”
b. love
11. Whose ways are hard and steep? c. your beloved
a. life d. none of the above
12. The author is convinced that in the face of love _______________.
a. one is helpless c. one must fight
b. one must concede d. one will suffer
Selection 4: From Florian A. Alburo and Danilo A. Abella’s Skilled Labour Migration from
Developing Countries: Study on the Philippines
International migration of skilled persons has assumed increased importance in recent

years reflecting the impact of globalization, revival of growth in the world economy and the
explosive growth in the information and communications technology (ICT). A number of
2
developed countries have liberalized their policies for the admission of highly skilled
professionals.
The problem lies in that this demand is largely met by developing countries, triggering
an exodus of their skilled personnel. While some amount of mobility is obviously necessary if
developing countries are to integrate into the global economy, a large outflow of skilled
persons poses the threat of a ‘brain drain’, which can adversely impact growth and
development. The recent UK government (DFID) White Paper on International Development,
“Eliminating World Poverty: Making Globalisation Work for the Poor” has rightly pointed out
the need on the part of developed countries to be more sensitive to the impact on developing
countries of the brain drain. It was in this context that the Department for International
development, United Kingdom, approached the ILO for carrying out research relevant to the
above issues.
13. From the passage, what may be meant by “brain drain”?

a. globalization
b. a fatal accident resulting to head injury
c. inflow of skilled labor to developing countries
d. outflow of skilled labor from developing countries
14. From the passage, it can be inferred that ________________.

a. globalization is a regrettable phenomenon
b. out-migration or emigration must be stopped
c. skilled people tend to move where they are paid more for their expertise
d. the developing countries’ liberal policy to migrants is the main reason for the brain
drain
15. What is one cause to the rise in the incidence of international migration, according to the
selection?
a. the ominous and imminent threat of brain drain
b. the growth of information and communication technologies
c. the development of industries in the United Kingdom
d. the encouragement of developed and developing countries
16. How is the above selection organized?

a. examples are given and a generalization follows
b. a problem is explored and exposed
c. the selection is ordered according to time
d. a myth is refuted
Selection 8: From the National Statistics Office, Population by Region: Census 2000
TOTAL
REGION POPULATION
Philippines 76,504,077
NCR - National Capital Region 9,932,560
CAR - Cordillera Administrative Region 1,365,412
Reg. I - Ilocos Region 4,200,478
Reg. II - Cagayan Valley 2,813,159
Reg. III - Central Luzon 8,030,945
Reg. IV - Southern Tagalog 11,793,655
Reg. V - Bicol 4,686,669
Reg. VI - Western Visayas 6,211,038
Reg. VII - Central Visayas 5,706,953
Reg. VIII - Eastern Visayas 3,610,355
Reg. IX - Western Mindanao 3,091,208
Reg. X - Central Mindanao 2,747,585
3
Reg. XI - Southern Mindanao 5,189,335
Reg. XII - Northern Mindanao 2,598,210
Reg. XIII - CARAGA 2,095,367

ARMM - Autonomous Region of
Muslim Mindanao 2,412,159
For questions number 17 to 22, refer to the above table. Choose

A = if the statement given is TRUE
B = if the statement given is FALSE
C = if there’ s no basis for saying
17. Region IV has the largest population.

18. CAR has the greatest number of male population. 19. Region VIII and I have extreme
populations
20. NCR has the largest population of children.
21. The population of the Philippines has increased through time.
22. There’s a greater difference between the population of Southern Tagalog and National
Capital Region, than between the population of National Capital Region and Central Luzon.
Figurative Expressions
Choose the statement which means most nearly the same as the given figurative in each item.
Then on your answer sheet, blacken the circle that corresponds to your answer.
23. “For of all sad words of tongue or pen, the saddest are these: It might have been!” –
John Greenleaf Whittier
a. There are lots of sad things, and one of them is hankering for what hasn’t been.
b. Lost opportunities are lost forever and will never come again.
c. The saddest feeling that can be expressed is the longing for lost opportunities.
d. It is very sad to think about what might have been.
24. “To be great is to be misunderstood.” – Ralph Waldo Emerson

a. Being misunderstood is being great.
b. Being great means having many enemies.
c. Being great means standing apart and being lonely.
d. Few people can understand the sentiments of truly great persons.
25. “Mankind has become so much one family that we cannot insure our own prosperity
except by insuring that of everyone else.” – Sigmund Freud
a. A man is not alone; he belongs to a family.
b. A man does not exist by himself and he cannot succeed by himself.
c. A man must have concern for all of mankind because men are interdependent.
d. All men are interdependent and one man’s achievement is a triumph for all
mankind.
26. Man’s property is his body and the product of his hands. – John Locke
a. Man owns his body and his hands.
b. A man’s labor determines what he owns.
c. His body and his hands are man’s property.
d. A man can own whatever his hands can get.
27. “The unexamined life is not worth living.” --Socrates

a. One must always test himself.
b. Living in ignorance is not a virtue.
c. Reflection is the key to a truly meaningful life.
d. When you are no longer thinking, you are dead.
28. “Man is the measure of all things.” – Protagoras

a. Man is a measuring device.
b. Man is the standard of all things.
c. Humans are the Supreme Beings on Earth.
4
d. Knowledge is subjective and a man can only know as much as his personality and
characteristics allow him to.
29. “A man is the center of his own universe, and there are as many universes as there are
men.”
a. All men are equal.
b. A man revolves around his axis.
c. Every man dreams of being an astronaut and exploring the universe.
d. Every man thinks of himself first, watches out for himself first, and loves himself
first of all.
30. “Love increases directly with convenience, indirectly with inconvenience.”
a. Love is measurable.
b. Man forgets love when it is not necessary.
c. A person loves when it is convenient to do so.
d. Convenience determines the love a person feels.
Organization of Ideas
The following subsection consists of paragraphs, the parts of which are presented in scrambled
order. Read each group of sentences and decide what should be the best order in which to
arrange them so that they form a well-organized paragraph. After you have decided the best
order, answer the questions that follow. Blacken the circle that corresponds to your answer.
For numbers 31 to 32:

A. Aside from which, I miss my idealism, my zest for life, and my vitality.
B. I have a confession to make.
C. In fact, I have lost so many things it would take one whole shelf of books to
recount all of them.
D. I am bereft of my innocence, am devoid of optimism, and am dispossessed of any
sliver of hope.
31. Which of the above sentences should be first?

32. Which of the following sentences should be third?
For number 33 to 34:

A. Repeat the procedure as many times as you like for the desired thickness and
number of coating.
B. Apply the first coating evenly on the surface.
C. Scrape the area to be painted clean of all traces of its old paint.
D. Prime the brush and dip it into pre-treated paint.
33. Which should be the second sentence?

34. Which should be last?
For number 35:

A. I let my eyes roam inside the room where I was in.
B. I took the mirror, and screamed.
C. As I opened my eyes, I saw my sister gawking at me.
D. They collided with those of a nurse holding a mirror and wearing a grave
expression on her face.
35. Which of the following is the proper order of the above sentences?
a. A, B, C, D
b. A, D, B, C
c. C, A, D, B
d. D, C, B, A
Identifying an Irrelevant Sentence

Read each group of sentences then identify which one should not be included in the group.
Blacken the circle that corresponds to your answer on your answer sheet.
5
36.
a. Live birth is the complete expulsion or extraction of a product of conception who,
after such extraction, exhibits any evidence of life.
b. Birth is the complete expulsion or extraction of a product of conception.
c. The birth of myself by my mother was very difficult; Caesarean was necessary.
d. Stillbirth is the expulsion of a dead fetus which died late in the gestation period.
37.
a. A play is going to open tomorrow at La Piazza.
b. The fact that the cast members felt themselves part of a team, contributed much
to the success of the play.
c. The feeling of belonging always makes a person care more for the thing to which
he or she belongs.
d. The members of the cast gave their best to the play because of the loyalty such
feeling of belonging gives.
38.
a. A college entrance exam review is essential if one is determined to get into UP or
any other premiere college or university.
b. Getting into the college of your choice wouldn’t be easy.
c. Outstanding grades are also a must if one wants to be accepted to a good college.
d. There are lots of review centers that offer UPCAT review services.
39.
a. Leave behind might-have-been’s, what if’s and if only’s.
b. Regrets are such a heavy burden to lug around.
c. Move on and do not let any opportunity pass you by anymore.
d. There are lots of opportunities if you know where to look.
40.
a. It was my graduation day at the University of the Philippines.
b. My father’s dream has come true and he was really happy.
c. The audience clapped when I came up the stage.
d. Grinning from ear-to-ear, my father grasped my hand and hugged me.
6
PARTS OF SPEECH AND BASIC
GRAMMAR POINTERS
I. The name word

Basically, a noun is a word used for naming a person, an animal, a place,
a thing, or an idea.
KINDS OF NOUNS
There are two main classes of nouns: the proper nouns and the common
nouns.
A Proper Noun names a particular person, place, or thing. It is used
when the speaker is talking about somebody, something or
someplace specific. The first letter of a proper noun must be
capitalized.
A Common Noun does not denote anybody, anyplace or anything
in particular. It refers to anyone belonging to a class of persons, place, and things. Its first letter is not
capitalized, except when the common noun is found at the beginning of a sentence.
Proper nouns are capitalized. Common nouns are
Proper Nouns not. Notice, too, that the noun Makati refers to a
Common Nouns
particular place whereas the noun city can mean
Quezon City, Naga City, Cebu City, and even
Makati City and all other places that belong to this
category.
There are other kinds of nouns. There’s what we

call collective nouns and abstract nouns. They
usually belong to common nouns.
A Collective Noun refers to a collectivity or a group of persons, animals, or things that are counted or deemed
as one. Collective nouns are singular when we think of it as a group and plural when we think of
English I -1-
Note: This is compilation of materials gathered from different print and electronic
sources. We don’t claim copyright on materials and examples taken from references but
we do reserve the rights to our own materials and examples.
the individuals acting within the whole (which happens sometimes, but not often). Following are some
collective nouns.1
audience crowd group kind team

band dozen heap lot [the] number
class family herd staff
committee flock jury public
An Abstract Noun denotes an intangible idea. It names a condition or a concept. Anything that names a
quality is an abstract noun. Some abstract nouns may be formed by adding suffixes like –ty, -ness, -hood, -
ship, -ment, -ion, -ure, and -ity. The following are some of collective nouns:
1
contentment loyalty friendship brotherhood
MODIFICATIONS OR QUALITIES OF NOUNS

Person. A noun may indicate the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken about. A noun may be in the
first, second, or third person. It is in the:
First Person when it denotes the speaker

Ex: I, your friend,would like to help you.
Second Person when it denotes the one spoken to
Ex: Ladies, lend me your ears.
Third Person when it denotes the one spoken about
Ex: I admire that girl for her generosity.
1
These examples have been taken from Guide to Grammar and Writing. Capital Community College. 4 April 2004
<www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/>.
English I -2-
Number. A noun maybe singular or plural. A noun is:
Singular when it refers to only one person, animal, thing, or place.

Ex: The child left her pet tied with a ribbon to a tree in the park.
Plural when it refers to more than one of them.
Ex: The boys fed the chickens corn from the farm.
FOR THE RULES ON FORMING NOUN PLURALS, REFER TO APPENDIX A.
Gender. A noun may be masculine, feminine and neuter.
Masculine masculine nouns denote the male sex.

Ex: brother-in-law, uncle, bull
Feminine feminine nouns denote the female sex.
Ex: sister-in-law, aunt, cow
Neuter neuter nouns denote objects that do not have sex.
Ex: rice, bowl, table
Note: A noun that may be taken as masculine or feminine is considered masculine.

Ex: relative, children
2
The gender of somebody or something may be indicated in three ways:
Uses of nouns in the Nominative Case:
1. Use a different word M: father
1. Subject
F: mother
2. Predicate Nominative or
2. Use a different ending M: host Subjective Complement
F: hostess 3. Address
3. Change part of the word M: chairman 4. Nominative in Apposition
F: chairwoman 5. Nominative of Exclamation
Case. A noun has a quality that denotes its relation to other words
in a sentence. There are three cases: nominative, possessive and objective.
English I -3-
1. Nominative Case
A noun may be used2 differently in different sentences. The following uses are unique to nouns in the nominative
case. Nouns used in the following ways are in the nominative case. A noun may be used as a:
Subject, when it is what is being talked about or when it does the action in the sentence.
Your enthusiastic applause blew me over.
Predicate Nominative3 or Subjective Complement4, when it is used to say something about the subject.
My sister is God’s gift to our family.
Address, when it is directly addressed (talked to) in the sentence.

My dear countrymen, let us unite in love. The use of a word is what we call its Syntax.
Nominative in Apposition, when it denotes the

An appositive follows a noun or a pronoun and same person, place, or thing as the noun being
explains its meaning. It may be nonrestrictive or explained.
restrictive.
Lorna, my sister, fetches me from school everyday.
An appositive is nonrestrictive if it is merely
added information; that is, the sentence would still Note: Notice that the noun sister in the above sentence
be complete without the appositive. If this is the follows and explains Lorna, and that it is nonrestrictive.
case, the appositive is separated from the rest of Also notice that sister is in the nominative case, same as
the sentence by commas. the noun that is being explained.
An appositive is restrictive if it is necessary in That girl is my cousin Paula.

order that we might know the exact person being
referred to. When the appositive is restrictive, one Note: Notice that Paula in this sentence follows and
must not separate it with commas from the rest of explains cousin, and that it is not separated by a comma
the sentence. from the rest of the sentence because it is restrictive.
Paula is restrictive because it is
A nominative in apposition is in the same case as the
noun it explains.
2
3 A predicate is a word that completes the sentence. It is not only nouns that can be predicates.
4 A subjective somplement is linked to the subject by linking verbs (all forms of be, as well as verbs
like become, seem, appear, sound, look, feel, taste) and gives another name to the subject.
English I -4-
3
necessary for us to know exactly to whom we are referring to. Putting a comma after cousin would indicate that
Paula is the speaker’s only cousin. Furthermore, cousin explains the noun girl while Paula explains the noun cousin.
Thus, Paula has the same case as the noun it explains, cousin.
Nominative of Exclamation, when it is used independently to express a strong emotion.

Love! Oh what a wonderful word love is.
2. Possessive Case
A noun may indicate ownership, possession or connection to
Uses of nouns in the objective case:
another word in the sentence.
1. Direct Object
2. Object of a Preposition
FOR RULES ON FORMING THE POSSESSIVE CASE 3. Objective in Apposition
OF NOUNS, REFER TO APPENDIX B 4. Indirect Object
5. Adverbial Object
6. Retained Object
3. Objective Case 7. Objective Complement
A noun is in the objective case when it has the following uses: 8. Cognate Object
Direct Object, when it is used as the receiver of the

action indicated by the verb.
Some verbs which may take both a direct and
Lisa gave free meals. indirect object:
Object of a Preposition, when it is what the preposition assign get pardon send
in the sentence refers to. It usually follows the bring give pay show
preposition. buy grant promise sing
Gina made tea in the kitchen. deny hand read teach
do lend refuse tell
forbid offer remit wish
Objective in Apposition, when the noun is used as an forgive owe sell write
appositive of (explains or specifies) a noun that is in
the objective case, then that noun is in the objective -5-
case as well, functioning as an objective in
apposition.
The audience crowded around the singer Lea Salonga.
Indirect Object, when a noun refers to whom or for whom an action is done. In other words, it receives
whatever is named by the direct object. It
English I
is usually found between the verb and the direct object.

Cindy brought her nephew a present.
Adverbial Objective, when a noun is used as an adverb—the part of speech that tells us when, where, why,
how much, how far and how long.
The rope stretched ten yards.
Retained Object, when the verb changes from active to passive but retains its direct object.
Active: The librarian lent the boy the books.
Passive: The boy was lent the books by the librarian.
4
Objective Complement, when a noun is used to explain the direct object and complete the meaning of the
verb.
I choose the artist Rogel.
Some verbs that may take objective complements:

Appoint consider choose name
Call declare make elect
Note: The above verbs were taken from Rev. Paul E. Campbell’s and Sis. Mary Donatus
Macnickle’s Voyages in English 7. USA: Loyola University Press
Cognate Object, when a noun that repeats the meaning implied by the verb is a direct object.
We ran an exhilarating run.
English I -6-
II. The Sub

Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns. Most pronouns have an antecedent, or a noun that has already been
specified previously, though some have no antecedent (e.g. everyone). These words take away the monotony of
repeating the nouns over and over again.
KINDS OF PRONOUNS
Personal Pronouns are pronouns that replace persons or things.
First Person
Case Singular Plural
Nominative I we
Possessive my*, mine our*
5
Objective me us
Second Person
Nominative you you
Possessive your*, yours your*, yours
Objective you you
Third Person
Nominative he, she, it they
Possessive his*, her*, hers, its their*, theirs
Objective him, her, it them
English I -7-
Note: Verbs listed in the box above were taken from Rev. Paul E. Campbell’s and Sis. Mary Donatus Macnickle’s Voyages in English
7. USA: Loyola University Press. Those marked with an asterisk are only included for the sake of completeness.
Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by adding the suffixes –self or –selves to certain personal pronouns.
Forms of the Compound Personal Pronouns

Singular Plural
First Person myself ourselves
Second Person yourself yourselves
Third Person himself, herself, itself themselves
Types of Compound Personal Pronouns

Intensive Pronoun
An intensive pronoun is used to give emphasis to the noun or pronoun that it replaces or refers to.
She herself must put things to right.
The members themselves are to blame.
Reflexive Pronoun
A reflexive pronoun is used to indicate that the subject of the sentence also receives the action of the verb.
That is, the Subject is also the Object.
I bathed myself.
You must love yourself.
Note that:
When pronouns are combined, the reflexive will take the first person
Greg, Rita and I gave ourselves a pat on the back.
But when there is no first person, the reflexive will take the second person.
You and Rose injured yourselves.
The indefinite pronoun one has its own reflexive form but the other indefinite pronouns don’t.
Interrogative Pronouns introduce questions. They are used to ask questions. There are three interrogative
pronouns: who, which and what. They are used in Direct and Indirect Questions.
Direct Questions Indirect Questions
Who did this? My friend asked who did this.
Which dress do you like? Beatrice asked which dress you like.
What kind of work is that? The boss wondered what kind of work that is.
6
English I -8-
Interrogative pronouns also sometimes act as Determiners or words which mark a noun. If interrogative
pronouns are used this way, you’ll know that they will be followed by a noun. In this sense, they act like
adjectives.
Which car did you want?
What mood is he in?
Relative Pronouns—who, which, what, and that—relate groups of words to nouns or other pronouns. Relative
pronouns function as conjunctions by joining to its antecedent the subordinate clause of which it is a part.
The student who studies hardest usually becomes the best in his class.
Forms of the Who

Singular Plural
Nominative who who
Possessive whose whose
Objective whom whom
Compound Relative Pronouns are formed by adding the suffix –ever or –soever to who, whom, which and
what.
Do whatever you have to do. (Do the things which you have to do.)
Whosoever wishes to continue must do so. (The one who wishes to continue must do so.)
Adjective Pronouns are pronouns that may also be used as adjectives. They modify the noun that follows them.
Pronouns Adjective Pronoun
These are cute. These puppies are cute.
Many were angry. Many people were angry.
Each may choose a gift. Each child may choose a gift.
English I -9-
Types of Adjective Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns pronouns that identify or point to a definite person, place or thing. They are
this, that, these, and those.
Ex: This is my pet dog. These are the eggs I bought.
That is my uncle. Those are my friends.
This and that are used for objects near at hand. That and those are used to
point at objects far from the speaker.
7
Indefinite Pronouns pronouns that point out no particular person, place or thing. That is, they do not act as
substitutes to specific nouns but stand as nouns themselves.
Commonly Used Indefinite Pronouns all everyone
one another everything same any few
several anybody many some anyone much
somebody anything no one someone both
nobody something everybody none such
Distributive Pronouns pronouns that refer to each person, place or thing separately. They are each,
either, and neither.
Ex: Each has made his choice.
Either will do.
Neither is satisfactory.
Possessive Pronouns pronouns used to denote possession or ownership by the speaker, the person
spoken to, or the person or thing spoken about.
Independent Possessives are possessive pronouns that may be used alone to
take the place of nouns. They are mine, ours, yours, hers, its, and theirs.
CASE OF PRONOUNS
Nominative Case. Pronouns used in the following ways are in the nominative case
1. Subject of a Verb
She and I arrived safely. Do not use me which is in the objective
case since the pronoun is the subject.
2. Predicate Nominative / Subjective Complement
English I - 10 -
It was he. Do not use him which is in the objective case since the pronoun is used as a predicate nominative.
Objective Case. Pronouns used in the following ways are in the objective case
1. Direct Object
Mother loves us. Do not use we which is in the subjective case since the pronoun here is used as a direct object
of the verb loves.
2. Indirect Object
James promised her a cake. Do not use she which is in the nominative case since the
pronoun here is used as an indirect object of the verb
promised.
3. Object of a Preposition
I received a package from them. Do not use they which is in the nominative case since
the pronoun here is used as an object of the
preposition from.
8
CORRECT USE OF PRONOUNS
1. Pronouns used after the conjunctions than and as should be of the same case as the word with which it is
compared.
Lorna is as intelligent as he. He is compared to Lorna, which is in the nominative case. Thus, he must
be used which is in the nominative case.
He has worked harder than they. They is compared to He, which is in the nominative case. Thus, they
should be used so that it may conform to the case of the pronoun it is
compared with.
We like Joseph better than him. Him is compared to Joseph, which is a direct object and is thus in the
objective case. Therefore, him which is in the objective case as well
should be used.
2. The interrogative pronoun who is used when the sentence requires a pronoun in the nominative case. Whom
is used when the sentence requires a pronoun to be in the objective case.
Who arrived safely? The pronoun stands for the subject of the verb in this sentence. A pronoun used as a subject is in the
nominative case. Therefore, the correct interrogative pronoun is who, which is in the
nominative case.
English I - 11 -
To whom do you send your love? The pronoun underlined was used as an object of the preposition to. Remember that the
object of a preposition should be in the objective case.
Therefore, whom must be used instead of who.
Whom have you talked to? The pronoun underlined was used as an object of the preposition to.
3. The relative pronoun who is used when the pronoun is the subject of a verb. Whom is used when the pronoun
is the object of a verb or a preposition.
I have seen Larry who won the game for the school. Remember that a relative pronoun’s case depends on the way the
pronoun is used in the subordinate clause. In this instance, the
pronoun is used as the subject of the verb won in the subordinate
clause. Thus, the pronoun used must be in the nominative case.
The guy whom we have invited did not come. The pronoun in this instance is used as an object of the verb have
invited. Thus, the pronoun must be in the objective case.
The man for whom she has dressed up has arrived. The pronoun in this instance is used as an object of the
preposition for. Thus, it is necessary that the pronoun be in the
objective case.
4. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, number, and gender.
A pronoun must have the same person (whether it be first, second, or third person) as the noun or pronoun it
refers to. It must also be singular or plural, depending on whether the antecedent is singular or plural. Then the
pronoun must be masculine, feminine, or neuter depending on whether the antecedent is feminine, masculine,
or neuter.
I am grooming myself for the ball. antecedent = I
which is singular and in the first person pronoun =
myself which is singular and in the first person
Sheila hugged her father.
antecedent = Sheila which is feminine, singular, and in the first person
pronoun = her which is feminine, singular, and in the first person
5. If the distributive pronouns each, either, and neither, as well as the indefinite pronouns one, anyone, no
one, nobody, anybody, everyone, everybody, someone, and somebody are used as the antecedents (or the
word referred to), the pronouns referring to them must be singular.
9
Everyone must bring his date.
6. If the indefinite pronouns like all, both, few, many, several, and some which are generally plural are used
as antecedents, the pronouns used after should also be plural.
All were afraid of their teachers.
English I - 12 -
7. Compound personal pronouns also agree with their antecedents in person, number, and gender.
Intensive The teacher himself gave her money.
Reflexive The teacher made herself give the money away.
8. When a sentence contains a negative, such as not or never, use anything to express a negation. Use nothing
only if the sentence does not contain a negative already.
I can’t do anything. Using anything makes the sentence mean that the speaker cannot do anything. Using nothing instead
of anything would make the sentence mean that the speaker can indeed do something.
English I - 13 -
10
III. The descriptors
Adjectives are words that describe or modify another person or thing in the sentence. Adjectives describe or modify
either nouns or pronouns.
CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES
Descriptive Adjectives. If there are proper and common nouns, there are
also proper and common adjectives. Following are examples:
Proper Common
Victorian gown frilly gown
Spanish bread delicious bread
A descriptive adjective is an adjective that describes a noun

or a pronoun.
Limiting Adjectives. The other class of
A proper adjective is an adjective that is formed from a adjectives is what we call the limiting
proper noun. adjectives. We further classify these
A common adjective is an adjective that expresses the
ordinary qualities of a noun or a pronoun. adjectives into any of the following:
Numeral Adjectives five

ducks ten fingers
A limiting adjective is an adjective that either points
out an object or denotes a number. Pronominal Adjectives A numeral adjective is an
adjective that denotes exact either cat number. that bag
A pronominal adjective is an adjective that may also be used as a pronoun.
Refer to the section on adjective Articles pronouns for some examples. the song
Articles like the, a, and an are also limiting adjectives a memory because they
denote whether a noun is definite or an undertaker indefinite.
Rule of thumb: If pronouns modify nouns, then they are considered as adjectives at that moment. Thus aside
from the known adjective pronouns, interrogative pronouns that point to a noun or a pronoun are also considered
as pronominal adjectives. Example: Which girl did you say he liked?
English I - 14 -
What mood is he in?

Whose turtle won the race?
POSITION OF ADJECTIVES
Adjectives nearly always appear immediately before the noun or noun phrase that they modify.
considerable efforts
huge appetite
Sometimes they appear in a string of adjectives, and when they do, they appear in a set order according to
category. The following list and table show the usual order of adjectives when they appear in a string.
There are exceptions, of course but this is the usual rule.
I. Determiners — articles and other limiters.
11
II. Observation — postdeterminers and limiter adjectives (e.g., a real hero, a perfect idiot) and adjectives
subject to subjective measure (e.g., beautiful, interesting)
III. Size and Shape — adjectives subject to objective measure (e.g., wealthy, large, round)
IV. Age — adjectives denoting age (e.g., young, old, new, ancient) V. Color — adjectives denoting
color (e.g., red, black, pale)
VI. Origin — denominal adjectives denoting source of noun (e.g., French, American, Canadian)
VII. Material — denominal adjectives denoting what something is made of (e.g., woolen, metallic, wooden)
VIII. Qualifier — final limiter, often regarded as part of the noun (e.g., rocking chair, hunting cabin, passenger
car, book cover)
English I - 15 -
THE ROYAL ORDER OF ADJECTIVES

Determiner Observation Physical Description Origin Material Qualifier Noun
Size Shape Age Color
a beautiful old Italian touring car
an expensive antique silver mirror
four gorgeous long- red silk roses
stemmed
her short black hair
our big old English sheepdog
those square wooden hat boxes
that dilapidated little hunting cabin
several enorm young American basketball players
ous
some delicious Thai food
Source: Guide to Grammar and Writing. Capital Community College. 4 April 2004 <www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/>.
When indefinite pronouns — such as something, someone, anybody — are modified by an adjective, the
adjective comes after the pronoun:
Anyone capable of doing something horrible to someone nice should be punished. Something wicked
is coming our way.
And there are certain adjectives that, in combination with certain words, are always “postpositive” or always
come after the noun or pronoun they modify.
The president elect, heir apparent to the Glitzy fortune, lives in New York proper.
There are also adjectives that usually come after the linking verb and are thus called predicate adjectives.
a-adjectives or adjectives that begin with the letter a are usually found after the linking verb and thus show
up us as predicate adjectives. The following are some common a-adjectives.
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ablaze alert aloof awake
afloat alike ashamed aware
afraid alive asleep
aghast alone averse
Examples of Usage:
The children were ashamed.
English I - 16 -
The professor remained aloof.

The trees were ablaze.
Occasionally, however, you will find a-adjectives before the word they modify: the alert
patient
the aloof physician
Most of them, when found before the word they modify, are themselves modified:
the nearly awake student
the terribly alone scholar
And a-adjectives are sometimes modified by "very much":

very much afraid
very much alone
very much ashamed
Basic rules in the position of adjectives in a sentence:

1. The usual position of adjectives is before the noun. They are called attributive adjectives if
they follow this rule.
Ex: The humble boy gave his thanks.
2. There are adjectives that follow a linking verb, completing the thought expressed. These
adjectives show up as predicate adjectives. Ex. The boy was cold and afraid.
3. An adjective may follow the direct object and at the same time complete the thought
expressed by the transitive verb. These adjectives show up as objective complements.
Ex: We consider that work excellent.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
The Correct Use of the Positive, Comparative and Superlative Degrees Adjectives
can express different degrees of modification.
Gladys is a rich woman, but Josie is richer than Gladys, and Sadie is the richest woman in town.
English I - 17 -
13
The degrees of comparison are known as the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.
Positive denotes the quality of noun or pronoun. There’s no comparison here. Ex: sad girl
Comparative denotes the quality in a greater or lesser degree. Ex: sadder girl
Superlative denotes the quality in the greatest or least degree. Ex: saddest girl
We use the comparative for comparing two things and the superlative for comparing three or more things. Notice
that the word than frequently accompanies the comparative and the word the precedes the superlative. The
inflected suffixes -er and -est suffice to form most comparatives and superlatives, although we need -ier and -
iest when a two-syllable adjective ends in y (happier and happiest). When -er, -est, -ier, and -iest are not
suitable, we use more and most, or less and least when an adjective has more than one syllable.
Positive Comparative Superlative wide wider widest

lovely lovelier loveliest
gorgeous more gorgeous most gorgeous
handsome less handsome least handsome
Some adjectives are irregular when it comes to forming the comparative and the superlative. These are the most
frequently used:
Positive Comparative Superlative little less least

bad, ill, evil worse worst
good better best
many, much more most
late later, latter latest, last
far farther farthest
fore former foremost, first old older, elder oldest, eldest
near nearer nearest, next further furthest
English I - 18 -
inner innermost, inmost outer outermost, outmost upper uppermost,

upmost
Note: The positive for further, inner, outer, and upper do not exist that’s why they are blank.
Some adjectives do not take to comparison.

absolute adequate ideal perpetual
chief impossible preferable
dead inevitable principal
devoid main stationary
entire manifest sufficient
eternal minor supreme
fatal paramount unanimous
final perpendicular unbroken
universal
14
Both adverbs and adjectives in their comparative and superlative forms can be accompanied by premodifiers,
single words and phrases that intensify the degree.
We were a lot more careful this time.
He works a lot less carefully than the other jeweler in town.
We like his work so much better.
You'll get your watch back all the faster.
The same process can be used to downplay the degree:

The weather this week has been somewhat better.
He approaches his schoolwork a little less industriously than his brother does.
And sometimes a set phrase, usually an informal noun phrase, is used for this purpose:
He arrived a whole lot sooner than we expected. That's
a heck of a lot better.
If the intensifier very accompanies the superlative, a determiner is also required:

She is wearing her very finest outfit for the interview. They're
doing the very best they can.
Occasionally, the comparative or superlative form appears with a determiner and the thing being modified is
understood:
English I - 19 -
Of all the wines produced in Connecticut, I like this one the most.
The quicker you finish this project, the better. Of
the two brothers, he is by far the faster.
The Correct Use of Fewer and Less1

When making a comparison between quantities we often have to make a choice between the words fewer and
less. Generally, when we're talking about countable things, we use the word fewer; when we're talking about
measurable quantities that we cannot count, we use the word less.
She had fewer chores, but she also had less energy.
We do, however, definitely use less when referring to statistical or numerical expressions. In these situations,
it's possible to regard the quantities as sums of countable measures.
It's less than twenty kilometers to the city.
The shark’s less than 10 feet long.
Your essay should be a thousand words or less.
We spent less than a thousand pesos on our excursion.
The Proper Use of Than2

When making a comparison with than, do we end with a subject form or object form? Which of the following
expressions are correct?
1
Guide to Grammar and Writing. Capital Community College. 4 April 2004 <www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/>.
2
Ibid.
English I - 20 -
15
a. I am taller than she.
b. I am taller than her.
The correct response is letter a, taller than she. We are properly looking for the subject form though we leave
out the verb in the second clause, is.
We also want to be careful in a sentence such as "I like him better than she/her." The she would mean that you
like this person better than she likes him; the her would mean that you like this male person better than you like
that female person. To avoid ambiguity and the slippery use of than, we could write, "I like him better than
she does" or "I like him better than I like her."
TRICKY ADJECTIVES
The Correct Use of Good and Well7
In both casual speech and formal writing, we frequently have to choose between the adjective good and the
adverb well. With most verbs, there is no contest: when modifying a verb, use the adverb.
He swims well.
He knows only too well who the murderer is.
However, when using a linking verb or a verb that has to do with the five human senses, you want to use the
adjective instead.
How are you? I'm feeling good, thank you.
After a bath, the baby smells so good.
Even after my careful paint job, this room doesn't look good.
Many careful writers, however, will use well after linking verbs relating to health, and this is perfectly all
right. In fact, to say that you are good or that you feel good usually implies not only that you're OK physically
but also that your spirits are high.
"How are you?"
"I am well, thank you."
The Proper Use of Bad and Badly

When your cat died (assuming you loved your cat), did you feel bad or badly? Applying the same rule that
applies to good versus well, use the adjective form after verbs that have to do with human feelings. You felt
bad. If you said you felt badly, it would mean that something was wrong with your faculties for feeling.
Repetition of the Article

Analyze the meaning of the following sentences.
The chairman and president of the company walked into the meeting.
The chairman and the president of the company walked into the meeting.
The first sentence (where the article the is used only before the first noun) indicates that one person is both
chairman and president of the company. The second sentence (where the article the is used before each noun)
indicates that the chairman and the president are two different individuals.
16
English I - 21 -
IV. The action words

Verbs carry the idea of being or action in the sentence.
I am a student.
The students passed all their courses.
Verb Phrases are groups of word used to do the work

of a single verb.
He could have gone abroad.
She is called the “Ice Lady”.
Verb Phrases can be divided into two major

components: the principal verb and the auxiliary
verb.
The principal verb is the main verb in the verb phrase.

In the above underlined examples, the main verbs are
gone and called.
The auxiliary Verb is the helping verb; that which is used with the main verb to form its voice, mood and tense.
Again in the above examples, the helping verbs are could have and is.
Following are examples of auxiliary verbs3:

be are do has will might am was did had may could
is were have shall can would
KINDS OF VERBS ACCORDING TO FORM

The principal parts of the verb are the present, the past, the present participle and the past participle.
Name of verb Present Past form Past participle

I can work.
to work I worked. I have worked.
I work.
I can write.
3
Rev. Paul E. Campbell’s and Sis. Mary Donatus Macnickle’s Voyages in English 7. USA: Loyola University
Press.
English I - 22 -
17
to write I wrote. I have written
I write.
According to the manner by which their principal parts are formed, verbs may be regular, irregular, or defective.
Regular Verbs are verbs that form their past tense and their past participle by adding d or ed to the present
tense.
Present Past Past Participle (these require helping verbs)
pull pulled pulled
create created created greet
greeted greeted
Irregular Verbs are verbs that do not form their past tense and their past
participle by simply adding d or ed to the present form.
Present Past Past Participle (these require helping verbs)
grow grew grown
drink drank drunk
hear heard heard
wring wrung wrung
cut cut cut
go went gone
FOR MORE EXAMPLES OF IRREGULAR VERBS, REFER TO APPENDIX C
Defective Verbs are verbs that do not have all the principal parts.
Present Past Past Participle
beware ________ _________

can could _________
may might _________
English I - 23 -
must must _________

ought ought _________
shall should _________
will would _________
KINDS OF VERBS ACCORDING TO USE

Transitive Verbs are verbs that express action which passes from a doer to a receiver.
Doer Action Receiver
I saw you.
The monkey bit the zookeeper.
In some cases, the sentence is configured a different way.

Active voice: She greeted her neighbor. Passive voice: Her neighbor was
greeted by Sheila.
18
In the first case, the verb form is greeted. In the second case, the verb form is was greeted. In both cases,
however, the verb is transitive because the action passes from a doer to a receiver.
Intransitive Verbs are verbs that have no receiver of their action.

Doer Action Receiver
The dog whined ……….. the whole night.
She sat ……….. on the sofa.
Without a receiver, the above sentences are still complete. Unlike transitive verbs, however, intransitive verbs
are always in the active voice since there is no receiver to start a sentence in a passive voice with.
Verbs become transitive and intransitive according to their use in the sentence.
She gave alms to the poor. (Transitive)
She regularly gave to the poor. (Intransitive)
Cognate Verbs are verbs whose object repeats the meaning implied by the verb itself. They are usually
intransitive verbs used transitively. Cognate means related.
She cried buckets of tears. Cognate verb: cried object: tears
Lydia de Vega ran a brilliant race. ran race
English I - 24 -
Linking Verbs connect a subject and its complement. Sometimes called copulas, linking verbs are often forms
of the verb to be, but are sometimes verbs related to the five senses (look, sound, smell, feel, taste) and sometimes
verbs that somehow reflect a state of being (appear, continue, seem, become, grow, turn, prove, remain). Their
main function is linking or coupling the subject with a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective.
FOR MORE ON THE VERB TO BE, REFER TO APPENDIX D
A subjective complement is a word or a group of words used to complete the meaning of a linking verb. If
the subjective complement is a noun or a pronoun, it is called a predicate nominative. If the subjective
complement is an adjective, it is called a predicate adjective.
Subject Linking Verb Subjective Complement
Her dress looked stunning. (Predicate Adjective)
That gentleman is the king. (Predicate Nominative)
A handful of verbs that reflect a change in the state of being, are sometimes called resulting copulas. They,
too, link a subject to a predicate adjective9:
His face turned purple.
She became older.
The dogs ran wild.
The milk has gone sour.
The crowd grew ugly.
19
“Hello? This is he.”
A frequently asked question about linking verbs concerns the correct response when you pick up
the phone and someone asks for you. One correct response would be "This is he [she]." The
predicate following the linking verb should be in the nominative (subject) form — definitely not
"This is him." If "This is he" sounds stuffy to you, try using "Speaking," instead, or "This is Fred,"
substituting your own name for Fred's — unless it's a bill collector or telemarketer calling, in which
case "This is Fred" is a good response for everyone except people named Fred.
9
English I - 25 -
THE VOICE OF A VERB

Voice is that quality of a verb that indicates whether the subject is the doer or receiver of the action of the verb.
Remember that only transitive verbs may be used in the passive voice. Intransitive verbs have no receivers (object)
of the action. Verbs are also said to be either active or passive in voice.
Active Voice denotes the subject as the doer of the action. In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship
is straightforward: the subject is a be-er or a do-er and the verb moves the sentence along.
The President of the Philippines signed the new bill into law.
Subject and Doer
The professor scolded the class for an hour.
Subject and Doer
Passive Voice denotes the subject as the receiver of the action. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence
is neither a do-er or a be-er, but is acted upon by some other agent or by something unnamed (when it is, it is
usually named by an object of the preposition).
The new bill was finally signed into law.
Subject and Receiver
The class was scolded for an hour.
Subject and Receiver
Statements and sentences in the passive voice abound. Notice that when you use it yourself when using a
computer, the grammar check usually tells you to change it to the active voice.
There is nothing inherently wrong with the passive voice, but if you can say the same thing in the active mode,
do so.
The passive voice does exist for a reason, however, and its presence is not always to be despised. The passive
is particularly useful (even recommended) in two situations:
When it is more important to draw our attention to the person or thing acted upon: The unidentified victim
was apparently struck during the early morning hours.
When the actor in the situation is not important: The aurora borealis can be observed in the early morning
hours.
20
English I - 26 -
FOR RULES ON PASSIVE VERB FORMATION, REFER TO APPENDIX E
THE VERB TENSE

Tense is the quality of a verb which denotes the time of the action, the being, or the state of being.4
Simple Tenses
Present Tense signifies action, being, or state of being in present time

Past Tense signifies action, being, or state of being in past time
Future Tense signifies action, being, or state of being in future time
Compound Tenses
Present Perfect Tense signifies action, being, or state of being completed or perfected in present time. This
is formed by prefixing the auxiliary have or has to the past participle of the verb Ex:
She has written the article.
Past Perfect Tense signifies action, being, or state of being completed or perfected before some definite
past time. This is formed by prefixing the auxiliary had to the past participle of the
verb.
Ex: She had written the article before I came.
Future Perfect Tense signifies action, being. or state of being that will be completed or perfected before
some specified time in the future. This is formed by prefixing the auxiliary shall have
or will have to the past participle of the verb.
Ex: She will have written the article before I come.
FOR THE SEQUENCE OF VERB TENSES, REFER TO APPENDIX F
THE MOOD OF THE VERB

Mood or Mode is that quality of a verb that denotes the manner in which the action, the being, or the state of being
is expressed.11
Indicative Mood. The indicative mood of the verb is used to make a statement, to deny a fact or ask a question.
The exam was easy.

I did not get the prize.
What happened?
4
Rev. Paul E. Campbell’s and Sis. Mary Donatus Macnickle’s Voyages in English 7. USA: Loyola University Press.
11Rev. Paul E. Campbell’s and Sis. Mary Donatus Macnickle’s Voyages in English 7. USA: Loyola University
Press.
English I - 27 -
21
The Potential Form of the Indicative Mood
This is used to express permission, possibility, ability, necessity and obligation. Thus, they are formed by using the
auxiliary verbs may, might, can, could, must, should and would. These are called modals.
Permission You may begin.
Possibility It might be so. It could happen.
Ability The Philippines can do it.
Necessity We must get out of this economic slump.
Obligation Filipinos should start thinking of the collective good for a change.
Imperative Mood. The imperative mood of the verb is used when we're feeling sort of bossy and want to give
a directive, strong suggestion, or order:
Get your homework done before you watch television tonight.
Please include cash payment with your order form.
Get out of town!
Notice that there is no subject in these imperative sentences. The pronoun you (singular or plural, depending on
context) is the "understood subject" in imperative sentences. Virtually all imperative sentences, then, have a
second person (singular or plural) subject. The sole exception is the first person construction, which includes an
objective form as subject: "Let's (or Let us) work on this thing together."
Subjunctive Mood. The subjunctive mood of the verb is used in dependent clauses that do the following: 1)
express a wish;
2) begin with if and express a condition that does not exist (is contrary to fact);
3) begin with as if and as though when such clauses describe a speculation or condition contrary
to fact; and
4) begin with that and express a demand, requirement, request, or suggestion.
She wishes her boyfriend were here.

If Juan were more aggressive, he'd be a better hockey player. We
would have passed if we had studied harder.
English I - 28 -
He acted as if he were guilty.

I requested that he be present at the hearing.
Important: The words if, as if, or as though do not always signal the subjunctive mood. If the information in such a
clause points out a condition that is or was probable or likely, the verb should be in the indicative mood. The indicative
tells the reader that the information in the dependent clause could possibly be true.
The present tense of the subjunctive uses only the base form of the verb.
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He demanded that his students use two-inch margins.
She suggested that we be on time tomorrow.
The past tense of the subjunctive has the same forms as the indicative except for the verb to be, which uses
were regardless of the number of the subject.
If I were seven feet tall, I'd be a great basketball player.
He wishes he were a better student.
If you were rich, we wouldn't be in this mess.
If they were faster, we could have won that race.
THE PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS

A verb may be in the first, the second, or the third person, and either singular or plural in number.
Singular Number Plural Number
First Person I speak the truth. We speak the truth.
Second Person You speak the truth. You speak the truth.
Third Person She speaks the truth. They speak the truth.
He speaks the truth.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
The verb must always agree with its subject in person and number. Of course, there are exceptions, as in the case
of the verb be in the subjunctive mode. In this case, the verb always takes the form of were regardless of the number
of the subject. (See above for the discussion).
A singular subject requires a singular verb while a plural subject requires a plural verb.
English I - 29 -
He likes the smell of wet grass. He is the singular subject; likes is the singular verb The dancers
dance so gracefully. dancers is plural thus the verb dance is plural, too.
The Proper Use of Doesn’t and Don’t

If the subject of the sentence is in the third person and singular, doesn’t is the correct form of the verb. If the
subject is in the first or second person, irregardless of the number, the correct form is don’t.
The girl in the yellow shirt doesn’t like Math.
The volunteers don’t care about money.
I don’t know what I will do.
The Proper Use of There is and There are

There is (or There was or There has been) should be used when the subject that follows the verb is singular.
There are (or There were or There have been) should be used when the subject is plural.
There is a lot to be done yet.
There are awards to be had and medals to be won.
The Proper Use of Here is and Here are

Here is (or Here was or Here has been) should be used when the subject that follows the verb is singular. Here
are (or Here were or Here have been) should be used when the subject is plural.
Here is food for everyone.
Here are drinks for us all.
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The Proper Use of You as a Subject
When You is the subject, the plural conjugation of verbs (are, were, have, etc.) should always be used, whether
the You is meant in the singular or plural sense.
You alone are the apple of my eye. (subject is singular)
You (children) are the pride of your school. (subject is plural)
Subject-Verb Agreement when there are Parenthetical Expressions

Sometimes modifiers will get between a subject and its verb, but these modifiers must not confuse the agreement
between the subject and its verb.
The mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four counts of various crimes but who also
seems, like a cat that has several political lives, is finally going to jail.
Take note only of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is singular. If the subject is plural, the verb is
plural.
She alone among all my classmates commutes to school.
English I - 30 -
Phrases such as together with, as well as, and along with are not the same as and. The phrase introduced by as
well as or along with will modify the earlier word (mayor in this case), but it does not compound the subjects
(as the word and would do).
The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.
The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.
Subject-Verb Agreement for Compounded Positive and Negative Subjects

If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and one is plural, the other singular, the verb
should agree with the positive subject.
The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach on Valentine's Day.
It is not the faculty members but the president who decides this issue.
It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the students to riot.
Subject-Verb Agreement for Compound Subjects Connected by and

Compound subjects connected by and require a plural verb unless the subjects refer to the same person or thing,
or express a single idea.
The president and the chairman are now taking their seats.
The president and chairman is now taking his seat.
Subject-Verb Agreement for Compound Subjects Preceded by each and every

Two or more singular subjects connected by and but preceded by each, every, many a, or no require a singular
verb.
Each man and woman was affected by the emotional
speech. Many a child dreams to be a star.
Subject-Verb Agreement for Compound Subjects Connected by or or nor Singular

subjects connected by or or nor requires a singular verb.
Neither Rowel nor Madonna wants to go first.
Plural subjects connected by or or nor require a plural verb.
My grandparents or my sisters are attending my graduation.
When two subjects of different person or number are connected by or or nor, the verb agrees with the subject
nearest to it.
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Joanna or her siblings are in the living room.
Neither my friends nor I am watching the late-night movie.
Subject-Verb Agreement for Collective Nouns

English I - 31 -
A collective noun requires a singular verb if the idea being expressed by the subject is a single unit. It requires
a plural verb if the idea expressed by the subject denotes separate individuals. Note, however, that a collective
noun is usually thought of as a single unit, and thus, the verb that goes with it is usually singular.
A dozen is enough.
The audience were on their feet.
Subject-Verb Agreement for Distributive and Indefinite Pronouns

The distributive pronouns—each, either, neither—and the indefinite pronouns—everyone, anyone, nobody,
somebody, everybody, someone, somebody—are always used with a singular verb.
Each of us here is determined to get into a good college.
Everyone here likes the thought of passing the UPCAT.
Some indefinite pronouns — such as all, some — are singular or plural depending on what they're referring to.
(Is the thing referred to countable or not?) Be careful choosing a verb to accompany such pronouns.
Some of the beads are missing. Some
of the water is gone.
On the other hand, there is one indefinite pronoun, none, that can be either singular or plural; it often doesn't
matter whether you use a singular or a plural verb — unless something else in the sentence determines its
number. (Writers generally think of none as meaning not any and will choose a plural verb, as in "None of the
engines are working," but when something else makes us regard none as meaning not one, we want a singular
verb, as in "None of the food is fresh.")
None of you claims responsibility for this incident?
None of you claim responsibility for this incident?
None of the students have done their homework. (In this last example, the word their precludes the use of the singular
verb.)
Subject-Verb Agreement for Special Singular and Plural Nouns

Sometimes nouns take weird forms and can fool us into thinking they're plural when they're really singular and
vice-versa.
Some nouns are plural in form but are really singular in meaning. Some words like this are aeronautics, athletics
(training), civics, economics, mathematics, statistics, measles, molasses, mumps, news and physics.
Mathematics is Liza’s favorite subject.
On the other hand, some words ending in -s refer to a single thing but are nonetheless plural and require a plural
verb.
English I - 32 -
My assets were wiped out in the depression.

The average worker's earnings have gone up dramatically. Our
thanks go to the workers who supported the union.
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Words such as glasses, pants, pliers, and scissors are regarded as plural (and require plural verbs) unless they're
preceded by the phrase pair of (in which case the word pair becomes the subject).
My glasses were on the bed.
My pants were torn.
A pair of plaid trousers is in the closet.
The names of sports teams that do not end in "s" will take a plural verb:
The Miami Heat have been looking …
The Connecticut Sun are hoping that new talent …
Subject-Verb Agreement of Fractional Expressions, Sums and Products, More Than One
Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of are sometimes singular and
sometimes plural, depending on the meaning. They take the form of the noun they are modifying and thus are
singular or plural when the noun modified is singular or plural, respectively. (The same is true, of course, when
all, any, more, most, and some act as subjects.) Sums and products of mathematical processes are expressed as
singular and require singular verbs. The expression more than one (oddly enough) takes a singular verb: "More
than one student has tried this."
Some of the voters are still angry.
A large percentage of the older population is voting against her.
Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle.
Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire.
Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy.
Forty percent of the student body is in favor of changing the policy.
Two and two is four.
Four times four divided by two is eight.
Subject-Verb Agreement of Money

When the subject of the sentence is money expressed in currency, the verb should be singular.
A hundred pesos is not enough as a daily salary.
Five hundred dollars was all she was able to save.
USES OF SHALL AND WILL

English I - 33 -
Shall and Will

In the future tense of verbs, we use shall in the first person and will in the second and third persons to express
simple futurity or expectation.
If we wish to indicate an act of the will, promise or determination on the part of the speaker, we use will in the
first person and shall in the second and third persons.
Expectation/Simple Futurity Determination/Promise
I shall go to the gym tomorrow. I will go to the gym tomorrow.
You will attend the party. You shall attend the party.
She will be waiting. She shall be waiting.
Should and Would

The same rule as applies on shall and shall applies to should and would. To indicate an expectation or simple
futurity, use should in the first person and would in the second and third persons. To indicate determination on
the part of the speaker, use would in the first person and should in the second and third persons.
26
Expectation/Simple Futurity Determination/Promise
I should be glad to help you. I would be glad to help you.
You would cover for me. You should cover for me.
They would love the idea. They should love the idea.
Should can mean “ought to”. When meant this way, should is frequently used in all three persons.
The youth should love their country.
Would can be used to express a wish or customary action. When thus meant, would is used in all three persons.
I would often sit here alone and listen to the music.
Would that you could hear the music I listen to.
Shall and Will in Questions

Shall is always used to ask a question when the subject is in the first person. In the second and third persons
whichever word is expected in the reply is used in asking the question.
Question Expected Reply
Shall we dance? We shall.
Will she do it? She will.
Will you do it? I will.
Shall Gina play with us? She shall.
Shall you play with us? We shall.
English I - 34 -
TROUBLESOME VERBS (AND THEIR PRINCIPAL PARTS)

Lie, lay, lain
This verb means to recline or to rest. It is always intransitive.
Lay, laid, laid

This verb means to put or place in position. It is always transitive.
Sit, sat, sat

This verb means to have or to keep a seat. It is always intransitive.
Set, set, set

This verb means to place or fix in position. It is always transitive.
Rise, rose, risen

This verb means to ascend. It is always intransitive.
Raise, raised, raised

This verb means to lift. It is always transitive.
Let, let, let

This verb means to permit or allow.
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Leave, left, left
This verb means to abandon or depart from.
WORDS USED AS NOUNS AND VERBS

A noun is a name-word, and a verb generally expresses action or state of being. There are words, however, that can
be a noun or a verb depending on the way it is used in the sentence.
She appeared in my dream. (dream used as a noun)
Jose would often dream of being a famous actor. (dream used as a verb)
English I - 35 -
VERBALS
Verbals are words that seem to carry the idea of action or being but do not function as true verbs. They are
sometimes called "nonfinite" (unfinished or incomplete) verbs. Verbals are frequently accompanied by other,
related words in what is called a verbal phrase.
Participle: a verb form acting as an adjective.

The running dog chased the fluttering moth.
A present participle (like running or fluttering) describes a present condition; a past participle describes
something that has happened:
The completely rotted tooth finally fell out of his mouth.
The distinction can be important to the meaning of a sentence; there is a huge difference between a confusing
student and a confused student.
Infinitive: the root of a verb plus the word to.

To sleep, perchance to dream.
A present infinitive describes a present condition:
I like to sleep.
The perfect infinitive describes a time earlier than that of the verb:
I would like to have won that game.
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The Split Infinitive
If there is one error in writing that your boss or history prof can and will pick up on, it's the notorious split
infinitive. An infinitive is said to be "split" when a word (often an adverb) or phrase sneaks between the to of
the infinitive and the root of the verb: "to boldly go," being the most famous of its kind. The argument against
split infinitives (based on rather shaky historical grounds) is that the infinitive is a single unit and, therefore,
should not be divided. Because it raises so many readers' hackles and is so easy to spot, good writers, at least in
academic prose, avoid the split infinitive. Instead of writing "She expected her grandparents to not stay," then,
we could write "She expected her grandparents not to stay." Sometimes, though, avoiding the split infinitive
simply isn't worth the bother. There is nothing wrong, really, with a sentence such as the following:
He thinks he'll be able to more than double his salary this year.
The Oxford American Desk Dictionary, which came out in October of 1998, says that the rule against the split
English I - 36 -
infinitive can generally be ignored, that the rule "is not firmly grounded, and treating two English words as
one can lead to awkward, stilted sentences." ("To Boldly Go," The Hartford Courant. 15 Oct 1998.) Opinion
among English instructors and others who feel strongly about the language remains divided, however.
Today's dictionaries allow us to split the infinitive, but it should never be done at the expense of grace.
Students would be wise to know their instructor's feelings on the matter, workers their boss's.
Gerund: a verb form, ending in -ing, which acts as a noun.

Running in the park after dark can be dangerous.
Gerunds are frequently accompanied by other associated words making up a gerund phrase ("running in the
park after dark").
Gerunds and gerund phrases are nouns, so they can be used in any way that a noun can be used:
as subject: Being king can be dangerous for your health. as
object of the verb: He didn't particularly like being king. as
object of a preposition: He wrote a book about being king.
FOR SEQUENCE OF INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS, REFER TO

APPENDIX G
English I - 37 -
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V. The intense words
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Adverbs often function as intensifiers, conveying a greater or lesser emphasis to something. Intensifiers are said to
have three different functions: they can emphasize, amplify, or downtone. Here are some examples:
Emphasizers:
I really don't believe him.
He literally wrecked his mother's car.
She simply ignored me.
They're going to be late, for sure.
Amplifiers:
The teacher completely rejected her proposal.
I absolutely refuse to attend any more faculty meetings.
They heartily endorsed the new restaurant.
I so wanted to go with them.
We know this city well.
Downtoners:
I kind of like this college.
Joe sort of felt betrayed by his sister.
His mother mildly disapproved of his actions.
We can improve on this to some extent.
The boss almost quit after that.
The school was all but ruined by the storm.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ADVERBS
Classifications According to Meaning
Adverbs may be classified according to their meaning.
Adverbs of Manner (answer the question how or in what manner)

She moved slowly and spoke quietly.
Adverbs of Place (answer the question where).
She has lived on the island all her life.
She still lives there now.
English I - 38 -
Adverbs of Frequency (answer the question how often)

She takes the boat to the mainland every day.
She often goes by herself.
Adverbs of Degree (answer the question how much or how little)
I’m half finished with my project.
I’m much obliged.
Adverbs of Time (answer the question when)
She tried to get back before dark.
It's starting to get dark now.
She finished her tea first.
30
She left early.
Adverbs of Purpose (answer the question why or for what purpose)
He drives her boat slowly to avoid hitting the rocks.
She shops in several stores to get the best buys.
Classifications According to Use

Simple Adverbs
A simple adverb is an adverb used merely as a modifier.
She does not think about it much.
Interrogative Adverbs
An interrogative adverb is an adverb used in asking questions. The interrogative adverbs are how, when,
where, and why.
Conjunctive Adverbs
A conjunctive adverb is an adverb that does the work of an adverb and a conjunction. The principal conjunctive
adverbs are after, until, as, when, before, where, since, and while.
We played poker while we were there.
While tells when the action happened and is therefore an adverb. However, it also connects the clause while we
were there with the verb played and is therefore a conjunction.
Relative Adverbs
A relative adverb is a word that does the work of an adverb and a relative pronoun. The principal relative
adverbs are when, where and why.
A home where prayers are said is a spiritually-content one.
English I - 39 -
Since where tells a place of the action, it is an adverb. However, as it joins the subordinate clause where prayers
are observed to the noun home which is the antecedent of where, it also does the work of a relative pronoun.
Adverbial Objectives
An adverbial objective is a noun that expresses time, distance, measure, weight, value or direction, and performs
the function of adverbs.
The sun beat on the laborers’ backs all day.
In the above example, day, a noun, tells how long the sun beat on the laborers’ backs. The noun day modifies
the verb beat and thus performs the function of an adverb.
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
Regular Comparison
Some adverbs form the comparative by adding –er to the positive; and the superlative degree by adding – est to
the positive degree.
Positive Comparative Superlative
fast faster fastest (walk fast, faster, fastest) often oftener oftenest
31
Other adverbs, particularly those ending in –ly, form the comparative degree by adding more or less to the
positive; and the superlative degree by adding most or least to the positive.
Positive Comparative Superlative
frequently more frequently most
frequently
legibly less legibly least legibly
Irregular Comparison
Some adverbs are compared irregularly. In this case it is necessary to learn the comparative and superlative
degrees.
Positive Comparative Superlative badly worse worst far farther
farthest forth further furthest
English I - 40 -
little less least much more most well better best
Many adverbs denoting time and place (here, now, then, when, where, again, always, down, above) and adverbs
expressing absoluteness or completeness (round, eternally, universally, never, perfectly, forever) cannot be
compared.
Pre-modifiers
Adverbs (as well as adjectives) in their various degrees can be accompanied by premodifiers:
She runs very fast.
We're going to run out of material all the faster.
THE CORRECT USE OF ADVERBS

Distinguishing Between Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Sometimes,
however, the function of a word in the sentence is not so very obvious and one gets confused as to whether a
word is a predicate adjective (when it modifies the subject) or an adverb that modifies the verb, an adjective or
another verb.
There is a rule of thumb to easily distinguish one from the other. Predicate adjectives are used only with linking
verbs (be and its forms, appear, become, continue, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound and taste).
Gretchen looked happy. (equivalent to Gretchen was happy, and is thus an adjective.)
Gretchen looked closely at the book. (tells how Gretchen looked at the book and is thus an adverb) Gretchen
looked radiantly lovely. (tells how lovely and is thus an adverb)
“Farther” and “Further”

“Farther” denotes distance. “Further” denotes an addition. Both words may be used either as adjectives or
adverbs.
The farther you go, the better.
The facilitator explained the rules further.
Uses of There
“There” may be an adverb denoting place, or it may be an expletive used to introduce a sentence. There is
the gift.
English I - 41 -
32
There is something missing.
In the first sentence, “there” is part of the sentence. In the second sentence, the expletive is not necessary for it
merely introduces the subject to follow the predicate verb. Thus it can be removed from the sentence.
The two sentences above can be rewritten as:
The gift is there.
Something is missing.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES

If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb (modifying the verb of a sentence), it is called
an adverb clause:
When this class is over, we're going to the movies.
When a group of words not containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb, it is called an adverbial phrase.
Prepositional phrases frequently have adverbial functions (telling place and time, modifying the verb):
He went to the movies.
She works on holidays.
They lived in Canada during the war.
Infinitive phrases can act as adverbs (usually telling why):
She hurried to the mainland to see her brother.
The senator ran to catch the bus.
But there are other kinds of adverbial phrases:
He calls his mother as often as possible.
CORRECT POSITION OF ADVERBS

One of the hallmarks of adverbs is their ability to move around in a sentence. Adverbs of manner are particularly
flexible in this regard.
Solemnly, the minister addressed her congregation.
The minister solemnly addressed her congregation.
The minister addressed her congregation solemnly.
Adverbs of frequency may appear before the main

verb: I never get up before nine o'clock.
English I - 42 -
between the auxiliary verb and the main verb: I have rarely written to my brother without a good reason.
before the verb used to: I always used to see him at his summer home.
Indefinite adverbs of time may appear either before

the verb, or
He finally showed up for batting practice.
between the auxiliary and the main verb:
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She has recently retired.
Inappropriately placed adverbs

Adverbs can sometimes attach themselves to, and thus modify words that they ought not to modify.
They reported that Giuseppe Balle, a European rock star, had died on the six o'clock news.
Clearly, it would be better to move the underlined modifier to a position immediately after "they reported" or
even to the beginning of the sentence — so the poor man doesn't die on television.
Misplacement can also occur with very simple modifiers, such as only and barely:
She only grew to be four feet tall.
It would be better if "She grew to be only four feet tall."
The Order of Multiple Adverbs

There is a basic order in which adverbs will appear when there is more than one.
THE ROYAL ORDER OF ADVERBS
Verb Manner Place Frequency Time Purpose
Beth swims enthusiastically in the pool every morning before dawn to keep in shape.
Dad walks impatiently into town every afternoon before supper to get a newspaper.
Linda naps in her room every morning before lunch.
In actual practice, of course, it would be highly unusual to have a string of adverbial modifiers
beyond two or three (at the most). Because the placement of adverbs is so flexible, one or two of the
English I - 43 -
modifiers would probably move to the beginning of the sentence: "Every afternoon before supper,
Dad impatiently walks into town to get a newspaper." When that happens, the introductory adverbial
modifiers are usually set off with a comma.
More Notes on Adverb Order

As a general principle, shorter adverbial phrases precede longer adverbial phrases, regardless of content. In the
following sentence, an adverb of time precedes an adverb of frequency because it is shorter (and simpler):
Dad takes a brisk walk before breakfast every day of his life.
A second principle: Among adverbial phrases of the same kind (manner, place, frequency, etc.), the more
specific adverbial phrase comes first:
My grandmother was born in a sod house on the plains of northern Nebraska.
She promised to meet him for lunch next Tuesday.
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A third principle: Bringing an adverbial modifier to the beginning of the sentence can place special emphasis
on that modifier. This is particularly useful with adverbs of manner:
Slowly, ever so carefully, Jesse filled the coffee cup up to the brim, even above the brim.
Occasionally, but only occasionally, one of these lemons will get by the inspectors.
Special Cases on Positioning Adverbs

1. “Enough”
The adverbs enough and not enough usually take a postmodifier position:
Is that music loud enough?
These shoes are not big enough.
In a roomful of elderly people, you must remember to speak loudly enough.
Notice, though, that when enough functions as an adjective, it can come before the noun:
Did she give us enough time?
The adverb enough is often followed by an infinitive:

She didn't run fast enough to win.
2. “Too”
The adverb too comes before adjectives and other adverbs:
English I - 44 -
She ran too fast.

She works too quickly.
If too comes after the adverb it is probably a disjunct (meaning also) and is usually set off with a comma:
Yasmin works hard. She works quickly, too.
The adverb too is often followed by an infinitive:

She runs too slowly to enter this race.
Another common construction with the adverb too is too followed by a prepositional phrase — for + the object
of the preposition — followed by an infinitive:
This milk is too hot for a baby to drink.
English I - 45 -
VI. Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections

PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word or a group of words that describes a relationship between its object and another word in a
sentence. In the following sentence, on describes the relationship between the verb ride and the object of the
preposition (which is a noun) bus.
Do not ride on that bus.
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The following is a list of the most commonly used prepositions:
about behind from through above beside in throughout across between into to
after beyond near toward against by of under among down off until around during on up at except over
with
before for past
1. The Object of a Preposition

The object of a preposition is a noun, a pronoun or a group of words used as a noun.
I run in the park every morning. (in + noun)
I always run into you. (into + pronoun)
We took the stool from under the desk. (from + phrase)
She passed near where you stood. (near + clause)
2. Words Used as Adverbs and Prepositions

An adverb tells how, when, and where. A preposition shows the relation between its objects and some other word
in the sentence.
I would like to move in by the end of the month. (adverb)
I am just in the house. (preposition)
3. The Correct Use of Prepositions Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in
English I - 46 -
We use at to designate specific times.

The train is due at 12:15 p.m.
We use on to designate days and dates.

My brother is coming on Monday.
We're having a party on the Fourth of July.
We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.

She likes to jog in the morning.
It's too cold in winter to run outside.
He started the job in 1971.
He's going to quit in August.
Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in We use

at for specific addresses.
Grammar English lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.
We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc.

Her house is on Boretz Road.
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents).
She lives in Durham.
Durham is in Windham County.
Windham County is in Connecticut.
Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on and
No Preposition
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IN AT ON NO PREPOSITION
(the) bed* class* the bed* downstairs
the home the ceiling downtown
bedroom the library* the floor inside
the car (the) the office the horse outside
school* upstairs
class* the the plane
work uptown
library* the train
school*
* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.
English I - 47 -
Prepositions of Movement: to and No Preposition We

use to in order to express movement toward a place.
They were driving to work together.
She's going to the dentist's office this morning.
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These are simply variant spellings of the
same word; use whichever sounds better to you.
We're moving toward the light.
This is a big step towards the project's completion.
With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no preposition.
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home.
They both went outside.
Prepositions of Time: for and since

We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years).
He held his breath for seven minutes.
She's lived there for seven years.
The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries.
We use since with a specific date or time.

He's worked here since 1970.
She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty.
“Between” and “Among”

“Between” is used in speaking of two persons or objects. “Among is used in speaking of more than two.
I choose Group A between the two competing groups. She divided
her bounty among her loyal supporters.
“Beside” and “Besides”

“Beside” means at the side of. “Besides” means in addition to.
Come and sit beside me.
Besides working days at the mall, she also worked nights at a coffee shop.
“From”
Use “from”, not “off of”, to indicate the person from whom something is obtained.
37
English I - 48 -
I bought this dog from that boy.
“Behind”
Use “behind”, not “in back of”, to indicate location at the rear of.
The vase is directly behind you.
“Different From”
Use “from”, not “than”, after the adjective different.
Everyone is different from everybody else.
“Differ From” and “Differ With”

“Differ with” denotes disagreement of opinion. “Differ from” denotes differences in characteristic between persons
or things.
The treasurer differs with the board on the budget allocation. Candies differ
from each other in color.
“Within”
Use “within” not “inside of” to denote the time within which something will occur.
The seasons are changing within a few weeks.
“Angry with” and “Angry At”

Use “angry with” a person and “angry at” a thing.
Sheila is very angry with Mark.
George was angry at the result of the election.
“Need of”
Use “need of” not “need for”.
My son has no further need of your services.
“In” and “Into”

“In” denotes position within. “Into” denotes motion or change of position.
I am in the city.
I am going into the building.
Idiomatic Expressions with Prepositions

Agree: to a proposal, with a person, on a price, in principle
Argue: about a matter, with a person, for or against a proposition
English I - 49 -
Compare: to to show likenesses, with to show differences (sometimes similarities) Correspond: to

a thing, with a person
Differ: from an unlike thing, with a person
Live: at an address, in a house or city, on a street, with other people
38
Prepositions with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.
Prepositions are sometimes so firmly wedded to other words that they have practically become one word. The
following groups of words are considered as one preposition when used with nouns or pronouns. This occurs in
three categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs.
NOUNS and PREPOSITIONS
approval of fondness for need for
awareness of grasp of belief in participation in
hatred of concern for reason for
hope for respect for
confusion about interest in success in
desire for love of understanding of
ADJECTIVES and PREPOSITIONS

proud of
afraid of fond of angry at happy similar to
about aware of interested in capable sorry for
of jealous of careless about sure of
made of familiar with tired of
married to worried about
VERBS and PREPOSITIONS

prepare for
study for
apologize for give up ask about talk about
grow up ask for look for think about
belong to look forward to bring up trust in
look up care for make up find work for
out pay for worry about
English I - 50 -
A combination of verb and preposition is called a phrasal verb. The word that is joined to the verb is then called a
particle.
Unnecessary Prepositions
In everyday speech, we fall into some bad habits, using prepositions where they are not necessary. It would be a
good idea to eliminate these words altogether, but we must be especially careful not to use them in formal,
academic prose.
She met up with the new coach in the hallway.
The book fell off of the desk.
He threw the book out of the window.
She wouldn't let the cat inside of the house. [or use "in"] Where did
they go to?
Put the lamp in back of the couch. [use "behind" instead] Where is your
college at?
39
Prepositions in Parallel Form
When two words or phrases are used in parallel and require the same preposition to be idiomatically correct, the
preposition does not have to be used twice.
You can wear that outfit in summer and in winter.
The female was both attracted by and distracted by the male's dance.
However, when the idiomatic use of phrases calls for different prepositions, we must be careful not to omit one of
them.
The children were interested in and disgusted by the movie.
It was clear that this player could both contribute to and learn from every game he played. He was
fascinated by and enamored of this beguiling woman.
CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence. It connects words, phrases, or clauses in a
sentence.
It’s raining cats and dogs. (connects words)
That is not the norm, in times of peace or in times of turmoil. (connects phrases) I did not mean
to insult you but it seems I did. (connects clauses).
Kinds of Conjunctions 1. Coordinate or Coordinating Conjunctions

English I - 51 -
Coordinate or coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal rank. The
following are the coordinate conjunctions, arranged in an acronym that makes them easier to understand.
F - for
A - and
N - nor
B - but
O - or
Y - yet
S - so
Be careful of the words then and now; neither is a coordinating conjunction, so what we say about coordinating
conjunctions' roles in a sentence and punctuation does not apply to those two words.
Rules on Punctuation
1. When a coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses, it is often (but not always) accompanied
by a comma:
Ulysses wants to play for UConn, but he has had trouble meeting the academic requirements.
2. When the two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction are nicely balanced or brief, many
writers will omit the comma:
Ulysses has a great jump shot but he isn't quick on his feet.
3. The comma is always correct when used to separate two independent clauses connected by a coordinating
conjunction. A comma is also correct when and is used to attach the last item of a serial list, although many
writers (especially in newspapers) will omit that final comma:
Ulysses spent his summer studying basic math, writing, and reading comprehension.
4. When a coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a series, a comma is not used:
Presbyterians and Methodists and Baptists are the prevalent Protestant congregations in Oklahoma.
5. A comma is also used with but when expressing a contrast:
40
This is a useful rule, but difficult to remember.
6. In most of their other roles as joiners (other than joining independent clauses, that is), coordinating conjunctions
can join two sentence elements without the help of a comma.
Hemingway and Fitzgerald are among the American expatriates of the between-the-wars era.
Hemingway was renowned for his clear style and his insights into American notions of male identity.
It is hard to say whether Hemingway or Fitzgerald is the more interesting cultural icon of his day.
Although Hemingway is sometimes disparaged for his unpleasant portrayal of women and for his glorification of
machismo, we nonetheless find some sympathetic, even heroic, female figures in his novels and short
stories.
English I - 52 -
Beginning a Sentence with “And” and “But”

Beginning a Sentence with And or But
A frequently asked question about conjunctions is whether and or but can be used at the beginning of a
sentence. This is what R.W. Burchfield has to say about this use of and:
There is a persistent belief that it is improper to begin a sentence with And, but this prohibition has been
cheerfully ignored by standard authors from Anglo-Saxon times onwards. An initial And is a useful aid
to writers as the narrative continues.
from The New Fowler's Modern English Usage
edited by R.W. Burchfield. Clarendon Press: Oxford, England. 1996.
Used with the permission of Oxford University Press.
The same is true with the conjunction but. A sentence beginning with and or but will tend to draw
attention to itself and its transitional function. Writers should examine such sentences with two questions
in mind: (1) would the sentence and paragraph function just as well without the initial conjunction? (2)
should the sentence in question be connected to the previous sentence? If the initial conjunction still
seems appropriate, use it.
The Usual Meanings of the FANBOYS

The coordinate conjunctions can mean many things. The following outline their most common meanings.5
AND
To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another: "Jasmine sent in her applications
and waited by the phone for a response."
To suggest that one idea is the result of another: "Willie heard the weather report and promptly
boarded up his house."
To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another (frequently replaced by but in this usage): "Juanita
is brilliant and Shalimar has a pleasant personality.
To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes replaced by yet in this usage): "Hartford is a rich city
and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight."
5
Authority used for this section on the uses of and, but, and or: A University Grammar of English by Randolph Quirk
and Sidney Greenbaum. Longman Group: Essex, England. 1993.
English I - 53 -
41
To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally (usually the first clause is an
imperative): "Use your credit cards frequently and you'll soon find yourself deep in debt."
To suggest a kind of "comment" on the first clause: "Charlie became addicted to gambling — and
that surprised no one who knew him."
BUT
To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: "Joey lost a fortune in the stock
market, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably."
To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied in a negative way
(sometimes replaced by on the contrary): "The club never invested foolishly, but used the services
of a sage investment counselor."
To connect two ideas with the meaning of "with the exception of" (and then the second word takes
over as subject): "Everybody but Jimmy is trying out for the team."
OR
To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the other: "You can study
hard for this exam or you can fail."
To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives: "We can broil chicken on the grill tonight,
or we can just eat leftovers.
To suggest a refinement of the first clause: "Smith College is the premier all-women's college in
the country, or so it seems to most Smith College alumnae."
To suggest a restatement or "correction" of the first part of the sentence: "There are no rattlesnakes
in this canyon, or so our guide tells us."
To suggest a negative condition: "The New Hampshire state motto is the rather grim "Live free or
die."
To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative (see use of and above): "They
must approve his political style or they wouldn't keep electing him mayor."
NOR
The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as the other conjunctions, so it might feel
a bit odd when nor does come up in conversation or writing. Its most common use is as the little brother in the
correlative pair, neither-nor:
He is neither sane nor brilliant.
That is neither what I said nor what I meant.
It can be used with other negative expressions:

That is not what I meant to say, nor should you interpret my statement as an admission of guilt.
English I - 54 -
It is possible to use nor without a preceding negative element, but it is unusual and, to an extent,
rather stuffy:
George's handshake is as good as any written contract, nor has he ever proven untrustworthy.
YET
The word YET functions sometimes as an adverb and has several meanings: in addition ("yet another cause of
trouble" or "a simple yet noble woman"), even ("yet more expensive"), still ("he is yet a novice"), eventually
("they may yet win"), and so soon as now ("he's not here yet"). It also functions as a coordinating conjunction
42
meaning something like "nevertheless" or "but." The word yet seems to carry an element of distinctiveness that
but can seldom register.
John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport is badminton.
The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet they continued to play golf every day.
In sentences such as the second one, above, the pronoun subject of the second clause ("they," in this case) is
often left out. When that happens, the comma preceding the conjunction might also disappear: "The visitors
complained loudly yet continued to play golf every day."
Yet is sometimes combined with other conjunctions, but or and. It would not be unusual to see and yet in
sentences like the ones above. This usage is acceptable.
FOR
The word FOR is most often used as a preposition, of course, but it does serve, on rare occasions, as a
coordinating conjunction. Some people regard the conjunction for as rather highfalutin and literary, and it does
tend to add a bit of weightiness to the text. Beginning a sentence with the conjunction "for" is probably not a
good idea, except when you're singing "For he's a jolly good fellow. "For" has serious sequential implications
and in its use the order of thoughts is more important than it is, say, with because or since. Its function is to
introduce the reason for the preceding clause:
John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the company's board of trustees.
Most of the visitors were happy just sitting around in the shade, for it had been a long, dusty journey on the train.
SO
Be careful of the conjunction SO. Sometimes it can connect two independent clauses along with a comma, but
sometimes it can't. For instance, in this sentence,
Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his brother, sister, and his Uncle Chet.
English I - 55 -
where the word so means "as well" or "in addition," most careful writers would use a semicolon between the
two independent clauses. In the following sentence, where so is acting like a minor-league "therefore," the
conjunction and the comma are adequate to the task:
Soto has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that he avoids crowds of his adoring fans.
Sometimes, at the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a kind of summing up device or transition, and when
it does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma:
So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of his parents.
2. Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative Conjunctions are coordinate conjunctions used in pairs. The most commonly used correlative
conjunctions are:
both . . . and neither . . . nor not only . . . but also whether
. . . or
not . . . but as . . . as either . . . or
3. Subordinate Conjunctions
A subordinate conjunction is a conjunction that connects clauses of unequal rank. It connects a subordinate clause
to a principal or an independent clause. A subordinate clause is one that depends upon some other part of a sentence.
43
Following is a list of the most common subordinate conjunctions:
Common Subordinating Conjunctions
after even if since when

although even though so that whenever
as if if only in than where
as if as order that that whereas
long as now that though wherever
as once rather till while
though than unless
because until
before
The conjunctive adverbs—the words that do the work of an adverb and a conjunction—such as however, moreover,
nevertheless, consequently, as a result are used to create complex relationships between ideas and are likewise
considered as subordinate conjunctions.
English I - 56 -
The Case of Like and As

Strictly speaking, the word like is a preposition, not a conjunction. It can, therefore, be used to introduce
a prepositional phrase ("My brother is tall like my father"), but it should not be used to introduce a clause
("My brother can't play the piano like as he did before the accident" or "It looks like as if basketball is
quickly overtaking baseball as America's national sport."). To introduce a clause, it's a good idea to use
as, as though, or as if, instead.
Like As I told you earlier, the lecture has been postponed.
It looks like as if it's going to snow this afternoon.
Johnson kept looking out the window like as though he had someone waiting for him.
In formal, academic text, it's a good idea to reserve the use of like for situations in which similarities
are being pointed out:
This community college is like a two-year liberal arts college.
However, when you are listing things that have similarities, such as is probably more suitable:
The college has several highly regarded neighbors, like such as the Mark Twain House, St.
Francis
Hospital, the Connecticut Historical Society, and the UConn Law School.
Omitting That
44
The word that is used as a conjunction to connect a subordinate clause to a preceding verb. In this
construction that is sometimes called the "expletive that." Indeed, the word is often omitted to good
effect, but the very fact of easy omission causes some editors to take out the red pen and strike out the
conjunction that wherever it appears. In the following sentences, we can happily omit the that (or keep
it, depending on how the sentence sounds to us):
Isabel knew [that] she was about to be fired.
She definitely felt [that] her fellow employees hadn't supported her.
I hope [that] she doesn't blame me.
Sometimes omitting the that creates a break in the flow of a sentence, a break that can be adequately
bridged with the use of a comma:
The problem is, that production in her department has dropped.
Remember, that we didn't have these problems before she started working here.
English I - 57 -
As a general rule, if the sentence feels just as good without the that, if no ambiguity results from its
omission, if the sentence is more efficient or elegant without it, then we can safely omit the that.
Theodore Bernstein lists three conditions in which we should maintain the conjunction that:
When a time element intervenes between the verb and the clause: "The boss said yesterday that
production in this department was down fifty percent." (Notice the position of "yesterday.")
When the verb of the clause is long delayed: "Our annual report revealed that some losses
sustained by this department in the third quarter of last year were worse than previously
thought." (Notice the distance between the subject "losses" and its verb, "were.")
When a second that can clear up who said or did what: "The CEO said that Isabel's department
was slacking off and that production dropped precipitously in the fourth quarter." (Did the
CEO say that production dropped or was the drop a result of what he said about Isabel's
department? The second that makes the sentence clear.)
Authority for this section: Dos, Don'ts & Maybes of English Usage by Theodore Bernstein. Gramercy
Books: New York. 1999. p. 217.
Beginning a Sentence with Because
Somehow, the notion that one should not begin a sentence with the subordinating conjunction because
retains a mysterious grip on people's sense of writing proprieties. This might come about because a
sentence that begins with because could well end up a fragment if one is not careful to follow up the
"because clause" with an independent clause.
Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our communications industry.
When the "because clause" is properly subordinated to another idea (regardless of the position of the
clause in the sentence), there is absolutely nothing wrong with it:
Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our communications industry, the postal service
would very much like to see it taxed in some manner.
45
4. Other Connectives
Although the work of conjunctions is to connect, this does not mean that all connectives are conjunctions. Relative
adverbs and relative pronouns are also used to connect clauses of unequal rank.
Since it is raining, the picnic will be postponed. Wednesday is the
day when we shall have the picnic. (Relative Adverb)
English I
We shall have our picnic in the grove that adjoins the school grounds (Relative pronoun)
The Correct use of Conjunctions 1. “Than” and “As”

The conjunctions “than” and “as” are used to compare one thing with another, and there is usually an omission of
words after each. The substantive word which follows “than” or “as” must be in the same case as the word with
which it is compared. Particular care must be taken when the substantive is a personal pronoun.
She is smaller than I am small.
I am as small as she is small.
2. “Unless” and “Without”

“Unless” is a conjunction and introduces a clause. “Without” is a preposition and introduces a “phrase”.
We are going on as planned unless it rains.
We would go without umbrellas and hats.
3. “Like”, “As”, and “As If”

“As” and “As if” are conjunctions and are used to introduce clauses. “Like” is a preposition and is used to introduce
a phrase.
He talks as a child talks. (Clause)
He talks as if he’s running out of words. (Clause)
He talks like a chipmunk. (Phrase)
INTERJECTIONS
Interjections are words or phrases used to exclaim or protest or command. They express some strong or sudden
emotion. They sometimes stand by themselves, but they are often contained within larger structures.
Look! There’s a bird.
Wait! I don’t understand
Wow! I won the lottery!
Oh, I don't know about that.
I don't know what the heck you're talking about.
No, you shouldn't have done that.
An interjection is grammatically distinct from the rest of the sentence. They may express delight, disgust, contempt,
pain, assent, joy, impatience, surprise, sorrow, and so forth. They are generally set off from the rest of the sentence
by exclamation points. An entire sentence, however, may be exclamatory. If the sentence is
English I
exclamatory, the interjection is followed by a comma and the exclamation point is placed at the end of the sentence.
46
Following is a list of the most common interjections:
Ah! Hark! Listen! Sh!
Alas! Hello! Lo! What!
Beware! Hurrah! Oh!
Bravo! Hush! Ouch!
Good! Indeed! Pshaw!
The Proper Use of “O” and “Oh”

The interjection “O” is used only before a noun in direct address. It is not directly followed by an exclamation point.
“Oh” is used to express surprise, sorrow, or joy. It is followed by an exclamation point unless the emotion continues
throughout the sentence.
O God! Help me please!
Oh, I love you!
Oh! She is here. English I
47
SYNTAX AND MECHANICS
POINTERS
I. Phrases
A phrase is a group of related words used as a single part of speech.1 They mainly add variety to and relieve
monotony of sentences. Look at the following sentences:
Vietnamese scarves are all the rage this season.
Scarves from Vietnam are all the rage this season.
I sadly looked at her.
I looked at her with sadness.
Note that the subsequent sentences mean the same thing. Only in the first sentence, a single word is used to
modify the noun scarves whereas in the second one, a group of words modify scarves. Likewise in the third
sentence, one word – sadly – modify the verb looked whereas in the second one, a group of words – with sadness
– modifies the same verb looked.
KINDS OF PHRASES
Divisions according to Form
Phrases may be introduced by prepositions, participles, or infinitives. The introductory word determines
the classification of the phrase according to form.
A prepositional phrase is a phrase introduced by a preposition.2
A participial phrase is a phrase introduced by a participle.3
An infinitive phrase is a phrase introduced by an infinitive.4
Examples:
I am leaving in an hour. (prepositional phrase)
The boy wearing the baseball cap is our school’s team captain. (participial phrase)
1
Refer to section on Parts of Speech to review what these are.
2
Refer to section on Prepositions for a review on what these are.
3
Refer to section on Participles for a review on what these are.
4
Refer to section on Infinitives for a review on what these are.
English II -1-
To be free is all I ask for. (infinitive phrase)
Divisions according to Use

Phrases may be used as adjectives, as adverbs, or as nouns. The function determines the classification of a
phrase according to use.
An adjectival phrase is a phrase used as an adjective.
An adverbial phrase is a phrase used as an adverb.
A noun phrase is a phrase used as a noun.
1
Examples:
A group of students went past. (adjectival phrase)
I motioned to her to her with sweeping gestures. (adverbial phrase)
She liked being admired. (noun phras English II - 2 - Note:
This is compilation of materials gathered from different print and electronic sources. We don’t
claim copyright on materials and examples taken from references but we do reserve the rights to
our own materials and examples.
II. Clauses
A clause is a part of the sentence containing, in itself, a subject and a predicate.5
KINDS OF CLAUSES
Independent Clause
Clauses that make independent statements are called independent or coordinate clauses. The independent
clause forms a complete sentence by itself. They are also referred to as principal clauses when used with
subordinate clauses.
Subordinate Clause
Clauses that depend upon some other part of the sentence are dependent or subordinate clauses. The
subordinate clause is therefore not complete without the principal clause.
Examples:
It was he who helped me get my confidence back.
IC SC
It is imperative that you keep your promise.
IC SC
TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

Subordinate clauses may be used as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns; and as such are known as adjectival,
adverbial, or noun clauses.
Adjectival Clause
An adjective clause is a subordinate clause used as an adjective. Adjectival clauses are usually introduced
by relative pronouns (e.g. who, which, what, and that) or relative adverbs (e.g. when, where, and why).6
The girl who is wearing the red obi topped the UPCAT last year.
5
Read the section on Sentences to know what a subject and a predicate are.
6
Refer to readings on Relative Pronouns and Relative Adverbs to review what these are.
English II -3-
A restrictive clause is a clause that helps point out, or identifies a certain person or object, and is a
necessary part of the sentence.
He who has loved much is much loved as well.
A nonrestrictive clause is a clause that merely adds to the information given in the principal clause
and is not necessary to the sense of the sentence.
He, who has loved much, is much loved as well.
2
Adverbial Clause
An adverbial clause is a subordinate clause used as an adverb. Remember that adverbial clauses, just like
adverbs, may modify a verb, an adverb, or an adjective. Adverbial clauses are usually introduced by
conjunctive adverbs (e.g. after, until, as, when, before, where, since, and while) or subordinate conjunctions
(e.g. as, that, since, because, then, so, for, than, though, if, provided, and unless).
Gregory was on his way home when the bullies assaulted him.
Note on punctuation:
Every introductory adverbial clause may be separated by a comma. In certain adverbial clauses, a comma
is necessary to make a meaning clear.
When you arrive, please get the mail. (may or may not use a comma)
After he ate too quickly, his stomach ached (comma is necessary; without the comma the reader will
be confused about which quickly modifies: ate or
ached)
Noun Clauses
A noun clause is a subordinate clause used as a noun.
That it boggles the mind is inevitable.
A sentence that has a noun clause is a complex sentence. The entire sentence is considered the principal or
independent clause; the noun clause is the subordinate clause.
That it boggles the mind is inevitable. (Principal clause)
That it boggles the mind (Subordinate clause)
Uses of Noun Clauses

A noun clause has the same uses as nouns. It may be used as subject of a verb, object of a verb, the
predicate nominative, the object of a preposition, or in apposition.
Noun clause used as Subject
A noun clause may be used as the person, place or thing about which a statement is being made. That
you may see the error of your ways is my fervent wish.
English II -4-
Noun clause used as Direct Object

A transitive verb passes the action from a doer to a receiver. In the active voice, the doer is the subject
and the receiver is the object.
I doubt that you can do it.
Noun clause used as Predicate Nominative

The predicate nominative follows a linking verb and completes its meaning. In the following example,
is is a linking verb and the underlined phrase completes the action by the verb; explains My wish.
My wish is that you may see the error of your ways.
Noun clause used as Object of Preposition

A preposition shows the relationship between its object and some other word in the sentence.7 Instead
of using a noun in this case, we use a noun clause as the object being related to some other word in the
sentence.
I was thinking about all that we have accomplished.
Noun clause used in Apposition

An appositive is a word or a group of words that follows a noun or a pronoun and gives additional
information about this noun/pronoun. In the following examples, the noun clause in both sentences is
used as appositives.
3
My wish, that you may see the error of your ways, is heartfelt.
It is my wish that you may see the error of your ways.
Caution:
Do not confuse an appositive clause with an adjectival clause introduced by that. When that introduces
an adjectival clause, it is a relative pronoun. When that introduces a noun clause, it is a conjunction.
7
Refer to section on Prepositions for more on the topic.
English II -5-
III. Sentences
DEFINITION
A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought.
I did not like her at first.
I began to see how she truly was.
I started to like her.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE

Every sentence has a subject and a predicate. The subject may or may not be expressed but the predicate is
always expressed.
The Subject
The subject is that part of the sentence which names a person, a place or a thing about which a statement is
made. This is, in a nutshell, what is being discussed or spoken about in the sentence. The subject with all
its modifiers is called the complete subject.
Children are gifts.
Good and behaved children are gifts from God.
Come here. (subject not expressed)
The Predicate
The predicate is that part of the sentence which tells us something about the subject. The predicate with all
its modifiers and complements is called the complete predicate.
Children are gifts.
Good and behaved children are gifts from God.
NATURAL AND TRANSPOSED ORDER IN SENTENCES

Natural Order
Whenever the complete predicate follows the complete subject, a sentence is in the natural order.
To be forgiven is such a sweet and liberating experience.
Subject Predicate
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English II -6-
Transposed Order
Whenever the complete predicate or part of the predicate is placed before the subject, a sentence is in the
transposed order.
Up flew the birds.
Predicate Subject
Did you give her the book?
part of the Predicate Subject the rest of the Predicate
COMPOUND ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE

Compound Subject
If the subject of the sentence consists of more than one noun or pronoun, it is said to be a compound subject.
God’s grace and love are necessary to us.
Compound Predicate
If the predicate consists of more than one verb, it is said to be a compound predicate.
You were weighed, measured and found wanting.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
Division according to Use
A declarative sentence is a sentence that states a fact.
An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question.
An imperative sentence is a sentence that expresses a command.
An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses sudden or strong emotion.
Examples:
The bus driver was tired from working all day. (declarative)
Will I be needed further? (interrogative)
Get here as quick as you can. (imperative)
Oh, how I was looking forward to meeting you! (exclamatory)
Notes on punctuation:
English II -7-
Declarative and imperative sentences are followed by periods. An interrogative sentence ends with a
question mark. An exclamatory sentence ends with an exclamation point.
Division according to Form

A simple sentence is a sentence containing one subject and one predicate, either or both of which,
may be compound.
Mary and Joseph sheltered under a goat shed.
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A compound sentence is a sentence that contains two or more independent clauses.
Mary and Joseph sheltered under a goat shed, and they stayed there until Jesus was born.
Notes on punctuation of compound sentences:

1. The clauses of a compound sentence connected by the simple conjunctions and, but, and or
are generally separated by a comma.
She was very late for her first class, but her teacher understood her reasons and let her in still.
2. If the clauses are short and closely related, the comma may be omitted.
The protesters surged toward the palace and the policemen were helpless.
3. Sometimes, the clauses of a compound sentence have no connecting word. The connection
is then indicated by a semicolon.
Stephanie and Peter were married immediately; it was what they both wanted.
4. The semicolon is also used to separate the clauses of a compound sentence connected by
nevertheless, moreover, therefore, however, thus, then because these words have very little
connective force. A comma is frequently used after these words.
The doctor quickly performed emergency procedures as soon as he arrived at the scene of the
accident; however, he was too late to save the victim.
A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one principal clause and one or more subordinate
clauses.
The books, which were ordered last week, are finally arriving today.
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IV. Punctuation
Punctuations help make the meaning of written statements clear.
THE PERIOD
Use a period:
1. At the end of a declarative statement or an imperative sentence. (see
above section for example)
2. After an abbreviation or initial. Dr. Mandy T. Gregory
THE COMMA
Use a comma:
1. To separate words or group of words in a series.
Please choose between coffee, tea, lemonade, or fruit juice.
2. To set off a short direct quotation and the parts of a divided quotation, unless a question mark or an
exclamation point is required.
“Please choose between coffee, tea, lemonade or fruit juice,” offered the stewardess. “I hope
they’ll be comfortable,” prayed the host, “and may long they like staying here.” 3. To separate
independent elements and words of direct address.
Yes, I think so.
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Mother, I am sick.
4. To set off the parts of dates, addresses, or geographical names.
June 15, 2005
5. To separate nonrestrictive phrases and clauses from the rest of the sentence.
The youth, who are supposedly the hope of the motherland, couldn’t care less.
6. After long introductory phrases and clauses and when needed to make meaning clear.
While you were waiting at the airport entrance, I was waiting at the tarmac.
7. To set off an appositive that is not part of the name or that is not restrictive.
It is my wish, that you may see the error of your ways.
8. To set off a parenthetical expression; that is, a word or a group of words inserted in the sentence as a
comment or an exclamatory remark, and one that is not necessary to the thought of the sentence.
The nurses, as well as the doctor, are confident about the patient’s full recovery.
9. To separate the clauses of a compound sentence connected by the conjunctions and, but, or, nor, yet. If the
clauses are short and closely related, the comma may be omitted.
English II -9-
I honored my word, but you didn’t honor yours.

10. After the salutation in a social letter and after the complimentary close in all letters.
Dear Don, Yours truly,
THE SEMICOLON
Use a semicolon:
1. To separate the clauses of a compound sentence when they are not separated by a coordinate conjunction.
I honored my word; you didn’t honor yours.
2. To separate the clauses of a compound sentence, which are connected by nevertheless, moreover, however,
therefore, then, or thus, since these words have very little connective force.
She got consistently good grades; thus, she graduates cum laude today.
3. Before as and namely when these words introduce an example or an illustration.
I have been to the most romantic city in Europe; namely, Paris.
THE COLON
Use a colon:
1. After the salutation of a business letter.
Dear Sir:
2. Before a list or enumeration of items.
Here is a list of government agencies: DOLE, DTI… 3. Before
a long direct quotation.
John Locke in his Second Treatise of Government said:
"The State of Nature has a Law of Nature to govern it, which obliges everyone : And Reason,
which is that Law, teaches all Mankind who will but consult it, that being all equal and
independent, no one ought to harm another in his Life, Health, Liberty, or Possessions."
THE EXCLAMATION POINT

Use an exclamation point:
1. After an exclamatory sentence.
I can’ t believe it! You’re really here!
2. After an exclamatory word, phrase , or clause.
Wow! What a game! That was great!
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7
THE QUESTION MARK

Use a question mark:
1. At the end of every question.
Are there any questions?
QUOTATION MARKS
Use quotation marks:
1. Before and after every direct quotation and every part of a divided quotation. For quotations within a
quotation, use single quotation marks.
“Locke has described the State of Nature much as Hobbes had, but then he adds ‘something different,’ or so
Montague believes,” said the professor.
2. To enclose titles of stories, poems, magazines, newspaper articles, and works of art. The usual practice for
titles of books, magazines and newspapers is italicization.
“Ode to my Family”
3. Periods and commas belong inside quotations. Colons and semicolons are written after quotation marks.
Gloria said, “I didn’t reckon on your being here so early in the morning.”
“I didn’t know you were coming,” Gloria remarked.
THE APOSTROPHE
Use an apostrophe:
1. To show possession.
My sister’s shoes are hard to fill.
2. With s to show the plural of letters, numbers, and signs.
How many a’s. are there in this sentence?
3. To show the omission of a letter, letters or numbers.
The 25th of February in ’95 We’ll
THE HYPHEN
Use a hyphen:
1. To divide a word at the end of a line wherever one or more syllables are carried to the next line.
English II - 11 -
2. In compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine.

I have thirty-three baskets already.
3. To separate the parts of some compound words.
My brother-in-law and my father-in-law are coming to visit tomorrow morning.
THE DASH
Use a dash:
1. To indicate a sudden change of thought.
He is still at the school—an unusual thing for him.
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CAPITAL LETTERS
Capitalize the first letter of the following:
1. The first word in a sentence.
2. The first word of every line of poetry (not very strict due to poetic license).
3. The first word of a direct quotation.
4. Proper nouns and proper adjectives.
5. Titles of honor and respect when preceding the name.
6. North, south, east, and west when they refer to sections of a country.
7. All names referring to God, the Bible, or parts of the Bible.
8. The principal words in the titles of books, plays, poems and pictures.
9. The pronoun I and the interjection O.
10. Abbreviations when capitals would be used if the words were written in full.
Do not capitalize:
1. The seasons of the year.
2. The articles a, an, the, conjunctions, or prepositions in titles, unless one of these is the first word.
3. The names of subjects, unless they are derived from proper nouns.
4. The words high school, college, and university, unless they are parts of the names of particular institutions.
5. Abbreviations for the time of day. (a.m./p.m.)
English II - 12 -
V. Badly Constructed Sentences

The following are common mistakes in sentence construction:
SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
It is a basic rule in grammar that every sentence must contain at least one independent clause. A misplaced
period may cut off a piece of the sentence, thereby resulting in a sentence that does not contain an independent
clause. In the following example, the second sentence is a fragment due to a misplaced period.
The committee met early to discuss the barangay budget allocation. Which is a complicated matter.
Common Types of Sentence Fragments
Fragment appositive phrase

A major social problem is the number of undesirable people coming into the state. Professional
gamblers and crooks, men who would do anything to make money.
Corrected: A major social problem is the number of undesirable people coming into the state—
professional gamblers and crooks, men who would do anything to make money.
Fragment prepositional phrase

I had expected to find the laboratory neat and orderly, but actually it was very sloppy. With
instruments on every available space and pieces of electronic equipment lying around the floor.
Corrected: I had expected to find the laboratory neat and orderly, but actually it was very sloppy.
Instruments were on every available space and pieces of electronic equipment were lying around
the floor.
Fragment dependent clause

A group of ants is busy looking for food and ferrying them back and forth. While another group
of ants was busy protecting the colony.
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Corrected: A group of ants is busy looking for food and ferrying them back and forth, while
another group of ants was busy protecting the colony.
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Fragment participial phrase

I was amazed at how alive the city was. Everywhere there were vendors, hawking their unique
and varied wares. Calling the attention of shoppers and nudging them in the hope that they’ll be
attracted enough to buy.
Corrected: I was amazed at how alive the city was. Everywhere there were vendors hawking their
unique and varied wares, calling the attention of shoppers, and nudging them in the
hope that they’ll be attracted enough to buy.
Fragment Infinitive Phrase

To get rich the best way how. That is the aim of every businessman I have met, and I doubt if I’ll
meet one with a different goal.
Corrected: To get rich the best way how is the aim of every businessman I have met, and I doubt
if I’ll meet one with a different goal.
Permissible Incomplete Sentences

Certain elliptical expressions stand as sentences because their meanings are readily understood, especially
in a conversation context.
1. Questions and answers to questions especially in conversations.
Why not?
Because it’s late.
2. Exclamations and requests

Yes!
This way, please.
3. Transitions
So much for that.
Now to go to the other issue.
There’s also the case of descriptive or narrative prose where fragments are deliberately used for effect.
The clock ticked and tocked. Tick and tock. Tick and tock.
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10
RUN-TOGETHER SENTENCES
This error is also known as the comma splice. This mistake is produced by a misplaced comma. Particularly, it
is the use of a comma to connect two independent clauses not conjoined by coordinating conjunctions.
Give me liberty, give me death.
Three Ways of Correcting Run-Together Sentences

Use a semicolon between the two independent clauses
Give me liberty; give me death.
Use a period between the clauses and make them two sentences instead.
Give me liberty. Give me death.
Insert a coordinating conjunction between the two clauses
Give me liberty or give me death.
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VI. Common Mistakes in Sentence Construction
SENTENCE UNITY
A sentence is unified if the various ideas it contains all contribute to making one total statement and if the
unifying idea, which ties the various parts together, is made clear to the reader. Faults in sentence unity include
inclusion of irrelevant ideas, excessive detail, illogical coordination and faulty subordination.
Irrelevant Ideas
These are ideas that do not help and contribute to the sentence.
Shirley got into a fight and when a person gets into a fight, he or she is probably going to be agitated after
and this does not contribute to overall feeling of well-being.
Problem: Who or what is the topic of the sentence, Shirley or well-being?
Problematic Statements:
A student, whether he or she goes to the University of the Philippines, a premier university in the country
which is patterned after Harvard which is a premier college abroad, or any other college or university in the
land, should be thankful for the educational opportunity.
Improved: A student, whether he or she goes to a premier university like the University of the Philippines
or to any other college or university, should be thankful for the educational opportunity.
Meeting you has made all the difference for I have never loved nor will love any other man than you, and
love means not having to say you’re sorry.
Problem: This sentence is about expressing the speaker’s joy in finding her true love. The definition of love
in the end is very irrelevant. Leave it out or make it another sentence.
Seeming lack of unity: Radio stars have to practice hard to develop pleasant speaking voices; it is very
important that they acquire a sense of timing so programs will begin and end promptly.
Improved: Radio stars have to practice hard to develop pleasant speaking voices and to improve their sense
of timing so that programs will begin and end promptly.
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Faulty sentence break: Hobbes believed men are naturally equal. He believed they had the same liberties
and rights, and moreover he thought men in that state are miserable.
English II - 16 -
Improved: Hobbes believed men are naturally equal, that they had the same liberties and rights. Moreover,
he thought men in that state are miserable.
Excessive Detail
If the sentence contains too many ideas, none of them will stand out and the sentence will seem
overcrowded and pointless.
Overcrowded sentence: When Rizal and the rest of the ilustrados agitated for equal rights for the Filipinos,
other Filipinos heard and took these protests as reason to go up in the mountains and fight a guerilla war
with the Spaniards where they lost most of the time yet proved that they would not sit back and let foreigners
take over their own country.
Improved: When Rizal and the rest of the ilustrados agitated for equal rights for Filipinos, other Filipinos
heard. These Filipinos took the ilustrados’ protests as a reason to go up in the mountains and fight a guerilla
war with the Spaniards. They lost most of the time, indeed, but they proved that they would not sit back
and let foreigners take over their own country.
Just because two ideas are related, and thus naturally follow each other; that doesn’t mean they belong to one
sentence.
Lack of sentence unity: I will give you a grand tour of the campus after I got my things unloaded at the desk
and I hope you will enjoy it here.
Improved: I will give you a grand tour of the campus after I got my things unloaded at the desk. I hope you
will enjoy it here.
SUBORDINATION
To make main points stand out clearly, less important points must be made less conspicuous. Main ideas should
be expressed in independent clauses, which are the backbone of any sentence. Minor descriptive details,
qualifications, and incidental remarks should be put into subordinate constructions—dependent clauses,
appositives, or modifying phrases.
Primer sentences
A series of short independent sentences may produce the jerky primer style of elementary students. A
disadvantage of such writing is that there seems to be no sentence that is more important than the rest.
Primer sentences should be unified into longer sentences, with less important ideas subordinated.
English II - 17 -
Primer Sentences:
Look at how she dances. She shows harmony and grace. She is dancing to a jazz piece. She is beautiful to
watch.
I gave everything to that cause. I gave all my strength. I gave all my time. I gave all my interest. Look where
it brought me.
Improved Sentences:
12
Look at how she dances to the jazz piece, showing such harmony and grace and is such a beauty to watch.
I gave everything—my strength, my time, and my interest—to that cause, but look where it brought me.
Illogical Coordination
When sentence elements are joined by and or another coordinating conjunction, the implication is that the
elements are of equal weight and importance. If that is not really the case, one of them should be
subordinated.
Illogically coordinated sentences:
A large sugar plant was built allegedly to supply the whole country with its sugar needs and is now operational.
You should get and shred a piece of ribbon and a size no greater than 0.5 centimeters.
I got a free afternoon, and I thought about what I’d like to do, and I decided to clean the house, but my friend
Sheila arrived, and we went to the mall instead.
Improved Sentences:
A large sugar plant, built allegedly to supply the whole country with its sugar needs, is now operational.
You should get and shred a piece or ribbon to a size no greater than 0.5 centimeters.
When I got a free afternoon, I thought about what I’d like to do and decided to clean the house. However, my
friend Shiela arrived so she and I went to the mall instead.
Faulty Subordination
When the main idea of the sentence is placed in a subordinate construction, the resulting upside-down
subordination makes the sentence weak. The context, of course, determines which ideas are relatively
more, and which are relatively less important.
Faulty Subordination:
I was mooning around when my classmate called my name which caused me to trip.
The movie had an opening scene which people thought was irrelevant and unnecessarily gory.
Improved sentences:
While I was mooning around, my classmate called my name and caused me to trip.
People thought the opening scene of the movie was irrelevant and unnecessarily gory.
English II - 18 -
PARALLELISM
Parallel thoughts should be expressed in parallel grammatical form. For example, an infinitive should be
paralleled by an infinitive, not by a participle; a subordinate clause by another subordinate clause, not by a
phrase. Parallel method is one way of showing readers the relation between your ideas.
Coordinate Constructions
The coordinating conjunctions (like and, or, but, and nor) are sure signs of compound construction. Any
sentence element which can be joined by a coordinating conjunction should be parallel in construction.
Sentences that are not parallel:
Among the responsibilities of a UP student are studying hard and to serve the country.
I would like to discuss and focusing on the issues at hand.
Every child is taught to work with the team and that good sportsmanship must be shown.
Sentences that are parallel:

Among the responsibilities of a UP student are studying hard and serving the country.
I would like to discuss and focus on the issues at hand.
Every child is taught to work with the team and to show good sportsmanship.
Elements in Series
Sentence elements in series (x, y, and z) should express parallel ideas and be parallel in grammatical form.
13
Faulty Parallelism:
She is young, well educated, and has an aggressive
manner. I was weighed, has been measured, and was found
wanting. He was tall, dark, and wore a black coat.
Improved Parallelism:
She is young, well educated, and aggressive.
I was weighed, measured, and found wanting.
He was tall, dark, and black-coated. (Or, “He was tall and dark, and he wore a black coat.”)
Repetition of Prepositions and Other Introductory Words:

In order to make a parallelism clear, it is often necessary to repeat a preposition, an article, a relative
pronoun, a subordinating conjunction, an auxiliary verb, or the sign of the infinitive.
English II - 19 -
Obscure Parallelisms:
The lady must decide who among the suitors she likes best and not waste time informing them of her decision.
The cashier told him that his account has not been cleared yet and he must do so first before he can claim
benefits.
The area was littered by plastic bottles and candy wrappers, and the tourists who produced all the garbage.
Clear Parallelism:
The lady must decide who among the suitors she likes best and must not waste time informing them of her
decision.
The cashier told him that his account has not been cleared yet and that he must do so first before he can claim
benefits.
The area was littered by plastic bottles and candy wrappers, and by tourists who produced all the garbage.
Note: It is not necessary to repeat the connective word when the parallel elements are short and stand close
together.
Correlatives
Correlative conjunctions like either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also should be followed by parallel
sentence elements.
Undesirables:
He is not only discourteous to the students but also to the teacher. (Not only is followed by an adjective with
a prepositional phrase modifying it; but also is followed by a prepositional phrase.)
He either was a magnificent liar or a remarkably naïve young man. (Either is followed by a verb and its noun
complement; or is followed by a noun and its modifying adjectives.
Improved:
He is discourteous not only to the students but also to the teacher. (The correlatives are each followed by a
prepositional phrase now)
He was either a magnificent liar or a remarkably naïve young man. (Each correlative is followed by a noun
complement of the verb)
And Which Clauses

Avoid joining a relative clause to its principal clause by and or but. An undesirable and which construction
can be corrected three ways:
1. by omitting the coordinating conjunction,
2. changing the relative clause to a principal clause, or 3. inserting a relative
clause before the conjunction.
14
English II - 20 -
Undesirables:
We were fooling around on our way to the canteen when we were shushed by the Dean and who had a
disagreeable disposition.
The witness appeared at the hearing with a long written statement, but which he was not allowed to read.
Improved:
We were fooling around on our way to the canteen when we were shushed by the Dean who had a disagreeable
disposition.
We were fooling around on our way to the canteen when we met the Dean who had a disagreeable disposition
and who shushed us.
The witness appeared at the hearing with a long written statement, but he was not allowed to read
it.
FAULTY REFERENCE OF PRONOUNS

The antecedent of every pronoun should be immediately clear to the reader. Faulty reference of pronouns is
particularly hard to detect in a first draft.
Ambiguous Reference
Do not use a pronoun in such away that it might refer to either of the two antecedents. Do not practice
explaining the pronoun by repeating of antecedent in parentheses.
Undesirable: Dona met Michelle when she was on the way to school (To whom is she referring to, Dona
or Michelle?)
Dona met Michelle when she (Michelle) was on the way to school.
Improved: Dona, on her way to school, met Michelle.
Reference to Remote Antecedent

A pronoun need not be in the same sentence as its antecedent, but the antecedent should not be so remote
as to cause possible misreading. If a considerable amount of material stands between the antecedent and
the pronoun, repeat the antecedent.
Undesirable: Cindy lacked enough money to buy the beautiful dress that was made of silk, gorgeously cut, and
very expensive. Dozens of other dresses were in the store as well but they were no competition to the dream
dress that she wanted.
Improved: …but they were no competition to the dream dress that Cindy wanted.
English II - 21 -
Reference to Implied Antecedent

Do not use a pronoun to refer to a noun which is not expressed but has to be inferred from another noun.
Antecedent implied: I once knew a very old violinist who repaired them very expertly.
Improved: I once knew an old violinist who repaired violins very expertly.
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Reference to Inconspicuous Antecedent
Do not use a pronoun to refer to a noun in a subordinate construction where it may be overlooked by the
reader. A noun that is used as an adjective is likely to be too inconspicuous to serve as an antecedent.
Inconspicuous antecedent: Adobe brick was used in the wall, which is a Spanish word for sun-dried clay.
Improved:The bricks in the wall were made of adobe, which is a Spanish word for sun-dried clay.
Broad Reference
Using a relative or demonstrative pronoun (which, that, this) to refer to the whole idea of a preceding clause,
phrase or sentence is acceptable if the sense and if a change would be awkward and wordy.
Acceptable broad reference: At first glance, the desert seems completely barren of animal life, but this is a
delusion.
Undesirable: The battle of Thermopylae was the battle where Spartans fought the Persians and where every
Spartan who fought was killed, the account of which can be found in many books.
Improved: The battle of Thermopylae was the battle where Spartans fought the Persians and where every Spartan
who fought was killed. The account of this battle is told in many books.
Ambiguous: The beginning of the book is more interesting than the conclusion, which is very unfortunate.
Improved: Unfortunately, the beginning of the book is more interesting than the conclusion.
Awkward: In the eighteenth century more and more land was converted into pasture, which had been going on
to some extent for several centuries.
Improved: In the eighteenth century, more and more land was converted into pasture, a process which had been
going on to some extent for several years.
Personal Pronouns Used Indefinitely
English II - 22 -
Although the indefinite you is suitable in informal writing, it is generally out of place in formal
compositions. Instead, use the impersonal pronoun one, or put the verb in the passive voice.
Informal: You should not take sedatives without a doctor’s prescription.

Formal: One should not take sedatives without a doctor’s prescription.
Formal or Informal: Sedatives should not be taken without a doctor’s prescription.
The indefinite use of they is always vague and usually sounds childish and naïve.
Undesirable: Thirty years ago, there was no such thing as an atomic bomb; in fact, they did not even know how
to split the atom.
Improved: …in fact, scientists did not even know how to split the atom.
The indefinite it is correctly used in impersonal expressions (e.g. it is raining, it is hot) or in sentences where it
anticipates the real subject (e.g. It seems best to go at once) Colloquial use like “It says here that…” should not
be used in writing.
Undesirable: It says in the paper that they are having severe storms in the West. Improved:
The paper says there are severe storms in the West.
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Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives
The pronouns this, that these, those are frequently used as adjectives, to modify nouns. Using one of these
words as a modifier, without an expressed or clearly implied antecedent, is a colloquialism which should
be avoided in serious writing.
Acceptable: After struggling through the poetry assignment, I decided that I would never read one of those poems
again.
Colloquial: It was just one of those things.
Colloquial: The building was one of those rambling old mansions.
Improved: The building was one of those rambling old mansions that are found in every New England town.
DANGLING MODIFIERS
A modifier is a dangling modifier when there is no word in the sentence for it to modify. In the sentence
“Swimming out into the lake, the water felt cold,” the writer took it for granted that the reader would assume
somebody was swimming. In fact, the only noun in the sentence is water and the participial phrase
English II - 23 -
Swimming out into the lake could not logically be modifying it; the water could not be swimming. Thus, this
participial phrase is a dangling modifier.
A Dangling modifier can be remedied in two ways:

1. By supplying the noun or pronoun that the phrase logically modifies
Swimming out into the cold, I felt that the water was cold.
2. By changing the dangling modifier into a complete clause (one which has a subject and predicate)
As I swam out into the lake, the water felt colder.
Dangling Participles, Gerunds and Infinitives

Dangling participial phrase: Strolling around the park one day, a baby suddenly cried. (Who was strolling)
Improved: As I was strolling around the park one day, a baby suddenly cried.
Dangling Gerund Phrase: For opening the door to let her in, the beautiful lady gave me a radiant smile. (Who
opened the door?)
Improved: The beautiful lady gave me a radiant smile after I had opened the door for her.
Dangling infinitive phrase: To pass the difficult entrance examination, all possible topics must be covered in the
review.
Improved: To pass the difficult entrance examination, a student must cover all possible topics in the review.
Dangling Elliptical Clauses

Subject and main verb are sometimes omitted from a dependent clause. These clauses are called elliptical
clauses:
Instead of while he was going, while going is used.
Instead of when he was a boy, when a boy is used.
If the subject of the elliptical clause is not mentioned in the rest of the sentence, it may become a dangling
elliptical clause.
Dangling: When six years old, my favorite pet dog died.
Improved: When I was six years old, my favorite pet dog died.
Permissible Introductory Expressions

Some verbal phrases, like generally speaking, taking all things into consideration, judging from past
experience have become stock introductory expressions and need not be attached to any particular noun.
17
Similarly, verbals expressing a generalized process, like in swimming, in cooking, are often used without
being attached to a particular noun.
English II - 24 -
Acceptable:
Generally speaking, males die younger than females.
Taking all things into consideration, the decision was just and as it should be.
Judging from past experience, UP graduates get hired much faster than others.
In swimming, relaxation is essential.
In cooking, the quality of the ingredients is important.
MISPLACED SENTENCE ELEMENTS

The normal sentence order in English is subject, verb, and complement, with modifiers either before or after the
word being modified. This permits certain flexibility in the placing of subordinate clauses, but the following
must be observed:
1. Place modifiers as close as possible to the words they modify
2. Do not needlessly split a grammatical construction by the insertion of another sentence element.
Misplaced clauses and phrases

Some subordinate clauses and modifying phrases can be moved around to various positions in the sentence
without affecting its meaning. For example, an introductory adverbial clause can sometimes be shifted
from the beginning to the middle or the end of the sentence.
Whatever other people may say, I still believe that faith is a matter best left to the individual’s discretion.
I still believe, whatever other people may say, that faith is a matter best left to the individual’s
discretion.
I still believe that faith is a matter best left to the individual’s discretion, whatever other people may say.
This freedom, however, has its dangers. Modifiers may be placed so as to produce ridiculous misreadings
or real ambiguities.
Misplaced modifier: Like many artists of the period, Carey lost the opportunity to make large profits on his
paintings through the work of imitators and plagiarists.
Corrected: Like many artists of the period, Carey lost, through the work of imitators and plagiarists, the
opportunity to make large profits on his paintings.
Misplaced Modifier: The ramp model wore a grey cardigan over one shoulder which looked fuzzy and warm.
Corrected: The ramp model wore over one shoulder, a grey cardigan which looked fuzzy and warm.
Misplaced Adverbs
English II - 25 -
Theoretically, limiting adverbs like only, almost, never, seldom, even, hardly, nearly should be placed
immediately before the words they modify.
Gino only tried to express his thanks.
Gino and I fought only once.
Formal: She gave you that food only to make up for yesterday’s fiasco.
Informal: She only gave you that food to make up for yesterday’s fiasco. Acceptable:
He seldom seems to smile.
Acceptable: The migratory bird hardly appeared to be breathing.
18
Awkward: What would foreigners think of us if they only got their impression of the Philippines from Claire
Danes’ maligning tongue?
Improved: What would foreigners think of us if they got their impression of the Philippines only from Claire
Danes’ maligning tongue?
Ambiguous: I nearly ate all of it, leaving you with nothing. Improved:
I ate nearly all of it, leaving you with nothing.
Squinting Modifiers
Avoid placing a modifier in such a position that it may refer to either a preceding or a following word.
Ambiguous: The person who steals in nine cases out of ten is driven to do so by want. Improved:
In nine cases out of ten, the person who steals is driven to do so by want.
Ambiguous: Since a canoe cannot stand hard knocks when not in use it should be kept out of the water. Improved:
Since a canoe cannot stand hard knocks, it should be kept out of the water when not in use.
Awkward Split Constructions; Split Infinitives

Any needless splitting of a grammatical construction by the insertion of a modifier may affect the meaning
of the sentence.
Awkward: The author made the horses, animals that we consider only fit for hard and brute labor, portray an
ideal society.
Improved: The author portrays an ideal society by means of horses, animals that we consider only fit for hard
and brute labor.
Split infinitives are a result of inserting a word or a group of words between the to and the verb form. This may
be awkward, especially if the modifier is long.
Awkward: I should like to, if the Lord blesses me with such grace, tour the world.
English II - 26 -
Improved: I should like to tour the world, if the Lord blesses me with such grace.
In some cases, infinitives are split by adverbs. This type of split-infinitives is usually acceptable.
Acceptable: To never gain back my honor would be a great burden.

Acceptable: The company is hoping to more than double its assets next year.
UNNECESSARY SHIFTS
Structural consistency makes a sentence easier to read. If the first clause of a sentence is in the active voice, do
not shift to the passive voice in the second clause unless there is some reason for the change. Similarly, avoid
needless shifts in tense, mode, or person within a sentence.
Shifts of Voice or Subject

Shifting from the active to the passive voice almost always involves a change in subject; thus, an
unnecessary shift in voice may make a sentence doubly awkward.
Shift in subject and voice: When I finally found the trouble in an unsoldered wire, the dismantling of the motor
was begun at once.
Improved: When I finally found the trouble in an unsoldered wire, I began at once to dismantle the motor.
19
Shift in voice: The new cellphone model is so innovative that it is wanted so badly by my friend. Improved:
The new cellphone model is so innovative that my friend wants it so badly.
Shift in subject: The children have played almost all the games there are, but games of hide and seek are their
favorite.
Improved: The children have played almost all the games there are, but they like hide and seek best.
Shifts of Tense
Do not change the tense unless there is reason to do so.
Shift of tense: The family was usually quarreled over money matters, and when this new problem arises, the
family is broken up.
Improved: The family was usually quarreled over money matters, and when this new problem arose, the family
was broken up.
Shifts of Mode
English II - 27 -
For example, If you begin a sentence with an imperative command (imperative mode), do not shift without
reason to a statement (indicative mode).
Shift of mode: Jump to the left; then you should jump to the right. (the first clause is a command, the second
clause is a statement giving advice)
Improved: Jump to the left; then jump to the right.
Improved: After jumping to the left, you should jump to the right.
Shift of mode: If I were you, I would be very grateful and I will thank him in any way I can. (Subjunctive,
Indicative)
Improved: If I were you, I would be very grateful and I would thank him in any way I can.
Shifts of Person
The most common shift in writing is from the third person to the second person. This usually happens
when the writer is talking about no particular individual but of everyone in general.
Needless shift: A man must always think happy thoughts for you can will happiness.
Improved: You must always think happy thoughts for you can will happiness.
Improved: A man must always think happy thoughts for he can will happiness.
INCOMPLETE CONSTRUCTIONS
Sentence constructions are incomplete if words and expressions necessary for clarity are omitted.
Auxiliary Verbs
Do not omit auxiliary verbs that are necessary to complete a grammatical construction. When the two parts
of a compound construction are in different tenses, it is usually necessary to write the auxiliary verbs in
full.
Incomplete: Due to a vehicular accident last year, he can no longer walk and never walk again.
Improved: Due to a vehicular accident last year, he can no longer walk and will never walk again.
Idiomatic prepositions
English idioms require that certain prepositions be used with certain adjectives: we say for example
“interested in”, “aware of”, “devoted to”. Be sure to always include all necessary idiomatic prepositions.
Incomplete: She is exceptionally interested and devoted to her friends.
20
English II - 28 -
Improved: She is exceptionally interested in and devoted to her friends.
Comparisons As and Than; One of the…if not the…

In comparisons, do not omit words necessary to make a complete idiomatic statement. We say “as pretty
as” and “prettier than”.
Incomplete: Liza is as pretty, if not prettier than Lolita.

Complete but Awkward: Liza is as pretty as, if not prettier than Lolita. Improved:
Liza is as pretty as Lolita, if not prettier.
Incomplete: The September 11 bombing of the twin towers is one of the worst, if not the worst, terrorist attacks
in the world. (two idioms: “one of the worst terrorist attacks” and the “worst terrorist attack”)
Correct: The September 11 bombing of the twin towers is one of the worst terrorist attacks, if not the worst
terrorist attack, in the world.
Incomplete Comparisons
Comparisons should be logical and unambiguous.
Illogical: Her energy level is lower than an old lady. (Is an old lady
low?) Improved: Her energy level is lower than that of an old lady.
Improved: Her energy level is lower than an old lady’s.
Avoid comparisons which are ambiguous or vague because they are incomplete. A comparison is
ambiguous if it is too hard to tell what is being compared with what. It is vague if the standard of
comparison is not stated.
Ambiguous Comparison: Alabang is farther from Sucat than Makati.

Clear: Alabang is farther from Sucat than Makati is.
Vague comparison: The people have finally realized that it’s cheaper to commute.
More Definite: The people have finally realized that it’s cheaper to commute than to drive.
If it is clearly indicated by the context, the standard of comparison need not be specified.
Acceptable: You are big, but I am bigger.
English II - 29 -
MIXED CONSTRUCTIONS
Do not begin a sentence with one construction and shift to another to conclude the sentence. English is full of
alternate constructions and it is easy to confuse them. For example, here are two ways of saying the same thing:
1. Fishing in Alaska is superior to that of any other region in North America.
2. Alaska is superior to any other region in North America for lake and stream fishing.
21
The first sentence compares fishing in two regions; the second compares two regions in regard to fishing. Either
sentence is correct, but the combination of the first half of one with the second half of the other produces
confusion.
Mixed Construction: Fishing in Alaska is superior to that of any other region in North America for lake and stream
fishing.
Mixed construction: Often it wouldn’t be late in the evening before my father got home.
Correct: Often it would be late in the evening before my father got home. Correct:
Often my father wouldn’t get home until late in the evening.
Many mixed constructions involve comparisons. For example:
Mixed Construction: The backyard mechanic will find plastic much easier to work with than with metal.
Correct: The backyard mechanic will find plastic easier to work with than metal.
Correct: The backyard mechanic will find it easier to work with plastic than with metal.
Using a modifying phrase or clause as subject or complement of a verb often produces a badly mixed
construction.
Mixed Construction: Without a top gave the new car model a very odd look. Correct:
Without a top, the new car model looked very odd.
Mixed Construction: Only one thing stops me from hurting you—because you’re my sister. (the only thing requires
a substantive at the end, not because…)
Correct: Only one thing stops me from hurting you—the thought that you’re my sister.
The “reason…is because” construction is still not accepted in formal English.
Mixed construction: The reason UP graduates perform so well in the job market is because employers think that UP
graduates are competent.
English II - 30 -
Correct: UP graduates perform well in the job market because employers think UP graduates are competent.
WEAK AND UNEMPHATIC SENTENCES

Even though the sentence is technically correct, with its elements properly subordinated to throw the stress on
the most important ideas, it may still lack force and impact. Weak sentences are usually caused either by shaky
structure or by dilution with needless words and repetitions.
Trailing Constructions
A sentence should not trail away in a tangle of dependent clauses and subordinate elements. The end of a
sentence is an emphatic position. Put some important idea there. However, it is not necessary to make all
your sentences “periodic” – that is, arranged so that the meaning is suspended until the very end of the
sentence. Periodic sentences may sound contrived and formal:
It was Swift’s intention that mankind, despite its ability to deceive itself, should be forced to look steadily and
without self-excuse at the inherent evil of human nature.
Although such sentences are compact and forceful, too many of them makes one’s writing sound stilted.
On the other hand, the following sentence is inexcusably weak:
A trip abroad would give me a knowledge of foreign lands, thus making me a better citizen than when I left,
because I could better understand our foreign policy.
22
The participial construction “”thus making me a better citizen” is especially weak. Not only is it technically
“dangling”, but it seems like an afterthought, like it was just an add-on to the sentence.
Rearrangement and trimming could make it a better sentence:
The knowledge gained on a trip abroad would help me to understand our foreign policy and thus make me a
better citizen.
Trailing Construction: It is in this scene that Leo finally realizes that he has been deceived by the promises of
his sisters.
Improved: In this scene Leo finally realizes that he has been deceived by the promises of his sisters.
Avoiding Anticlimax
When a sentence ends in a series of words varying in strength, they should be placed in climactic order, the
strongest last, unless the writer intends to make an anticlimax for a humorous effect.
English II - 31 -
Anticlimactic: The new sales manager proved himself to be mercilessly cruel in discharging incompetents,
stubborn and impolite.
Improved: The new sales manager proved himself to be impolite, stubborn, and mercilessly cruel in discharging
incompetents.
Catchall phrases like and others, etc, and the like suggest that the writer has run out of examples. Do not
use them unless there’s a good reason.
Weak: Some cities in the Philippines like Quezon City, Manila, and the like, have populations that range over a
million.
Improved: Some cities in the Philippines, like Quezon City and Manila, have populations that range over a
million.
Sentences ending with prepositions are by no means incorrect. A sentence with a preposition at the end is
often more emphatic, and more natural, than a sentence that has a preposition buried within it.
Stilted: This is the picture of the girl with whom I am in love. Improved:
This is the picture of the girl I am in love with.
WORDY SENTENCES
Unnecessary words and repetitions dilute the strength of a piece of writing. Be as concise as clarity and fullness
of statement permit. Note that conciseness is not the same as brevity. A brief statement does not give detail;
for example:
“I failed.”
A concise statement may give a good detail but it does not waste words:
“Last month, I did not reach my sales quota.”
Being brief is not always a virtue. But it is always good to be concise. In revision, look for unnecessary words
in your sentences. Look with suspicion at such circumlocutions as “along the lines of”, of the nature of.” Avoid
redundant expressions like “green in color”, “in the contemporary world of today”, “petite in size.”
Wordy and repetitious: If I should be required to serve a term with the armed forces, I would prefer to enter the Air
Force, because I think I would like it better than any other branch of the service, as I have always had a strong interest
in and liking for airplanes.
Improved: If I have to enter the armed forces, I would prefer the Air Force, as I have always liked airplanes.
23
English II
Wordy: I am happy to announce that I grant your request. Improved:

Yes.
VAGUE SENTENCES
If your sentences are to be clear, you must express your meaning fully, in exact and definite language.
Gaps in Thought
Try to put yourself in the place of your reader and try to read your sentence through his eyes. Would it be
clear to someone without prior knowledge of what you are trying to say? It may be that because you wrote
it and you know what you are trying to say, you jump ahead and “short circuit” your sentence.
Not clear: Maturing faster because of parents’ divorcing does not hold true in all cases. The child may be
rendered timid and insecure.
Gaps filled in: When his parents are divorced, the shock may hasten the maturation of the child. But this does
not always happen; divorce may also retard maturation and make the child timid and insecure.
Inexact Statement
Be exact in writing sentences. Make your meaning clear through exact phrasing.
Inexact phrasing: Luxurious living results in expensive bills at the end of the month. (bills are not expensive;
luxurious living is)
Improved: Luxurious living brings high bills at the end of the month.
Inexact phrasing: From my home are five high schools within a five-minute driving radius from my home. (one
can reach the school in an automobile but not in a radius)
Improved: Five high schools lie within a five-minute driving radius of my home
sources. We don’t claim copyright on materials and examples taken from
references but we do reserve the rights to our own materials and examples.
24
DICTION AND VOCABULARY
POINTERS
I. Diction
LEVELS OF USAGE
1. Standard English:
Formal
Formal English is usually written and is used in scholarly articles, official documents, formal letters,
and any situation calling for scrupulous propriety.
Informal (General)
Informal or General English is the language, both written and spoken, used by the educated classes in
carrying on in their everyday businesses. It is the level used in most books, magazines, newspapers,
and ordinary business communications.
Colloquial
Colloquial English is the language of familiar conversation among educated people. It occurs
frequently in informal writing.
Formal Informal Colloquial

comprehend understand catch on
altercation quarrel row
wrathful, irate angry mad
goad, taunt tease needle
predicament problem jam, fix
exorbitant high steep
2. Substandard English
Dialectical
English III -1-

Words common to a particular region and not used throughout the country are part of the dialectical
body of words.
Slang
These words are unconventional. They are vivid ways of expressing an idea which has no standard
equivalent. Those that are widely used have a good chance of being accepted as Standard English.
After all, some words that are considered as Standard now, like mob, banter, sham and lynch belonged
to the slang words before.
Ex: stooge, lame duck, shot of whisky, a bridge shark.
Most slang words however are too violent to get accepted, and some are just a reflection of some
people’s wish to be different. They quickly lose any precise meaning. These slang words have a poor
chance of getting accepted in Standard English.
Illiterate (or Vulgate) or Errors in Idiom

Idioms are peculiarities of language. Idioms require that some words be followed by arbitrarily fixed
prepositions.
take in agree on angry about argue for
take up agree with angry with argue against
agree to angry at argue with argue about
Some idioms demand that certain words be followed by infinitives, others by gerunds.
Infinitive Gerunds
able to go capable of going
like to go enjoy going
eager to go cannot help going
hesitate to go privilege of going
Error in use of Idioms is unacceptable in Standard English.
EXACT DICTION
Choose words which say precisely what you mean. It is not enough to make sure that you can be
understood; you ought to make sure that you cannot be misunderstood.
English III -2-

1. Choose specific words rather than general terms unless there’s a good reason for being general.
General: For dinner we had some really good food.

Specific: For dinner we had steamed lobsters and grilled tilapia.
2. Make your verbs work. Choose specific verbs or verbs that signify the specific action, rather than colorless
or abstract verbs (e.g. occur, took place, prevail, exist).
Colorless verb: He beat a hasty exit.

Specific verb: He rushed from the room.
3. Do not use too explosive verbs or verbs that are too explosive for their context.
Exaggerated: Her angry words pounced out upon him.

Specific verb: She scolded him.
4. Do not use the passive voice when unnecessary because this leads to weak constructions. The passive
voice is appropriate when the doer of the action is irrelevant or unknown.
5. Avoid jargon. People who are fond of jargon use them to dress up words; they hope to sound more
“authoritative”. Certain key words betray the user fo jargon. He has an unhealthy fondness for factor,
case, basis, in terms of, in the nature of, with reference to, elements, objective, personnel.
Jargon: adverse climatic condition

Improved: bad weather
Jargon: Plant personnel are required to extinguish all illuminating devices before vacating the
premises.
Improved: Employees are asked to turn out all lights before leaving the plant.
6. Choose words with the exact connotation required by the context. In addition to their denotation or exact
meaning, words have a connotation or a fringe of associations and overtones which make them appropriate
in some situations but not in others.
Denotation Connotation
English III -3-
home a place of residence suggests family life, warmth, comfort, affection

house a place of residence emphasizes physical structure
domicile a place of residence has strictly legal overtones
Inappropriate: “House, Sweet House”

“A hat to fit every skull”
EFFECTIVE DICTION
In addition to being exact, your diction must also be effective; that is, you must make it easy and pleasant for a reader
to grasp what you are saying. Keep your diction natural and sincere, be direct and concise, use fresh, unhackneyed
phrases, and avoid needless technical language.
Pretentious Language
Do not decorate your sentences with pretentious language; doing so would make you seem insincere to your
reader. Do not think that originality is achieved by avoiding ordinary words.
Ordinary Word Strained Circumlocution

spade implement for agricultural excavation
dog faithful canine friends
codfish denizen of the deep
basketball player casaba-heaver
hit the ball smacked the horsehide
Do not also attempt to show your superiority by peppering your constructions with needless foreign words.
Needless Foreign Phrase English Equivalent

entre nous between us
joie de vivre enjoyment of life
faux pas social blunder
sub rosa secret or secretly
Sturm und Drang storm and stress
English III -4-
Trite Rhetorical Expressions

Guard against using hackneyed and stale expressions in your construction. Avoid clichés, hackneyed
quotations, literary allusions and proverbs.
Some hackneyed expressions:
slow but sure speculation
was rife mother nature
easier said than done
Clichéd quotations:
all is not gold that glitters
make hay while the sun shines
Technical Language
When writing something aimed at a general audience, you should avoid technical terms which are not commonly
understood, even though more words are required to say the same thing in English.
Appropriate Figures of Speech

A figure of speech is a comparison, either stated or implied, between two things which are unlike except in one
particular. Figures of speech are used to give color and vividness to writing, and they should be fresh,
reasonable, consistent, and suited to the context in which they appear. When mixed, they should also not be
incongruous.
Incongruous mix: This young attorney is rapidly gaining a foothold in the public eye.
Awkward Repetitions
Do not needlessly repeat words or sounds.
Needless repetition: Probably the next problem we will tackle is the problem of rising school tuition.
Improved: The next problem we will tackle is the rising school tuition.
English III -5-

II. Vocabulary
BUILDING A BETTER VOCABULARY
Everyone—from beginning learners in English to veterans in journalism—knows the frustration of not having the
right word immediately available in that lexicon one carries between one's ears. Sometimes it's a matter of not being
able to recall the right word; sometimes we never knew it. It is also frustrating to read a newspaper or homework
assignment and run across words with meanings that elude us. Language, after all, is power. When your children get
in trouble fighting with the neighbors' children, and your neighbors call your children little twerps and you call their
children nefarious miscreants—well, the battle is over and they didn't stand a chance. Building a vocabulary that is
adequate to the needs of one's reading and self-expression has to be a personal goal for every writer and speaker.
MAKING IT PERSONAL
Using some durable piece of paper—white construction paper or the insides of the ripped-off covers of old
notebooks—begin to write down words in small but readable script that you discover in your reading that you can't
define. Read journals and newspapers that challenge you in terms of vocabulary. Pursue words actively and become
alert to words that you simply overlooked in the past. Write down the words in one column; then, later, when you
have a dictionary at your disposal, write down a common definition of the word; in a third column, write a brief
sentence using the word, underlined.
Carry this paper or cardboard with you always. In the pauses of your busy day—when you're sitting on the bus, in
the dentist's office, during commercials—take out the paper and review your vocabulary words until you feel
comfortable that you would recognize (and be able to use) these words the next time you see them. The amazing
thing is that you will see the words again—even "nefarious miscreants," and probably sooner than you thought. In
fact, you might well discover that the words you've written down are rather common. What's happening is not that,
all of a sudden, people are using words you never saw before, but that you are now reading and using words that you
had previously ignored.
USING EVERY RESOURCE
English III -6-

Most bookstores carry books on building a more Two trucks loaded with thousands of copies of Roget's
powerful vocabulary, some of them with zany Thesaurus collided as they left a New York publishing
names such as Thirty Days to a More Powerful house last Thursday, according to the Associated
Vocabulary. If you've got money to spare or if Press.
they're on sale, buy them and use them; they can't
hurt. Books that group words according to what Witnesses were aghast, amazed, astonished,
astounded, bemused, benumbed, bewildered,
confounded, confused, dazed, dazzled, disconcerted,
disoriented, dumbstruck, electrified, flabbergasted,
horrified, immobilized, incredulous, nonplussed,
overwhelmed, paralyzed, perplexed, scared, shocked,
startled, stunned, stupified, surprised, taken aback,
traumatized, upset. . . .
they have in common—more in meaning than in spelling—are
especially useful.
Newspapers often carry brief daily articles that explore the

meanings of words and phrases. These articles often emphasize
peculiar words that won't find themselves into your working
vocabulary, but they can still be fun. Often you'll find that learning
one new word leads to other new words, little constellations of
meaning that keep your brain cells active and hungry for more.
Make reading these articles one of your daily habits, an addiction,
even.
Play dictionary games with your family in which someone uses the dictionary to find a neat word and writes down
the real definition and everyone else writes down a fake (and funny) definition. See how many people you can fool
with your fake definitions.
— joke circulated on the Internet

December 2003
English III -7-

A thesaurus is like a dictionary except that it groups words within constellations of meaning. It is often useful in
discovering just the right word you need to express what you want to say. Make sure you correctly understand the
definition of a word (by using a dictionary) before using it in some important paper or report. Your bookstore
salesperson can provide plenty of examples of an inexpensive thesaurus. The online Merriam Webster's
WWWebster Dictionary has access to both an extensive dictionary and a hyperlinked thesaurus. Links allow you
to go conveniently back and forth between the dictionary and the thesaurus.
If you have a speedy computer processor and a fast hookup to the internet, we recommend the Plumb Design Visual
Thesaurus. Once the program is entirely loaded, type in a word that you would like to see "visualized," hit the return
key, and a construct of verbal connections will float across the screen. Click on any of the words within that construct
and a new pattern of connections will emerge. Try the Visual Thesaurus with several different kinds of words—
verbs, adverbs, nouns, adjectives—and try adjusting some of the various controls on the bottom of the window. We
do not recommend this web-site for slow machines; in fact, the bigger your monitor and the faster your computer
and connection, the more satisfying this experience will be.
When people use a word that puzzles you, ask what it means! You'll find that most instructors, especially, are not in
the least bothered by such questions—in fact, they're probably pleased that you're paying such close attention—but
if they do seem bothered, write down the word and look it up later, before the context of the word evaporates.
KNOWING THE ROOTS

At least half of the words in the English language
are derived from Greek and Latin roots. Knowing
these roots helps us to grasp the meaning of words
before we look them up in the dictionary. It also
helps us to see how words are often arranged in
families with similar characteristics.
For instance, we know that sophomores are

students in their second year of college or high
school. What does it mean, though, to be English III
sophomoric? The "sopho" part of the word comes
from the same Greek root that gives us philosophy,
which we know means "love of knowledge." The "ic" ending is sometimes added to adjectival words in English,
but the "more" part of the word comes from the same Greek root that gives us moron.
-8-
Thus sophomores are people who think they know a lot but really don't know much about anything, and a sophomoric
act is typical of a "wise fool," a "smart-ass"!
Let's explore further. Going back to philosophy, we know the "sophy" part is related to knowledge and the "phil"
part is related to love (because we know that Philadelphia is the City of Brotherly Love and that a philodendron loves
shady spots). What, then, is philanthropy? "Phil" is still love, and "anthropy" comes from the same Greek root that
gives us anthropology, which is the study ("logy," we know, means study of any kind) of anthropos, humankind. So
a philanthropist must be someone who loves humans and does something about it—like giving money to find a cure
for cancer or to build a Writing Center for the local community college. (And an anthropoid, while we're at it, is an
animal who walks like a human being.) Learning the roots of our language can even be fun!
Some common Greek and Latin roots:

Root (source) Meaning English words
aster, astr (G) star astronomy, astrology
audi (L) to hear audible, auditorium
bene (L) good, well benefit, benevolent
bio (G) life biology, autobiography
dic, dict (L) to speak dictionary, dictator

fer (L) to carry transfer, referral
fix (L) to fasten fix, suffix, affix
geo (G) earth geography, geology
graph (G) to write graphic, photography
jur, just (L) law jury, justice
log, logue (G) word, thought, monolog(ue), astrology, biology,

speech neologism
luc (L) light lucid, translucent
manu (L) hand manual, manuscript
meter, metr (G) measure metric, thermometer
English III -9-

op, oper (L) work operation, operator

path (G) feeling pathetic, sympathy, empathy
ped (G) child pediatrics, pedophile
phil (G) love philosophy, Anglophile
phys (G) body, nature physical, physics
scrib, script (L) to write scribble, manuscript
tele (G) far off telephone,television
ter, terr (L) earth territory, extraterrestrial
vac (L) empty vacant, vacuum, evacuate
verb (L) word verbal, verbose
vid, vis (L) to see video, vision, television
Authority for this chart: The Little, Brown Handbook by H. Ramsay Fowler and Jane E. Aaron, & Kay Limburg. 6th ed. HarperCollins:
New York. 1995. By permission of Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc.
LEARNING PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

Knowing the Greek and Latin roots of several prefixes and suffixes (beginning and endings attached to words) can
also help us determine the meaning of words. Ante, for instance, means before, and if we connect bellum with
belligerant to figure out the connection with war, we'll know that antebellum refers to the period before war. (In the
United States, the antebellum period is our history before the Civil War.)
Prefixes showing quantity

Meaning Prefixes in English Words
half semiannual, hemisphere
one unicycle, monarchy, monorail
two binary, bimonthly, dilemma,
dichotomy
hundred century, centimeter, hectoliter
thousand millimeter, kilometer
English III - 10 -
Prefixes showing negation
without, no, not asexual, anonymous, illegal, immoral, invalid, irreverent,
unskilled
not, absence of, nonbreakable, antacid, antipathy, contradict
opposing, against
opposite to, counterclockwise, counterweight
complement to
do the opposite of,dehorn, devitalize, devalue
remove, reduce
do the opposite of, disestablish, disarm
deprive of
wrongly, bad misjudge, misdeed
Prefixes showing time
before antecedent, forecast, precede, prologue
after postwar
again rewrite, redundant
Prefixes showing direction or position
above, over supervise, supererogatory
across, over transport, translate
below, under infrasonic, infrastructure, subterranean, hypodermic
in front of proceed, prefix
behind recede
out of erupt, explicit, ecstasy
into injection, immerse, encourage, empower
around circumnavigate, perimeter
with coexist, colloquy, communicate, consequence, correspond, sympathy,
synchronize
Authority for this table: The Little, Brown Handbook by H. Ramsay Fowler and Jane E. Aaron, & Kay Limburg. 6th ed. HarperCollins:
New York. 1995. By permission of Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc.
English III - 11 -
Suffixes, on the other hand, modify the meaning of a word and frequently determine its function within a sentence.
Take the noun nation, for example. With suffixes, the word becomes the adjective national, the adverb nationally,
and the verb nationalize.
See what words you can come up with that use the following suffixes.
Typical noun suffixes are -ence, -ance, -or, -er, -ment, -list, -ism, -ship, -ency, -sion, -tion, -ness, hood, -dom
Typical verb suffixes are -en, -ify, -ize, -ate
Typical adjective suffixes are -able, -ible, -al, -tial, -tic, -ly, -ful, -ous, -tive, -less, -ish, -ulent
The adverb suffix is -ly (although not all words that end in -ly are adverbs—like friendly)
USING YOUR DICTIONARY

The dictionary should be one of the most often used books in your home. (We'll allow room for sacred texts here.)
Place the dictionary somewhere so that you can find it immediately and use it often. If you do your reading and
homework in the kitchen and the dictionary is on a shelf in the den or bedroom, it's too tempting to say "I'll look it
up next time."
The home dictionary should be large enough to contain much more than just spellings. It should contain extensive
definitions, word origins, and notes on usage. Carrying in your purse or backpack a pocket dictionary with more
concise definitions is also a good idea. Get in the habit of turning to it often. A well worn dictionary is a beautiful
thing.
USING THE INTERNET
You can use the internet as an aid to vocabulary development by exploring the abundant opportunities for reading
available on the World Wide Web.
PRETENTIOUSNESS
An extensive vocabulary can be a powerful writing and speaking tool; it can also be misused, made to make others
feel powerless. Never use a five-dollar word where a fifty-cent word will do the job just as well or better. Do we
really need utilize when a three-letter word, use, will nicely suffice. Risible is a lovely word, but is it worth sending
your readers to the dictionary when laughable is at hand? It's a good question. On the other hand,
English III - 12 -
don't cheat yourself or your readers out of some important nuance of meaning that you've discovered in a word that's
new to you. At some point you have to assume that your readers also have dictionaries. It's sometimes a tough line
to draw—between being a pedantic, pretentious boor (Oh, there are three dandies!) and being a writer who can take
full and efficient advantage of the English language's multifarious (another one!) resources.
The effectiveness of our writing depends to a great extent upon our vocabulary. To improve your vocabulary,
please read extensively, and include the dictionary in your reading list.
English III - 13 -
READING COMPREHENSION POINTERS
Coherence, Unity, Analysis and Inference
I. Critical Reading
MAIN IDEA
The main idea is the one central idea that the rest of the paragraph develops. It is found in the topic sentence which
is usually found at the beginning, at the middle or at the end of a paragraph; sometimes it is just implied. I repeat.
To find the main idea, look for the topic sentence.
A passage consisting of many paragraphs may be confusing. Each paragraph will have its own main idea. Remember
however that somewhere in the passage is the central thought that connects all the paragraphs of the passage, the
central idea that is developed by all the paragraphs.
INFERENCE
In reading comprehension exams, you’re going to be asked to make an inference. To be able to do so, you should
understand each of the statements, and the relationship among the statements. More importantly, you should be able
to pinpoint the general impression or feeling that the passage leaves. Is the passage generally happy, angry, sad,
detached, or desperate?
Please remember that inferring requires understanding of what has been read. Inferences are based on the passage
and not on your own knowledge. That is, answer all the questions based on what the passage says, not what you
know about the topic of the passage.
CONCLUSION
Conclusions usually come at the end of passages. When asked what you can conclude from a paragraph, refer back
to its end to look for it. If the passage did not include a conclusion and you are left to formulate one yourself, do so
with logic. Refer to what the passage or paragraph says and form your conclusion based on
them. Again, do not give priority to what you know about the topic, but to what the passage says about the topic.
RETENTION OF DETAILS
While reading the passage, you must note specifics, names and dates which may be asked for later. Thus, when you
are asked about a name you remember, you’ll save time by not going back to the passage to look for it. Just remember,
however, that if you still have time, it’s better to check
Note: This is compilation of materials gathered from different print and electronic sources.
We don’t claim copyright on materials and examples taken from references but we do
reserve the rights to our own materials and examples.
1
II. Figurative Expressions
LITERARY DEVICES
Simile – a figure of speech directly assessing a resemblance in one or more points, of one thing to another. It
compares two things using the expressions like, as… as, resembles, etc. My patience is like traffic in
EDSA—it is endless.
Metaphor – a figure of speech that does say that something is like something or resembles something.
It pretends that something is something.
She is a rock — rigid and immovable.
Synecdoche – a figure of speech by which a part is put for the whole or the whole for the part.
A multitude of legs crossed the freeway.
Personification – a figure of speech by which inanimate objects are bestowed with human traits. The
heavens, cried bitter and noisy tears, whispering and screaming in turns.
Metonymy – a figure of speech by which an object is used to represent another.

Ladies and gentlemen, please lend me your ears.
Hyperbole – a figure of speech by which a strong effect is achieved through an exaggeration and an
overstatement.
His neck stretched out a mile so that he could see what was going on.
III. Organization of Ideas
COHERENCE
I have only one word for you: coherence. Within a paragraph, sentences should be arranged and tied together in
such a way that the reader can easily follow the train of thought. The relationship between the sentences must be
clear. It is not enough that the reader knows what each sentence means. It’s equally important that he sees its
relationship to the sentence that precedes it and to the one that follows it. It should also be clear to him the
direction and thought where all the sentences are going.
To achieve such coherence, you must arrange the sentences into some logical and recognizable order. The kind of
organization will depend on the kind of material which is to go into the paragraph.
PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION
I think you can develop a more flexible sense of organization if you also look at some patterns that are more
exclusively patterns or principles of organization. You should understand, though, that these four broad principles
have many variations, that they sometimes overlap with patterns of development or exposition, and that good writing
sometimes combines different methods.
Chronological Order (order of Time)

In chronological order or time order, items, events, or even ideas are arranged in the order in which they occur.
This pattern is marked by such transitions as next, then, the following morning, a few hours later, still later, that
Wednesday, by noon, when she was seventeen, before the sun rose, that April, and so on.
Chronological order can suit different rhetorical modes or patterns of exposition. It naturally fits in narration,
because when we tell a story, we usually follow the order in which events occur. Chronological order applies
to process in the same way, because when we describe or explain how something happens or works, we usually
2
follow the order in which the events occur. But chronological order may also apply to example, description, or
parts of any other pattern of exposition.
Spatial Order
Another principle of organization is spatial order. In this pattern, items are arranged according to their physical
position or relationships. In describing a shelf or desk, I might describe items on the left first, then move
gradually toward the right. Describing a room, I might start with what I see as I enter the door, then what I see
as I step to the middle of the room, and finally the far side. In explaining some political or social problem, I
might discuss first the concerns of the East Coast, then those of the Midwest, then those of the West Coast.
Describing a person, I might start at the feet and move up to the head, or just the other way around. This pattern
might use such transitions as just to the right, a little further on, to the south of Memphis, a few feet behind, in
New Mexico, turning left on the pathway, and so on. Spatial order is pretty common in description, but can also
apply to examples, to some comparisons, some classifications [the southern species of this bird . . . ; rhinos in
Southeast Asia . . .], some narrations [meanwhile, out on the prairie ], and other forms of exposition as well.
Climactic Order (Order of Importance)

A third common principle of organization is climactic order or order of importance. In this pattern, items are
arranged from least important to most important. Typical transitions would include more important, most
difficult, still harder, by far the most expensive, even more damaging, worse yet, and so on. This is a flexible
principle of organization, and may guide the organization of all or part of example, comparison & contrast,
cause & effect, and description.
A variation of climactic order is called psychological order. This pattern or organization grows from our
learning that readers or listeners usually give most attention to what comes at the beginning and the end, and
least attention to what is in the middle. In this pattern, then, you decide what is most important and put it at the
beginning or the end; next you choose what is second most important and put it at the end or the beginning
(whichever remains); the less important or powerful items are then arranged in the middle. If the order of
importance followed 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, with 5 being most important, psychological order might follow the order 4, 3,
1, 2, 5.
Still other principles of organization based on emphasis include:

general-to-specific order,
specific-to general order, most-
familiar-to-least-familiar,
simplest-to-most-complex,
order of frequency,
order of familiarity, and so on.
Topical Order
A fourth broad principle of organization is called topical order, and this is sort of a catchall pattern. It refers to
organization that emerges from the topic itself. For example, a description of a computer might naturally involve
the separate components of the central processing unit, the monitor, and the keyboard, while a discussion of a
computer purchase might discuss needs, products, vendors, and service. A discussion of a business might
explore product, customer, and location, and so on. Topical order, then, simply means an order that arises from
the nature of the topic itself. Transitions in this pattern will be a little vague—things like another factor, the
second component, in addition, and so on.
I'm not sure any single list can identify all of the different logical ways of organizing information. You may
have forms in your workplace that impose a certain order on how an event or action is reported. Many people
3
trying to persuade others to change policy or behavior often examine the issue in the order of need or problem
first, then the benefits of the change, then the mechanics or ease of implementing the change. You may see a
question-answer pattern, a problem-solution pattern, or sometimes a solution-problem pattern. You will also see
(and use) combinations of patterns as your ideas and purposes become more complex.
You do need to see, though, that imposing order on information makes the information easier to talk about,
easier to understand, and easier to remember. If you choose a clear, recognizable pattern (on the level of the
single paragraph, and also on the level of the whole essay body), you guide yourself in selecting details and
choosing transitions, and you also guide your reader in discovering relationships that connect things, that make
things seem more coherent.
Principle of Associated Sample Transitions***

Organization* Patterns of Development or
Rhetorical Modes**
chronological order narration, process, examples and next; later; the following Tuesday;
illustrations, cause & effect afterwards; by noon; when she had
finally digested the giant burrito; as
soon as; in 1998
spatial order description, examples & illustrations just to the right; a little further on; to the
south of Memphis; a few feet behind;
directly on the bridge of his nose and a
centimeter above his gaping,
hairy nostrils; turning left on the
pathway
climactic order examples & illustrations, description, more importantly; best of all; still worse;
comparison & contrast, analogy a more effective approach; even more
expensive; even more painful than
passing a kidney stone; the least
wasteful; occasionally, frequently,
regularly
topical order classification & division, comparison & the first element; another key part; a third
contrast, analogy, definition, examples & common principle of organization; Brent
illustrations also objected to Stella's breath
IV. Identifying an Irrelevant Sentence
UNITY AND CONCISENESS

A construction must have unity; that is, its parts and elements must be working together to clearly say something. It
must also be concise; that is, it says in as few words as possible, what is needed to be said.
An irrelevant sentence is a sentence that does not contribute anything to the main thought of the passage or selection.
It doesn’t help move the paragraph along to its conclusion. In short, it is not necessary.
As a simple technique, look for the sentence among the selection that does not cooperate with the rest of the sentence,
in terms of direction and support value.
4
MATHEMATICS PROFICIENCY
(Basic Arithmetic and Algebra)
Directions: This subtest is a measure of ability to think out solutions to quantitative problems. Solve each
problem carefully and then decide which is the best among the answer choices. Blacken the circle it
corresponds to after the appropriate item number on your answer sheet.
Notes:
► Calculators of any kind are not permitted. All numbers used are real numbers.
► Figures which accompany problems in this subtest are intended to provide information useful in solving
the problems. They are drawn as accurately as possible except when it is stated in a specific problem that
its figure is not drawn to scale. All figures lie in a plane unless otherwise indicated.
BEGIN HERE:
1. [(800 ÷ 40) + (92 ÷ (17 – 8))] – (22 + 32) = _________.

a. 15 b. 16 c. 29 d. 42
2. What is sixty-seven less than the sum of fifty-eight and forty-two?

a. 33 b. – 33 c. 43 d. 23
3. What is the difference between 72, 846 divided by twice of three and seventy-five multiplied
twice?
a. 11, 991 c. 24, 132
b. 6, 516 d. 18, 657
4. Which of the following numbers is the largest?

a. (2 + 2 + 2)2 c. (2 x 2 x 2)2
b. 2 2 2
(2 ) + 2 + 2 d. [(2 + 2)2]2
5. What is the value of x in order for 5719x to be divisible by 2, 3 and 6?

a. 0 b. 2 c. 6 d. 7
Math I -1-
6. Alin sa mga sumusunod ang mali?

a. 6(8 – 8) = (5-1 5) – 1
b. 3(-3) + 3(3) = 0
c. 3 + 3-1 = 0
d. wala sa mga pagpipilian
7. Which of the following set of fractions arrange in ascending order?
a. c.
b. d.
8. A rope is cut into three and one-third is used. Then one-fourth of the remaining rope is cut of
and used. The piece left is 5 meters long. How many meters long was the rope originally?
1
a. 6 b. 8 c. 9 d. 12
9. Rocky had a party. Midway in the party, half of the people left. A fifth of those remaining
started to sing. There were 16 remaining who did not sing. How many people came to Rocky’s
party?
a. 20 b. 30 c. 40 d. 50
10. At first stop on his route, a driver unloaded of the packages in his truck. After he unloaded
another 9 packages at his next stop, of the original number of packages in the truck
remained. How many packages were in the van before at the first delivery?
a. 50 b. 40 c. 30 d. 20
11. (0.143 + 0.27 + 0.852 + 0.009) – (0.235 + 0.51 + 0.006) = _________.

a. 0.423 b. 0.751 c. 0.523 d. 0.851
12. (87.5 x 0.01) ÷ 1, 000 = ________.

a. 8.75 x 10-5 c. 8.75 x 101
b. 8.75 x 10-4 d. 8.75 x 103
13. What is the sum of 2.45 multiplied by 0.06 and 0.057 divided by 0.3?
a. 3.37 b. 2.047 c. 1.66 d. 0.337
Math I -2-
14. -2, then what does the expression 1 equal to?

If k = 2 x 10
k
a. 50 b. 500 c. 5 d. 0.5
15. The ratio of men to women at a concert was 2:3. If there were 350 people in the concert, how
many women were there?
a. 140 b. 210 c. 200 d. 150
16. A fruit salad mixture consists of apples, banana and peaches in the ratio of 6:5:4 respectively
by weight. If 225 grams of mixture is prepared, how many more grams of apples than
peaches?
a. 30 b. 45 c. 60 d. 75
17. Tuwing bakasyon, ginagamit ni Leah ang 30% ng kanyang oras sa pagbabasa ng mga nobela.
Sa kabuuan, kaya niyang matapos ang isang nobela ng pitong oras. Kung siya ay natutulog ng
siyam na oras araw-araw, ilang nobela ang kaya niyang tapusin sa loob ng dalawang linggo?
a. 8 b. 9 c. 5 d. 7
18. When buying an item, a man was given a 10% discount on its original price, and then he was
charged a 10% tax on its selling price. Base from this transaction, which of the following is
true?
a. The original price and the selling price are the same.
b. The amount paid is 10% lower than the original price.
c. The amount paid is 99% of the original price.
d. The amount paid is 20% lower than the original price.
19. Si Gng. Gonzales ay bumili ng kotse sa halagang P pesos. Pagkalipas ng tatlong taon, ibinenta
niya ang kotse ng 25% higit sa halaga ng pagkakabili niya. Binigyan siya ng babayarang buwis
na 50% ng kanyang kita. Magkano ang kailangang bayaran na buwis ni Gng. Gonzales?
2
P P P P
a. b. c. d.
24 8 4 2
20. Of all the participants on a camping trip last summer, 70% were over 15 years old. If 63 of
those who attended were 15 years old or below, what was the total number of participants in
the camp?
a. 200 b. 210 c. 120 d. 330
21. The reservoir is at full capacity at the beginning of summer. By the first day of fall, the level in
the reservoir is 40% below full capacity. Then during the fall, a period of heavy rains raises
the level by 40%. After the rains, the reservoir is at what percent of its full capacity?
Math I -3-
a. 100% b. 90% c. 84% d. 80%
22. Lovely’s grade in four of her quizzes are 83, 86, 89, and 90. There is one more quiz for the
grading period and she does not want an average lower than 85, what is the lowest possible
grade that she can get on her fifth quiz to maintain that average?
a. 75 b. 77 c. 79 d. 81
23. The sum of five consecutive integers is 35. How many of the five consecutive integers are
prime numbers?
a. 4 b. 3 c. 2 d. 1
24. Six consecutive integers are given. The sum of the first three is 27. What is the sum of the
last three?
a. 30 b. 32 c. 33 d. 36
25. For any integer n, which of the following represents the sequence of three consecutive odd
integers?
a. n, n + 1, n + 3 c. 2n + 1, 2n + 2, 2n + 3
b. n, n + 2, n + 4 d. 2n +1, 2n + 3, 2n + 5
26. If r, s, t are three consecutive integers such that r > s > t, then (r – s)(s – t)(r – t) equals:
a. –2 b. – 1 c. 0 d. 2
27. Kung ang x at y ay mga negatibong integers, at x > y, alin sa mga sumusunod ang may
pinakamataas na halaga?
a. – (xy)2 b. x2y c. xy d. y – x
28. Kung ang x at y ay mga positibong integers at ang x > y, alin sa mga sumusunod ang
palaging totoo?
y2 y x x2 y2 x2 x2 x
a. > b. > c. > d. > x2 x y y2 x2 y2 y2 y
29. If a and b are both odd numbers, then which of the following must be an even number?
a. ab + 2 b. 2a + b c. a + b d. a + b + 1
30. Simplify the expression: 5y – {3y + (2y – 5) – [3 – (2 + 4y)]}

a. 4y b. 6 – 4y c. 14y – 6 d. 4y + 6
-4-
3
(Intermediate Algebra)
Directions: This subtest is a measure of ability to think out solutions to quantitative

problems. Solve each problem carefully and then decide which is the best among the answer
choices. Blacken the circle it corresponds to after the appropriate item number on your
answer sheet.
Notes:
► Figures which accompany problems in this subtest are intended to provide information
useful in solving the problems. They are drawn as accurately as possible except when it is
stated in a specific problem that its figure is not drawn to scale. All figures lie in a plane
unless otherwise indicated.
BEGIN HERE:
1. In the diagram at the right, line AB and AC have equal lengths. What is the value of k?
a. 9 Y
b. 10
c. 11 C (1, k)
d. 12
A (1, 2) B (9, 2)
X
2. What is the equation of the line that passing through (1,1) and parallel to line
y = 2x– 5?
a. y = 2x c. y = 2x + 1
b. y = 2x – 1 d. y = − x+1
3. What is the slope of the line containing the points (2, -4) and (-5, 7)?
Math II -1-
a. b. − c. d. −
4. Which of the following can best describe the graph?
1
a. y = 4 – 2x 3
b. y < 4 – 2x 2
1
c. y > 4 – 2x 0
1 2 3 4
d. cannot be determined -1
-2
-3
-4
-5
x
1 b+ 3
2 2
5. Kung ang a = b + = , ano ang halaga ng a?
a. b. 3 c. d. 2
6. If 2x + 4y – 5z = 19 and z = 3, what is the value of x + 2y + z?

a. 20 b. 15 c. 10 d. 5
7. Ang eksponensyal na ekspresyong 32/n sa pormang radical ay _______.

n
a. 3 b. n
9 c. 9
n d. 3 n
8. Ano ang halaga ng q sa tumbasang radikal

na 21+q =3+ q ? c. 3
a. 5 b. 4 d. 2
1 3a
+
9. Simplify the following a +2 a +2 expression :
c.
3a
1+ 3a a +2
a+ 2
a.
(1+
1+ 3a 3a )( a+ 2)
b. d. a+ 2 a+ 2
Math II -2-
2 3
10. Pasimplehin ang ekspresyong −
x+ 2 x2 − 4
2x+1 2x+1 2x+1 2x+1
a. b. c. d.
x2 − 4 x2 − 4 x2 − 4 x2 − 4
11. Factor out the expression ab – 1 – b + a completely:

a. (b – 1)(a + 1) c. (b – 1)(a – 1)
2
b. (b – 1)(a – 1) d. (b + 1)(a + 1)
12. Which of the following equations has a root in common with x2 – 6x + 5 = 0?

a. x2 + 1 = 0 c. 2x2 – 2 = 0
2 2
b. x – x – 2 = 0 d. x – 2x – 3 = 0
13. Alin sa mga sumusunod na ekspresyon ang perfect square trinomial?

a. 9x2 – 12x – 4 c. x2 + 10x + 36
b. 4x2 – 20x + 25 d. 4x2 + 10x + 25
14. Kung ang (x + y)2 = 20 at ang xy = 4, ano ang halaga ng x2 + y2?

a. 16 b. 14 c. 12 d. 10
15. If -6 is one solution of the equation x2 + 5x + k = 7, where k is constant, what is the

other solution?
a. 1 b. -1 c. 0 d. 2
16. For which value of p in the division (2x2 + 11x – p) ÷ (2x – 3) is the remainder zero?
a. 3 b. 5 c. 18 d. 21
17. Aling pangungusap ang totoo sa mga graph ng mga tumbasan sa sistemang y = -x +
3 at y = -x – 2?
a. Ang mga graph ng linya ay dumaraan sa mga point (0, 2) at (0, 3).
b. Ang graph ng dalawang linya ay parallel.
c. Ang graph ay may iisang linya.
d. Ang mga graph ng dalawang linya ay nagtatagpo sa point (-2, 3).
18. What is the solution set (x, y) in system of equations: 2x – 3y = 12 and 3x + y = 7?

a. (3, -2) c. (2, -3)
b. (-3, 2) d. (-2, 3)
19. One number is 17 less than another. Their sum is 125. What is the smaller number?
a. 54 b. 60 c. 71 d. 108
Math II -3-
20. Bruno raises a number of ducks and carabaos in his farm, all of which are normal. If his
animals have a total of 44 feet and a total of 16 heads, how many carabaos does Bruno
have?
a. 5 b. 6 c. 7 d. 8
21. How many students are there in a class if two students are not seated when 4 rows of
seat are filled and 9 students are not seated when 3 rows of seats are filled?
a. 36 b. 34 c. 30 d. 28
22. The attendance at Enchanted Kingdom on a certain day was 737 persons. If there were
289 more adults than children, how many children were there?
a. 513 b. 548 c. 274 d. 250
23. A train covers the distance d between two cities in h hours arriving 2 hours late. What
speed would permit the train to arrive on schedule? d d
a. h – 2 b. −2 c. d. dh – 2
h h− 2
3
24. Jerry ran a 200 – meter dash race at an average speed of 2.4 kph. If Ryan ran the
same race at an average speed of 3 kph, how many minutes longer did it take for Jerry
to complete the race?
a. 1 min b. 2 min c. 3 min d. 4 min
25. A taxi driver must complete a 180 mile trip in 4 hours. If he averages 50 miles an hour
for the first three hours of his trip, how fast, in miles per hour, must he travel in the
final hour?
a. 30 b. 35 c. 40 d. 45
26. A man is thrice as old as his son. In five years, he will be three years more than twice
his son’s age. How many years old is the man now?
a. 10 b. 24 c. 36 d. 41
27. Jack is now 14 years older than Jill. If in 10 years Jack will be twice as old as Jill, how
many years old will Jack be in 5 years?
a. 9 b. 19 c. 21 d. 23
28. How many liters of 60% solution of nitric acid should be added to 10 liters a 30%
solution of nitric acid to obtain a 50% solution?
a. 10 b. 15 c. 20 d. 25
Math II -4-
29. A tank can be filled in 6 hours by pipe A running alone, or in 4 hours by pipe B alone.
How many hours would be needed to fill the tank if both pipes were running?
a. 5 b. 2 c. d. 3
30. Grace can finish cleaning their room in 45 minutes. When her sister Abby helps her, it
takes them 18 minutes to clean the room completely. How many minutes would it take
Abby to clean their room alone?
a. 20 b. 25 c. 30 d. 35
4
(Geometry/ Trigonometry)

choices. Blacken the circle it corresponds to after the appropriate item number on your answer
sheet.
Notes:
stated in a specific problem that its figure is not drawn to scale. All figures lie in a plane unless
otherwise indicated.
BEGIN HERE:
1. How many different segments are determined by four collinear

points A, B, C, D?
a. 4
b. 8 A B C D
c. 6
d. 10
2. Which of the following statements is/are true?

I. Two points are contained in one and only one line.
II. A segment has a unique midpoint.
III. On a ray, there are many points given distance from the
endpoint to the ray.
a. I only c. III only

b. II only d. I and II only
3. What is the value of x in the diagram shown?

a. 22
b. 20
c. 44
Math III -1-
1
22
d. x + 22
3
2x
4. How many sides of a regular polygon if has a sum of 1, 800o in its interior angle?
a. 10 c. 12
b. 11 d. 13
5. In a regular hexagon, the measure of each interior angle is ________.

a. 100o c. 140o
o o
b. 120 d. 160
6. Which of the following statements is/are false?

I. A square is a rectangle with four congruent sides. II.
Rectangles have no congruent angles.
III. A rhombus is a parallelogram with four congruent sides.

7. The longest side of ∆ABC is ______.

C
o
a. AC 80
b. BC
o
c. BA B 25
A
d. cannot determine
8. The length of a rectangle is twice the width and is equal to the side of a square. Which
of these statements is true?
a. The area of the rectangle is 1 / 2 times that of the square.

b. The area of the rectangle is 1 / 4 times that of the square.
c. The area of the square is 1 / 2 times that of the rectangle.
d. The area of the square is 1 / 4 times that of the rectangle.
Math III -2-
2
9. In the figure to the right, QRST is a parallelogram. If m∠TQR = 85o, then what is
∠ T
m TSR? S
P
a. 115o
b. 105o
c. 95o
d. 85o
Q R
10. From the figure above, what is the value of x if TP= 2x + 1; SP= 4 – 3y; RP= y + 5;
QP= x – 4?
a. 1 c. 3
b. 2 d. 4
11. In the figure at the right, what is the value of y?
a. 60o
o
b. 45o x
c. 30o o
2x
d. cannot be determined
o o
y y
Math III -3-
3
12. In the figure, the side of each small square is 27 centimeters. What is the length of
MN?
a. 15 cm
b. 18 cm
c. 21 cm
N
Given the figure, AB = CD ; AC = BC = 4 . What is AD ?

4 3 A
4 2
4 +2 2
4 +2 3
C B D
d. 24 cm
13.
a.
b.
c.
d.
14. ABCD is a trapezoid with AB || CD, XY is the median. If AB = 6 and XY =13, then
what is the length of CD?
A B a. 16
b. 18
c. 20
X Y
d. 22
CD
15. If the lengths of the sides of a square are doubled, what is the effect on the area?
a. The area will increase twice.
b. The area will increase 4 times.
c. The area will increase 8 times.
d. The area will remain the same.
Mathematics 3
© Enhancers, All Rights Reserved

16. A rectangular solid with dimensions 2, 12, and q has the same volume as a cube with
an edge length of 6. What is the value of q?
a. 11 c. 7
b. 9 d. 5
17. Given three squares of different areas, the perimeter of square A is the perimeter
of square B, and the perimeter of square B is the perimeter of square C. If the

area of square A is 16 square units, what is the area of square C?
a. 81 c. 64
b. 72 d. 36
18. What is the area of the kite whose diagonals have lengths 12 and 7?
a. 24 c. 40
b. 30 d. 42
19. the area of the triangle in the figure at the right is 12, then what is the value of r?
a. 4 y
b. 3
c. 2
d. 1 5r
4r
3r
2r
r
x r 2r 3r 4r
20. In the diagram, each small square is 1 cm by 1 cm. What is the area of the nonshaded
region?
a. 6
b. 4.5
c. 3
d. 2.75
21. An equilateral triangle has the same perimeter as a square. What is the area of the
square if the triangle has side equal to 16?
Mathematics 3

a. 144 c. 100
b. 169 d. 81
22. The figure at the right shows a rectangular parcel of land divided into lots of equal
size, as shown by the dotted lines. If the area of three of the lots is equal to onefourth
of the total area in the parcel, then how many feet wide is each lot?
a. 30
b. 60
c. 40
d. 90
360 feet
23. Convert 225o to radians:
9π 7π 4 6 3π 5π 4 4
a. c.
b. d.
11π 24.
Convert to
degrees:
6
a. 280o c. 330o
b. 300o d. 360o
25. Find tan θ if sin θ = 2 / 3 and θ is not in the first quadrant
− −
a. 5 /3 c. 2/ 5
− −
b. 5 /2 d. 3/ 5
26. In the coordinate system given, in which quadrant is sin θ positive and cos
θ negative?
y
a. I
Mathematics 3

b. II
c. III II I
d. IV sin θ = y θ
x cos θ = x
III IV
1−sin2θ sinθ
27. is equal to
a. cos θ
c. csc
θ
b. sec θ
d. cot
θ
28. What is the height of Quezon City Hall if the shadow of the
building is 20 meters and the angle of elevation of the sun
is 300?
20 3 2 3
3 3
3 3
20 3
a. c.
b. d.
For nos. 29-30:
29. In the right triangle ABC, what is the value of cos θ? B
a. 4/5
b. 3/4
a. 5 / 3 8
b. 3 / 5
Mathematics 3

A
C
10
30. In the same figure above, what is the
value of tan θ? 6
θ
a. 4 /
5
c. 3 /
4
a. 5 / 3 d. 4 / 3
Mathematics 3

(Advance Algebra and Statistics)

choices. Blacken the circle it corresponds to after the appropriate item number on your
answer sheet.
Notes:
stated in a specific problem that its figure is not drawn to scale. All figures lie in a plane
unless otherwise indicated.
BEGIN HERE:
1. Which of the following expressions is not a function?

a. y = 2x + 1 c. y = x
5x −3
b. y = d. y = 9 – x
7
2. Given the table below, what is the equation of the given relation?
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 1 3 5 7 9 11
a. y = x c. y = 2x + 1
b. y = 2x d. y = 2x – 1
1
3. If f(x) = , what is the domain of f(x)?
x−3
a. The domain of f(x) are all real numbers.

b. The domain of f(x) are all real numbers except 0.
c. The domain of f(x) are all real numbers except -3.
Math IV -1-
d. The domain of f(x) are all real numbers except 3.
2x2 −1 4.
What is the range of g(x) = ?
5
a. all real numbers
b. all real numbers greater than 0
1
c. all real numbers greater than − 5
1
d. all real numbers greater than or equal to −
5
5. If Jun saves P10.00 on the first week and adds P4.00 each week, how much will he save
on the last week of the fourth month?
a. P58.00 c. P50.00
b. P54.00 d. P40.00
6. If Nelly gets 3 in his first quiz and 6 in his second quiz, and doubles his quiz everytime
they have quiz, what will be his average score after their fifth quiz?
a. 18.6 c. 21.5
b. 20.4 d. 22.8
7. Which of the following is/are TRUE?

I. Given the sequence 5, 10, 20, 40, 80, . . . is an arithmetic sequence II.
In the sequence 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, . . the next term is 70
III. Given the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17 the common difference is 3

8. The first term of an arithmetic progression is 6 and the common difference is –3. What
term is –51?
a. 23 c. 21
b. 22 d. 20
9. What is the 25th term of an arithmetic sequence whose 7th and 20th terms are 20 and 59
respectively?
a. 51 c. 74
b. 55 d. 77
Math IV -2-
10. Fifty-one electric poles are placed along a straight highway such that the distance
between the first and the last pole is 2 250 meters and the distance between any two
consecutive poles are equal. How many meters apart are any two successive poles?
a. 50 meters c. 40 meters
b. 45 meters d. 30 meters
11. Linda started working at a monthly salary of P5, 600.00 and steadily received an annual
increase of P250. How much did she earn in the 11 years that she worked in that office?
a. P69, 950.00 c. P67, 200.00
b. P69, 700.00 d. P64, 100.00
12. In the geometric progression 4, 12, 36, 108, . . . the common ratio is:
a. 3 c. 1
1
b. 2 d.
3
13. What is the sum of the first six terms in the arithmetic progression whose first three
terms are –1, 1, and 3?
a. 17 c. 15
b. 16 d. 14
14. In a geometric progression 1, 2, 4, 8, . . . how many terms are added if the sum is 127?
a. 6 c. 8
b. 7 d. 9
15. If an amoeba can produce 4 amoebas every six hours, how many amoebas will there be
after one day if the reproduction started with one amoeba?
a. 81 c. 85
b. 83 d. 87
16. If x1 = 5, x2 = 6, x3 = 9, x4 = 13, x5 = 14, x6 = 16, what is the value of ∑x ?i
i=1
a. 45 c. 49
b. 47 d. 50
17. In statistics, a/an __________ is an arrangement of data according to size or magnitude.

a. Array c. Discriminant
b. Matrix d. Frequency
Math IV -3-
For numbers 18 – 22, refer to the following data.
A sample of 30 companies belonging to a certain industry reported the following number of

employees.
43 33 24 51 36 31
50 46 50 29 40 25
38 35 31 35 42 50
47 21 45 45 28 36
58 62 37 55 52 49
18. What is the population mean if the sum is 1224?

a. 48.3 c. 40.8
b. 46.4 d. 40.6
19. What is the median?

a. 40 c. 42
b. 41 d. 43
20. What is/are the mode/s of the set of data?

a. 50 c. 50 and 45
b. 45 and 35 d. 45
21. What is the range of given set of data?

a. 55 c. 45
b. 50 d. 40
22. The percentiles are the scores-points that divide a distribution into 100 equal parts. What
do you call a distribution that divides into 10 equal parts?
a. Quartile c. inter quartile
b. Decile d. tenths
23. If two dice are tossed together, in how many ways can they fall?
a. 36 c. 12
b. 24 d. 6
24. What is the value of 3! (3 factorial)?

a. 1 c. 6
Math IV -4-
b. 3 d. cannot determine
25. In how many ways can the letters of the word MERCY be arranged?
a. 25 c. 100
b. 50 d. 120
26. In a circular dining table, 5 guests are to be seated. In how many ways can the five
guests sit?
a. 10 c. 24
b. 12 d. 30
27. In how many ways can a committee of 4 be chosen from a group of 8 people?
a. 24 c. 48
b. 32 d. 70
28. On a certain street, there are an odd number of houses in a row. The houses in the row
are painted alternately blue and yellow, with the first house painted blue. If n is the total
number of houses in the row, how many of the houses are painted blue?
n n−1
a. −1 c.
2 2
n n+1
b. +1 d.
2 2
29. A committee consists of three girls (Ana, Betty, Connie) and five boys (Ryan, Ben,
Ceasar, Francis, Dan). A delegate to a conference is to be chosen from the committee.
What is the chance that a boy will be selected?
1 1
a. c.
8 7
3 5
b. d.
8 8
30. A box contains 5 red balls, 4 blue balls, and 3 white balls. If a ball is chosen at random,
what is the probability that it is not blue?
1 3
a. c.
3 4
Math IV -5-
2 7
b. d.
3 12
BASIC ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA
POINTERS
Whole (natural) numbers
Natural numbers – numbers, which appear as a result of calculus of single subjects: peoples, animals, birds, trees,
different wares and so on. Series of natural numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … is continued endlessly and is called natural
series.
Arithmetical operations
Addition – an operation of finding a sum of some numbers: 11 + 6 = 17. Here 11 and 6 – addends, 17 – the sum. If
addends are changed by places, a sum is saved the same: 11 + 6 = 17 and 6 + 11 = 17.
Subtraction – an operation of finding an addend by a sum and another addend: 17 – 6 = 11. Here 17 is a minuend,
6 – a subtrahend, 11 – the difference.
Multiplication. To multiply one number n (a multiplicand ) by another m ( a multiplier ) means to repeat a

multiplicand n as an addend m times. The result of multiplying is called a product. The operation of multiplication
is written as: n x m or n · m. For example, 12 x 4 = 12 + 12 + 12 + 12 = 48. In our case 12 x 4 = 48 or 12 · 4 = 48.
Here 12 is a multiplicand, 4 – a multiplier, 48 – a product. If a multiplicand n and a multiplier m are changed by
places, their product is saved the same: 12 · 4 = 12 + 12 + 12 + 12 = = 48 and 4 ·12 = 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 +
4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 48. Therefore, a multiplicand and a multiplier are called usually factors or multipliers.
Division – an operation of finding one of factors by a product and another factor: 48 : 4 = 12. Here 48 is a dividend,
4 – a divisor, 12 – the quotient. At dividing integers a quotient can be not a whole number. Then this quotient can be
present as a fraction. If a quotient is a whole number, then it is called that numbers are divisible, i.e. one number is
divided without remainder by another. Otherwise, we have a division with remainder. For example, 23 isn’t divided
by 4 ; this case can be written as: 23 = 5 · 4 + 3. Here 3 is a remainder.
Raising to a power. To raise a number to a whole (second, third, forth, fifth etc.) power means to repeat it as a factor
two, three, four, five and so on. The number, repeated as a factor, is called a base of a power; the quantity of factors
is called an index or an exponent of a power; the result is called a value of a power. A raising to a power is written
as:
Math I -1-
3 5 = 3 · 3 · 3 · 3 · 3 = 243 .
Here 3 – a base of the power, 5 – an exponent (an index) of the power, 243 – a value of the power. The second
power is called a square, the third one – a cube. The first power of any number is this number.
Extraction of a root – an operation of finding a base of a power by the power and its exponent:
Here 243 – a radicand, 5 – an index (degree) of the root, 3 – a value of the root. The second root is called a
1
square root, the third root – a cube root.The second degree of square root isn’t written:
Addition and subtraction, multiplication and division, raising to a power and extraction of a root are two by two
mutually inverse operations.
Order of operations. Brackets
If brackets are absent, the following order of operations is right:

1) raising to a power and extraction of a root (one after another);
2) multiplication and division (one after another); 3) addition
and subtraction (one after another).
If brackets are present, at first all operations inside brackets are executed according to the aforesaid order, and then
the rest of the operations out of brackets are executed (in the same order).
E x a m p l e. Calculate the next expression:

( 10 + 23 · 3 ) + 43 – ( 16 : 2 – 1 ) · 5 – 150 : 52 .
S o l u t i o n. At first, powers must be calculated and changed by theirs values:

(10 + 8 · 3) + 64 – (16: 2 – 1) · 5 – 150: 25;
Math I -2-
after this, multiplication and division in the brackets and out of

them are executed:
( 10 + 24 ) + 64 – ( 8 – 1 ) · 5 – 6 ;
now, additions and subtractions in the brackets are executed:

34 + 64 – 7 · 5 – 6 ;
finally, after the rest of the multiplication 7 · 5 = 35 we receive:

34 + 64 – 35 – 6 = 57
Laws of addition and multiplication
Commutative law of addition: m + n = n + m. A sum isn’t changed at rearrangement of its addends.
Commutative law of multiplication: m · n = n · m. A product isn’t changed at rearrangement of its factors.
Associative law of addition: (m + n) + k = m + (n + k) = m + n + k. A sum doesn’t depend on grouping of its

addends.
Associative law of multiplication: (m · n) · k = m · (n · k) = m · n · k. A product doesn’t depend on grouping of its

factors.
Distributive law of multiplication over addition: (m + n) · k = m · k + n · k. This law expands the rules of
operations with brackets (see the previous section).
2
Prime and composite numbers
Numbers, which aren’t divisible by any numbers except 1 and itself, are called prime numbers. Numbers, which
have also other factors, are called composite numbers. There is an infinite set of prime numbers. The set of them
till 200 is:
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43,
47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 101,
103, 107, 109, 113, 127, 131, 137, 139, 149, 151,
157, 163, 167, 173, 179, 181, 191, 193, 197, 199.
Math I -3-
Factorization. Resolution into prime factors
Any composite number can be presented as a product of prime factors by the single way. For example,
48 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 3, 225 = 3 · 3 · 5 · 5, 1050 = 2 · 3 · 5 · 5 · 7.
For small numbers this operation is easy. For large numbers it is possible to use the following way. Consider the
number 1463. Look over prime numbers and stop, if the number is a factor of 1463. According to the divisibility
criteria, we see that numbers 2, 3 and 5 aren’t factors of 1463. But this number is divisible by 7, really, 1463: 7 =
209. By the same way we test the number 209 and find its factor: 209: 11 = 19. The last number is a prime one, so
the found prime factors of 1463 are: 7, 11 and 19, i.e. 1463 = 7 · 11 · 19. It is possible to write this process using
the following record:
Number Factor
----------------------------
1463 7
209 11
19 19
----------------------------
Greatest common factor
Common factor of some numbers - a number, which is a factor of each of them. For example, numbers 36, 60, 42
have common factors 2 and 3 . Among all common factors there is always the greatest one, in our case this is 6.
This number is called a greatest common factor (GCF).
To find a greatest common factor (GCF) of some numbers it is necessary:
1) to express each of the numbers as a product of its prime factors, for example:
360 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 5 ,
2) to write powers of all prime factors in the factorization as:
360 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 5 = 23 · 32 · 51 ,
3
Math I -4-
3) to write out all common factors in these factorizations;

4) to take the least power of each of them, meeting in the all factorizations; 5) to multiply these powers.
E x a m p l e . Find GCF for numbers: 168, 180 and 3024.
S o l u t i o n . 168 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 7 = 23 · 31 · 71 ,
180 = 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 5 = 22 · 32 · 51 ,
3024 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 3 · 7 = 24 · 33 · 71 .
Write out the least powers of the common factors 2 and 3 and multiply them:
GCF = 22 · 31 = 12 .
Least common multiple
Common multiple of some numbers is called a number, which is divisible by each of them. For example, numbers
9, 18 and 45 have as a common multiple 180. But 90 and 360 are also theirs common multiples. Among all common
multiples there is always the least one, in our case this is 90. This number is called a least common multiple (LCM).
To find a least common multiple (LCM) of some numbers it is necessary:
1) to express each of the numbers as a product of its prime factors, for example:
504 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 7 ,
2) to write powers of all prime factors in the factorization as:
504 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 7 = 23 · 32 · 71 ,
3) to write out all prime factors, presented at least in one of these numbers; 4) to take the greatest power of each
of them, meeting in the factorizations; 5) to multiply these powers.
Math I -5-
E x a m p l e . Find LCM for numbers: 168, 180 and 3024.
S o l u t i o n . 168 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 7 = 23 · 31 · 71 ,
180 = 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 5 = 22 · 32 · 51 ,
3024 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 3 · 7 = 24 · 33 · 71 .
Write out the greatest powers of all prime factors: 24, 33, 51, 71
and multiply them:
LCM = 24 · 33 · 5 · 7 = 15120 .
4
Divisibility criteria
Divisibility by 2. A number is divisible by 2, if its last digit is 0 or is divisible by 2. Numbers, which are divisible
by 2 are called even numbers. Otherwise, numbers are called odd numbers.
Divisibility by 4. A number is divisible by 4, if its two last digits are zeros or they make a two-digit number, which
is divisible by 4.
Divisibility by 8. A number is divisible by 8, if its three last digits are zeros or they make a three-digit number,
which is divisible by 8.
Divisibility by 3 and by 9 . A number is divisible by 3, if a sum of its digits is divisible by 3. A number is divisible
by 9, if a sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
Divisibility by 6. A number is divisible by 6, if it is divisible by 2 and by 3.
Divisibility by 5. A number is divisible by 5, if its last digit is 0 or 5.
Divisibility by 25. A number is divisible by 25, if its two last digits are zeros or they make a number, which is
divisible by 25.
Divisibility by 10. A number is divisible by 10, if its last digit is 0.
Math I -6-
Divisibility by 100. A number is divisible by 100, if its two last digits are zeros.
Divisibility by 1000. A number is divisible by 1000, if its three last digits are zeros.
Divisibility by 11. A number is divisible by 11 if and only if a sum of its digits, located on even places is equal to a
sum of its digits, located on odd places, OR these sums are differed by a number, which is divisible by 11.
There are criteria of divisibility for some other numbers, but these criteria are more difficult and not considered in a
secondary school program.
Example. A number 378015 is divisible by 3, because a sum of its digits 3 + 7 + 8 + 0 + 1 + 5 = 24, which
is divisible by 3. This number is divisible by 5, because its last digit is 5. At last, this number is
divisible by 11, because a sum of even digits: 7 + 0 + 5 =12 and a sum of odd digits: 3 + 8 + 1 =
12 are equal. But this number isn’t divisible by 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 25, 100 and 1000, because …
Check these cases yourself !
Simple fractions
A part of a unit or some equal parts of a unit is called a vulgar (simple) fraction. A number of equal parts into
which a unit has been divided, is called a denominator; a number of these taken parts, is called a numerator. A
fraction record:
Here 3 – a numerator, 7 – a denominator.
5
If a numerator is less than a denominator, then the fraction is less than 1 and called a proper fraction. If a numerator
is equal to a denominator, the fraction is equal to 1. If a numerator is greater than a denominator, the fraction is
greater than 1. In both last cases the fraction is called an improper fraction. If a numerator is divisible by a
denominator, then this fraction is equal to a quotient: 63 / 7 = 9. If a division is executed with a
remainder, then this improper fraction can be presented as a mixed number:
Math I -7-
Here 9 – an incomplete quotient ( an integer part of the mixed number ), 2 – a remainder ( a numerator of the
fractional part ), 7 – a denominator .
It is often necessary to solve a reverse problem – to convert a mixed number into a fraction. For this purpose,
multiply an integer part of a mixed number by a denominator and add a numerator of a fractional part. It will be a
numerator of a vulgar fraction, and its denominator is saved the same.
Reciprocal fractions are two fractions whose product is 1. For example, 3 / 7 and 7 / 3 ; 15 / 1 and 1 / 15 and so
on.
Operations with simple fractions
Extension of a fraction. A fraction value isn’t changed, if to multiply its numerator and denominator by the same
non-zero number. This transformation of a fraction is called an extension of a fraction. For instance:
Cancellation of a fraction. A fraction value isn’t changed, if to divide its numerator and denominator by the same
non-zero number. This transformation of a fraction is called a cancellation of a fraction or lowest term. For
instance:
Math I -8-
6
Comparison of fractions. From two fractions with the same numerators that one is more, a denominator of which is
less:
From two fractions with the same denominators that one is more, a numerator of which is more:
To compare two fractions, which have different both numerators and denominators, it is necessary to extend them
to reduce to the same denominators.
E x a m p l e . Compare the fractions:
Solution. Multiply numerator and denominator of the first fraction - by denominator of the second fraction
and numerator and denominator of the second fraction - by denominator of the first fraction:
The used transformation of fractions is called a reducing of fractions to a common denominator.
Math I -9-
Addition and subtraction of fractions. If denominators of fractions are the same, then in order to add the fractions
it is necessary to add their numerators; in order to subtract the fractions it is necessary to subtract their numerators
(in the same order). The received sum or difference will be a numerator of the result; a denominator is saved the
same. If denominators of fractions are different, before these operations it is necessary to reduce fractions to a
common denominator. At addition of mixed numbers a sum of integer parts and a sum of fractional parts are found
separately. At subtracting mixed numbers we recommend at first to reduce the mixed numbers to improper
fractions, then to subtract these fractions and after this to convert the result into a mixed number again (in case of
need).
E x a m p l e.
7
Multiplication of fractions. To multiply some number by a fraction means to multiply it by a numerator and to
divide a product by a denominator. Hence, we have the general rule for multiplication of fractions: to multiply one
fraction by another it is necessary to multiply separately their numerators and denominators and to divide the first
product by the second.
Example.
Division of fractions. To divide some number by a fraction it is necessary to multiply this number by a reciprocal
fraction. This rule follows from the definition of division (see the section “Arithmetical operations”).
Example.
Decimal fractions (decimals)
Decimal fraction is a result of dividing of unit by ten, hundred, thousand parts etc. These fractions are very
comfortable in calculations, because they are based on the same system, that calculus and record of integers are
built. Due to this both record and rules of operations with decimal fractions are actually the same as for integers.
Math I - 10 -
At recording decimal fractions it isn’t necessary to mark parts ( as denominator ); this is known by place, that the
corresponding digit occupies. At first the integer part of a number is written; to the right of it the decimal point is
put; the first digit after the point means a number of tenths ( a number of tenth parts of unit ), the second – a
number of hundredths, the third – thousandths, and so on. Digits, located after decimal point, are called decimal
places.
Example.
One of advantages of decimals – they are easily reduced to the shape of vulgar fractions: a number after a decimal
point ( 5047 in our case ) is a numerator, and the n-th power of 10 ( n – a quantity of decimal places, in our case n =
4 ) is a denominator:
If a decimal doesn’t contain an integer part, zero is put before a decimal point:
8
Properties of decimals.
1. A decimal fraction isn’t changed, if to add some zeros to the right of it:
13.6 =13.6000.
2. A decimal fraction isn’t changed, if to reject zeros, located in the end:
Math I - 11 -
0.00123000 = 0.00123
Note: it’s prohibited to reject zeros, located not in the end of a decimal!
3. A decimal fraction will be increased by 10, 100, 1000 ,…times, if to transfer a decimal point to one, two, three,
… places to the right:
3.675 ---> 367.5 (it increases by 100 times).
4. A decimal fraction will be decreased by 10, 100, 1000 ,…times, if to transfer a decimal point to one, two, three,
… places to the left:
1536.78 ---> 1.53678 (it decreases by 1000 times)
These properties permit quickly to multiply and to divide decimal fractions by 10, 100, 1000 and so on.
Repeating decimal is a decimal in which a digit or a group of digits repeats endlessly in a pattern. This group of
repeating digits is called a period of decimal and is written in brackets. For instance,
E x a m p l e. If to divide 47 by 11, then the result is 4.27272727… = 4.(27)
Operations with decimal fractions
Addition and subtraction of decimals. These operations are executed as well as an addition and a subtraction of
whole numbers. It is only necessary to write the corresponding decimal places one under another.
Example.
Math I - 12
9
Multiplication of decimals. At first stage let’s multiply the fractions as integers, not taking a decimal point into
consideration. After this we use the following rule: a number of decimal places in a product is equal to a sum of
numbers of decimal places in all factors. Note: before putting the decimal point in the product it is prohibited to
reject zeros in the end of it !
Example.
A sum of numbers of decimal places in factors is equal: 3 + 4 = 7. A sum of digits in the product is 6.
Therefore, it is necessary to add one zero to the left: 0197056 and to put before this a decimal point:
0.0197056.
Division of decimals.
Division of decimal fraction by integer.
If a dividend is less than a divisor, write zero in an integer part of a quotient and put after it a decimal point. Then,
not taking the decimal point of dividend into consideration, join to its integer part the next digit of fractional part
and compare again the received integer part of a dividend with a divisor. If a new number is again less than a divisor,
put one more zero after a decimal point in a quotient and join to an integer part of a dividend the next digit of its
fractional part. Thus, repeat this process till the received dividend would be not more than a divisor. After this one
can fulfill the division as for integers. If a dividend is more than a divisor or equal to it, divide at first its integer
part, write a result of the division in the quotient and put a decimal point.
After this one can continue the division as for integers.
E x a m p l e . Divide 1.328 by 64.
S o l u t i o n:
0.02075
64 1.328
- 128 Math I - 13 -
48
Division of decimal fraction by another one.
At first transfer decimal points in a dividend and a divisor by the number of decimal places of divisor, i.e. make
the divisor an integer. Now divide as well as in the previous case.
E x a m p l e . Divide 0.04569 by 0.0006.
S o l u t i o n. Transfer the decimal points to 4 places to the right and divide 456.9 by 6:
76.15
0.0006 0.04569 6 456.9
Converting a decimal to a simple fraction and back
To convert a decimal to a vulgar fraction it is necessary: a number after a decimal point to make as the numerator,
and the n-th power of 10 ( here n – a quantity of decimal places ) - as the denominator. A non-zero integer part of
a decimal is saved the same in a vulgar fraction; a zero integer part is omitted. For example:
To convert a vulgar fraction to a decimal it is necessary to divide a numerator by a denominator according to the
division rules.
Math I - 14 -
E x a m p l e . Convert 5 / 8 to a decimal fraction.
S o l u t i o n . Dividing 5 by 8, we’ll receive 0.625. ( Check it, please ! )
In the most of cases this process can be continued infinitely. Then a simple fraction cannot be converted exactly to
a decimal. But in practice this is never required. Dividing is broken if decimal places, that are of interest, have
been already received.
E x a m p l e . Convert 1 / 3 to a decimal fraction.
S o l u t i o n . Dividing 1 by 3 will be infinite: 1:3 = 0.3333… . Check it, please.
Percents
Percent is a hundredth part of unit. A record 1% means 0.01. There are three main problems by percents:
Problem 1. Find an indicated percent of a given number.

The given number is multiplied by the indicated number of percents; then a product is divided
by 100.
E x a m p l e . A deposit in a bank has an annual increase 6%. A sum of money in the beginning was equal to
$10000. How many dollars will the sum be increased by in the end of the year?
S o l u t i o n : $10000 · 6 / 100 = $600.
Problem 2. Find a number by another given number and its percent value of the unknown number.
The given number is divided by its percent value; the result is multiplied by 100.
Example. A salary by January was equal to $15000, that was equal 7.5% of an annual salary. What was
the annual salary ?
S o l u t i o n: $15000 / 7.5 · 100 = $200000.
Problem 3. Find the percent expression of one number by another.

The first number is divided by the second, and a result is multiplied by 100.
Example. On 2001 a plant have produced 40000 cars; and on 2002 - only 36000 cars. What percent
Math I - 15 -
does it constitute relatively to the output of 2001 ?
S o l u t i o n: 36000 / 40000 · 100 = 90%.
Ratio and proportion. Proportionality
Ratio is a quotient of dividing one number by another. Proportion –

an equality of two ratios. For instance:
12 : 20 = 3 : 5; a:b=c:d.
Border terms of the proportion: 12 and 5 in the first proportion;

a and d in the second proportion.
Middle terms of the proportion: 20 and 3 in the first proportion;

b and c in the second proportion.
The main property of a proportion: A product of border terms of a proportion is equal to a product of its middle
terms.
Two mutually dependent values are called proportional ones, if a ratio of their values is saved as invariable. This
invariable ratio of proportional values is called a factor of a proportionality.
Example. A mass of any substance is proportional to its volume. For instance, 2 liters of mercury weigh
27.2 kg, 5 liters weigh 68 kg, 7 liters weigh 95.2 kg. A ratio of mercury mass to its volume (
factor of a proportionality ) will be equal to:
Thus, a factor of a proportionality in this example is density.
Math I - 16 -
The Integers and Rational Numbers
To the natural numbers one adjoins their negatives and zero to form the integers. The ratios a/b of the integers,
where a and b are integers and b /= 0, constitute the rational numbers; the integers are those rational numbers for
which b = 1. The rational numbers may also be represented by repeating decimals; e.g., 1/2 = 0.5000 …, 2/3 =
0.6666 …, 2/7 = 0.285714285714 …
Negative integers appear, when the greater integer is subtracted from the smaller one, for instance:
10 – 15 = – 5 The
sign “minus” before 5 shows, that this number is negative.
Series of negative integers continue endlessly:
–1, –2, –3, – 4, –5 …
Fractional negative numbers appear, for example, when the greater number is subtracted from the smaller one:
Also it is possible to say, that fractional negative numbers appear as a result division of a negative integer by a
natural number:
- 13 ÷ 7 = −
Positive numbers in contrast to negative numbers (integers and fractional ones), are the numbers, considered in
arithmetic (also integers and fractional ones).
Rational numbers – positive and negative numbers (integers and fractional ones) and zero. The more exact
definition of rational numbers, adopted in mathematics, is the following:
Math I - 17 -
A number is called rational, if it may be presented as a simple, not a cancelled fraction of the shape: m /n, where
m and n are integers.
Irrational numbers
Irrational numbers in contrast to rational numbers (see above) aren’t presented as a vulgar, not cancelled
fraction of the shape: m / n , where m and n are integers. There are numbers of a new kind, which are
calculated with any accuracy, but can’t be changed by a rational number. They can appear as results of
geometrical measurements, for example:
- a ratio of a square diagonal length to its side length is equal to
- a ratio of a circumference length to its diameter length is an irrational number Examples
of another irrational numbers:
The Real Numbers
The real numbers are those representable by an infinite decimal expansion, which may be repeating or
nonrepeating; they are in a one-to-one correspondence with the points on a straight line and are sometimes referred
to as the continuum. Real numbers that have a nonrepeating decimal expansion are called irrational, i.e., they cannot
be represented by any ratio of integers. The Greeks knew of the existence of irrational numbers through geometry;
e.g., 2 is the length of the diagonal of a unit square. The proof that 2 is unable to be represented by such a ratio was
the first proof of the existence of irrational numbers, and it caused tremendous upheaval in the mathematical thinking
of that time.
Imaginary and complex numbers
Consider the pure quadratic equation:
x2 = a ,
where a – a known value. Its solution may be presented as:

Math I - 18 -
Here the three cases are possible:
1). If a = 0 , then x = 0.
2). If a is a positive number, then its square root has two values: one positive and one negative; for example, the
equation x2 = 25 has the two roots: 5 and –5.
This is often written as the root with double sign before:
3). If a – a negative number, then the equation has no solution among known us positive and negative numbers,
because the second power of any number is a non-negative number (think over this!). But, if we wish to
receive solutions of the equation x2 = a also at negative values of a, we are obliged to introduce the new
kind numbers – imaginary numbers. So, a number is imaginary, if its second power is a negative number.
According to this definition of imaginary numbers we can define an imaginary unit as:
Then, for the equation
x2 = – 25
we receive the two imaginary roots: Substituting both these

roots into our equation we’ll receive the identity. Check it, please!
In contrast to imaginary numbers all the rest numbers (positive and negative, integers and fractional, rational and
irrational ones) are called real numbers. A sum of a real and an imaginary number is called a complex number,
and marked as:
a+bi ,
Math I - 19 -
where a, b – real numbers, i – an imaginary unit.

In more details about complex numbers see the section “Complex numbers”.
E x a m p l e s of complex numbers: 3 + 4 i , 7 – 13.6 i , 0 + 25 i = 25 i , 2 + i.
Monomials and polynomials
Monomial is a product of two or some factors, each of them is either a number, or a letter, or a power of a letter.
For example,
3 a 2b 4, bd3, – 17 a b c
are monomials. A single number or a single letter may be also considered as a monomial. Any factor of a
monomial may be called a coefficient. Often only a numerical factor is called a coefficient. Monomials are called
similar or like ones, if they are identical or differed only by coefficients. Therefore, if two or some monomials
have identical letters or their powers, they are also similar (like) ones. Degree of monomial is a sum of exponents
of the powers of all its letters.
Addition of monomials. If among a sum of monomials there are similar ones, he sum can be reduced to the more
simple form:
ax3y2 –5b3x3y2+c5x3y2=(a–5b3+c5)x3y2.
This operation is called reducing of like terms. Operation, done here, is called also taking out of brackets.
Multiplication of monomials. A product of some monomials can be simplified, only if it has powers of the same
letters or numerical coefficients. In this case exponents of the powers are added and numerical coefficients are
multiplied. E x a m p l e :
5 a x 3 z 8 ( – 7 a 3 x 3 y 2 ) = – 35 a 4 x 6 y 2 z 8 .
Math I - 20 -
Division of monomials. A quotient of two monomials can be simplified, if a dividend and a divisor have some
powers of the same letters or numerical coefficients. In this case an exponent of the power in a divisor is subtracted
from an exponent of the power in a dividend; a numerical coefficient of a dividend is divided by a numerical
coefficient of a divisor. E x a m p l e :
35 a 4 x 3 z 9 : 7 a x 2 z 6 = 5 a 3 x z 3 .
Polynomial is an algebraic sum of monomials. Degree of polynomial is the most of degrees of monomials,
forming this polynomial.
Multiplication of sums and polynomials: a product of the sum of two or some expressions by any expression is
equal to the sum of the products of each of the addends by this expression:
( p+ q+ r ) a = pa+ qa+ ra - opening of brackets.
Instead of the letters p, q, r, a any expressions can be taken. E

xample:
( x+ y+ z )( a+ b )= x( a+ b )+ y( a+ b ) + z( a+ b ) =
= xa + xb + ya + yb + za + zb .
A product of sums is equal to the sum of all possible products of each addend of one sum to each addend of the
other sum.
Algebraic fractions
Algebraic fraction is an expression of a shape A / B, where A and B can be a number, a monomial, a polynomial.
As in arithmetic, A is called a numerator, B – a denominator. Arithmetical fraction is a particular case of an
algebraic one.
Canceling fractions
Example:
Math I - 21 -
Addition and subtraction of fractions
To add or to subtract two or some fractions it is necessary to make the same operations as in arithmetic.
Example:
Multiplication and division of fractions
Multiplication and division of algebraic fractions doesn’t differ from the same operations in arithmetic. Canceling
a fraction can be done both before and after multiplication of numerators and denominators.
Example:
INTERMEDIATE ALGEBRA
POINTERS
Powers and roots
Operations with powers.
1. At multiplying of powers with the same base their exponents are added:
a m · a n = a m+n .
2. At dividing of powers with the same base their exponents are subtracted:
3. A power of product of two or some factors is equal to a product of powers of these factors:
( abc… ) n = a n · b n · c n …
4. A power of a quotient (fraction) is equal to a quotient of powers of a dividend (numerator) and a divisor
(denominator):
(a/b)n= an/ bn.
5. At raising of a power to a power their exponents are multiplied:
( am ) n = a m n .
All above mentioned formulas are read and executed in both directions – from the left to the right and back.
E x a m p l e . ( 2 · 3 · 5 / 15 ) 2 = 2 2 · 3 2 · 5 2 / 15 2 = 900 / 225 = 4 .
Operations with roots. In all below mentioned formulas a symbol means an arithmetical root ( all
radicands are considered here only positive ).
1. A root of product of some factors is equal to a product of roots of these factors:
Math II -1-
2. A root of a quotient is equal to a quotient of roots of a dividend and a divisor:
n a/b = n a /n b
3. At raising a root to a power it is sufficient to raise a radicand to this power:
n a )= n am m
1
4. If to increase a degree of a root by n times and to raise simultaneously its radicand to the n-th power, the root
value doesn’t change:
5. If to decrease a degree of a root by n times and to extract simultaneously the n-th degree root of the radicand,
the root value doesn’t change:
Widening of the power notion. Till now we considered only natural exponents of powers; but operations with
powers and roots can result also to negative, zero and fractional exponents. All these exponents of powers require
to be defined.
Negative exponent of a power. A power of some number with a negative (integer) exponent is defined as unit
divided by the power of the same number with the exponent equal to an absolute value of the negative exponent:
Now the formula a m : a n = a m - n may be used not only if m is more than n , but also for a case if m is less than
n.
Math II -2-
E x a m p l e . a4 : a7 = a4 - 7 = a-3 .
If we want the formula a m/a n = a m - n to be valid at m = n we need the definition of zero exponent of a power.
Zero exponent of a power. A power of any non-zero number with zero exponent is equal to 1.
E x a m p l e s: 2 0 = 1, ( – 5 ) 0 = 1, ( – 3 / 5 ) 0 = 1.
Fractional exponent of a power. To raise a real number a to a power with an exponent m / n it is necessary to
extract the n-th degree root from the m-th power of this number a:
m
n n m
a = a
3
2 3
Example: 4 = 4 = 64 = 8
About meaningless expressions. There are some expressions:
Case 1.
2
where a ≠ 0 , doesn’t
exist.
Really, if to assume that where x – some number, then according to the definition of a division we have: a = 0
· x , i.e. a = 0 , but this result contradicts to the condition: a ≠ 0 . Case 2.
is any number.
Really, if to assume that this expression is equal to some number x, then according to the definition of a division:
0 = 0 · x . But this equality is valid at any number x, which was to be proved.
Case 3.
If to assume, that rules of operations with powers are spread to powers with a
zero base, then
Math II -3-
0
0 is any number .
S o l u t i o n . Consider the three main cases:
1) x = 0 – this value doesn’t satisfy the equation ( Why ? ) ;
2) at x > 0 we receive: x / x = 1, i.e.1 = 1, hence, x – any number, but taking into consideration that in this case x
> 0, the answer is: x > 0 ;
3) at x < 0 we receive: – x / x = 1, i.e. –1 = 1, and the answer is: there is no solution in this case. So, the answer:
x>0.
Formulas of abridged multiplication
From the rules of multiplication of sums and polynomials the following seven formulas of abridged multiplication
can be easily received. It is necessary to know them by heart, as they are used in most of problems in mathematics.
[1] ( a + b )² = a² + 2ab + b² ,
[2] ( a – b )² = a² – 2ab + b² ,
[3] ( a + b ) ( a – b ) = a² – b²,
[4] ( a + b )³ = a³ + 3a² b + 3ab² + b³ ,
[5] ( a – b )³ = a ³ – 3a² b + 3ab² – b³ ,
3
[6] ( a + b )( a² – ab + b² ) = a³ + b³ ,
Math II -4-
[7] ( a – b )( a ² + ab + b² ) = a³ – b³ .
Example:
Factoring of polynomials
In general case factoring of a polynomial is not always possible. But there are some cases, when it can be executed.
1. If all terms of a polynomial contain as a factor the same expression, it is possible to take it out of brackets (see
above).
2. Sometimes grouping terms of a polynomial into brackets, one can find a common expression inside the
brackets, the expression may be taken out of the brackets as a common factor, and after this the same
expression will be inside all brackets Then this expression must also be taken out of the brackets and the
polynomial will be factored.
Example: ax + bx + ay+ by = ( ax+ bx ) + ( ay + by ) =
=x(a+b)+ y(a+ b)=(x+y)(a+ b).
3. Sometimes including of new, mutually cancelled terms, helps to factor a polynomial.
E x a m p l e : y 2 – b 2 = y 2 + yb – yb – b 2 = ( y 2 + yb ) – ( yb + b 2 ) =
=y(y+b)–b(y+b)=(y+b)(y–b).
4. Usage of the formulas of abridged multiplication.
Factoring of a quadratic trinomial
Each quadratic trinomial ax2 + bx+ c can be resolved to factors of the first degree by the next way. Solve the
quadratic equation
ax2 + bx+ c = 0
If x1 and x2 are the roots of this equation, then

Math II -5-
ax2 + bx+ c = a (x – x1) (x – x2)
This affirmation can be proved using either formula for roots of a non-reduced quadratic equation. (Check it,
please!) .
E x a m p l e. Resolve to the first degree factors the trinomial: 2x2 – 4 x – 6.
S o l u t i o n . At first we solve the equation: 2x2 – 4x – 6 = 0 . Its roots are:

x1 = –1 and x2 = 3. Hence, 2x2 – 4x – 6 = 2 ( x + 1 ) ( x – 3 ) . (
Open the brackets and check the result, please ).
4
Equations of higher degrees
1. Some kinds of the higher degrees equations may be solved using a quadratic equation. Sometimes one can
resolve the left-hand side of equation to factors, each of them is a polynomial of the degree not higher than
second. Then, equaling each of them to zero and solving all these quadratic and / or linear equations, we’ll
receive all roots of the original equation.
E x a m p l e . Solve an equation: 3x4 + 6x3 – 9x2 = 0 .
S o l u ti o n . Resolve the left-hand side of this equation to factors:

x2 ( 3x2 + 6x – 9 ) .
Solve the equation: x2 = 0; it has two equal roots: x1 = x2 = 0 .

Now we solve the equation: 3x2 + 6x – 9 = 0, and receive:
x3 = 1 and x4 = – 3 . Thus, the original equation has four roots:
x1 = x2 = 0 ; x3 = 1 ; x4 = – 3 .
2. If an equation has the shape:
ax2n + bxn + c = 0 ,
it is reduced to an quadratic equation by the exchange:

xn = z ;
really,
after this exchange we receive: az 2 + bz + c = 0 .
E x a m p l e . Consider the equation:

x4 – 13 x2 + 36 = 0 .
Math II -6-
Exchange: x2 = z . After this we receive:

z 2 – 13 z + 36 = 0 .
Its roots are: z1 = 4 and z2 = 9. Now we solve the equations:

x2 = 4 and x2 = 9 . They have the roots correspondingly: x1 = 2
, x2 = – 2 , x3 = 3 ; x4 = – 3 . These numbers are the roots of
the original equation ( check this, please ! ).
Any equation of the shape: ax4 + bx2 + c = 0 is called a biquadratic equation. It is reduced to quadratic
equations by using the exchange: x2 = z .
E x a m p l e . Solve the biquadratic equation: 3x4 – 123x2 + 1200 = 0 .
S o l u t i o n . Exchanging: x2 = z , and solving the equation:

3z 2 – 123z + 1200 = 0 , we’ll receive:
hence, z1 = 25 and z2 = 16 . Using our exchange, we receive:

x2 = 25 and x2 = 16, hence, x1 = 5, x2 = –5, x3 = 4, x4= – 4.
5
3. A cubic equation is the third degree equation; its general shape is:
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 .
The known Cardano’s formulas for solution of this kind equations are very difficult and almost aren’t used in
practice. So, we recommend another way to solve the third degree equations.
a. At first we find one root of the equation by selecting, because these equations have always at least one
real root, which is one of factors of a free term d ; besides, coefficients of these equations have been
selected usually so that the root, which must be found, is among not great integers, such as: – 2, –1,
Math II -7-
0, 1, 2 . Therefore, we’ll find the root among these numbers and check it by substituting into the
equation. A probability of successful result is very high. Assume this root is x1 .
b. The second stage of solution is dividing of the third degree polynomial ax3 + bx2 + cx + d by the
binomial ( x – x1 ) . According to Bezout’s theorem (see the section “Division of polynomial by linear
binomial”) this division is possible without a remainder, and we’ll receive as a result the second degree
polynomial, which would be annihilated, will give us a quadratic equation, solving which we’ll find (or
not !) the rest of the two roots.
E x a m p l e . Solve the equation: x3 – 3x2 – 13x + 15 = 0 .
S o l u t i o n . Selecting the first root among the indicated numbers:
–2 , –1, 0, 1, 2 and substituting each of them in the

given equation, we find that 1 is a root of this equation.
Dividing the left-hand side of the equation by binomial (
x – 1 ), we’ll receive:
Now we solve a quadratic equation: x2 – 2x – 15 = 0

find the rest of the two roots: x1 = – 3 and x2 = 5 .
6
Math II -8-
Division of polynomial by linear binomial
Linear binomial is a polynomial of the first degree: ax+ b. If to divide a polynomial, containing a letter x, by a
linear binomial x – b, where b is a number ( positive or negative ), then a remainder will be a polynomial only of
zero degree, i.e. some number N , which can be found without finding a quotient. Exactly, this number is equal to
the value of the polynomial, received at x = b. This property is proved by Bezout’s theorem: a polynomial a0 xm
+ a1 xm-1 + a2 xm-2 + …+ am is divided by x – b with a remainder N = a0 bm + a1 bm-1 + a2 bm-2 + …+ am .
The p r o o f . According to the definition of division (see above) we have:
a0 xm + a1 xm-1 + a2 xm-2 + …+ am = ( x – b ) Q + N ,
where Q is some polynomial, N is some number. Substitute here x = b , then ( x– b ) Q will be missing and we
receive:
a0 bm + a0 bm-1 + a0 bm-2 + …+ am = N .
The r e m a r k . It is possible, that N = 0 . Then b is a root of the equation:
a0 xm + a1 xm-1 + a2 xm-2 + …+ am = 0 .
Division of polynomials
Division of polynomials. What means to divide one polynomial P by another Q ? It means to find polynomials M
( quotient ) and N ( remainder ), satisfying the two requirements:
1). An equality MQ + N = P takes place;

2). A degree of polynomial N is less than a degree of polynomial Q .
Division of polynomials can be done by the following scheme ( long division ):
4a + 3
4a2 −a+216a3 +8aMath II 2 −5a+7 -9-
– 16a3 – 4a2 + 8a
12a2 – 13a + 7
– 12a2 – 3a + 6
7
10a + 1
1) Divide the first term 16a3 of the dividend by the first term 4a2 of the divisor; the result 4a is the first term
of the quotient.
2) Multiply the received term 4a by the divisor 4a2 – a + 2; write the result 16a3 – 4a2 + 8a under the
dividend, one similar term under another.
3) Subtract terms of the result from the corresponding terms of the dividend and move down the next by the
order term 7 of the dividend; the remainder is 12a2 – 13a + 7.
4) Divide the first term 12a2 of this expression by the first term 4a2 of the divisor; the result 3 is the second
term of the quotient.
5) Multiply the received second term 3 by the divisor 4a2 – a + 2; write the result 12a2 – 3a + 6 again under
the dividend, one similar term under another.
6) Subtract terms of the result from the corresponding terms of the previous remainder and receive the
second remainder:
– 10a + 1. Its degree is less than the divisor degree; therefore the division has been finished. The quotient is
4a + 3, the remainder is – 10a + 1.
Linear equations in one unknown
An equation of the shape: ax + b = 0, where a and b – the known numbers, x – an unknown value, is called a
linear equation in one unknown. To solve this equation means to find the numerical value of x , at which this
equation becomes an identity.
If a is not equal to zero ( a ≠ 0 ), then a solution ( root ) has the shape:
Math II - 10 -
If a = 0 , then the two cases are possible:
1. b = 0, then 0 · x + 0 = 0 . Here x can be any number ( check this ! ).
2. b ≠ 0, then 0 · x + b = 0 . There is no solution ( check this also ).
expressions: x2 + 2x = x2 – 2x + x – 2 . Transfer all terms to the right-hand side of the equation.

After reducing all similar terms we’ll receive: 3x + 2 = 0, hence x = – 2 / 3 .
8
Quadratic equation
A quadratic equation is an algebraic equation of the second degree:
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , (1)
where a, b, c – the given numerical or literal coefficients , x – an unknown.

If a = 0, then this equation becomes a linear one. Therefore, we’ll consider here only a ≠ 0. So, it is possible to
divide all terms of the equation by a and then we receive:
x 2 + px + q = 0 , (2)
where p=b/a, q=c/a. This quadratic equation is called a reduced one. The equation (1) is called a non-reduced
quadratic equation. If b or c (or both) is equal to zero, then this equation is called a pure one. The examples of
pure quadratic equations are following:
4x 2 – 12 = 0, x 2 + 5x = 0, x 2 = 36 .
Math II - 11 -
Main ways used at solving of equations
Solving of equation is a process, consisting mainly in a replacement of the given equation by another, equivalent
equation. This replacement is called an identical transformation. Main identical transformations are the following.
1. Replacement of one expression by another, identically equal to it. For example, the equation (3x+ 2)2 = 15x +
10 may be replaced by the next equivalent equation: 9x2 + 12x + 4 = 15x + 10.
2. Transferring terms of equation from one side to another with back signs. So, in the previous equation we can
transfer all terms from the right-hand side to the left with the sign “minus”: 9x2+ 12x + 4 – 15x – 10 = 0, after
this we receive: 9x2 – 3x – 6 = 0.
3. Multiplication or division of both sides of equation by the same expression (number), not equal to zero. This is
very important, because a new equation can be not equivalent to previous, if the expression, by which we
multiply or divide, can be equal to zero.
E x a m p l e : The equation x – 1 = 0 has the single root x = 1 .

Multiplying it by x – 3 , we receive the equation ( x – 1 )( x – 3 ) = 0, which has two roots: x =
1 and x = 3 . The last value isn’t a root for the given equation x – 1 = 0. This value is so called an extraneous
root. And vice versa, division can result to a loss of roots. In our case, if (x – 1)(x – 3) = 0 is the origin
equation, then the root x = 3 will be lost at division of this equation by x – 3 .
In the last equation (p.2) we can divide all terms by 3 (not zero!) and finally receive:
3x2 – x – 2 = 0 .
This equation is equivalent to an original one:
(3x+ 2)2 = 15x + 10
4. It is possible to raise both sides of an equation to an odd power and to extract the odd degree root from both
sides of an equation. It is necessary to remember that:
9
a) raising to an even power can result in acquisition of extraneous roots;
b) a wrong extraction of even degree root can result in loss of roots.
E x a m p l e s : The equation 7x = 35 has the single root x = 5 . Raising this equation to

the second power, we receive the equation:
Math II - 12 -
49x2 = 1225,
having the two roots: x = 5 and x = – 5 . The last value is an extraneous root. A wrong extraction
of square root from both sides of the equation 49x2 = 1225 results in 7x = 35 , and we lose the root: x = – 5. A
right extraction of this root leads to the equation: | 7x | = 35, hence the two cases imply:
1) 7x = 35, then x = 5 ; 2) – 7x = 35, then x = – 5 .
Hence, at a right extraction of square root we don’t lose roots of an equation. What means a right
extraction of a root? Here we meet the notion of an arithmetical root, which is considered further in the section
of the same name.
Solution of a quadratic equation

In general case of a non-reduced quadratic equation: ax 2 + bx + c
=0,
its roots are found by the formula:
If to divide all terms of a non-reduced quadratic equation by a (is it possible ?), and to sign b / a = p and c / a =
q , then we’ll receive the reduced quadratic equation: x 2 + px + q = 0 ,
roots of which are calculated by the formula:
E x a m p l e . x 2 + 5x + 6 = 0 . Here p = 5, q = 6. Then we have:
hence, x1= – 5 / 2 + 1 / 2 = – 2 , x2 = – 5 / 2 – 1 / 2 = –
3
Math II - 13 -
Main ways of solving word problems

The process in solving verbal problems can be summarized in this way:
10
The 3 R’s and the ESP of solving verbal problems
R EAD the problem thoroughly

R EPRESENT the unknown by means of a variable
R ELATE the unknown to each other and the values given
in the problem
E QUATE form an equation using facts in the problem

S OLVE the equation
P ROVE the answers
READING: Reading mathematics is different from reading an ordinary story or newspaper. When we read a
problem in mathematics, we must be sure we catch each word.
REPRESENTING THE UNKNOWNS: The unknown numbers in the problem can be represented in several ways.
For example, if one number is thrice another, we could represent them as x and 3x; we could also represent them as
x and x. Always choose the simplest representation.
RELATING THE UNKNOWNS: Look for the key words that translate into equals. Some of these words are: is,
are was, make, and equals.
EQUATION FORMING: As the unknowns in the problem are correctly represented, then the meaning of the story
can easily be obtained by expressing these into an equation.
SOLVING AND PROVING: We already know the methods in solving equationd and we can easily check the
answers to see if they satisfy the problem.
I. Number Problems:
The number problems are the easiest to translate into equations since the relationships among the
numbers are directly stated in the problems.
EXAMPLE 1: One number is two more than thrice another. Their sum is 30. Find the numbers.
Math II - 14 -
Solution:
READ: Reading the problem thoroughly, we know two things about the numbers:
a) their sizes: one of them is two more than thrice the other; and
b) their sum: the sum is 30.
REPRESENT: If we represent the numbers using the first sentence, we have:
Let x = the first number then: 3x + 2 =
the other number
RELATE: The relationship between the numbers x and 3x + 2 and the other number, 30, gives us an equation.
EQUATE: x + 3x + 2 = 30 (Their sum is 30)
SOLVE: In solving the equation, we have
x + 3x + 2 = 30
4x + 2 = 30
4x = 28 x=7
therefore, the first number is 7 and the other number is 3x + 2 = 3(7) + 2 = 23
11
Answers: 7 and 23
PROVE: To prove that the numbers satisfy the problem, we have
a) their sum is 30: 7 + 23 = 30
b) 23 is two more than thrice 7: 3(7) + 2 = 21 + 2 = 23
The answers satisfy both the conditions of the problem.
EXAMPLE 2: The sum of two numbers is 29 and their difference is 5.
Solution:
READ: Reading the problem thoroughly, we know two things about the numbers:
a) their sum: the sum of the 2 numbers is 29 and
b) their difference: the difference of the 2 numbers is 5.
REPRESENT: Using the first sentence to represent the unknown numbers, we have:
Let x = one of the numbers.
RELATE: Then 29 – x = the other number
EQUATE: The second sentence gives us the equation.
x – (29 – x) = 5 (Their difference is 5)
SOLVE: Solving the equation, we have
x – (29 – x) = 5 x – 29 + x = 5
2x – 29 = 5
2x = 34 x = 17
therefore the other number is
29 – x = 29 – 17 = 12
PROVE: We must show that the numbers satisfy both sentences.
Math II - 15 -
a) Their sum is 29: 17 + 12 = 29

b) Their difference is 5: 17 – 12 = 5
II. Odd, Even, and Consecutive Integers

The word consecutive means following in order without interruption. As we know, an integer refers to a
whole number. Hence, consecutive integers which follow in order without interruption.
If you know the sum of a certain number of consecutive integers or consecutive odd/even integers, then
you have all the information you need to find the said integers.
EXAMPLE 1: The sum of three consecutive integers is 90. Find the integers.
SOLUTION:
Let x = the first integer then
x + 1 = the next consecutive integer and x+2=
the third consecutive integer their sum is 90:
x + (x + 1) + (x + 2) = 90 manipulating the equation, we
have x + (x + 1) + (x + 2) = 90 x+x+1+x+2 =
90 3x + 3 = 90 3x =
87 x = 29 1st integer
x + 1 = 30 2nd consecutive integer
x + 2 = 31 3rd consecutive integer
ANSWER: the consecutive integers are 29, 30, 31
PROOF: 29 + 30 + 31 = 90
EXAMPLE 2: Find three consecutive odd integers whose sum is 57.

SOLUTION:
Let x = the first odd integer
then x + 2 = the second odd integer and
12
x + 4 = the third odd integer their sum is
57:
x + (x + 1) + (x + 2) = 90
manipulating the equation, we have
x + (x + 2) + (x + 4) = 57 x+x+
2+x+4 = 57 3x + 6
= 57 3x = 51
x = 17 1st odd integer
Math II - 16 -
x + 2 = 19 2nd odd integer

rd
x + 4 = 21 3 odd integer
ANSWER: The consecutive odd integers are 17, 19, and 21.
PROOF: 17 + 19 + 21 = 57
III. Digit Problems

In finding the value of a number, the position of each digit must be considered.
For example:
7 alone has a value of seven ones
7 in 75 has a value of seventy ones (seven tens)
Suppose you have an unknown two-digit number, instead of calling it simply n you can let x represent
the tens digit and y the ones digit. Then the number may be represented as
10x + y
if we want to write the number with the digits reversed, then the new number formed would have y as the
tens digit and x the ones digit. Hence, the number can be represented by
10y + x
EXAMPLE 1: The units digit in a two digit number is one more than twice the tens digit. Find the number if the
sum of the digit is 7.
SOLUTION:
Let x = the tens digit
then 2x +1 = the units digit
and 10x + 2x + 1 = the number
The sum of the digits is 7:

x + 2x + 1 = 7
3x + 1 = 7
3x = 6
x=2 tens digit
2x + 1 = 2(2) + 1 = 5 units digit
The number is 10x + 2x + 1 = 10(2) = 2(2) + 1 = 20 + 4 + 1 = 25
PROOF: 5 is one more than twice 2: 5 = 2(2) +1
The sum of the digits is 7 : 2 + 5 = 7
EXAMPLE 2: The tens digit of a three-digit number is 0. The sum if the other two digits is 6. Interchanging the
units and hundreds digits decreases the number by 396. Find the original number.
SOLUTION:
Let x = the units digit
then 6 – x = the hundreds digit
and 100(6 – x) + 10(0) + x = the original number
Math II - 17 -
13
100 x + 10(0) + 6 – x = the reversed number
Interchanging the units and the hundreds digits decreases the number by 396:
100x + 10(0) + 6 – x = 100(6 – x) + 10(0) + x – 396

100x + 6 – x = 600 – 100x + x – 396
100x – x + 100x – x = 600 – 396 – 6
198x = 198
x=1
The original number is 100(6 – x) + 10(0) + x = 100(6 – 1) + 1

= 100( 5) + 1
= 500 + 1
= 501
PROOF: The sum of the units and hundreds digits is 6: 1 + 5 = 6
The reversed number which is 105 decreases the original number by 396:
105 = 501 – 396
105 = 105
IV. Age Problems
In dealing with age problems, it is important to keep in mind that the ages of different people change at
the same rate. For example, after two years, all the people in the given problem are two years older than they were
at first. Four years ago, all the people in the problem were four years younger. Also, it is easier if one makes a
table showing the presentation for current ages in the problem, “future” ages ( a number of years from now), and
“past” ages ( a number of years ago). If possible, represent the youngest present age by a single letter, than
represent the ages. This process is illustrated in the following examples.
EXAMPLE 1: Alvin is now 20 years older than his son. In 10 years, he will be twice as old as his son’s age. What
are the present ages?
READ : Reading the problem thoroughly, we find a relationship between the present ages of Alvin and his son and
the relationship of their ages 10 years from now.
REPRESENT: Using the relationship between the present ages, we have
Let x = the son’s present age
RELATE: Then x + 20 = Alvin’s present age
After 10 years, each age is increased by 10 : x + 10 and x + 30 as given in the table below.
Now Future ( 10 years from now)
Son x x + 10
Alvin x + 20 x + 30
Math II - 18 -
EQUATE: Using the second relationship: In 10 years, Alvin’s age is twice his son’s, we have x
+ 30 = 2 (x+10)
SOLVE: Manipulating the equation, we have

x + 30 = 2 (x + 10) x + 30 = 2x + 20
x = 10
ANSWERS: x = 10 Son’s age
x + 20 = 10 + 20 = 30 Alvin’s age
PROOF: Alvin’s age is 20 years more than his son’s: 30 = 10 + 20.
In 10 years:
Son: 10 + 10 = 20
14
Alvin: 30+10 = 40
Alvin’s age is twice his son’s:
40 = 2 ( 20)
40 = 40
EXAMPLE 2: The sum of Richard’s age ang Ruel’s age is 60. Nine years ago, Richard has twice as old as Ruel
then. How old is Ruel?
READ : We find that we have a relationship between the present ages and their ages 9 years ago.
REPRESENT: Let x = Ruel’s present age
RELATE: Then 60 – x = Richard’s present age
We subtract 9 years from each as shown in the table below.
Now Past ( 9 years ago)
Ruel x x–9
Richard 60 - x 51 - x
EQUATE: The second relationship gives our equation: Nine yars ago, Richard was twice as old as Ruel then.
51 – x = 2 (x – 9)
SOLVE: Manipulating the equation, we have :
51 – x = 2(x – 9)
51 – x = 2x – 18
3x = 69
x = 23
ANSWERS: x = 23 Ruel’s age
60 – x = 37 Richard’s age
PROOF: The sum of their ages is 60: Ruel’s age = 23
Richard’s age = 37
Math II - 19 -
Add 60
Nine years ago, Richard was twice as old as Ruel then:

37 – 9 = 2 (23 – 9)
28 = 2 (14)
28 = 28
V. Work Problems
Among the kinds of verbal problems that are solved by fractional equations are work problems. If we
1
are going to consider a task as one job, then the rate of doing work can be represented as , where x is the
x number of time units required to complete the job. That is, if a tailor sews a pair of pants in 3 hours, his rate is
of the job per hour. If a faucet fills a tank in 35 minutes, its rate is of the job per minute. Another thing
that we must know in doing work problems is that the amount of work done is the product of the rate and time,
Work = Rate x Time
Lastly, it is also important to know that the sum of the parts of a job done by different people or forces adds up to
the whole job.
EXAMPLE 1: Richard can build a doghouse by himself in 3 days. Alvin can build the same doghouse in 6 days.
How long would it take them if they worked together?
15
SOLUTION: We are looking for the number of days it would take Richard and Alvin if they worked together. We
can represent the time for each by the same letter since they begin and end work at the same time.
Rate x Time Work

Richard x x
3
Alvin x x
xx
The work Richard and Alvin did together equals one whole job. + =1
36
Manipulating the equation, we have
2x + x = 6
3x = 6
Math II - 20 -
ANSWER: x = 2 days
PROOF:
The work done by Richard is of the job
The work done by Alvin is of the job
Together, they have done whole job. Therefore, the answer satisfies the conditions of the
problems.
EXAMPLE 2: The San Beda High School, awimming pool has two inlet pipes. One pipe can fill the pool in 6
hours, the other can fill it in 3 hours. The pool has one outlet pipe that can empty the pool in 4 hours. One day,
when filling the pool after it was cleaned, the outlet pipe was left open by mistake. How long did it take to fill the
pool?
SOLUTION: We now have three rates. Two are added (the inlet pipes) while the other pipe (the outlet pipe) is
subtracted. We can represent the time for each by the same letter since they begin and work at the same time.
Rate x Time Work

Inlet Pipe 1 x x
6
Inlet Pipe 2 x x
3
Outlet Pipe x x
xxx
+ − =1 (multiply both sides by 12) 2x + 4x – 3x = 12 3x = 12
16
634
ANSWER: x = 4 hours PROOF:
In 4 hours, inlet pipe 1 fills of the pool
inlet pipe 2 fills of the pool
Math II - 21 -
In 4 hours, outlet pipe empties of the pool
So, whole pool
VI. Distance Problems

When an object moves without changing its speed or rate, that object is said to be in uniform motion. The
following examples below illustrate the types of problem involving uniform motion.
EXAMPLE 1: Motion in opposite direction

Mr. Honda and Mr. Toyota arrange to meet on the highway connecting their hometowns. Mr. Honda
drives at 45 kph and Mr. Toyota at 35 kph. They leave their homes which are 120 kilometers apart at the same
time. In how many hours will they meet?
SOLUTION: In this problem they both travel with the same length of time
Let t = the number of hours before the men meet
Rate x Time Distance
Mr. Honda 45 t 45t
Mr. Toyota 35 t 35t
The distances they travel must add up to the 120 kilometers between the towns, that is
Mr. Honda’s distance + Mr. Toyota’s distance = Total distance
45t + 35t = 120
45t + 35t = 120
80t = 120 t= or 1 hours
ANSWER: They meet after 1 hours driving.

PROOF:
3
After 1 hours, Mr. Honda has gone x 45 = 67.5 km.
Mr. Toyota has gone x 35 = 52.5 km

Total Distance 67.5 + 52.5 = 120 km
Thus, our answers satisfy the conditions of the problem.
EXAMPLE 2: Motion in the same directions

Math II - 22 -
17
There are two trains. The Rabbit heads north on the expressway at 45 kph. Exactly 12 minutes after, the
Panther follows at a steady speed of 54 kph. How long does it take the Panther to overtake the Rabbit?
SOLUTION: the Panther travels for 12 minutes less than (12 min = hr) because it travels 12 minutes later. It
will be easier to represent the shorter time by a single literal number.
Let x = the Panther’s time then x + = the Rabbit’s time

Rate x Time Distance
Rabbit 45
x+ 45(x + )
Panther 54 x 54x
When the Panther overtakes the Rabbit, the distances will be equal.
45(x + ) = 54x
45x + 9 = 54x 9x = 9 x = 1 hour
ANSWER: The Panther overtakes the Rabbit in 1 hour. PROOF:
After 1 hour, the Rabbit has gone 45(1 + ) = 45 + 9 = 54 km and the Panther has gone 54(1) = 54 km
VII. Solution Problems

A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances whose components are uniformly distributed
all throughout. We usually think of one of the substances as being dissolved in the other. The substance being
dissolved is the solute, the substance in which the solute is dissolved is called the solvent. For example when we add
sugar to coffee, we say that sugar is dissolved in coffee. If we add iodine to alcohol, then the iodine is dissolved in
alcohol. In the preceding examples, sugar and iodine are the solutes while coffee and alcohol are the solvents.
Usually the solvent is greater in quantity than the solute.
Some solutions have special names. The most usual alloys are of metals that have been melted together.
However if the solvent is alcohol , the mixture is called a tincture.
Solutions are usually labeled by the percentages of the solutes. This refers to the strength of the solution. That is,
a solution that is 20% salt is twice as “strong” as a solution of 10% salt. If we add water to the solution to weaken
it, the water that we added has 0% salt; if we add salt to the solution to strengthen or to increase its strength, the salt
is 100% salt.
In solving solution problems, we label each solution by the percentage of solute in it, rather than by its value.
When the amount of a given solution is multiplied by its strength, then we get the amount of solute it
Math II - 23 -
contains. For example, if we have 500grams of a 15% salt solution, then we have 500 x 0.15 = 75grams of salt.
Hence to form an equation, we use the fact that the amount of the solute in each solution being added must be equal
to the amount of solute in the combined solution. To summarize the steps in solving solution problems, we have
1) Label each solution with its corresponding percentage.

2) Give the total amount of the combined solution.
3) Form the equation by multiplying vertically.
EXAMPLE 1:
A chemist has 400g of salt solution that is 10% salt. How many grams of 20% salt solution must be added to
obtain a 12% solution of salt?
18
SOLUTION:
The problem asks for the number of grams of 20% salt solution to be added.
Let x be the number of grams of 20% salt solution.
400 g + xg = 400 + x g
10% 20% = 12%
Multiplying vertically, we obtain

0.10(400) + 0.20(x) = 0.12(400 + x)
Multiplying the equation by 100 to eliminate the decimals, we have

10(400) + 20(x) = 12(400 + x)

4000 + 20x = 12(400 + x)
8x = x = 800
100 grams
ANSWER: x = 100 grams of 20% solution
PROOF: The amount of salt in the 10% solution is

0.10(400) =
400 grams
The amount of salt in 100 grams of 20% solution is

Math II - 24 -
0.20(100) = 20 grams
Adding the two solutions, we have 60 grams of salt in a total solution of

400 + 100 = 500 grams
= 12%
Thus, the answer satisfies the conditions of the problem.
EXAMPLE 2:
A chemist mixes a 200 L of a solution that is 60% acid with a 300 L of a solution that is 20% acid. What is the
acid percentage of the mixture?
SOLUTION:
The problem asks the acid percentage of the mixture.
Let x = the acid percentage of the mixture.

200 L + 300 L = 500 L
60% 20% x%
Note that the problem tells us that we have a 500 L mixture.
19
60(200) + 20(300) = x(500)
12,000 + 6,000 =
500x 18,000 =
500x
x = 36
Answer: x = 36%
Math II - 25 -
VIII. Investment Problems

Problems which are concerned with amount of money invested at different rates of interest are called investment
problems. Investment problems are percent problems since interest rates are expressed as percent. A percent is a
fraction with a denominator of 100.
When we solve percent problems, we use the formula.
p = br
where p represents a part of whatever is being considered (percentage); b represents the base; that is, the whole of
what is being considered; and r represents the rate which is expressed as percent.
EXAMPLE 1:
The Faculty Trust Fund is P200,000. Some of the money is invested at an annual rate of 4 percent and the rest is
invested at an annual rate of 6 percent. If the income from both investments is both P9,600 a year, how much is
invested at each rate?
Solution:
Let x = the amount invested at 4%
then 200,000 - x = the amount invested at 6%
b · r = p
Some of the money x .04 .04x
The rest of the money 200,000 - x .06 .06(200,000) - x
Income from + Income from the = Total income from

one investment other investment both investments
+ .06(200,000 – x)
0.4x + 1,200,000 – 6x = P9,600
4x 2x = P960, 000
x = P240, 000
200,000 - x = = P120, 000
P80, 000
ANSWER:
20
Math II - 26 -
Amount invested at 4%: P120,000

Amount invested at 6%: P80,000
PROOF:
4% of P120,000 = P4,800
6% of P80,000 = P4,800
Total Income = P9,600
Thus the answers satisfy the conditions of the problem.
EXAMPLE 2:
Anthony invested a certain amount of money at 5 percent per year, and an amount twice as large at 6 percent per
year. The total annual income from the two investments was P4,250. Find the amount invested at each rate.
SOLUTION:
Let x = the amount invested at 5%
then 2x = the amount invested at 6%
b · r = p
Some of the money x .05 .05x
The rest of the money 200,000 - x .06 .06(2x)
Income from + Income from the = Total income from

one investment other investment both investments
+ .06(2x)
.05x + .12x = P4,250
.05x .17x = P4,250
= P4,250
x
2x = P25, 000 amount invested at 5%
= P50, 000 amount invested at 6%
21
GEOMETRY POINTERS
Euclidean geometry axioms
As we have noted above, there is a set of the axioms – properties, that are considered in geometry as main ones and
are adopted without a proof . Now, after introducing some initial notions and definitions we can consider the
following sufficient set of the axioms, usually used in plane geometry.
Axiom of belonging. Through any two points in a plane it is possible to draw a straight line, and besides only one.
Axiom of ordering. Among any three points placed in a straight line, there is no more than one point placed
between the two others.
Axiom of congruence ( equality ) of segments and angles. If two segments (angles) are congruent to the third
one, then they are congruent to each other.
Axiom of parallel straight lines. Through any point placed outside of a straight line it is possible to draw another
straight line, parallel to the given line, and besides only one.
Axiom of continuity ( Archimedean axiom ). Let AB and CD be two some segments; then there is a finite set of
such points A1 , A2 , … , An , placed in the straight line AB, that segments AA1 , A1A2 , … , An - 1An are
congruent to segment CD, and point B is placed between A and An .
We emphasize, that replacing one of these axioms by another, turns this axiom into a theorem, requiring a proof.
So, instead of the axiom of parallel straight lines we can use as an axiom the property of triangle angles (“the sum
of triangle angles is equal to 180 deg”). But then we should to prove the property of parallel lines.
Straight line
A general equation of straight line:
Ах + Ву + С = 0 ,
where А and В aren't equal to zero simultaneously.
Math III -1-
Coefficients А and В are coordinates of normal vector of the straight line ( i.e. vector, perpendicular to the straight
line ). At А = 0 straight line is parallel to the axis ОХ , at В = 0 straight line is parallel to the axis ОY .
At В 0 we receive an equation of straight line with a slope:
An equation of the straight line, going through the point ( х0 , у 0 ) and not parallel to the axis OY :
у – у 0 = m ( x – х0 ) ,
1
where m is a slope, equal to tangent of an angle between the straight line and the positive direction of the axis ОХ
.
At А 0, В 0 and С 0 we receive an equation of straight line in segments on axes:
where a = – C / A, b = – C / B. This line goes through the points ( a, 0 ) and ( 0, b ), i.e. it cuts off segments a
and b long on the coordinate axes.
An equation of straight line going through two different points ( х1, у 1 ) and ( х2, у 2 ):
Math III -2-
Parallel straight lines

Two straight lines AB and CD ( Fig.11 ) are called parallel straight lines, if they lie in the same plane and don’t
intersect however long they may be continued. The designation: AB|| CD. All points of one line are equidistant
from another line. All straight lines, parallel to one straight line are parallel between themselves. It’s adopted that
an angle between parallel straight lines is equal to zero. An angle between two parallel rays is equal to zero, if their
directions are the same and 180 deg, if the directions are opposite. All perpendiculars (AB, CD, EF, and Fig.12) to
the one straight line KM are parallel between themselves. Inversely, the straight line KM, which is perpendicular
to one of parallel straight lines, is perpendicular to all others. A length of perpendicular segment, concluded
between two parallel straight lines, is a distance between them.
At intersecting two parallel straight lines by the third line, eight angles are formed (Fig.13), which are called two-
by-two:
2
Math III -3-
1) corresponding angles (1 and 5; 2 and 6; 3 and 7; 4 and 8 ); these angles

are equal two-by-two: ( 1 = 5; 2= 6; 3= 7;
4= 8 );
2) alternate interior angles ( 4 and 5; 3 and 6 ); they are equal two-by-two;
3) alternate exterior angles ( 1 and 8; 2 and 7 ); they are equal two-by-two; 4)
one-sided interior angles (3 and 5; 4 and 6 ); a sum of them two-by-two is
equal to180 deg ( 3+ 5 = 180 deg; 4+ 6 = 180 deg);
5) one-sided exterior angles ( 1 and 7; 2 and 8 ); a sum of them two-by-two
is equal to180 deg ( 1+ 7 = 180 deg; 2+ 8 = 180 deg).
Angles with correspondingly parallel sides either are equal one to another, ( if both of them are acute or both
are obtuse, 1 = 2, Fig.14 ), or sum of them is 180 deg ( 3 + 4 = 180 deg, Fig.15 ).
Angles with correspondingly perpendicular sides are also either equal one to another ( if both of them are acute or
both are obtuse ), or sum of them is 180 deg.
Math III -4-
3
Thales' theorem. At intersecting sides of an angle by parallel lines ( Fig.16 ), the angle sides are divided into the
proportional segments:
Angles
Angle is a geometric figure ( Fig.1 ), formed by two rays OA and OB ( sides of an angle ), going out of the
same point O (a vertex of an angle).
Math III -5-
An angle is signed by the symbol and three letters, marking ends of rays and a vertex of an angle: AOB
(moreover, a vertex letter is placed in the middle). A measure of an angle is a value of a turn around a vertex O, that
transfers a ray OA to the position OB. Two units of angles measures are widely used: a radian and a degree. About
a radian measure see below in the point “A length of arc” and also in the section “Trigonometry”.
A degree measure. Here a unit of measurement is a degree ( its designation is ° or deg ) – a turn of a ray by the
1/360 part of the one complete revolution. So, the complete revolution of a ray is equal to 360 deg. One degree is
divided by 60 minutes ( a designation is ‘ or min ); one minute – correspondingly by 60 seconds ( a designation is
“ or sec ). An angle of 90 deg ( Fig.2 ) is called a right or direct angle; an angle lesser than 90 deg ( Fig.3 ), is
called an acute angle; an angle greater than 90 deg ( Fig.4 ), is called an obtuse angle.
4
Straight lines, forming a right angle, are called mutually perpendicular lines. If the straight lines AB and MK
are perpendicular, this is signed as: AB MK.
Signs of angles. An angle is considered as positive, if a rotation is executed opposite a clockwise, and negative –
otherwise. For example, if the ray OA displaces to the ray OB as shown on Fig.2, then AOB = + 90 deg; but
on Fig.5 AOB = – 90 deg.
Math III -6-
Supplementary (adjacent) angles ( Fig.6 ) – angles AOB and COB, having the common vertex O and the common
side OB; other two sides OA and OC form a continuation one to another. So, a sum of supplementary (adjacent)
angles is equal to 180 deg.
Vertically opposite (vertical) angles ( Fig.7) – such two angles with a common vertex, that sides of one angle
are continuations of the other: AOB and COD ( and also AOC and DOB ) are vertical angles.
A bisector of an angle is a ray, dividing the angle in two (Fig.8). Bisectors of vertical angles (OM and ON, Fig.9)
are continuations one of the other. Bisectors of supplementary angles (OM and ON, Fig.10) are mutually
perpendicular lines.
5
The property of an angle bisector: any point of an angle bisector is placed by the same distance from the angle
sides.
Math III -7-
Triangle
Triangle is a polygon with three sides (or three angles). Sides of triangle are signed often by small letters,
corresponding to designations of opposite vertices, signed by capital letters.
If all the three angles are acute ( Fig.20 ), then this triangle is an acute-angled triangle; if one of the angles is right
( C, Fig.21 ), then this triangle is a right-angled triangle; sides a, b, forming a right angle, are called legs; side c,
opposite to a right angle, called a hypotenuse; if one of the angles is obtuse ( B, Fig.22 ), then this triangle is an
obtuse-angled triangle.
6
Math III -8-
A triangle ABC is an isosceles triangle (Fig.23), if the two of its sides are equal (a = c); these equal sides are called
lateral sides, the third side is called a base of triangle. A triangle ABC is an equilateral triangle (Fig.24), if all of
its sides are equal
(a = b = c). In general case ( a b c ) we have a scalene triangle.
Main properties of triangles. In any triangle:
1. An angle, lying opposite the greatest side, is also the greatest angle, and inversely.
2. Angles, lying opposite the equal sides, are also equal, and inversely. In particular, all
angles in an equilateral triangle are also equal.
3. A sum of triangle angles is equal to 180 deg.
From the two last properties it follows, that each angle in an equilateral triangle
is equal to 60 deg.
4. Continuing one of the triangle sides (AC , Fig. 25), we receive an exterior angle BCD.
An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to a sum of interior angles, not supplementary
with it: BCD = A + B.
5. Any side of a triangle is less than a sum of two other sides and more than their difference
( a < b + c, a > b – c; b < a + c, b > a – c; c < a + b, c > a – b ).
Math III -9-
Theorems about congruence of triangles.
Two triangles are congruent, if they have accordingly equal:
a) two sides and an angle between them;
b) two angles and a side, adjacent to them;
c) three sides.
7
Theorems about congruence of right-angled triangles.
Two right-angled triangles are congruent, if one of the following conditions is valid:
1) their legs are equal;
2) a leg and a hypotenuse of one of triangles are equal to a leg and a hypotenuse of another;
3) a hypotenuse and an acute angle of one of triangles are equal to a hypotenuse and an acute angle of
another;
4) a leg and an adjacent acute angle of one of triangles are equal to a leg and an adjacent acute angle of
another;
5) a leg and an opposite acute angle of one of triangles are equal to a leg and an opposite acute angle of another.
Remarkable lines and points of triangle.
Altitude (height) of a triangle is a perpendicular, dropped from any vertex to an opposite side (or to its
continuation). This side is called a base of triangle in this case. Three heights of triangle always intersect in one
point, called an orthocenter of a triangle. An orthocenter of an acute-angled triangle (point O, Fig.26) is placed
inside of the triangle; and an orthocenter of an obtuse-angled triangle (point O, Fig.27) – outside of the triangle; an
orthocenter of a right-angled triangle coincides with a vertex of the right angle.
Math III - 10 -
Median is a segment, joining any vertex of triangle and a midpoint of the opposite side. Three medians of triangle (
AD, BE, CF, Fig.28 ) intersect in one point O (always lied inside of a triangle), which is a center of gravity of this
triangle. This point divides each median by ratio 2:1, considering from a vertex.
Bisector is a segment of the angle bisector, from a vertex to a point of intersection with an opposite side. Three
bisectors of a triangle (AD, BE, CF, Fig.29) intersect in the one point (always lied inside of triangle), which is a
center of an inscribed circle (see the section “Inscribed and circumscribed polygons”).
8
Math III - 11 -
A bisector divides an opposite side into two parts, proportional to the adjacent sides; for instance, on Fig.29 AE :
CE = AB : BC .
Midperpendicular is a perpendicular, drawn from a middle point of a segment (side).Three midperpendiculars of a

triangle ( ABC, Fig.30 ), each drawn through the middle of its side ( points K, M, N, Fig.30 ), intersect in one
point O, which is a center of circle, circumscribed around the triangle ( circumcircle ).
In an acute-angled triangle this point lies inside of the triangle; in an obtuse-angled triangle - outside of the
triangle; in a right-angled triangle - in the middle of the hypotenuse. An orthocenter, a center of gravity, a center of
an inscribed circle and a center of a circumcircle coincide only in an equilateral triangle.
Pythagorean theorem. In a right-angled triangle a square of the hypotenuse length is equal to a sum of squares of
legs lengths.
A proof of Pythagorean theorem is clear from Fig.31. Consider a right-angled triangle ABC with legs a, b and a
hypotenuse c.
Math III - 12 -
9
Build the square AKMB, using hypotenuse AB as its side. Then continue sides of the right-angled triangle ABC
so, to receive the square CDEF, the side length of which is equal to a + b . Now it is clear, that an area of the
square CDEF is equal to ( a + b )². On the other hand, this area is equal to a sum of areas of four right-angled
triangles and a square AKMB, that is
c² + 4 ( ab / 2 ) = c² + 2 ab ,
hence,
c² + 2 ab = ( a + b )²,
and finally, we have:
c² = a² + b².
Relation of sides’ lengths for arbitrary triangle.
In general case ( for any triangle ) we have:
Math III - 13 -
c² = a² + b² – 2ab · cos C,
where C – an angle between sides a and b .
Parallelogram and trapezoid

Parallelogram ( ABCD, Fig.32 ) is a quadrangle, opposite sides of which are two-by-two parallel.
10
Any two opposite sides of a parallelogram are called bases, a distance between them is called a height ( BE,
Fig.32 ).
Properties of a parallelogram.
1. Opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal ( AB = CD, AD = BC ).
2. Opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal ( A= C, B= D ).
3. Diagonals of a parallelogram are divided in their intersection point into two ( AO = OC,
BO = OD ).
4. A sum of squares of diagonals is equal to a sum of squares of four sides: AC² + BD² = AB² +
BC² + CD² + AD² .
Signs of a parallelogram.
Math III - 14 -
A quadrangle is a parallelogram, if one of the following conditions takes place:
1. Opposite sides are equal two-by-two ( AB = CD, AD = BC ).
2. Opposite angles are equal two-by-two ( A= C, B= D ).
3. Two opposite sides are equal and parallel ( AB = CD, AB || CD ).
4. Diagonals are divided in their intersection point into two ( AO = OC, BO = OD ).
Rectangle.
If one of angles of parallelogram is right, then all angles are right (why ?). This parallelogram is called a rectangle
( Fig.33 ).
Main properties of a rectangle.

11
Sides of rectangle are its heights simultaneously.
Diagonals of a rectangle are equal: AC = BD.
A square of a diagonal length is equal to a sum of squares of its sides’ lengths ( see above Pythagorean theorem
):
AC² = AD² + DC².
Rhombus. If all sides of parallelogram are equal, then this parallelogram is called a rhombus ( Fig.34 ) .
Math III - 15 -
BCA,
Diagonals of a rhombus are mutually perpendicular ( AC BD ) and divide its angles into two ( DCA =
CBD etc. ).
ABD =
Square is a parallelogram with right angles and equal sides ( Fig.35 ). A square is a particular case of a rectangle
and a rhombus simultaneously; so, it has all their above mentioned properties.
Trapezoid is a quadrangle, two opposite sides of which are parallel (Fig.36).
12
Here AD || BC. Parallel sides are called bases of a trapezoid, the two others ( AB and CD ) – lateral sides. A
distance between bases (BM) is a height. The segment EF, joining midpoints E and F of the lateral sides, is called a
midline of a trapezoid.
A midline of a trapezoid is equal to a half-sum of bases:
Math III - 16 -
and parallel to them: EF || AD and EF || BC.

A trapezoid with equal lateral sides ( AB = CD ) is called an isoscelestrapezoid. In an isosceles trapezoid angles by
each base, are equal ( A= D, B= C ). A parallelogram can be considered as a particular
case of trapezoid.
Midline of a triangle is a segment, joining midpoints of lateral sides of a triangle. A midline of a triangle is equal
to half of its base and parallel to it.This property follows from the previous part, as triangle can be considered as a
limit case (“degeneration”) of a trapezoid, when one of its bases transforms to a point.
Volumes and areas of body surfaces

Designations: V – a volume; S – a base area; Slat – a lateral surface area; P – a full surface area; h – a height;
a, b, c – dimensions of a right angled parallelepiped; A – an apothem of a regular pyramid and a regular
truncated pyramid; L – a generatrix of a cone; p – a perimeter or a circumference of a base; r – a radius of a
base; d – a diameter of a base; R – a radius of a ball; D – a diameter of a ball; indices 1 and 2 are related to
radii, diameters, perimeters and areas of upper and lower bases of truncated prism and pyramid.
A prism ( right and oblique ) and a parallelepiped:
V = Sh .
A right prism:
Slat = ph .
A right angled parallelepiped:
V = abc ; P = 2 ( ab + bc + ab ) .
A cube:
Math III - 17 -
V=a³ ; P=6a² .
A pyramid ( regular and irregular ) :
13
A regular pyramid:
A truncated pyramid ( regular and irregular ) :
A regular truncated pyramid:
A circular cylinder ( right and oblique ):
Math III - 18 -
A round cylinder :
A circular cone ( round and oblique):
A round cone:
14
A truncated circular cone ( round and oblique ):
A truncated round cone:
Math III - 19 -
A sphere ( ball ):
A hemisphere:
A spherical segment:
15
A spherical layer:
Math III - 20 -
A spherical sector:
here h – a height of a segment, contained in the sector.
A hollow ball:
here R1 , R2 , D1 , D2 – radii and diameters of external and internal spherical surfaces correspondingly.
Circle
A circle ( Fig.1 ) is a locus of points, equidistant from the given point О, called a center of circle, at
the distance R. A number R > 0 is called a radius of circle.
Math III - 21 -
16
An equation of circle of radius R with a center in a point О ( х0 , у 0 ) is:
( х – х0 ) 2 + ( у – у 0 ) 2 = R 2 .
If a center of the circle coincides with the origin of coordinates, then an equation of circle becomes: х 2
+ у 2 = R2 .
Let Р ( х1 , у 1 ) be a point of the circle ( Fig.1 ), then an equation of tangent line to circle in the given point is:
( х1 – х0 ) ( х – х0 ) + ( у1 – у 0 ) ( у – у 0 ) = R 2 .
A tangency condition of a straight line y = m x + k and a circle х 2 + у 2 = R 2 :

k2 / ( 1 + m 2) = R2 .
Math III - 22 -
17
STATISTICS AND ADVANCE
ALGEBRA POINTERS
The Mean
Among the measures of central tendency, the mean is considered the most popular and most widely used.
It is in fact the measure which many people have in mind whenever they talk about averages. It is generally
described the center of gravity of a distribution and is,by and large, the most convenient. There are however some
limitations on the use of mean as a representative value for a set of measurements.
The Mean of Ungrouped Data

The mean for ungrouped data is computed by simply adding all the values and divided the sum by the number of
values. For the sample mean, the formula is ∑X

χ=
n
And for the population mean, it is
∑X
µ=
N
Example:
The following are the family sizes of a sample of 10 households in a slum area:
2 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 7 7
Find the average family size for these data.
Solution
∑=2+2+3+3+3+4+4+5+7+7
n = 10
∑X 40
X
Math IV -1-
Computation of the mean or data where most of the scores occur more than once is facilitated by irst multiplying
each value by the number of times it appears in the data (frequency) adding the products obtained, and then
dividing by n.Examine the following computational procedure for the mean of the preceding example.
1
X f fX
2 2 4
X 3 3 9 ==4
4 2 8
5 1 5
7 2 14
n = 10 Total = 40
If we donate the sum of the values of fX by ∑ fX , then we have the formula

∑X
χ= n
which yields a value appropriately called the weighted mean. Hence the frequencies serve as weights for the
corresponding scores
The Median
The Median is defined as the score point which divides a ranked distribution into two equal parts; it is the value
below which lies 50% of the data. Unlike the mean, the median is not sensitive to extreme scores; hence, it is very
appropriate when there are values which are relatively large or relatively small compared to most of the scores and
in the case of grouped frequency distributions, when open-ended intervals are involved.
The Median of Ungrouped Data

The position of the median of a sample relative to the lowest is generally computed by the formula
+
mdn = n 1 th score from the lowest.
2
Similarly or population data,
Math IV -2-
+
Mdn= N 1 th score from the lowest.
2
Example
Find the median of the following sample data:
6, 8, 15, 18, 23, 24, 42
Solution
n = 7
2
+
mdn= n 1 th score
2
= 4th score
= 18
Find the Median of the following population data:
121, 108, 120, 98, 132, 100, 92, 140, 102, 98
Solution
Arranging the values in ascending order, we obtain
92 98 98 100 102 108 120 121 132 140
Since N= 10
N+1
Mdn= th score
2
= 5.5th score
The median for this set of values is the number halfway between the fifth and the sixth scores. Referring to the
array, we found that X5 = 103 and X6 = 108. Therefore
102+108
Mdn= =105
 2 
The Mode
The value which we observe to have the highest frequency and which, in certain cases, we use as a measure of
central tendency, is known as the mode. While it is possible for a set of values to have no mode because each score
appears only once, it is also possible for other sets o values to have more than one mode. Those with two modes
are described as bimodal, while those with many modes are called multimodal. Like the median, the
Math IV -3-
mode is not influenced by extreme scores; but unlike the median, it does not indicate anything about the other
values in the data like how many are greater and many are less than the most frequently occurring value. Hence,
the mode is rarely used.
Example:
Find the mode of the following values;
4, 5, 8, 8, 9, 12, 20
Solution.
The value 8 occurs frequently than any other value; hence, mo = 8.
3
The Quartiles
The quartiles are the score points which divide a distribution into four equal parts. Twenty – five percent
below the first quartile (Q1), 50% are below the second Quartile (Q2), and 75% are less than the thirds quartile
(Q3). Note that by definition, the second quartile is equal to the median. Basically, all measures of position related
to the median are computed using the same sequence steps. We recall that in determining the median class, we
have to multiply n by ½ since 50% are below the median. Logically for first quartile, we multiply n by 1/4 , and
for the third quartile, we multiply by 3/4 .
n 
 −cfp  Q1
4
= XLB + i,
 fq 
 
where
XLB = lower boundary of the class interval which contains Q1 (first quartile class)
cfp = cumulative frequency for the class interval preceding the first quartile class fq =
frequency in the first quartile class i = interval size
 3n 
 −cf  p
4
Q3 = XLB +i,
 fq 
 
where XLB, cfp, fq are defined by replacing “first quartile class” by “third quartile class” in the above definitions.
Math IV -4-
Example:
Find the first and third quartiles of the distribution in table 3.1.
The third quartile class is 40-44

X f cf
20-24 2 2
25-29 6 8
30-34 9 17
35-39 10 27
40-44 12 39
45-49 7 46
50-54 4 50
Solution i=5 n=59

n 
n = (50) =12.5
The first quartile class is 30-34
4

29.5 +12
−
c .5 −85
f  9 
p
Q1 = 29.5 + 2.5

4
Q1 = XLB + i, Q1 = 32.00
 fq 
  n = (50) =
  37.5
Q
1
= Math IV -5-
3 
 n −cfp 
4
Q3 = XLB + i,
 fq 
 
37.5 − 27
Q3 = 39.5+
5
 12

Q3 = 39.5+ 4.38
Q3 = 43.88
The deciles
Nine score points are required to divide a distribution into ten equal parts. They are called deciles and are denoted
by D1, D2, D3,......D9. As stressed in the preceding discussion, they are computed in much the same way as how the
median and the quartiles calculated. The formulas are as follows:
Math IV - 6 - 1   n −cfp 
5
D1 = XLB +10 i
 fd 
 
 
1 
 n −cfp 
D2 = XLB + 5 i
 fd 
 
 
3 
 n −cfp 
D3 = XLB +10 i
 fd 
 
 
9 
 n −cfp 
D9 = XLB +10 i
 fd 
 
 
The Percentiles
The percentiles are the ninety-nine score points which divide a distribution into one hundred equal parts. They are
generally used to characterize values according to percentage below them. For example, the first percentile (P1)
separates the lowest 1% from the other 99%, the second percentile (P2) separates the lowest 2% from the other
98% and so on. Fifteen percent are less than the fifteenth percentile and 20% are below the 20th percentile; the
middle 80% is determined by the tenth and ninetieth percentiles.
If k% are less than a given percentile, then
 kn 
 −cfp 
100 
Pk = XLB +
fp
where
XLB = lower boundary of the kth percentile class
6
Cfp = cumulative frequency for the class interval preceding percentile class
Fp = frequency in the kth percentile class
Math IV -7-
Thus, the sixty-fifth percentile is computed by the formula
 65n 
 −cfp 
100 
P65 = XLB +
fp
Percentile Ranks
Since the various measures of location differ in the terms of percentages of cases below them, it might be
interesting to find out how these percentages, called percentile ranks (PR), are computed when percentiles are
given. The following can be observed.
1. Percentiles are score-points whereas percentile ranks are percentages. In the statement “40% are less than
90”, 90 is the percentile and 40 is the percentile rank. Hence, 90 is the value at the 40th percentile.
Similarly, in the statement “70% are greater than 110,” the percentile us 110 and the percentile rank is 30;
110 is at the 30th percentile
2. The percentile ranks of Q1, Q2, and Q3 are 25, 50, and 75 respectively.
3. The percentile ranks of D1, D2, D3,…., D9 are 10, 20, 30,…, 90 respectively.
4. The precntile rankof Pk is k.
Now, if we replace k in the formula by PR, we have
 PR(n) 
 −cfp 
PPR = XLB + 100 i  fp

 
If the percentile P is given, we determine the required lower boundary XLB by first looking for the class
interval which contains P. The frequency in this class interval is substituted for fp and the cumulative
frequency in the preceding class is used for cfp.
Sequences
A sequence function is any function which has the set of consecutive integers, usually the set of positive
consecutive integers beginning with 1, as its domain. When writing a sequence, it is customary to use letter n,
instead of x, as the independent variable and a, instead of f , as the name of the function. It is also
7
customary to write an (read “a sub n” instead of a(n). For example, an= 2n-1 for positive integers n, defines a
Math IV -8-
sequence function which contains the ordered pairs (1,1), (2,3), (3,5), (4,7), and so on. The range of such a
function, when written in the order a1, a2, a3, a4 and so on, is called infinite sequence. Thus the example above is
the infinite sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, ….
A function whose domain is a finite set of positive integers is called a finite sequence. For example,
An=5n where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
names a finite sequence 5, 10, 15, 20, 25.
The numbers in a sequence, either finite or infinite, are called the terms of the sequence. Thus, in a the sequence 1,
3, 5, 7, … 1 is the first term; 3 is the second term; 5 is the third term; 7, the fourth; and so on. The nth term of the
sequence is generally called the general term of the sequence. In the sequence above, the general term is an=2n-1.
Example:
Write the first five terms of the infinite sequence
an= n2 (2n – 1), n= 1, 2, 3
Solution:
a1 = 12 [2(1) – 1] = 1(1) = 1
a2 = 22 [2(2) – 1] = 4(3) = 12
a3 = 32 [2(3) – 1] = 9(5) = 45 a4
= 42 [2(4) – 1] = 16(7)=112
a5 = 52 [2(5) – 1] = 25(9) = 225
An infinite sequence is a function whose domain is the entire set of positive integers {1, 2, 3, ….}. A finite
sequence is a function whose domain is the positive integers from 1 to some fixed integer k, inclusive.
Example:
Find the 30th term of the arithmetic sequence with a1 = 3, and d = 2 in the formula for the nth term above, we have
Solution:
A30 = 3 + (30 -1) (2) = 3 + 29(2) = 3 + 58 = 61 Answer
: The 30th term is 61.
In the first three terms of an arithmetic sequence are 3, 7, and 11, what is the 10th term?
Solution:
d = 7-3 = 4 or d = 11-7 = 4
Substitute d = 4, a1 = 3, and n = 10 in an = a1 + ( n-1) d. a10

= 3 + (10-1)(4) = 3 + 36 = 39
Math IV -9-
Answer : The 10th term is 39
Example
If a1 = -2, a12 = 42, and n= 12, find the common difference d and sum of the first twelve terms S12.
Solution:
To find d substitute a1, a12, and n in the formula for a12
8
42 = -2 +11d d =
4
To find S12, substitute a1, an, and n in the formula S12.
S12 = (−2 + 42) = 6(40) = 240

Answer: The common difference is 4 and the sum of the first twelve terms is 240.
Sum of the First n Terms of an Arithmetic Sequence

The sum Sn of the first n terms of
an arithmetic sequence is n n
a
Sn = ( 1 + an) or Sn = [2a1 + (n −1)d]
2 2
where
a1 = first term of the sequence
an = nth term of the sequence
d = common difference
the nth Term of a Geometric Sequence

If a1 is the first term of a geometric sequence and r is the common ratio, then the nth term an is an = a1rn-1
Find the 8th term of the geometric sequence 64, -32, 16, -8 . . .
Solution:
Using any two consecutive terms, find the common ratio r.
Thus, 16 + (-32) = -1/2.
7
1
a8 = 64
− 
 2
 1 1
= − =−
 128 2
Math IV - 10 -
Answer: The 8th term is −
Find the common ratio r of a geometric sequence whose first term is 2 and whose fourth term is .
Solution:
9
Substitute a1 = 2, a4 = ¼ , and n = 4 in an = a1rn-1, we have
= 2r3
= r3
r=
Answer: The common ratio is
Sum of the First n Terms of A Geometric Sequence

If a1 is the first term, an is the last term, and r is the common ratio of geometric sequence , then the sum
Sn of the first n terms of the sequence is given by
a1(1− rn) a1 −ran

S S
n = or n = , where r ≠1
1− r 1−r
The Fundamental Principle of counting

For a group of k things, of the first can be done independently in n1 different ways, the second can be
done independently in n2 different ways, “the third can be done independently in n3 different ways, and so on, until
the kth thing, then the total number of ways in which the k things can be done in the stated order is
n1* n2 * n3 * * * *n k
Example:
In how many ways can three coins fall? Two dice?
Solution A coin can fall in two ways; therefore three coins can fall in (2)(2)(2) or 8 ways.
They are:
Math IV - 11 -
HHH TTH
HHT THT
HTH HTT
THH TTT
Similarly, a die can fall in six ways; therefore two dice can fall in (6)*6) or 36 ways (see illustration below)
I / II 1 2 3 4 5 6
10
1 (1,1) (1,2) (1,4) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)
2 (2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6)
3 (3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6)
4 (4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (4,4) (4,5) (4,6)
5 (5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)
6 (6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)
Example
Given the digits 0, 2, 5, 6, 9
a. How many 3-digit numbers can be formed from these digits if no two digits are to be the same?
b. Of the numbers formed in (a) how many are even? How many are odd? How many are greater tan 600?
c. How many numbers can be formed if a digit may be repeated?
Solution.
a. There are four choices for the hundreds digit (excluding zero), four choices for the tens digit (including
zero), and only three choices for the units digit. By the Fundamental Principle of Counting, the total
number of three-digit numbers under the given condition is
(4)(4)(3) = 48
b. In this situation, a number is even if it ends in 0, 2, 6. The number of three digit numbers ending in either
2 or 6 is
(3)(3)(2) = 18
and the number of three-digit numbers ending in 0 is
(4)(3)(1) = 12
hence, there are 18 + 12 = 30 even numbers
Math IV - 12 -
(1) A number us odd if it ends in 5 or 9. There are (3)(3)(2) = 18 such numbers

(2) A number is greater than 600 if the hundreds digits is 6 or 9. Thus, (2)(4)(3) = 24 of the numbers are
greater than 600.
c. If repetition of digits is allowed, there would be (4)(5)(5) = 100 three digit numbers.
Permutations
A permutation is an arrangement of n different objects. The words rat, tar, art are three different
permutation for the letters a, r , t. The three permutations for these letters are rta, tra, and atr. There are two
different permutations for two different objects. In general, the number of permutations for the n different objects,
denoted by nPn is
n(n-1)(n-2)…(3)(2)(1) or n! ( read “n factorial”)
The symbol n! is used to designate the product of all the integers from 1 to n. Thus 1! = 1, 2! =
(2)(1),3! = (3)(2)(1) = 6, 4! = (4)(3)(2)(1) = 24, etc. By definition, 0! = 1. The number of permutations of n
objects taken r(r < n) at a time is denoted by nPr and is computed by the formula nPr = n(n-1)
(n-2) … (n-r+1)
Example:
In how many ways can 4 boys and 3 girls be seated in a row of 5 chairs? Solution
11
7P 5 = = (7) (6) (5) (4) (3) = 2, 520
Example:
In how many ways can three of ten students participating in an interschool contest ranked first, second and
third? !
10P3 = = (10) (9) (8) = 720
Example:
How many distinct permutation can be formed from the letters of the word STATISTICS?
Solution
The letters S and T, each appears 3 times, I appears twice, A once and C once. The number of permutations is
P= = 50,400
Math IV - 13 -
Permutations obtained by arranging objects are called circular permutations. While there are twenty-four linear
permutations for four objects, there are only six distinct circular permutations, each of which is identical to three
others. We determine the number of circular permutations by considering one object in a fixed position and
calculating for the number of arrangements possible for the remaining three. The number if circular permutations
of n different objects is (n-1!)
Example:
In how many ways can 8 people be seated at a round table?
Solution
P = (8-1)! = 7! = 5,040
Combinations
Suppose we have four objects denoted by A, B. , D. We know from the preceding section that there are
twenty-four different permutations of four objects taken three at a time. Thus, if three of the four are chosen in
succession, there would be twenty four different sections as shown below.
ABC ABD ACD BCD
ACB ADB ADC BDC
BAC BAD CAD CBD
BCA BDA CDA CDB
CAB ABD DAC DBC
CBA DBA DCA DCB
Without regard to the order, however, there are only four ways in which the three can be chosen from the four.
These selections are call combinations. The number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time is denoted by
nCr. In the present example, we find that for each combination, there are 3!, or 6, different permutations. Hence,
the total number of permutations can be written as
4P 3 = 4C3 * 3!
12
In general, if there are n different objects and we take r at a time, nPr
= nCr * r!
Dividing both sides of this equation by r!, we obtain
nPr
nCr =
r!
Therefore, the number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time is
Math IV - 14 -
n!
C=
n r
(n−1)!r!
Example:
In how many ways can a committee of 4 be chosen from a group of 8 people?
Solution:
8 C4 == 70
!
Example:
In how many ways can we select 2 spades and 3 diamonds from a deck of 52 cards?
Solution:
13 C2 == 78
!
and the number of ways in which we can select 3 from the 13 diamonds is
13 C3 == 286
!
By the Fundamental Principle of Counting, the total number of selections is

13C2 * 13C3 = (78) (286) = 22, 308
Probability
13
Types of Probability
There are three different conceptual approaches to the study of probability theory. They are
a. The subjective or personalistic approach
b. the relative frequency or empirical approach
c. the classical or a priori approach
Subjective probability is a personal assessment of the likelihood of occurrence of an event, based on all
evidence available. It is appropriate when the person making the judgment finds that there us only one
Math IV - 15 -
opportunity for the event to occur and it will either occur or not occur at that particular instant. A doctor, for example,
may use subjective probabilities to assess the chances that a certain patient afflicted with a rare disease will survive
an operation, Likewise, an economist may use subjective probabilities to evaluate the likelihood that there wil be a
recession in the next five years. Without the use of any sophisticated detecting device and relying on past
experiences, an expectant mother could only assign a subjective probability value for the sex of her unborn child.
You were probably using subjective probabilities when you made statements like “The chances are 60-40 that..”
Indeed, the subjective approach is called for when one has very little or no direct evidence regarding the occurrence
of an event and he has no choice but to use intuition and certain subjective factors.
Empirical probability is defined as the proportion of times that a particular outcome occurs in a very large
number if observations or experiments. It is the relative frequency of an event in past occurrences. If we get the IQ
scores of a random sample of 1000 students in our school and find that for ery 100 students, one has an IQ score of
150, using the empirical approach to probability theory, we would be justified in saying that the probability that a
randomly chosen student of our school has an IQ score of 150 is or 0.01. If for every ten
people who enter a department store on a pay-day, three make at least one purchase, the same approach to
probability permits us to assert that the probability that a person entering this department store on a pay-day will
make at least one purchase is or 0.3.

We define classical probability as
follows: If an xpriment can result
in N equally likely outcomes and n
an event E can result in n outcomes, then the probability that E will occur is . More formally,
N
n(E)
P(E) = ,
N
where n(E) = number of sample points on E
N = total number of sample points in the sample space.
Example:
Two candidates, A and B are running for public office. If the probability the A will win the lection is 0.35, what is
the probability that B will win?
Solution:
The probability that B will win is equal to the probability that A will lose.
14
P(B) =P(A') = 1−P(A) = 1− 0.35 = 0.65
Example:
Math IV - 16 -
Find the probability of getting an even number form a single toss of a die.
Solution:
Sample Space = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, N = 6
Event = {2, 4, 6}, n(E) = 3
P (even number) = 3/6 or ½
Example:
If a pair of dice is tossed, find the probability of obtaining a sum of 7.
Solution:
By the Fundamental Principle of Counting, we know that a pair of dice can result in 6 x 6 or 36 ways (N= 36)
Th event corresaponds to six sample points, namely: (1,6), (6,1), (2,5), (5,2), ( 3,4), (4,3). Hence, P
(sum of 7) = 6/36 or 1/6
Example:
A box contains 5 red, 4 blue, and 3 white balls. If a ball is chosen at random, what is the probability that a. It
is nor red?
b. It is not white?
Solution:
The box has twelve balls (N =12).
a. P (not red) = 1- P(red) = 1-5/12 = 7/12
b. P(not white) = 1 – P(white) = 1 - 3/12 = 9/12 or ¾
Mutually exclusive and Nonmutually Exclusive Events
Two events are said to be mutually exclusive if there is no opportunity for them to occur simultaneously if they have
no common sample point. “Drawing an ace” and “drawing a king” from a deck of cards are mutually exclusive
because it is not possible to obtain an ace which is a king at the same time. Essentially, two or more events are
mutually exclusive if their joint probability is zero.
Events that can happen at the same time are nonmutually exclusive events. In particular, they are events
which have some sample points in common. The events “drawing an ace” and “drawing a spade,” for example, have
one sample point in common since one of the four aces is a spade. Hence, these two events are non-mutually
exclusive.
The Addition Rule
Math IV - 17 -
15
Oftentimes, we get interested in the probability of one event or another (or both) occurring in a single
experiment. For example, what is the probability of drawing an ace or a king from an ordinary deck? What is the
probability of an ace or a spade? If we select a ball at random from a box containing 5 red, 4 blue and 3 white balls,
what is the probability that it is either red or blue?
We shall use the symbol “P(A or B)” to denote the probability of occurrence of events A or B. Some books, however
emphasize the operations use in computing for this probability by using either P (A U B) or P(A + B). For the first
“card problem” in the preceding paragraph, we observe that there are eight ways in which we can draw either an ace
or a king; therefore, P (ace or a king) is equal to which is also the sum of

the probability of an ace plus the probability of a king. In the case of the “ball problem” we find that since there are
three colors selecting a red or a blue ball is equivalent to selecting one which is not white, therefore they have the
same probability value.
P (not white) = P (red or blue) =
Now, since P (red) = and P (blue) = , we have

P (red or blue) = P (red) + P (blue)
It seems reasonable to say that the probability of A or B is equal to the probability of A plus the probability of B.
But before we make any generalization, let us consider the situation involving ‘ace or spade.’ We noted earlier that
these two events are not mutually exclusive because they can occur together. One of the four aces is actually among
the thirteen spades. We realize that if we merely add P(ace) and P ( spade), we would be adding in the probability
of the ace of spades twice. In order to correct the probability value resulting
from this double counting, we must subtract the joint probability of the two events. Thus we have
P (ace or spade) = P(ace) + P(spade) - P(ace and spade)
=
We now make the following addition rule:
P (A or B) = P (A) + P(B) – P (A and B) for any events A and B.
Math IV - 18 -
If A and B are mutually exclusive events, P(A and B) is equal to zero. Therefore the above formula is reduced to
P (A or B) = P (A) + P(B)
Also, if A1 A2 A3…… Ak) = P(A1) + P(A2) + P(A3) +….+ P(Ak)
Example:
If a card is drawn from an ordinary deck, find the probability of each of the following
a. spade or face card
b. face card or red card
16
Solution:
a. P(SorF) = P(S) + P(F) − P(SandF)
b. P(F or R) = P(F)+ P(R) - P(F and R)
Example:
An AB freshman student estimates that the probability that he will pass history 1 is 0.62; the probability that he
will pass sociology 1 is 0.50; and the probability that he will pass both subject is 0.40. What is the probability that
he will pass at least one of these two subjects?
Solution:
P (at least one) = P(H or S)
= P(H) + P(S) – P(H and S)
=.62 + .50 + .40
=.72
Math IV - 19 -
Conditional Probability
Let us consider once again the “tossing a die” experiment. We let E to denote the event of getting an
even number and G the event of getting a number greater than 3. By virtue of the formula, we have
P(E) = and P(G) =
Suppose that after tossing the die, we are told that G has occurred. What is the proability of E? The
information we have on the outcome of the experiment essentially reduces the number of possibilities. Whereas
before, we had six (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6) , now we have only three (4, 5, and 6). Since two of this corresponds to the
occurrence of E, we say that the probability of an even number, given a number greater than 3 is .
P (E/G) =
17
The probability that an event B occurs when it is known that some event A has occurred is called a
conditional probability. This is denoted by P( B/A) which is read “ the probability of B given A.” The probability of
A, given B is written as P ( A/B).
From the above example, it can be shown that for any
events A and B, n(AandB)
P(B/ A) = ,
n(A)
where n(A and B) = number of sample points common to A and B (or number of ways in which A
and B can occur together)
n(A) = number of sample points in A.
Note that while P(A or B) = P(B or A) and P (A and B) = P (B and A), P (A/B) ≠ P(B/A)
Example
Determine the probability that the person chosen to head the committee is an educator given that he or she is a
business executive.
n(EandB) 12 6
P(B/ A) = = or
n(B) 26 13
Dividing the numerator and the denominator of the right-hand side of formula ny N, we obtain
Math IV - 20 -
n(AandB)
N
P(B/ A) = n( A)
N
n(AandB) Since
P (A and B) = P(A)
Dependent and Independent Events

Two events are said to be independent if the occurrence or non-occurrence of one is no effect on the probability of
occurrence of the other. When occurrence or non-occurrence of one event does affect the probability of occurrence
of the other, the two are said to be dependent on each other. The outcomes associated with tossing a coin and
tossing a die are considered independent events because the outcome on the coin does not in any way affect the
probability of a number occurring on the die, and the number obtained fro the die does not affect the probability of
getting either a head or a tail from the coin. Thus, P(H) equals ½, no matter what the outcome on the die is. Also, P
(1) = 1/6, regardless whether a head or a tail came up from the coin. This illustration clearly implies that if
events A and B are independent,
P (A/B) = P(A)
And P (B/A) = P(B)
18
The Multiplication Rule
The multiplication rule, which c an be derived by the multiplying both of formula by P(A), is employed to evaluate
the probability of the simultaneous occurrence of events A and B ( also known as the joint probability of A and B).
For dependent events, the rule of multiplication is
P(A and B) = P(A).P(B/A).
When A and B are independent events, P (B?A) = P(B); hence for independent events
P (A and B) = P(A) . P(B)
In general if A1 A2 A3…… Ak) are independent events the probability that they will occur together is
P (A1 A2 A3…… Ak) = P(A1) .P(A2) .(A3) …. P(Ak)
Example
The probability that the raw materials needed by a furniture company will arrive on time is 0.6. If the raw materials
arrived on time, the probability that the company will finish the orders on time is 0.8. What is the probability that
the raw material arrived on time and the orders re finish on time?
Let A = event that raw materials arrive on time
C= event that the orders are finished on time
P(A) = 0.6
Math IV - 21 -
P(C/A)*=0.8
P(A and C) = P(A) . P(C/A)
= (.6) (.8)
= .48
Functions
Function is said to be the central idea in the study of mathematics. In every situation, there is always a
mathematical function in which one quantity corresponds to another quantity according to some definite rule.
Physical situations and number patterns can be represented by tables, graphs, verbal rules and equations where
their interrelationships can be explored.
Function Notation
To denote a functional relationship between two variables x and y, we use the equation y=f(x)
which is verbally translated as “y equals f of x” or “y is a function of x.” When we say that y is a function of x, we
mean that the value of the variable y depends upon and is uniquely determined by the variable x; more simply x is
the function or rule which allows one to determine the unique value of y, given a value of x. Thus, we say that the
variable x is called the independent variable.
Most often, the rule or correspondence is given as an equation in two variables x and y. It is helpful at this point to
think of the x-values as inputs and the corresponding y-values as outputs. The function or rule then gives the resulting
output from the given input from a given output. For example, the circumference C of a circle depends on the
diameter d according to the rule or function C = πD. For every value of D, a corresponding value for C is obtained
by the rule: multiply the value of D by π. In this case, the input is the value of D and the output is the corresponding
value of C. In function notation, we say f (x) = πx, or more specifically f(D) = πD.
Example:
1
Given the equation f(x) = 2x + 3 or y = 2x + 3 where < x < 5, find the f   and f(2).
 2
19
Solution:
The equation y = 2x + 3 means that x is multiplied by 2 and the result is added to 3 to obtain y.
The value of the function
At x = is y = 2 · + 3 = 4
At x = 2 is y = 2 · 2 + 3 = 7
Math IV - 22 -
Example:
Find f(x) = x2 – 2x + 1 at f(-2); f(3); f(a)
Solution:
F(-2) = (-2)2 – 2(-2) + 1
= 4 + 4+ 1
=9
f (3) = (3)2 – 2(3) + 1
f(0) = (0)2 – 2(0) + 1
=0–0+1
=1
f(a) = (a)2 – 2(a) + 1
= a2 – 2a + 1
Operations on Functions
The definitions for operations on functions are as follows.
If f and h are functions
a. their sum f +h is defined as

(f + h)x = f(x) + h (x)
The domain of (f + h) consists of the number x that are in the domain of f and in the domain of h.
b. their difference (f – h) is defined as

(f – h)x = f(x) - h (x)
The domain of (f –h) consists of the number x that are in the domain of f and in the domain of h.
c. their product f · h is defined as

(f · h)x = f(x) · h(x)
The domain of (f · h) consists of the number x that are in the domain of f and in the domain of h. f
d. their quotient is defined as
h
f f (x)
20
 x = ,h(x) ≠ 0
h h(x)
Math IV - 23 -
f
The domain of consists of then number x for which h(x) ≠0 that are in the
domain of f and in the h
domain of h.
Example:
Let f(x) = x+1 and h(x) = 2x2, find the following and determine the domain in each case.
1. (f+h)x 3. (f·h)x

4.  f
2. (f-h)x x
Solutions: h
1. (f + h) = f(x) + h(x) = (x+1) + 2x2
= 2x2 + x + 1
2. (f – h)x = f(x) – h(x) = (x + 1) – 2x2
= -2x2 + x+ 1 or 2x2 – x – 1
3. (f · h)x = f(x) ·h(x) = (x + 1) (2x2)
= 2x2 + 2x2
 f  f (x) 4.  x +1
x=  h  h(x) =
2x2
Since the operations can be performed on any real number, the domain of f is all real numbers. For he
f
quotient function  , we must exclude the number 0, because the denominator h has the value 0 when x
h
f = 0. (Division by 0 is not
allowed). Thus the domain of consists of all x for which x ≠ 0.
h
21
SCIENCE PROFICIENCY
(General Science)
Directions: For each statement or question, choose the letter of the word or
expression that, of those given, best completes or answers the question. Then on your
answer sheet, blacken the circle that corresponds to your final answer.
BEGIN HERE:
1. For work to be done, what are the factors that must be present?
a. force and acceleration c. force and distance
b. weight and distance d. weight and force
2. Salt water has a density greater than that of pure water. What does this mean?
a. Salt water is heavier than water
b. Salt water is lighter than water
c. Salt water is as heavy as water
d. Saltwater has more volume than water
For nos. 3-4 Refer to the following figure
3. At which point will the kinetic energy of the ball the greatest?
a. A b. B c. C. d. D
4. At which point will the potential energy of the ball be the greatest?
a. A b. B. c. C d. D
5. What type of heat transfer is responsible for the formation of sea breeze and land
breeze?
a. conduction c. convection
b. condensation d. radiation
6. What is the volume of an object when after dropping, 17.8 mL water in a graduated
cylinder rises to 23.6 mL?
a. 5.8 mL c. 17.8 mL
b. 14.2 m L d. 23.6 mL
7. What is the weight of an object due to gravity whose mass is 17.6 g?

a. 0.176 N c. 17.6 N
b. 1. 76 N d. 176 N
8. A monkey weighing 500 newtons climbs a tree 10 meters high. How much work does
the monkey do?
a. 100 joules c. 1000 joules
b. 500 joules d. 5000 joules
1
9. Which layer of the atmosphere returns radio and TV broadcasts back to earth?
a. ionosphere c. mesosphere
b. exosphere d. stratosphere
10. What type of clouds will be seen during a stormy day?

a. cirrus c. nimbus
b. cumulus d. stratus
11. Which of the statements below does not explain the movements of the earth’s crust?
a. Earthquakes that originate beneath the sea can produce tsunamis.
b. The mantle beneath the earth’s crust is made of plastic materials that have
convection currents.
c. The earth’s crust has cracked into huge plates which move slowly due t
convection currents in the mantle.
d. Many years of stress on the rock may fracture the crust causing one portion to
slide upward or downward with respect to the other.
12. Erosion and deposition are responsible for the formation of the following landforms
except
a. flood plain c. mountain
b. delta d. lagoon
13. What is 30 oC in oF?

a. 30 oF c. 86 oF
Science I
b. 58 oF d. 102 oF
14. Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas?

a. CFC’s c. Nitrous Oxide
b. Methane d. Carbon Dioxide
15. What is the equivalent value of the absolute zero temperature on the Celsius, and
Kelvin Scale?
a. 0 oCelsius, and -600o Kelvin
b. 0 oCelsius, and 273 K
c. 273o Celsius, and 0 Kelvin
d. -273o Celsius, and 0 Kelvin
For nos. 16 and 17, refer to the table below.

Food use Temperature Room Exposure Amount of Result
lighting moisture
Home made 37oC Dimly lighted Air High Plenty of
pandesal molds
Home made 37oC Dimly lighted Air Low Tiny spots of
pandesal molds
16. What is the dependent variable in the setup?

a. type of bread c. amount of moisture
b. temperature d. exposure time
17. What conclusion can be deducted from the experiment?
2
a. Molds like breads.
b. Molds grow anywhere.
c. Molds grow best in moist places.
d. Molds are growing relative to temperature.
18. Gon wants to know which is stronger, Bisuke’s punch or Killua’s. Using the scientific
method, how should Gon setup his controlled experiment?
a. Let Bisuke and Killua fight till one of them wins.
b. Let Bisuke and Killua punch him then compare which is more painful
c. Let Bisuke and Killua punch the same object a number of times then compare
the damage done
d. All of the above.
Science I
19. The moon is said to light up the night skies. What gives the moon this ability to shine?
a. The sun’s reflection off the moon.
b. Radiation produced by the moon’s atmosphere.
c. Radiation from the Sun that is absorbed by the moon.
d. The luminous substance found on the moon’s surface.
20. What is not true about moon and tides?

a. When the moon is close to earth, the lesser the effect of gravity
b. When the moon and earth are in line, the highest tides occur on earth
c. When earth and moon are at right angles, the lowest tides occur on earth
d. There are two high tides at opposite sides of the earth and two low tides at the
other
21. What do you call the earth’s hard outer shell?

a. Crust c. inner core
b. outer core d. mantle
22. Mt. Mayon which is built from alternate layers of lava and ash with many little craters
on its slope is what kind of volcano?
a. Shield c. composite
b. cinder d. caldera
23. 150 mg is equal to __________.

a. 0.015 g c. 1.50 g
b. 0.150g d. 15.0g
24. Which star is the hottest star?

a. Yellow c. Orange
b. Blue d. Red
25. Why is Venus the twin planet of the Earth?

a. Life is possible in Venus.
b. Venus has almost the same size as the Earth
c. Venus has the same orbit as the Earth to the sun
d. Venus has the distance similar to earth from the sun.
26. Which planet is the coldest, smallest, and outermost planet in the solar system?
a. Neptune c. Mercury
Science I
3
b. Mars d. Pluto
27. Mid ocean ridges are result of what plate activity?

a. Converging plates c. Inverting plates
b. Diverging plates d. Spreading plates
28. What harmful gas is being released when engines burn fossil fuels?
a. Sulfur c. Carbon Monoxide
b. Oxygen d. nitrogen
29. What absorbs a portion of the radiation from the sun, preventing it from reaching the
earth’s surface?
a. Chlorofluorocarbon c. Freon
b. Ozone d. Charon
30. On clear, calm evenings, temperature differences between a body of water and
neighboring land produce a cool wind that blows offshore. This wind is called a
a. Sea breeze c. Morning Breeze
b. Land breeze d. Evening breeze
4
SCIENCE PROFICIENCY
(Biology)
Directions: For each statement or question, choose the letter of the word or expression
that, of those given, best completes or answers the question. Then on your answer sheet,
blacken the circle that corresponds to your final answer.
BEGIN HERE:
1. Which best describes the composition of the human body?

a. cells organs parts system
b. organs tissue system
c. cells tissues organs system
d. bones muscle skin system
2. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants manufacture their own food. At what form
do the products of photosynthesis stored?
a. fruits c. bulbs
b. starch d. root crops
3. Most plants are not suitable for human consumption. This is because we do not posses the
ability to digest them properly. Why is this so? a. They are poisonous.
b. We can’t chew them properly.
c. They have a high concentration of cellulose
d. Plants have an anti-digestion substance in them
4. Plants give off oxygen as a by product of photosynthesis. While human beings and animals
gives off carbon dioxide. What symbiotic relationship occurs between the two?
a. commensalism c. realism
b. mutualism d. parasitism
For nos. 5 and 6, Refer to the passage below.
Rice, the staple food of many Filipinos, could be categorized to belong in:
Kingdom – Plantae
Phylum – Anthophyta
Class – Monocotyledonae
Order – Glumiflorae
Family – Poaceae
Genus – Oryza
Species – Sativa
5. What is the scientific name of rice?

a. Oryza sativa
b. Glumiflorae sativa
c. Poaceae Sativa
d. Monocotyledonae Sativa
1
6. Both rice and corn belongs to the class Monocotyledonae, then they must also belong to
the same _________.
a. Genus c. phylum
b. Family d. species
7. Which of the following does not describe a prokaryotic cell?

a. Their DNA is not bound by a nuclear membrane.
b. They do not posses a true nucleus.
c. A plasma membrane surrounds and encloses the prokaryotic cell.
d. They posses an extensive endoplasmic reticulum
8. The skin is composed of tissues wherein cells are compactly arranged. This tissues are
called _______.
a. Connective
b. Plasmic
c. Epithelial
d. None of the above
9. Genes carry the hereditary information from one offspring to another. What organic
compound in genes is specifically designed for this task? a. Enzymes
b. Nucleic acids
c. Proteins
d. Lipids
10. What symbiotic relationship refers to the partial dependence of the evolutionary changes of
an organism to another specie which it has a close ecological relationship? This is observed
in viceroy and monarch butterflies. a. codependence
b. correlation
c. coevolution
d. coexistence
11. Which of the following is not true about vertebrates?

a. They are warm blooded.
b. They belong to the phylum chordates.
c. They all have notochords
d. None of the above.
12. Which of the following does not happen during mitosis?

a. Replication of DNA strands
b. Coiling up of chromatin
c. Movement of the chromosomes towards the center
13. What do we mean when we say that “organisms with favorable variations reproduce more
successfully than organisms with less favorable variations? a. Production
b. Use and disuse
c. Survival of the fittest
d. Cross- breeding
14. What does a plant cell have that an animal cell doesn’t?
a. cell wall c. nucleus
b. lysosomes d. golgi apparatus
2
15. What differentiates a prokaryotic cell from a eukaryotic cell?
a. Presence of true nucleus
b. Presence of chromosomes
c. Presence of cell membrane
16. Simple, multicellular animals with tissues but no distinct organs. Commonly known as
sponges, they typically attach to rocks, shells, or coral. What are they called?
a. Placozoa c. Cnidaria
b. Porifera d. Ctenophora
17. One phylum of animals, the chordates, has been more intensively studied than has any
other, because it comprises nearly all the world's largest and most familiar animals as well
as humans. The feature uniting these animals is that at some stage in their lives, all have
a flexible supporting rod, called a ___________.
a. notochord c. spina
b. phyochord d. redochord
18. The plasma membrane is composed of two layers of ___________ interspersed with
cholesterol and proteins.
a. hydrophilic molecules
b. hydrophobic molecules
c. phospholipids molecules
d. lipid molecules
19. What will happen if the white blood cells are deteriorating?
a. Oxygen cells will not be transported
b. The nerve impulses will not be carried to the brain
c. The harmful bacteria in the body will not be destroyed
d. There will be no production of hormone to clot the blood
20. What happens to the amount energy as the level rises in the food pyramid?
a. increases c. remains constant
b. decreases d. decrease then increase
21. What stage in the meiosis do the paired homologous chromosomes line up along the
equatorial plate?
a. prophase c. anaphase
b. metaphase d. telophase
In time of severe cold, animals may hibernate for days or weeks at a time. Their body
temperature drops, and they breathe only a few times in a minute. A hibernating animal
uses the fat store in its body for nourishment.
In times of severe heat, other animals may estivate. Just as with hibernating animals,
the body function of estivating animals slow down almost to a stop. To an observer, the
animal appears to be either in deep sleep or dead.
3
22. What generalization could be accurately said about hibernation and estivation?
a. Both use more energy than when the animal is awake.
b. Both are response to summer.
c. Both are response to winter.
d. Both are response to extreme temperature.
23. Which of the following facts about hibernation probably does not increase the animal’s
chances of survival?
a. The animal’s temperature drops

b. The animal exists on body fat.
c. The animal cannot move around.
d. The animal stays underground for a week time.
24. What is the function of nervous system?

a. to transport oxygen to the cells
b. to carry nerve impulses to the brain
c. to control all the organs of the body
d. to produce hormones to clot the blood
25. A new insecticide was very effective in killing flies and mosquitoes. After several months,
fewer insects were observed to die from the spray. The reason why fewer insects are killed
is that ___________.
a. Insects which survive the spraying developed a liking for the insecticide.
b. Insects which survive the spraying have developed immunity to the insecticide.
c. The insecticide’seffectiveness was reduced with aging
d. There is permanent mutation giving insects’ resistance to the insecticide.
26. Ferns, gymnosperms and flowering plants are vascular plants because
__________________. a. They are seed bearing plants
b. They developfroman embryo
c. They have specialized stems for storage
d. The have a water nutrient transport system
27. Bats are classified as mammals because they have __________.

a. feathers c. mammary gland
b. teeth d. beaks
28. Which of the following process maintains the carbon-oxygen cycle?

a. respiration
b. decomposition
c. decomposition
d. photosynthesis
29. What best describes a cold blooded animal?

a. the blood is cold
b. first order consumers
c. thrive in cod environment
d. body fluid temperature adapts to environment
30. What type of reproduction involves gametes?

a. fusion c. asexual
b. sexual d. fission
4
CHEMISTRY POINTERS
BASIC CONCEPTS AND LAWS
Chemistry
Chemistry is the physical science that deals with the composition, structure, and properties of substances and
also the transformations that these substances undergo. Because the study of chemistry encompasses the entire
material universe, it is central to the understanding of other sciences. Several branches of Chemistry are the
following:
a. Organic chemistry – mostly concerned with the study of chemicals containing the element carbon
b. Inorganic chemistry – the study of all elements of compounds other than organic compounds
c. Analytical Chemistry – the study of qualitative and quantitative analysis of elements and compounds.
d. Physical Chemistry – the study of reaction rates, mechanisms, bonding and structure
Matter
Matter in science, is a general term applied to anything that has the property of occupying space and the
attributes of gravity and inertia.
STATES OF MATTER
Plasma is the collection of charged gaseous particles containing nearly equal numbers of negative and positive
ions, is sometimes called the fourth state of matter.
Solid is characterized by resistance to any change in shape, caused by a strong attraction between the molecules
of which it is composed.
Liquids have sufficient molecular attraction to resist forces tending to change their volume.
Gas molecules are widely dispersed and move freely, offers no resistance to change of shape and little
resistance to change of volume.
CHANGES IN MATTER
Physical Change is characterized by a change in the phase or state of a substance. Some physical properties
of the substance are altered, but its chemical composition remains unchanged. Ex. phase change
Chemical change is characterized by a change in composition of its molecules changes. The properties of the
original substance are lost, and new substances with new properties are produced. An example of a chemical
change is the production of rust (iron oxide) when oxygen in the air reacts with iron.
1
Phase Changes
Phase Transitions
Matter exists in various forms, or phases. If the temperature and/or pressure of a sample of matter is adjusted, the matter may
undergo a phase transition. During a phase transition, matter shifts between its three states: solid, liquid, and gas.
Elements and Compounds

An Element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary means. Ninety elements
are known to occur in nature, and 22 more have been made artificially. Out of this limited number of elements, all
the millions of known substances are made.
Compounds are substance in which two or more elements joined by chemical bonds. A compound can be created or
broken down by means of a reaction but not by mechanical or physical techniques
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Water is an example of a compound. A water molecule consists of an oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms.
Salt, water, iron rust, and rubber are examples of compounds
Atoms and Molecules

An atom is the smallest unit of an element that has the properties of the element; a molecule is the smallest unit of a
compound or the form of an element in which atoms bind together that has the properties of the compound or
element.
SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES
Nucleus - is very small compared with the rest of the atom and contains most of the atomic mass (or weight). The
nucleus is about 10-12 cm (3.94 x 10-13 in) in diameter. The size ratio of the atom to the nucleus is 10,000 to 1.
Electrons - is about 10-8 cm (3.94 x 10-9 in). It carries a negative electric charge with an assigned value of -
1. The atom is determined by the size of this electron cloud.
Proton - carries a positive electric charge with an assigned value of +1. The mass of a proton is 1836 times the mass
of an electron.
Neutron - has nearly the same mass as the proton, but the neutron has no electric charge.
Mass Number - The total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
Atomic number- equals to the number of proton in an electron
Isotopes - atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. The
term isotope (from the Greek word meaning "same place") defines atoms that have the same number of protons but
a different number of neutrons. That is, they are atoms of the same element that have different masses. (Ex. 7H1,
7H1, H71, H1)
Atomic Weight - the average weight (more correctly, the mass) of an atom of an element, taking into account the
masses of all its isotopes and the percentage of their occurrence in nature.
3
MODELS OF THE ATOM
An atom of an element is denoted by aXb where X corresponds to the nucleus of the atom (name of
the atom, e.g.C), is the mass number and b, the atomic number. Ex. 12C6
Element Number of Number of Number of Atomic number Mass number
Protons electrons neutrons
Carbon 6 6 6 6 12
APPLICATION:
Complete the table below.

Element Number of Number of Number of Atomic number Mass number
Protons electrons neutrons
Na
Na+
Cl-
4
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
The electron configuration of an atom is the arrangement of the atom's electrons with respect to its
nucleus.
An electron may occupy a certain energy level (n). An orbital is generally visualized as a cloud with a
specified size and shape determined, in general, by the energy level of the electron. Valence electrons are electrons
found in the highest energy level of the electron cloud.
Given the electronic configuration, one can determine its position in the periodic table. The energy level
corresponds to the period of the periodic table (1-7) while the number of valence electrons corresponds to the group
number of that element. Example, the electron configuration of Na is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p , the orbital
number is while the valence number is 1. Therefore, Sodium is in group I period .
Chemical Bonds, Formulas, and Equation

Elements that do not have a noble-gas configuration (a stable configuration) try to attain such a
configuration by entering into chemical reactions. Stable molecules are formed when atoms combine so as to have
outer shells holding eight electrons.
Science III -7-
Ionic Bonds
In the ionic model, electrons are transferred from one atom to another to achieve noble gas configuration. An ionic
bond is formed. The atom giving up the electrons become positively charge (cation), while the atom accepting the
electrons becomes negatively charged (Anion). Ionic bonds are formed when elements in Group IA to IIA (except
hydrogen) combines with elements in group VIA to VIIA of the periodic table. Ionic solids form crystals. Cations
and anions in crystals are arranged in a repeated fixed manner (crystal structure).
Covalent bonds
When sharing of available outer elements of the atoms occur, a covalent bond is formed. There is no
electron transfer in covalent bonding. There can be multiple covalent bonds between two atoms. There can be a
double bond or a triple bond.
Chemical Reactions
The reaction is the heart of the study of chemistry. All chemical reactions involve the breakage and
reformation of chemical bonds of molecules to form different substances. Chemical reactions can be expressed
through equations that resemble mathematical equations. The reactants (the substances that are combined to react
with one another) appear on the left side of the equation, and the products (substances produced by the reaction) are
written on the right side of the equation. The reactants and products are typically connected by an arrow or various
types of double arrows. The single arrow shows that a reaction only proceeds in the direction indicated, while the
double arrow indicates that a reaction can proceed in either direction (that products are also reacting with each other
to reform reactants).
Ex.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
A. Composition Reaction (synthesis or combination reaction) is a type of chemical reaction where a more
complex substance is broken down into two or more simpler substances. General Form: A+ X AX e.g.
2H2 + O2 2H2O Fe + S FeS
B. Decomposition Reaction is a type of chemical reaction where a more complex substance is broken down
into two or more simpler substances.
General Form: AX A + X
e.g. CaCO3 CaO + CO2
There are five classes if decomposition, namely:

1. Decomposition of a metallic carbonate
2. Decomposition of a metallic hydroxide
3. Decomposition of a metallic chlorate
4. Decomposition of some acids
5. Decomposition of metallic oxides
C. Single Replacement Reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which a less reactive element is displaced
from a compound by a more reactive element.
General Form: A + BX AX + B
Y + BX BY + X
There are four classes of replacement reactions. They are as given below:
1. Replacement of a less active metal from a compound by a more active metal.
2. Replacement of a less active nonmetal from a compound by more active non-metal.
3. Replacement of hydrogen from water by metals
4. Replacement of hydrogen from an acid by a more reactive metal.

D. Double Displacement reaction is a type of reaction wherein cations of two compounds switch anions to
form new products.
General Form : AX + BY AY + BX e.g. NaOH + HCl NaCl +
H2O
EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
A chemical reaction either absorbs or releases energy. The energy released is in the form of heat energy. An
exothermic reaction is defined as a chemical reaction that releases energy. Most often, the energy released is in the
form of heat or light. When a bomb explodes, a tremendous amount of light and heat energy is released. This is an
example of an exothermic reaction. On the other hand, there are chemical reactions that absorb energy as they take
place. This reaction is endothermic. Photosynthesis requires light from the sun to proceed the reaction. Thus, it is
an example of endothermic reaction.
6
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION
The rate of chemical reaction is affectedly several factors:

a. the nature of the reactants – the more reactive the reactant is to another reactant, the faster the
reaction will proceed
b. temperature-generally, the higher the temperature, the faster the reaction will take place
c. concentration of the reactants-the higher the concentration to react with another reactant, the faster
the reaction will take place
d. surface area- the smaller the surface area, the faster the reaction
e. effect of catalyst-with the presence of a catalyst, the reaction will become faster
Factor Example
Nature of reactants Gold + water =no reaction
Sodium +water = fast
Temperature Evaporation is faster when it is hot
Concentration of reactants Wood+dilute acid= slow
Wood +concentrated acid=fast
Surface area Crushed eggshells will dissolve fast in acid
Whole eggshells will dissolve slow in acid
Science III - 10 -
Presence of catalyst Decomposition of formic acid = slow

Decomposition of formic acid in the presence of
sulfuric acid = fast
LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
The laws of chemical combination were formulated in the early part of the 19th century. They are a result
of the first use of quantitative measurement in chemistry.
In 1799, Joseph Proust proposed the law of definite proportions (also called the law of constant
composition). The law states that compounds contain elements in certain fixed proportions and in no other
combinations, regardless of the method of preparation. Thus, chalk, or calcium carbonate, CaCOO, is always 40%
calcium, 12% carbon, and 48% oxygen, by weight.
In 1803, John Dalton articulated the law of multiple proportions. This law states that if two elements
combine to form more than one compound, then the ratio of the weights of the second element (which combines with
a fixed weight of the first element) will be small whole numbers. For example, carbon and oxygen can form two
compounds, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. In carbon monoxide 12 g of carbon combine with 16 g of oxygen,
and in carbon dioxide, the same weight of carbon combines with 32 g of oxygen. Thus, the oxygen weight ratio that
combines with 12 g of carbon is (32/16), or 2. The law of combining weights, also proposed by Dalton, states that
in every compound, the proportion by weight of each element in the compound may be expressed by the atomic
weight or a multiple of the atomic weight of each element. (This law was discovered before the atomic theory was
postulated and was thus worded more generally.) The law of combining weights can be seen to follow directly from
the atomic theory. In the case of water, HMO, each molecule of water is composed of two atoms of hydrogen (atomic
weight 1) and one atom of oxygen (atomic weight 16). Thus, all molecules of water consist of 2 parts of hydrogen
and 16 parts of oxygen by weight. All other compounds can be analyzed similarly.
These three laws, proposed from the first use of quantitative experimental techniques, resulted (1803)
in Dalton's atomic theory.
Balancing Equations
With the Laws governing chemical reactions, the numbers of atoms for each element should be equal in the reactant
side and the product side. We should therefore balance a chemical reaction. A chemical equation is considered
balance if there are exactly the same number of atoms for each element on both sides of the equation.
Science III - 11 -
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry that deals with quantitative relationships between the reactants and
products of a chemical reaction.
In the reaction
2H2 + O2 2H2O two moles of hydrogen is needed to react with
one mole of oxygen to yield two moles of water.
2H2 + O2 2H2O
2moles 1mole 2moles
2g/mol H2 32g/mol O2 18 g/mol H2O
4grams 32 grams 36 grams
This means that 4 grams of hydrogen is needed to react completely with 32 grams of oxygen to produce
36 grams of water.
APPLICATION
a. Mole to Mole
Combustion of butane produces carbon dioxide and water. How many moles of water will be
produced if 5 moles of butane is used in the reaction?
Step1: Write the balanced chemical equation.

2CH4H10 + 13O2 8 CO2 + 10H20
Step2: The balanced chemical reaction shows that for every 2 moles of butane, 10 moles of water
will be produced. Using the relationship, multiply the number of moles of butane to the
stoichiometric ratio.
5moles CH4H10 x 10 moles H20 = 25moles H20

2 moles CH4H10
8
b. Mole to Mass
If 0.25 moles of sodium carbonate is heated, what mass of sodium oxide will be
produced?
Step 1: Write the balanced equation.

Na2CO3 Na2O + CO2
Step2: Determine the molecular weight of Na2O and analyze the problem.
Na2O = 22.99(2) + 16 = 61.98 g/mol
Step 3: The balanced chemical equation shows that for every 1mole of sodium
carbonate, 1mole of sodium oxide will be produced. Using this relationship, multiply 0.25
moles of sodium carbonate to the stoichiometric ratio.
0.25 moles Na2CO3 x 1mole Na2O = 0.25 moles Na2O

1mol Na2CO3
Step 4: Convert the answer in step 3 into required unit (mass) using the relationship
m=n
0.25 moles Na2O x 61.98g/mol Na2O = 15.50 g Na2O
c. Mass to Mass
How many grams of oxygen will be produced if 85.16 g of sodium chlorate is heated?
Step1: Balance the chemical equation.
2 NaClO3 2 NaCl + 3O2
Step2: Determine the molecular weights of the compounds involved and analyze the
problem.
2 NaClO3 2 NaCl + 3O2
MW = 22.00+ 35.45+ 16.00 (3) =2(16)

= 106.44g/mol =32 g/mole
Step 3: Convert given mass of sodium chlorate to moles.
Moles of sodium chlorate = 85.16g sodium chlorate

= 10g/mol sodium chlorate
= 0.8001 mol sodium chlorate

Step4: From the balanced chemical equation, 2moles of sodium chlorate heated will
produce3molesof oxygen. Using this relationship, multiply the result in Step3 with this ratio.
0.8001molsodium chlorate x 3molsoxygen

2molssodiumchlorate
= 1.200 mol oxygen
Step 5: Convert moles of oxygen produced to mass.

1.200molsoxygen x 32.00g oxygen = 38.40 g oxygen
1mol oxygen
Science III - 14 -
d. Mass to mole
Lighting a candle produces 0.13 g of water. What is the mass of butane used? (Butane
is the fuel used in most lighters)
Step 1: Balance the chemical reaction. Remember that the complete combustion
reaction of a hydrocarbon will yield carbon dioxide and water.
2CH4H10 + 13O2 8 CO2 + 10H20
Step2: Analyze the problem.

2CH4H10 + 13O2 8 CO2 + 10H20
Given: 0.012g
MW = 1.008(2)+16
=18.02g/mol
Step 3: Convert given mass of water to moles
Moles water = 0.012g water

18.02g/mol water
= 0.000666 mol water
Step4: From the balanced chemical equation, we have the following relationships:
2molesofbutane will produce 10 moles of water
2moles of butane burned will produce 8 moles of carbon dioxide
0.000666 mol of water x 2molsof butane

10mols of water
= 0.0001333 mol of butane
Step 5: Convert mole to mass:

0.0001333molbutane x 58.12 g butane
1mole butane
= 0.0077 g butane
10
Gases
Kinetic molecular Theory
Postulate 1: gases are made up of very tiny particles, called molecules. There are big empty spaces
between the molecules of gases. The sizes of the molecules are very small compared to the distance between them,
thus making them compressible. This also explains why gases have low density.
Postulate 2: gaseous molecules are in constant random motion. These particles are moving in straight
lines at different speeds and direction. Since they are moving constantly, gases can easily occupy a large container.
Thus, gases have no definite shape and volume and exhibits expandability. The random motion of the gaseous
molecules explains the diffusibility and effusibility of gases. Diffusibility is the ability of a gas to scatter in space,
while effusibility is the ability of a gas to escape through a small opening.
Postulate 3: The intermolecular forces of attraction between gaseous particles (molecules or atoms) are
very weak. This attractive force between molecules was discovered by Johannes Diderik van der Waals and is
called the Van der Waals force.
Postulate 4: The collision of gas particles with each other or with the walls of its container is perfectly elastic.
Thus, no energy is lost upon collision. This means that the gas particles continue to move even if they collide with
each other or with the container walls. The collision of molecules with the walls exerts pressure on the container.
Postulate 5: The average kinetic energy of the gas particles is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature. As temperature increases, the average kinetic energy of the gas particles also increases and vice versa.
The Gas Laws

The laws governing the behavior of gases are termed collectively as the gas laws.
Science III - 16 -
1. BOYLE’S LAW
Robert Boyle was the first scientist to measure the relationship between pressure and volume of
gases (with temperature held constant).Boyle’s Law states that the volume of a certain amount of dry
gas held at constant temperature is inversely proportional to the pressure exerted by the gas. This
statement is expressed mathematically as
APPLICATION:
What is the volume of a gas at 750 mmHg if it exerted pressure of 650mmHg at 700 mL?
Assumethat temperature is held constant.)
Given:
V1 = ? V2= 700 mL P1 = 750 mmHg P2=
650mmHg
P1V1 = P2V2
V1 = P2V2
P1
= (650 m Hg) (700 mL) = 685.7mL
750 mm Hg
2. CHARLE’S LAW
Alexandre Charles performed experiments on the relationship between the volume and temperature
of gases. Charles’ Law states that the volume of a certain amount of dry gas at constant pressure is
directly proportional to its absolute temperature. This statement is represented as
V1/ T1 = V2/ T2
APPLICATION: The volume of a gas at 27 C is 400 mL. What will be the volume of that gas at
47 C, if the pressure is held constant?
Given:
V1 = 400 mL V2 = ?
T1 = 27 C + 273 T2 = 47 C + 273
= 300 K = 320
(Note that temperature in Celsius should be converted into Kelvin scale)
Solution:
V1/ T1 = V2/ T2
V2 = V1T2
T1
= (380mL) (320K)
300 K
= 405.33 mL
3. COMBINED GAS LAWS
Given a fixed amount of gas at two different conditions of pressure, temperature and volume, we
derive the following relationship:
P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2
12
APPLICATION:
The volume of a Gas at 37 C and 700 mm Hg is 500mL. What is the volume of the gas at
15 C and 600 mm Hg?
Given:
V1 = 500mL V2 = ?
T1 = 37 C+ 273 T2 = 17 C+273
= 310K = 290 K
P1 = 700 mmHg P2 = 600 mmHg
Solution:
P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2
V2 = P1V1 V2
T1 P2
= (700mmHg) (500mL) (290 K)
(310 K) (600 mm Hg)
= 545.7 mL
4. AVOGADRO’S LAW
Amadeo Avogadro interpreted Gay-Lussac’s findings on gas reactions at constant temperature and
pressure. Avogadro’s Law states that at a given temperature and pressure, the same volume of any
two gases contain equal number of molecules. The molar volume of any gas at STP ( Standard
temperature and Pressure) is 22.4 L.
5. IDEAL GAS LAW

Boyle’s Law, Charle’s Law and Avogadro’s Law can be combined such that the variables V,P,T and
n are all equated to a single constant, R (the universal gas constant or ideal gas constant). The
combined equation becomes:
PV = 1
nRT or PV = nRT
where R = 0.0821 atm-L/molK
APPLICATION:
A sample of oxygen occupies 8.0 L of space at STP. How many moles of oxygen are
present in the sample?
Given:
At STP, P= 1 atm T= 273 K
V= 8.0 L n= ?
Solution:
Use the formula, PV = nRT
n = PV / RT
= (1atm)(8.0L)
(273 K) (0.0821 at-L/mol K)
= 0.36 mol oxygen
6. GRAHAM’S LAW
Thomas Graham discovered the relationship between the ability of a gas to pass through a small
opening and its molecular weight. He found out that the rate of effusion of any gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of its molecular weight. Thus, the heavier the gas molecule is, the
slower the effusion of that gas.
7. DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE

According to John Dalton, the pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases is the sum of the
partial pressures that each gas in the mixture exerts individually. Mathemetically, this law is
expressed as:
Pt = P1 + P2+ P3…. + Pn
SOLUTION
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances whose components are uniformly
distributed all throughout. Solutions have two components, a solute, the substance to be dissolved and the solvent,
the dissolving medium. Usually, the solvent is greater in quantity than the solute. In a solution containing sugar
and water, the solute is the sugar and the solvent is the water.
Properties of Solutions
Concentration is the measure of the quantity of a solute in a given amount of solution or solvent. It can
be expressed qualitatively and quantitatively. A concentrated solution contains a large amount of solute per
volume of solvent. A dilute solution contains a small amount of solute per volume of solvent. Saturated solution
contains as much solute as it can dissolve. In a saturated solution, dissolving and crystallizing occur at equal rates.
An equilibrium exists between solute and solvent. When a solution can still hold more solute, the solution is still
unsaturated. When a solution has more solute than it should normally hold, it becomes supersaturated. Excess
solute will crystallize, making it an unstable solution.
For liquid in liquid solutions, solubility is described in terms of miscibility. When a solute and a
solvent readily dissolve in any amount in each other, they are referred to as miscible. When the
components of a solution only have limited solubility, then it is only partially miscible. Substances
which are immiscible do not dissolve in each other. They form two phases or layers.
Solubility
Solubility is the measure of the amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given quantity of
solvent at a specific temperature.
TEMPERATURE
The solubility of gases in water is inversely proportional to temperature. This means that an increase in
temperature will decrease the solubility of gases in water.
PRESSURE
Henry’s Law states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure exerted
by the gas on the surface of the liquid.
THE NATURE OF THE SOLUTES
“Like dissolves like. Polar solvents will dissolve polar solutes and non polar solutes dissolve in nonpolar
solvents. Water is the universal solvent because of its ability to dissolve a great number of polar and ionic
compounds.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF DISSOLUTION
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1. Size of particles
The smaller the solute particles, the faster it dissolves. Smaller particles have greater surface areas
exposed to the solvent.
2. Rate of stirring
The rate of dissolution is increased by stirring constantly. Stirring allows faster contact between the
solute and the solvent particles. Stirring also increases the kinetic energy of the system.
3. Heating
Heating also increases the kinetic energy of the solute and the solvent. This means that dissolution
increases as the temperature increases.
MODES OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION
Concentration is the ratio of a specified amount of solute to a specified volume of solvent or solution.
Concentration = amount of solute
Volume of solute /solvent
The following are various means of expressing concentration. 1.
Percent Concentration is the percent of the solute in the solution.
a. Percent by mass (Pm) is the mass of solute divided by the total mass of solution multiplied by
100. The mass of solution is equal to the mass of the solute plus the mass of the solvent.
APPLICATION
a.1. A chemist needs to prepare ceramic tile cleanser which contains 300 grams
of hydrogen chloride and 600 grams of water. What is the percent by mass of the
hydrogen chloride in the cleanser?
Given:
Mass of solute = 300 g
Mass of solvent = 600 g
Mass of solution = 300+600
= 900 g
Pm = ?
Solution:
Pm = mass of solute x100%
Mass of solution
= 300 x 100%
900
= 33%
a.2. How much water must be added to 50 grams of salt o prepare 50%
solution?
Given:
Mass of solute = 50 grams
Pm = 50%
50% = 50 grams x 100%
50 + X
0.50 = 50g
50+x
0.50 (50+ x) = 50
25 +0.50 x = 50
0.50x = 50-
25
x = 25 / 0.50 x = 50 g water
b. Percent by volume
To determine percent by volume, simply divide the volume of solute by the total volume of the
solution and multiply the result by 100%. The solute and the solution volumes have to be expressed in the
same units.
Pv = Vsolute / Vsolution x 100%
APPLICATION:
A solution is prepared with 15 cc and 35 cc hydrocarbon to make to make a solution. Determine

the concentration of benzene in percent by volume.
Given:
Volume of solute = 15 cc
Volume of solvent = 35 cc
Volume of solution = 15 cc + 35 cc = 50 cc solution
Pv = ?
16
Solution:
Pv = 15 cc / 50 cc x 100% = 30%
c. Percent by Mass – Volume is used when dealing with a solid solute and a liquid solvent.
Percentage by mass-volume is obtained by dividing the mass of solute, in grams by the total
volume of solution in mL and the result is multiplied by 100%.
Percent by mass-volume = mass of solute (g) x 100%
Volume of solution (mL)
APPLICATION
A 0.84% (m/v) sodium chloride solution has to be administered a patient intravenously.

Determine the volume of the solution if 208 grams of sodium chloride is used.
Given:
Percent by mass-volume = 0.84% Mass of solute = 2.8
grams
Volume of solution = ?
Solution:
Pmv = 2.8 g / x * 100% 0.84% x = 2.8g * 100%
x = 280 g / 0.84
x = 322 mL
2. Mole Fraction is the ratio of the number of moles of solute in a given mole of solution.
Mole fraction = mole of solute

Mole solution
APPLICATION: What is the mole fraction of 35 g of calcium hydroxide dissolved in 42

grams of water?
Analysis of the Problem:

Mass of solvent = 42 g
Mole fraction = ?
Solution:
Determine the moles of solute and solvent from their molecular weight.
Ca(OH)2 = 40 + 2(16) + 1(2) = 74 g/mol
H2O = 1(2) + 16 = 18 g/mol
mole Ca(OH)2 = 35 g / (74 g/mol) = 0.473 moles
moles of H2O = 42 g/ (18 g/mol) = 2.333 mole moles of
solution = 0.473 + 2.333 = 2.803 moles mole
fraction of Ca(OH) 2 = 0.473 moles
2.806 moles
= 0.17
3. Molarity
Molarity expresses the amount of solute in moles per liter of solution.
M = moles of solute / volume soln. liter

APPLICATION :Calculate the molarity if 45 g of sodium hydroxide is present in 200 cc of solution
Given:
Mass of solute = 45 grams
Volume of solution = 200 cc or 0.200L
M= ?
Solution:
Determine the molecular weight of sodium hydroxide: NaOH
= 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 g/mol
Convert the given mass to moles:

45 g NaOH ? (40 g/mol) = 1.125 moles NaOH
M= 1.125 moles / (0.200 L) = 5.6 molar
4. Molality
Molality is based on a fixed volume of a solution while molarity is based on a fixed mass of solvent.
Molality = moles of solute / mass solvent (kg)
APPLICATION:
Calculate the molality of a solution that contains 35 grams ammonia in 500 grams of water.
Given:
Mass of solvent = 500 grams or 0.510 kg Molality
=?
Solution:
Determine the molecular weight of ammonia and change the mass of ammonia into
moles.
NH3 = 14 + 1(3) = 17 g/mole
Moles of ammonia = 35 grams / 17 g/mole = 2.06 moles Molality
= 2.06 moles / 0.5 kg = 4.1 molal
5. Normality
Normality is the number of equivalents of solute in a liter of solution

Normality (N) = number of equivalence / liter of solution
An equivalent is defined as the number of moles of an acid or base multiplied by the number of
replaceable hydrogen or hydroxide ions it has. Equivalent weight is the molecular weight of an acid
multiplied by the number of equivalent of hydrogen or hydroxide ion it has per molecule.
18
APPLICATION
Determine the normality of 1.5L solution that contains 18.3 g of sulfuric acid
Given:
Mass of solute = 18.3 grams sulfuric
Volume of solution = 1.5 liters
N=?
Solution:
Determine the equivalent weight of sulfuric acid. Since there are two replaceable
hydrogen ions in H2SO4, simply divide the molecular weight of sulfuric acid (98.0734 g/mol) by
two.
Convert the mass of sulfuric acid to equivalence. Then calculate normality.
18.3 g H2SO4 x (1 equivalent/ 49.0367) = 0.373
N= 0.373 equivalent / 1.5 L = 0.25 normal
Acids and Bases

Definition of Acids and Bases
Acid Base
Arrhenius A substance that yields H+ ions A substance that yields OH- ions
in aqueous solution in aqueous solution
Bronsted Lowry Proton donor Proton acceptor
Lewis Electron pair acceptor Electron pair donor
Properties of Acids and Bases
Acid Base
Sour taste Bitter taste
Irritating smell (for most acids) Slippery or soapy touch
Turns blue litmus paper to red Turns red litmus paper to blue
pH<7, pOH > 7 pH >7 , pH < 7
Neutralizes a base Neutralizes an acid
Good conductor of electricity Good conductor of electricity
Classification of Acids and bases
Acids can be classified according to the number of hydrogen and hydroxyl group. A monoprotic contains
1 hydrogen, diprotic, 2 hydrogen and so on. A monobasic contains only one hydroxide group, dibasic, 2 and so
on. Water is amphoteric because it can act as an acid or base.
pH and pOH
The pH of the solution is equal to the negative logarithm of its hydrogen ion concentration ([h+]. pH= -log
[H+]. pOH = -log [OH] pH + pOH = 14
* water has a pH of 7. It is neutral.
Organic Chemistry
Hydrocarbons- contain only hydrogen and carbon in their molecules. It can be classified as alkanes,
alkenes, and alkynes.
ALKANES- hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds in their molecules.

ALKENES- there is at least one carbon-to carbon double bond.
ALKYNES- hydrocarbon where there is at least one carbon-carbon triple bond.
Aromatics
Aromatic compounds are organic compounds having cyclical hydrocarbon rings where all the atoms are
sp2 hybridized.
Substituted hydrocarbons
a. Alcohol – with OH functional group (R – OH)

b. Ethers- hydrocarbon chains attached to an oxygen atom (R-O-O-R)
c. aldehydes and ketones – have carbonyl group (C=O)
d. Halogenated hydrocarbons – hydrocarbons where one or more hydrogen is replaced by a halogen.
e. Amines- if you replace a hydrogen atom from an ammonia molecule with a hydrocarbon
f. Amides – carboxyl group (C=O) comes between the hydrocarbon chain and the nitrogen of an amine
20
Biological Chemistry
Biological chemistry deals with the chemical substances that make up living things such as their tissues,
body fluids, and others.
Biological Substances
1. Carbohydrates – include the different types of sugar, starch (like those from rice, bread, sweet potato)
and the like. They are primary sources of energy in plant bodies. They are classified according to the
number of simple sugar units or “saccharides” into the following:
a. Monosaccharides – made of one simple sugar unit (ex. Fructose, ribose, glucose)
b. Disaccharides – made up of two simple sugar units (ex. Maltose, sucrose)
c. Polysaccharides- made of more than two simple sugar units. (ex. Glycogen, cellulose)
2. Proteins – Substances classified as proteins vary in shapes, sizes and functions, but there are similarities
in their chemical structures. They are all poly peptides (polymers of amino acids)
Amino acids are chemically carboxylic acids with an amino group. There are about 20 common
amino acids found in the body, each has a different side chain. The most common secondary structures
are the alpha-helix, the beta-pleated sheet and the triple helix.
3. Nucleic Acids – a polymeric chain of nucleotides (polynucleotides). Each nucleotide component is made
up of a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogen base. The base can be a purine (adenine or guanine) or a
pyrimidine (cytosine, thymine or uracil) derivative. The sugar found is either ribose or deoxyribose. It s
the sugar that determines whether the nucleic acid you have is a DNA or RNA. If the sugar used is ribose,
you get an RNA. If the sugar used is deoxyribose, you get a DNA.
a. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
DNA structure is a double – helix. This is responsible for the replication of DNA. The
complementary base pairs in the DNA structure are : Adenine and Thymine , Guanine and
Cytosine.
b. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

In RNA, uracil is used in place of thymine.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies genetic information from DNA in the cell nuclei to the
ribosomes (where proteins are made.)
Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries amino acids to the site of protein synthesis
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) provides the site for protein synthesis.
4. Lipids – fatty acids and their esters. Fatty acids are chemically carboxylic acids. If you eat too much, the
food you overeat will be stored as lipids in adipose tissues. Two types of lipids are: the simple lipids and
compound lipids.
SCIENCE PROFICIENCY
(Physics)
Directions: For each statement or question, choose the letter of the word or
expression that, of those given, best completes or answers the question. Then on your
answer sheet, blacken the circle that corresponds to your final answer. Notes:
BEGIN HERE:
1. A vector is a quantity with both magnitude and direction. Which of the following is not a
vector?
a. displacement c. speed
b. force d. acceleration
2. A moving object possesses acceleration if a change in a velocity is observed. Which of the

following does not illustrate acceleration?
a. A cart moving downhill on a mountain slope
b. A ball thrown upwards
c. A book on the table
d. A car running along a curve
3. Newton (N) is the metric standard unit of force. This is defined to be _______.
a. kg/L c. kg·m/s2
b. kg·m 2 d. kg·m/s
4. Dante walks 0.5 Km north. Starting from the same point, Richie walks 1.2 Km east. What
would be the distance separating the two boys?
a. 0.7 Km c. 1.1 Km
b. 0.9 Km d. 1.3 Km
5. A rally driver has 5 seconds to stop his car which traveling at a speed of 20 m/s. What is
his average acceleration?
a. 4 m/s2 c. 1 m/s2
2
b. 3 m/s d. 0.25 m/s2
6. What force is needed to make a 2 kg rock accelerate at 0.5 m/s2?

a. 1 N c. 3 N
b. 2 N d. 4 N
7. Which of the following statement/s is/are TRUE?
I. Statics involves the study of the forces acting on a body that is at rest or is moving in a
straight line with constant speed.
II. Dynamics is the study of forces acting on a body that are in equilibrium.
III. Statics is the branch of mechanics that studies the forces that affect the motion of an
object.
1
8. What is the study under dynamics which deals with the space-time relationship in bodies
that are in motion?
a. Mechanics c. kinematics
b. Static d. kinetics
9. What is the centripetal force acting on a 100 kg car negotiating a circular curve of radius
60 meters at a speed of 30 m/s?
a. 15 KN c. 30 KN
b. 25 KN d. 45 KN
10. “For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.” If a baseball player hits a ball
with a bat – and the “action” is said to be the impact of the bat against the ball – what is
its
“opposite reaction?”
a. The grip of the player’s hand on the bat.
b. The air resistance on the ball.
c. The force of the ball against the bat.
d. Muscular effort in the player’s arm.
11. A block weighing 200 N lies on a plane inclined 20o with the horizontal. What force tends
to pull the block down the plane?
a. F = (200)(sin 20o)
b. F = (200)(cos 20o) 200
c. F=
sin 200
200
d. F =
cos200
Science IV -2-
12. If speed is defined as the quantitative measure of the change of an object’s position over
a certain amount of time, what is said to be the speed of an object at any particular
moment? a. average speed
b. ordinary speed
c. uniform speed
d. instantaneous speed
13. The movement of a body launched in space without its motive power, and travels freely
under the action of gravity and air resistance alone is called _____________.
a. rectilinear motion
b. uniform circular motion
c. projectile motion
d. horizontal motion
For numbers 14 -15, refer to the figures below. The following are distance and time readings of
a traveling car.
2
M M M M
E E E E
T T T T
E E E E
R R R R
S S S S
SECONDS SECONDS SECONDS SECONDS
a. b. c. d.
14. Which illustrates the car at rest?
15. Which illustrates traveling at constant velocity?
16. Newton’s First Law of motion is called the Law of Inertia. Which of the following does not
illustrate Inertia?
a. A tanker in full speed turning it engine in reverse an hour before reaching the port.
b. A train slowing down before reaching the station.
c. A ball falling from an airplane.
d. A man on a bus being “pushed” backward when the bus starts moving.
Science IV -3-
17. What horizontal force is necessary to press a 15 kg block against a vertical wall to prevent
it from slipping? Assume that the coefficient of static friction between the block and the
wall is 0.25.
a. 600 N c. 400 N
b. 500 N d. 300 N
18. Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity of an object over change in time. Based
from this statement, what is the equation for the final velocity of an object?
a. Vf = Vi + a∆t c. Vf = 2Vi + a∆t
b. Vf = Vi – a∆t d. Vf = Vi2 + 2a∆t
19. A 2-meter long uniform seesaw is supported at its center. A 500 N boy sits 20 cm from
the left endpoint of the seesaw. How far from the other side of the seesaw should a 1 500
N man sit so that the seesaw remains in a horizontal position?
a. 20 cm c. 60 cm
b. 40 cm d. 80 cm
20. The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of the system is constant.
What relation does the kinetic and potential energy in one system possess?
a. KE > PE c. KE = PE
b. KE < PE d. KE = -PE
21. What is the kinetic energy of a 500-kg car moving at 3.0 m/s?
a. 1.50 kJ c. 2.00 kJ
b. 1.75 kJ d. 2.25 kJ
22. According to the law of conservation of momentum, the total momentum of a system is
conserved. What happens when two bodies of equal masses and equal speeds collide?
3
a. They bounce back with the same speed and distance.
b. They stick together.
c. They bounce sideways.
d. Could not be determined.
23. Pressure waves of frequencies above the audible frequencies are called ___________.
a. infrasonic c. mega sonic
b. supersonic d. ultrasonic
24. Refraction is the bending of light. Like for example, a fish might look much nearer to the
surface than it really is. Why is this so?
a. Because light bounces off the ocean floor.
b. Because the fish moves too fast.
Science IV -4-
c. Because light travels at a different speed on water.

d. This phenomenon is not true.
25. When Ryota looked at himself in the mirror, he look taller then he expected. Why is this
so? a. The mirror was concave.
b. The mirror was convex.
c. The mirror was taller.
d. The mirror has nothing to do with it.
26. Which of the following is NOT TRUE about electromagnetic waves?

a. They are produced by moving charges.
b. They are transverse waves.
c. They require a medium for transmission
d. They travel with the same speed in the absence of vacuum.
27. __________ is an interaction with matter in which transverse waves are restricted to a
particular plane of vibration.
a. Polarization c. refraction
b. reflection d. optical illusion
28. What property/characteristic of sound do we perceive as volume?

a. Wave length
b. Frequency
c. Amplitude
d. Pitch
29. What is the difference between the speed of sound and the speed of light?
a. Sound is 740 mph faster than light.
b. Light is 17860 mph faster than sound.
c. Sound is equal the speed of light.
d. Light is 740 mph faster than sound.
30. In the color spectrum, the colors are enumerated in increasing__________.

a. Frequency
b. Wavelength
c. Energy
d. penetrability
4
1
GENERAL SCIENCE POINTERS
Science and Technology

Science
- is a systematic study that is concerned with facts and principles, and methods that could be observed in our
natural or physical and social environment. It comes from the Latin word 'scire' that means 'to know’.
- is both a body of knowledge and a process – away of thinking, a way of solving problems
The Branches of Science
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES
• Physics: The study of matter and energy and the interactions between them. Physicists study such
subjects as gravity, light, and time. Albert Einstein, a famous physicist, developed the Theory of
Relativity.
• Chemistry: The science that deals with the composition, properties, reactions, and the structure of
matter. The chemist Louis Pasteur, for example, discovered pasteurization, which is the process of
heating liquids such as milk and orange juice to kill harmful germs.
• Astronomy: The study of the universe beyond the Earth's atmosphere.
THE EARTH SCIENCES
• Geology: The science of the origin, history, and structure of the Earth, and the physical, chemical,
and biological changes that it has experienced or is experiencing.
• Oceanography: The exploration and study of the ocean.
• Paleontology: The science of the forms of life that existed in prehistoric or geologic periods.
• Meteorology: The science that deals with the atmosphere and its phenomena, such as weather and
climate.
THE LIFE SCIENCES (BIOLOGY)
• Botany: The study of plants.

• Zoology: The science that covers animals and animal life.
• Genetics: The study of heredity.
• Medicine: The science of diagnosing, treating, and preventing illness, disease, and injury.
Scientific Method
is the logical method used by scientists to acquire knowledge that is used to explain different
phenomena in nature. A thing observed by the senses is called a phenomenon; a scientifically tested
observation is called a fact. The scientific method has six basic steps, namely:
a. Identify and clearly state the problem. Questions arise from something observed as unusual;
problem that is specific, measurable, and attainable is identified.
b. Gather information pertinent to the problem. This is done by recalling past experiences concerning
the problem, interviewing people who are knowledgeable of the problem, and researching in
libraries and research centers.
c. Formulate hypothesis. Based on information or data gathered, an 'educated guess' can be made.
d. Test the hypothesis. Carrying out experiments.
Controlled experiment - manipulating one of the conditions or factors that may affect the result of
experiment.
1) Trials - number of times experiment is repeated.

2) Controls - factors that are kept constant throughout the experiment 3) Variables -
factors that change during the experiment.
Kinds: 1. Independent or experimental - factors that are changed.

2. Dependent - factors that change as a result of changes in the independent variable.
Presentation of Data
Tables - easy to read, organized presentations.
Graphs - readily show patterns of data.
Kinds: 1. Line - proper to use when comparing two continuously changing
variables.
2. Bar - appropriate to use when comparing a changing value with an
unchanging value.
e. Draw a generalization or conclusion.

Conclusion - a statement about the result of the experiment.
Law - a statement which describes what happens but does not explain the cause of the
occurrence.
Theory - hypothesis that can be explained from observations.
f. Apply the principle (conclusion) to other situations.
Scientific Traits
Scientific knowledge may also be obtained through the use of models and ideas, or through serendipity or
accidental discovery. In scientific study, .some standards or procedures must be observed. Scientists should
always exhibit scientific attitudes like the following:
a. Curiosity - keen observation of things and events in the surroundings.

Galileo's intensive desire to study heavenly bodies drove him to use a telescope to study the moon, the
planets, the sun, and the stars
.
b. Logic and system - use of step-by-step experimental method and keeping of accurate
records.
Gregor Mendel was successful in his study of hereditary traits because he used logical experimental
methods and accurately recorded his observations.
3
c. Open-mindedness - readiness or willingness to change or modify ideas or principles when

necessary.
Johannes Kepler changed his notion about the popular belief during his time that the planets
moved along perfect circles to a more accurate information that these follow elliptical
orbits.
d. Intellectually honest - -acknowledging contribution of others to one's success.

Isaac Newton recognized the role of Galileo and others in his formulation the Laws of Motion.
e. Hardwork and perseverance

Marie Curie and his husband Pierre had to work on several thousand kilograms of uranium ore
to strain a tenth of a gram of pure uranium.
f. Not opinionated – using hard evidences to prove ones theory.

John Dalton used experimental evidences to support his atomic theory.
g. Creativity and critical thinking

Albert Einstein did not just depend on established facts and accepted beliefs during his days.
Rather, he used these to develop his own theory in different perspective.
Technology
is defined as the application of scientific knowledge to practical purposes. In short, it is

an applied science. It is classified into three kinds, namely:
a. Machines - include tools, gadgets or devices that help us do our activities faster and better.
They make life more pleasant to us to do certain things which we normally cannot do. (e.g.,
airplane, internet, CT scan. and computers.)
b. Products - materials produced or made through artificial or natural means. They make life
more pleasant, more convenient, and more comfortable. (e.g., steel, toothpaste, chemical
fertilizers, and pesticides)
c. Processes - include the ways of doing things. (e.g., food Preservation, prawn culture and
induced fruiting.)
Measurement
International System (SI) of Measurement
Measurement is the process of comparing a quantity with a chosen standard. The International
System (SI) is the system of units that scientists have agreed upon and is legally enforced in almost all
parts of the world. There are seven basic quantities in this system:
Quantity Unit
Length Meters (m)
Mass Kilograms (kg)
Time Seconds (s)
Electric current Amperes (amp)
Temperature Kelvin (K)
Amount of substance Moles
Luminous intensity / light Candelas
Two factors affect the degree of measurements. They are (a.) the ability to use the measuring instruments
properly and (b.) the precision of the instrument. The unit factor method is a systematic technique for solving
numerical problems. The factors are derived from fixed relationships between quantities. The main purpose is
to cancel units not desired using fixed relationships, leaving behind the unit desired. Units of a derived quantity
like density may be inverted to be able to cancel the unit not desired.
Metric Prefixes
Metric prefixes are pretty easy to understand and very handy for metric conversions. You don't have to
know the nature of a unit to convert, for example, from kilo-unit to mega-unit. All metric prefixes are powers of 10.
Prexis Symbol Factor
giga G 109 = 1,000,000,000
mega M 106 = 1,000,000
kilo k 103 = 1,000
hecto h 102 = 100

deka da 101 = 10
deci d 10-1 = 0.1
centi c 10-2 = 0.01
milli m 10-3 = 0.001
micro µ 10-6 = 0.000,001
nano n 10-9 = 0.000,000,001
pico p 10-12 = 0,000,000,000,001

Most people even in the countries where metric system is used only know the most important metric
prefixes like 'kilo' and 'milli'. They are very handy for understanding metric conversions.
Temperature
There are three temperature scales in use today, Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin.
Fahrenheit temperature is a scale based on 32 for the freezing point of water and 212 for the boiling point of water, the
interval between the two being divided into 180 parts. The conversion formula for a temperature that is expressed on the
Celsius (C) scale to its Fahrenheit (F) representation is: F = 9/5C + 32.
Celsius temperature scale also called centigrade temperature scale, is the scale based on 0 for the freezing point of
water and 100 for the boiling point of water. Invented in 1742 by the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, it is sometimes called
the centigrade scale because of the 100-degree interval between the defined points. The following formula can be used to convert
a temperature from its representation on the Fahrenheit ( F) scale to the Celsius (C) value: C = 5/9(F - 32). The Celsius scale is
in general use wherever metric units have become accepted, and it is used in scientific work everywhere.
Kelvin temperature scale is the base unit of thermodynamic temperature measurement in the International System (SI)
of measurement. It is defined as 1/ 273.16 of the triple point (equilibrium among the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases) of pure
water. The Kelvin (symbol K without the degree sign) is also the fundamental unit of the Kelvin scale, an absolute temperature
scale named for the British physicist William Thomson, Baron Kelvin. The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale. The
difference between the freezing and boiling points of water is 100 degrees in each, so that the Kelvin has the same magnitude as
the degree Celsius. To convert Celsius to Kelvin: K = __°C + 273
Volume
Volume refers to the amount of space that an object occupies. It is often used to signify more accurate measurements.
2 cm
VOLUME OF A REGULAR SOLID

2
A regular solid is one having length, width, and thickness or height and each can be measured in a single
straight line. Tomeasure the volume, we use a standard unit of measurement which is the meter. The volume of a
regular solid is obtained by multiplying its length, width and thickness. The volume is expressed in cubic units ( ex. Cubic
meter, cubic cm, etc)
VOLUME OF A LIQUID
Liquid volume is also measured in cubic meters but the use of liter (L) is widely accepted. Graduated cylinder is used
to measure the volume of liquid. In reading the measurement of the volume of clear liquid, read the lower meniscus. For
colored liquids, read the upper meniscus.
Liquid Volume Equivalents
Application: 11dm cm33 = 1liter (L) = a milliliter (mL)
1000 cm3 = 1liter

VOLUME OF AN IRREGULAR SOLID
An irregular solid is one where a dimension cannot be measured in a single straight line. The
2 cm displacement method is used to
determine the volume of irregular solids.
Displacement method used Calculate the volume of the block of wood. by Archimedes: Fill a
container with Given : Solution:
water, put the object in the container L = 2 cm Volume = L x W x T and catch the overflow. Get the W=
2 cm = 8 cm3 volume of the overflow) T= 2 cm
Science I -7-
Application:
A cylinder contains 25.9 mL of water. When a small rock is placed in it, the water rises
to 34.7 mL. What is the volume of the rock?
Given: Solution:
V1 = 25.9 mL Vrock = 34.7 mL – 25.9 mL

V2 = 34.7 mL = 8.8 mL
Density
Density is the mass of the object per unit volume. Substances differ in their densities. Each substance has a specific density.
All materials with a density les than 1 g./cc (density of water) will float on water, and all those with density greater than 1 g/cc
will sink.
D= Mass / Volume (g/cc)
Application:
The volume of an object weighing 2.5 g is 1.4 cc. Will the object float or sink on water
Given : V = 1.4 cc
M= 2.5 g
Solution:
D = M/ V
= 2.5 g / 1.4 cc
= 1.79 g/cc
Answer: the object will sink since it is denser than water. (Density of water = 1 g/cc)
Force
- normally refers to the measurement of a push or a pull
- anything that changes the speed and direction of moving objects or that which causes a
stationary object to start moving in a straight line
MEASURING FORCE
Gravitational force is the pull that the earth exerts on all objects and is measured by the weight of an
object. Some instruments for measuring weight are : the bathroom scale and the balance (or kilohan) you often see
in the market.
TYPES OF FORCES
Gravitational force – downward force that the earth exerts on objects

a. Inertia – tendency of an object to remain at rest or maintain its motion unless disturbed by a
force
b. Friction- resists / opposes the relative sliding movement of two surfaces in contact with one
another.
c. Centripetal force – drive a thing inward toward a center or rotation. It keeps an object moving in
a circular path.
d. Force of Gravity – that which is acting on an object which enables it to exert an equal and
opposite force on its support.
Nuclear Force- the strongest known force which holds together the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom.
Electromagnetic Force- binds electrons to the atomic nucleus, atoms in the molecules, ions in solid matter, and
molecules into iquids and solids.
MASS vs WEIGHT
Mass indicates the quantity of matter in a material object. It does not change, thus it a property that is
constant. It is measured in a unit called kilogram. Weight on the other hand, is th measure of the pull of gravity on
an object. On earth, it depends on the mass of the object and its distance from the venter of the earth. The greater
the mass of an object, the greater is its weight. The closer is to the center of the earth, the greater is its weight.
Weight is expressed in N unit. 100g = 1N.
Work
In science, work is done only when the force applied to an object actually moves the object in the
direction of the force. This is represented as:
WORK = force x displacement
Force- anything that causes motion or a change in motion

Displacement – the distance and direction through hich an object is moved
CALCULATING THE AMOUNT OF WORK
W = F x d
(Newton) ( meter)
= Newton-meter or joule
Application:
How much work do you do by pushing a sack of rice with a force of 50 N across a
distance of 10 meters?
Given: F= 50 N
D = 10 m
Solution:
W= F x d
= 50 N x 10 m
= 500 Nm or 500 J
* note : 100 g = 1 N
Machines
Machine is any mechanical device that we use yo help us do our work, or make our work easier
Simple Machines – machines that have only one or two parts

Compound Machines – machines that make use of or more simple machines
SIMPLE MACHINES
a. Lever – any rigid body which is pivoted about a point called fulcrum (e.g. crowbar, hammer,
pliers, nutcracker, tongs, table knife, baseball bat)
b. Pulley- a wheel with a grooved rim over which a rope passes.( as in flag pole)
c. Wheel and axle – consists of a wheel attached to an axle so that if you push on the wheel, the
axle turns also ( e.g. doorknob, eggbeater, screw driver)
d. Inclined plane –a flat surface with one and higher than the other. The longer it is in relation to
its height, the larger is its mechanical advantage (e.g. plank, ladder, winding road)
e. Wedge – an inclined plane with either one or two sloping sides. The smaller the angle of the
wedge,the greater the mechanical advantage ( nail,scissors, chisel, knife)
f. Screw – spiral inclined planes.Works by transferring force exerted on the circumference of the
screw (food grinder, metal screws)
Energy
The term energy is derived from the Greek word, energeial (en meaning in and ergon , meaning
work). Anything that is able to do work possess energy. Energy is the ability to do work or the ability to exert force
on an object and make it move.
FORMS OF ENERGY
a. Mechanical Energy kinetic energy – energy possessed by an object or a body in
motion potential energy- energy possessed by a body because of its position or state b.
Internal Energy or Thermal Energy – total energy coming from the attractive and
repulsive forces of all the particles or molecules in a body
c. Heat Energy – energy which flows from one body to another due to a temperature
difference between them, and the flow is always from the hotter to the colder body
d. Electrical Energy – electricity is the energy of electrons flowing through conductors,
like copper wires and aluminum wires.
e. Chemical Energy – energy stored in matter due to forces of attraction and to the
arrangement of subatomic particles in atoms and of atoms in the molecules of substances.
f. Radiant Energy – energy of the electromagnetic waves , radio waves, infrared rays,
visible light, ultraviolet rays, x rays and gamma rays.
g. Nuclear Energy – energy released from nuclear fusion or fission of atomic nuclei of
heavy element or light element.
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Conduction
The molecules in a material are always moving. When one part of a material is heated, the molecules in
that part move faster and collide with other molecules. As this goes on, heat is conducted from molecule to
molecule until the heat is spread throughout the material. This is conduction. A conductor is the material through
which heat passes easily. An insulator is a material that conducts heat poorly.
Convection
The movement of a gas or liquid brought about by temperature differences creates a convection current.
Heat is transferred by Convection when a gas or liquid moves from one place to another.
Radiation
Heat transfer when heat is given of in all directions around them is radiation. The sun and other hot objects
radiates energy.
ENERGY RESOURCES
a. Fossil Fuels
1. Coal – being mined formed from trees and other vegetation buried in swamps crated by the
encroaching sea
2. Petroleum - a liquid mixture of gaseous liquid and solid hydrocarbons.
3. Natural Gas- composed entirely of carbon and hydrogen. It is 50 to 94% methane and other
hydrocarbons.
4.
b. Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric power pertains to the production of electricity by means of generators driven by water
turbines.
c. Geothermal Energy - Thermal energy inside the earth, energy of steam from beneath the earth’s surface
d. Wind Energy- energy harnessed through the windmill
e. Solar Energy- energy from the sun, radiant energy. The visible light is harnessed to produce the electricity by
means of so-called solar cells or photovoltaic cells, which generate eletricity when exposed to sunlight
Earth
Formation of the Earth
BIG BANG
In the beginning there is only a super-massive gaseous point in our empty universe. Instantaneously and
randomly, enough energy is created to break the gravitational bond holding this massive body together, exploding
the super-heated particles throughout space. In less than one millionth of a second, protons, neutrons, electrons,
and their anti-particles begin to form.
As time moves on, particles begin to cool by giving off energy, which allows them to combine to create
the first and most simple ion, hydrogen, as well as a few more massive atoms. More time passes; the atoms are
becoming more abundant in the universe. They begin to pull together through atomic forces and the gravitational
force. Gaseous bodies become more massive, attracting more atoms and becoming more massive. The gravitational
force of these early bodies is so great that they collapse in on themselves, beginning fusion.
Hydrogen atoms combine, yielding larger atoms and enormous amounts of energy; enough energy to
keep these stars from collapsing. Eventually, the fusion process has to end and the star will explode, sending out
more massive atoms into the universe. Over time, these atoms collect and combine to create planets, smaller stars,
asteroids, and numerous other solid bodies.
FORMATION OF SOLAR SYSTEM
As matter began to condense and stars began to form, one such star appeared where the Sun now appears
within the Milky Way Galaxy. After igniting with fusion and burning its usable hydrogen and other larger
elements, the star exploded, sending matter out in all directions. Once again, through gravitational forces, this
matter eventually cooled and collected in a few key areas, forming the planets and the asteroid belt. The asteroid
belt is simply an early form of the collection of matter that was not able to completely form a planet due to
Jupiter's gravity. Some early planets may have collided with other early planets, creating larger planets, moons, or
possibly space rocks. In the meantime, a smaller star began to form at the center of the previous explosion and our
Sun started its fusion process again.
Earth’s Structure
The earth consists of several layers. The three main layers are the core, the mantle and the crust. The
core is the inner part of the earth, the crust is the outer part and between them is the mantle. The earth is
surrounded by the atmosphere. Till this moment it hasn't been possible to take a look inside the earth because the
current technology doesn't allow it. Therefore all kinds of research had to be done to find which material the earth
consists, what different layers there are and which influence those have (had) on the earth's surface. This research
is called seismology.
THE CORE - The inner part
of the earth is the core. This part
of the earth is about 1,800 miles
(2,900 km) below the earth's
surface. The core is a dense ball
of the elements iron and nickel. It
is divided into two layers, the
inner core and the outer core. The
inner core - the center of earth - is
solid and about 780 miles (1,250
km) thick. The outer core is so hot
that the metal is always molten,
but the inner core pressures are so
great that it cannot melt, even
though temperatures there reach
6700ºF (3700ºC). The outer core
is about 1370 miles (2,200 km)
thick. Because the earth rotates,
the outer core spins around the
inner
core and that causes the earth's
magnetism
THE MANTLE - The layer

above the core is the mantle. It
begins about 6 miles (10 km)
below the oceanic crust and about 19 miles (30 km) below the continental crust (see The Crust). The mantle is to
divide into the inner mantle and the outer mantle. It is about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) thick and makes up nearly 80
percent of the Earth's total volume.
THE CRUST - The crust lies above the mantle and is the earth's hard outer shell, the surface on which we are
living. In relation with the other layers the crust is much thinner. It floats upon the softer, denser mantle. The crust
is made up of solid material but these material is not everywhere the same. There is an Oceanic crust and a
Continental crust. The first one is about 4-7 miles (6-11 km) thick and consists of heavy rocks, like basalt. The
Continental crust is thicker than the Oceanic crust, about 19 miles (30 km) thick. It is mainly made up of light
material, like granite.
Plate Tectonics
The earth's crust consists of a number of moving pieces or plates that are always colliding or pulling
apart. The Lithosphere consists of nine large plates and twelve smaller ones. The continents are imbedded in
continental plates; the oceanic plates make up much of the sea floor. The study of Tectonic plates - called plate
tectonics - helps to explain continental drift, the spreading of the sea floor, volcanic eruptions and how mountains
are formed. The force that causes the movement of the tectonic plates may be the slow churning of the mantle
beneath them. Mantle rock is constantly moved upwards to the surface by the high temperatures below and then
sinks by cooling. This cycle takes millions of years.
Continental drift
The drift of the plates across the surface of the earth has been going on over millions of years, which still changes
the outward appearance of the earth. When you look at the map of the world, you see how well the east coast of
North and South America fits into the west coast of Europe and Africa. Over millions of years these continents
have slowly drifted apart. (continental drift).
Diverging plates
Where plates pull apart, hot molten rock (fluid magma) emerges as lava and so new matter is added to the plates.
In this way new oceanic plates are formed. The place where this happens is known as a mid-ocean ridge. Mid-
ocean ridges are rarely more than about 4,920 ft. (1,500 m) high, but they may snake along the ocean bed for
thousands of miles. Beneath each of the world's great oceans there is a mid-ocean ridge. An example is the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge in the Atlantic Ocean, which stretches from the North Pole to the South Pole. Mid-ocean ridges are
areas of much volcanic and earthquake activity.
Converging plates:
In many places the huge plates of the earth's surface are slowly moving together with unimaginable force.
Sometimes the edge of one plate is gradually destroyed by the force of collision, sometimes the impact simply
crimps the plates' edges, thereby creating great mountain ranges.
When one tectonic plate bends beneath the other, it is called subduction. Most of the time this happens because a
dense oceanic plate collides with a lighter continental plate. You can see this along the Pacific coast of
SouthAmerica. The oceanic plate dips beneath into the Asthenosphere. Through the heat of the Asthenosphere the
subducted plate melts. At the surface an ocean trench is created, followed by an arc of islands. In this area also
volcanic activities and earthquakes occur.
Seafloor Spreading
Studies show that volcanic activity under the sea causes magma from beneath the earth’s crust to rise to the
surface, forming a very long ridge along the middle of the oceans that separate the large continents.
When continental plates collide, one of the plates splits up into two layers: a lower layer of dense mantle
rock and an upper layer of lighter crystal rock. As the mantle layer subducts, the upper layer is peeled off and
crumples up against the other plate, thus forming mountain ranges, like the Alps. These are called crumpled
mountains.
DIASTROPHISM – the process which involves movements of the earth’s crust such that a portion id pushed
up, push down or forced sideways
Folding – the process when the sideward forces acting on rocks deform the rocks into
wavelike folds after tilting, bending of wrinkling.
Faulting sliding or moving over of rock layers over one another along the break or fracture,
may occur vertically or horizontally.
Volcanoes
A Volcano is a gap in the earth where molten rock and other materials come to the earth's surface. Some
volcanoes are just cracks in the earth's crusts. Others are weak places in the earth's crust, which occur on places
where magma bubbles up through the crust and comes to the earth's surface. Magma is molten rock that occurs by
partial melting of the crust and the mantle by high temperatures deep down in the ground. Once magma comes to
the earth's surface it is called lava.
ACTIVE AND NON-ACTIVE VOLCANOES
There are volcanoes in different phases of activity: Active volcanoes, which are likely to erupt at any moment,
dormant volcanoes, which lie dormant for centuries, but then erupt suddenly and violently, and extinct volcanoes,
ones no longer likely to erupt.
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
The ordinary volcanoes can be divided in different types, relating to their forms:
The shield volcano: This is a broad, shallow volcanic cone, which arises
because the running lava, which is fluid and hot, cools
slowly.
The dome volcano: This one has a steep, convex slope from thick,
fastcooling lava
The ash-cinder volcano: Throws out - besides lava - much ash into the air.
Through this the volcanic cone is built up from alternate
layers of ash and cinder.
The composite volcano: These are also built up from alternate layers of lava and
ash but, besides its main crater, it has many little craters
on its slope.
The caldera volcano: An older volcano with a large crater which can be 62
miles(100km) wide. In this crater many little new
craters are formed.
Earthquakes
An Earthquake is in fact the shaking of the ground caused by sudden movements in the earth's crust. The
biggest earthquakes are set off by the movement of tectonic plates. Some plates slide past each other gently, but
others can cause a heavy pressure on the rocks, so they finally crack and slide past each other. By this, vibrations
or shock waves are caused, which go through the ground. It is these vibrations or seismic waves which cause an
earthquake. The closer to the source of the earthquake (the focus or hypocenter), the more damage occurs.
Earthquakes are classified according to the depth of the focus.
0-43 miles (0-70 km) below ground: shallow earthquakes
43-186 miles (70-300 km) below ground: intermediate earthquakes
deeper than 186 miles (300 km) below ground: deep earthquakes
The closer the focus to the surface, the heavier the earthquake. The earthquake is always the most intense
on the surface directly above the focus (Epicenter). In general big earthquakes begin with light vibrations
(foreshocks). These are the initial fractures in the rocks. After the main shock, there may be minor aftershocks,
most of the time for months. This occurs as the rocks settle down.
Rocks
Rocks are classified in three types based on how they are formed.
a. Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) from within Earth cools and solidifies. There are
two types: intrusive igneous rocks solidify beneath Earth's surface; extrusive igneous rocks solidify at the
surface. Examples: Granite, basalt, obsidian
b. Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment (bits of rock plus material such as shells and sand) gets
packed together. They can take millions of years to form. Most rocks that you see on the ground are
sedimentary. Examples: Limestone, sandstone, shale
c. Metamorphic rocks are sedimentary or igneous rocks that have been transformed by heat, pressure or
both. Metamorphic rocks are usually formed deep within Earth, during a process such as mountain
building. Examples: Schist, marble, slate
THE ROCK CYCLE
The three major types of rocks, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks are interrelated by a series
of natural processes. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and crystallization of hot molten lava and magma.
Igneous rocks undergo weathering and erosion to form sediments. Sediments are deposited and lithified by
compaction and cementation to form sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rock become buried by additional
sedimentary deposition, and when they are deep within the Earth, they are subjected to heat and pressure which
causes them to become metamorphic rocks. With further burial and heating, the metamorphic rocks begin to melt.
Partially molten metamorphic rocks are known as migmatite. As melting proceeds with increasing temperatures
and depths of burial, eventually the rock becomes molten and becomes magma, which cools and crystallizes to
form plutonic igneous rock, or which is erupted onto the Earth's surface as lava, and cools and crystallizes to form
volcanic igneous rock.
Further complications within the rock cycle include (1) weathering of sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks (in addition to igneous rocks), and (2) metamorphism of igneous rocks and repeated metamorphism of
metamorphic rocks.
WEATHERING – Breaking down of rocks brought about by either physial or chemical means giving rise to
sediments or ther rock fragments
Types of Weathering
A. Physical or mechanical weathering
• Frost wedging - water expands when it freezes

• Exfoliation or unloading - o rock breaks off into leaves or sheets along joints which
parallel the ground surface; o caused by expansion of rock due to uplift and erosion; removal
of pressure of deep burial;
• Thermal expansion - o repeated daily heating and cooling of rock; o heat causes expansion;
cooling causes contraction.
o different minerals expand and contract at different rates causing stresses along mineral
boundaries.
B. Chemical weathering
Rock reacts with water, gases and solutions (may be acidic); will add or remove elements from minerals.
Dissolution (or solution) -
o Several common minerals dissolve in water

halite calcite o Limestone and marble contain
calcite and are soluble in acidic water
o Marble tombstones and carvings are particularly susceptible to chemical weathering by
dissolution. Note that the urn and tops of ledges are heavily weathered, but the inscriptions are
somewhat sheltered and remain legible. o Caves and caverns typically form in limestone
speleothems are cave formations
speleothems are made of calcite
form a rock called travertine
stalactites - hang from ceiling
stalagmites - on the ground
o Karst topography forms on limestone terrain and is characterized by:
caves/caverns,
sinkholes,
disappearing streams,
springs
Oxidation o Oxygen combines with iron-bearing silicate minerals causing

"rusting" o Iron oxides are produced . Iron oxides are red, orange, or brown
in color
o Mafic rocks such as basalt (which may contain olivine, pyroxene, or amphibole) weather by
oxidation to an orange color
o "Georgia Red Clay" derives its color from the oxidation of iron bearing minerals Hydrolysis
C. Biological weathering
Organisms can assist in breaking down rock into sediment or soil.
1. Roots of trees and other plants

2. Lichens, fungi, and other micro-organisms
3. Animals (including humans)
EROSION- the process by which rock fragments and sediments are carried along by such agents as wind and
running water
DEPOSITION- the process by which rock fragments and sediments ae carried by agents of erosion are dropprd
or deposited in other places.
COMPACTING – the process by which rock fragments and other materials that accumulated, usually at the
bottom of a thick column of water, get cemented together and harden into rock
METAMORPHISM - a change in constitution of a rock brought about by pressure, heat and chemical action
resulting in a more compact and highly crystalline condition of the rock.
MELTING COOLING AND SOLIDIFYING
Minerals and Gems

Minerals are solid, inorganic (not living) substances that are found in and on earth. Most are chemical
compounds, which means they are made up of two or more elements. For example, the mineral sapphire is made
up of aluminum and oxygen. A few minerals, such as gold, silver and copper, are made from a single element.
Minerals are considered the building blocks of rocks. Rocks can be a combination of as many as six minerals.
Many minerals, such as gold and silver, are very valuable because they are beautiful and rare. Limestone,
clay and quartz are other examples of minerals.
Gems are minerals or pearls that have been cut and polished. They are used as ornaments, such as jewelry.
Precious stones are the most valuable gems. They include diamonds, rubies and emeralds
Atmosphere
What is Atmosphere?
The earth is surrounded by all kind of gases. This layer is called the earth's Atmosphere. Without this
atmosphere life on earth isn't possible. It gives us air, water, heat, and protects us against harmful rays of the sun
and against meteorites.
This layer around the earth is a colorless, odorless, tasteless 'sea' of gases, water and fine dust. The
atmosphere is made up of different layers with different qualities. It consists of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent
oxygen, 0.93 percent argon, 0.03 percent carbon dioxide and 0.04 percent of other gases.
The Troposphere is the layer where the weather happens. Above this layer is the Stratosphere and in between them
is the Ozone layer, that absorbs the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. Above the Stratosphere is the Mesosphere, the
Thermosphere including the Ionosphere - and the Exosphere. The atmosphere measures about 500 miles (800km).
Layers of the Atmosphere
THE TROPOSPHERE
The Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and measures about 7 miles(12 km). It contains
over 75 percent of all the atmosphere's gases and vast quantities of water and dust. As the sun heats the ground, it
keeps this thick mixture churning. The weather is caused by these churnings of the mass. The troposphere is
normally warmest at ground level and cools higher up where it reaches its upper boundary (the tropopause). The
tropopause varies in height. At the equator it is at 11.2 miles(8 km) high, at 50 N and 50 S, 5.6 miles(9 km) and at
the poles 3.7 miles(6 km) high.
STRATOSPHERE
The Stratosphere extends from the tropopause up to its boundary (the Stratopause), 31 miles(50 km)
above the Earth's surface. In this layer there is 19 percent of the atmosphere's gases and it contains little water
vapour. Compared to the troposphere it is calm in this layer. The movements of the gases are slow. Within the
stratosphere is the ozone layer, a band of ozone gas, that absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. The higher
you get in the atmosphere, the warmer the air gets. The temperature rises from -76 ºF(-60 ºC) at the bottom to a
maximum of about 5 ºF(10 ºC) at the stratopause.
MESOSPHERE
The mesosphere is the next layer above the stratopause and extends to its upper boundary (the
Mesopause), at 50 miles(80 km) above the ground. The gases in the mesosphere are too thin to absorb much of the
sun's heat. Although the air is still thick enough to slow down meteorites hurtling into the atmosphere. They burn
up, leaving fiery trails in the night sky. The temperatures in the mesosphere drop to -184 ºF(-120 ºC) at the
mesopause.
THERMOSPHERE
The Thermosphere is the layer above the mesopause. The gases of the thermosphere are even thinner than
those in the mesosphere, but they absorb ultraviolet light from the sun. Because of this, the temperatures rise to
3,600 ºF (2,000 ºC) at the top. This is at a height of 430 miles (700 km) of the earth's surface. In the thermosphere
is a separate layer, the Ionosphere. This layer extends of 62 miles(100 km) to 190 miles(300 km) of the earth's
surface.
IONOSPHERE
The ionosphere is part of the thermosphere. It is made of electrically charged gas particles (ionised). The
particles get this electric charge by ultraviolet rays of the sun. The ionosphere has the important quality of bouncing
radio signals, transmitted from the earth. That’s why places all over the world can be reached via radio.
EXOSPHERE
The Exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere and extends from 430 miles (700 km) to 500
miles (800 km) above the ground. In this layer gases get thinner and thinner and drift off into space.
What influence does the Atmosphere have?

The atmosphere is of vital importance for life on earth. Without atmosphere life would be impossible. It
gives us air to breathe and protects us from meteorites and ultraviolet rays from the sun. The atmosphere absorbs
so much heat that temperatures on earth are such that life is possible. The weather, that exists by constant
circulation of water to water vapor, to rain to water. This cycle causes, together with the differences in temperature
and circulation of air (wind), erosion of the earth's surface. By erosion the outside of the earth changes through the
years.
Air
AIR MOVEMENT
Warm air is less dense than cold air. Thus, warm air rises above cold air making the pressure below
lower. The horizontal movement of air from high pressure area to lower pressure area produces wind.
SEA BREEZES AND LAND BREEZES
When spending a day at the beach, a noticeable drop in temperature may occur during the early afternoon
as a cool breeze begins to blow off of the water. This wind is known as the "sea breeze", which occurs in response
to differences in temperature between a body of water and neighboring land.
Sea-breeze circulations most often occur on warm sunny days during the spring and summer when the
temperature of the land is normally higher than the temperature of the water. During the early morning hours, the
land and the water start out at roughly the same temperature. On a calm morning, a given pressure surface will be
at the same height above both the land and water.
A few hours later, the sun's energy begins to warm the land more rapidly than the water. By later in the
day, the temperatures of the land increases while the temperature of the water remains relatively constant. This
occurs because water, especially large bodies of water like a lake or ocean, are able to absorb more energy than land
without warming.
It is important to remember that the air is not heated directly from above by the sun. In fact, most of the
incoming solar energy actually passes right through the atmosphere. However, as the land absorbs this energy, heat
is radiated back into the atmosphere (from the earth), warming the overlying air. Some of this heat is transported to
higher levels in the atmosphere through convection.
On the other hand, since the temperature of the water remains relatively constant throughout the day, the
air over the water is not heated from below (as over land), resulting in lower air temperatures over the water.
On clear, calm evenings, temperature differences between a body of water and neighboring land produce
a cool wind that blows offshore. This wind is called a "land breeze". Land breezes are strongest along the
immediate coastline but weaken considerably further inland.
Land-breeze circulations can occur at any time of year, but are most common during the fall and winter
seasons when water temperatures are still fairly warm and nights are cool.
On clear and calm evenings, the earth's surface cools by radiating (giving off) heat back into space, and
this results in a cooling of the immediately overlying air.
Since the air over land cools more rapidly than the air over water, a temperature difference is
established, with cooler air present over land and relatively warmer air located over water.
AIR POLLUTION
When large amount of dust, soot, bacteria, and other harmful gases get into the air, air is being polluted.
Today, the main sources of air pollution in the Philippines are : 1) industry and 2) transportation. Major Air
Pollutants
Pollutant Sources Effects
Ozone is not created directly,

but is formed when nitrogen Ozone near the ground can
oxides and volatile organic cause a number of health
compounds mix in sunlight. problems. Ozone can lead to
Ozone. A gas that can be found
That is why ozone is mostly more frequent asthma
in two places. Near the ground
found in the summer. Nitrogen attacks in people who have
(the troposphere), it is a major
oxides come from burning asthma and can cause sore
part of smog. Higher in the air
gasoline, coal, or other fossil throats, coughs, and
(the stratosphere), it helps block
fuels. There are many types of breathing difficulty. It may
radiation from the sun.
volatile organic compounds, even lead to premature
and they come from sources death. Ozone can also hurt
ranging from factories to trees. plants and crops.
Carbon monoxide is released Carbon monoxide makes it
when engines burn fossil fuels. hard for body parts to get the
Emissions are higher when oxygen they need to run
engines are not tuned properly, correctly. Exposure to
Carbon monoxide. A gas that
and when fuel is not carbon monoxide makes
comes from the burning of fossil
completely burned. Cars emit a people feel dizzy and tired
fuels, mostly in cars. It cannot be
lot of the carbon monoxide and gives them headaches.
seen or smelled.
found outdoors. Furnaces and Elderly people with heart
heaters in the home can emit disease are hospitalized
high concentrations of carbon more often when they are
monoxide, too, if they are not exposed to higher amounts
properly maintained. of carbon monoxide.
High levels of nitrogen

dioxide exposure can give
Nitrogen dioxide mostly
people coughs and can make
comes from power plants and
them feel short of breath.
cars. Nitrogen dioxide is
People who are exposed to
formed in two ways—when
Nitrogen dioxide. A nitrogen dioxide for a long
nitrogen in the fuel is burned,
reddishbrown gas that comes time have a higher chance of
or when nitrogen in the air
from the burning of fossil fuels. It getting respiratory
reacts with oxygen at very high
has a strong smell at high levels. infections. Nitrogen dioxide
temperatures. Nitrogen dioxide
reacts in the atmosphere to
can also react in the
form acid rain, which can
atmosphere to form ozone,
harm plants and animals.
acid rain, and particles.
Particulate matter can be

divided into two types— Particulate matter that is
Particulate matter. Solid or coarse particles and fine small enough can enter the
liquid matter that is suspended in particles. Coarse particles are lungs and cause health
the air. To remain in the air, formed from sources like road problems. Some of these
particles usually must be less than dust, sea spray, and problems include more
0.1-mm wide and can be as small construction. Fine particles are frequent asthma attacks,
as 0.00005 mm. formed when fuel is burned in respiratory problems, and
automobiles and power plants. premature death.
Sulfur dioxide exposure can

affect people who have
Sulfur dioxide mostly comes
asthma or emphysema by
from the burning of coal or oil
making it more difficult for
in power plants. It also comes
Sulfur dioxide. A corrosive gas them to breathe. It can also
from factories that make
that cannot be seen or smelled at irritate people's eyes, noses,
chemicals, paper, or fuel. Like
low levels but can have a “rotten and throats. Sulfur dioxide
nitrogen dioxide, sulfur
egg” smell at high levels. can harm trees and crops,
dioxide reacts in the
damage buildings, and make
atmosphere to form acid rain
it harder for people to see
and particles.
long distances.
Lead. A blue-gray metal that is Outside, lead comes from High amounts of lead can
very toxic and is found in a cars in areas where unleaded be dangerous for small
number of forms and locations. gasoline is not used. Lead can children and can lead to
also come from power plants lower IQs and kidney
and other industrial sources. problems. For adults,
Inside, lead paint is an exposure to lead can
important source of lead, increase the chance of
especially in houses where having heart attacks or
paint is peeling. Lead in old strokes.
pipes can also be a source of
lead in drinking water.
Each toxic air pollutant comes
from a slightly different
source, but many are created in
Toxic air pollutants can
Toxic air pollutants. A large chemical plants or are emitted
cause cancer. Some toxic air
number of chemicals that are when fossil fuels are burned.
pollutants can also cause
known or suspected to cause Some toxic air pollutants, like
birth defects. Other effects
cancer. Some important asbestos and formaldehyde,
depend on the pollutant, but
pollutants in this category include can be found in building
can include skin and eye
arsenic, asbestos, benzene, and materials and can lead to
irritation and breathing
dioxin. indoor air problems. Many
problems.
toxic air pollutants can also
enter the food and water
supply.
If the ozone in the
CFCs are used in air
stratosphere is destroyed,
Stratospheric ozone depleters. conditioners and refrigerators, people are exposed to more
Chemicals that can destroy the since they work well as radiation from the sun
ozone in the stratosphere. These coolants. They can also be (ultraviolet radiation). This
chemicals include found in aerosol cans and fire can lead to skin cancer and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), extinguishers. Other eye problems. Higher
halons, and other compounds that stratospheric ozone depleters ultraviolet radiation can also
include chlorine or bromine. are used as solvents in harm plants and animals.
industry.
The greenhouse effect can

Carbon dioxide is the most lead to changes in the
Greenhouse gases. Gases that important greenhouse gas. It climate of the planet. Some
stay in the air for a long time and comes from the burning of of these changes might
warm up the planet by trapping fossil fuels in cars, power include more temperature
sunlight. This is called the plants, houses, and industry. extremes, higher sea levels,
“greenhouse effect” because the Methane is released during the changes in forest
gases act like the glass in a processing of fossil fuels, and composition, and damage to
greenhouse. Some of the also comes from natural land near the coast. Human
important greenhouse gases are sources like cows and rice health might be affected by
carbon dioxide, methane, and paddies. Nitrous oxide comes diseases that are related to
nitrous oxide. from industrial sources and temperature or by damage to
decaying plants. land and water.
Weather and Climate
WEATHER- describes the condition of the atmosphere in a particular time (cool and dry, humid, windy, rainy,
or stormy)
CLIMATE- average weather in a region over a number of years or usually decades (tropical)
CLOUDS - little drops of water or ice hanging in the atmosphere. A ceilometer measures the height of clouds.
Cloud Type Descriptive Name Description
Cirrus Mare's tails thin, feathery
Cirrocumulus Mackerel sky small patches of white
Cirrostratus Bed sheet clouds thin, white sheets
Stratus High fogs low, gray blanket
Cumulus Cauliflowers flat-bottomed, white puffy
Cumulonimbus Thunderheads mountains of heavy, dark clouds
Winds
WIND SYSTEMS
The major wind systems in the Philippines are
a. Northeast Trade Winds – from north, north east and east

b. Southwest Monsoon (habagat) – originates from Southeast Trade winds south of the equator
c. Northeast monsoon (amihan)- from east, south east
CYCLONES – low pressure areas in the tropics
a. tropical depresssion- with wind speed of less than 63 kph

b. trpical storm – with wind speed of 63-118 kph
c. typhoon – with wind speed of more than 118 lph
Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms affect small areas when compared with hurricanes and winter storms. The typical
thunderstorm is 15 miles in diameter and lasts an average of 30 minutes. Nearly 1,800 thunderstorms are
happening at any moment around the world. That's 16 million a year!
Despite their small size, all thunderstorms are dangerous. Every thunderstorm produces lightning, which
kills more people each year than tornadoes. Strong winds, hail, and tornadoes are also dangers associated with
some thunderstorms.
You can estimate how many miles away a storm is by counting the number of seconds between the
flash of lightning and the clap of thunder. Divide the number of seconds by five to get the distance in miles.
The lightning is seen before the thunder is heard because light travels faster than sound.
Thunderstorms need three things:
• Moisture—to form clouds and rain.

• Unstable Air—relatively warm air that can rise rapidly.
• Lift—fronts, sea breezes and mountains are capable of lifting air to help form thunderstorms.
Lightning
The action of rising and descending air within a thunderstorm separates positive and negative charges.
Water and ice particles also affect the distribution of electrical charge. Lightning results from the buildup and
discharge of electrical energy between positively and negatively charged areas. Most lightning occurs within the
cloud or between the cloud and ground.
The average flash of lightning could turn on a 100-watt light bulb for more than 3 months. The air
near a lightning strike is hotter than the surface of the sun! The rapid heating and cooling of air near the
lightning channel causes a shock wave that results in thunder.
Your chances of being struck by lightning are estimated to be 1 in 600,000 but those chances can be
reduced by following safety rules. Most lightning deaths and injuries occur when people are caught outdoors,
and most happen in the summer. Many fires in the western United States and Alaska are started by lightning. In
the past 10 years, more than 15,000 fires have been started by lightning.
The Ozone Layer

Ozone is a molecule containing three oxygen atoms. It is blue in color and has a strong odor. Normal
oxygen, which we breathe, has two oxygen atoms and is colorless and odorless. Ozone is much less common than
normal oxygen. Out of each 10 million air molecules, about 2 million are normal oxygen, but only 3 are ozone.
However, even the small amount of ozone plays a key role in the atmosphere. The ozone layer absorbs a
portion of the radiation from the sun, preventing it from reaching the planet's surface. Most importantly, it absorbs
the portion of ultraviolet light called UVB. UVB has been linked to many harmful effects, including various types
of skin cancer, cataracts, and harm to some crops, certain materials, and some forms of marine life.
At any given time, ozone molecules are constantly formed and destroyed in the stratosphere. The total
amount, however, remains relatively stable. While ozone concentrations vary naturally with sunspots, the seasons,
and latitude, these processes are well understood and predictable. Each natural reduction in ozone levels has been
followed by a recovery. Recently, however, convincing scientific evidence has shown that the ozone shield is
being depleted well beyond changes due to natural processes.
CFCs - are stable substances that only exposure to strong UV radiation breaks them down. When that
happens, the CFC molecule releases atomic chlorine. One chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000 ozone
molecules. The net effect is to destroy ozone faster than it is naturally created.
Astronomy
The Universe
How old is the universe? What is it made of? For the first time, scientists have clarity.
• 13.7 billion years: Age of the universe

• 200 million years: Interval between the Big Bang and the appearance of the first stars
• 4%: Proportion of the universe that is ordinary matter
• 23%: Proportion that is dark matter
• 73%: Proportion that is dark energy
COLORS OF THE UNIVERSE
Blue Planets - Earth, Neptune, and Uranus are all blue because of gases in their atmosphere.
Blue Stars - These are the hottest stars, with a surface temperature of more than 37,000°F.
Yellow Stars - These are warm stars, such as the Sun. Their temperature is about 10,000°F.
Red Stars- The coolest stars are red. Their surface temperature is less than 5,500°F.
Red Shift - When light coming from a distant star is seen through a spectroscope (an instrument that separates
light into its different colors); the light we receive continues to shift toward the red area of the spectrum, which is
the least powerful. This means that, since the light is becoming weaker and weaker, the stars must be traveling
away from us. This makes scientists believe that our universe is expanding.
Red Spot - A swirling cloud on the planet Jupiter is a raging storm of gases, mainly red phosphorus.
Space Glossary
Galaxies are immense systems containing billions of stars. Astronomers have estimated that the universe could
contain 40 to 50 billion galaxies. Galaxies have different shapes: some are spiral, others are elliptical, or ovalshaped,
and some are irregular.
The Milky Way is our own galaxy. Just about all that you can see in the sky belongs to our galaxy—a system of
roughly 200 billion stars. The Milky Way is a spiral-shaped galaxy about 100,000 light-years in diameter and about
10,000 light-years in thickness.
The solar system is made up of the Sun (solar means sun) at its center, the nine planets that orbit it, and the various
satellites, asteroids, comets, and meteorites that are also controlled by the Sun's gravitational pull.
The Sun is the closest star to Earth and the center of our solar system. Every second, it converts 49 million tons
(45 million metric tons) of matter into pure energy, which reaches us in the form of light. The Sun weighs more
than 300,000 times as much as Earth and is 109 times larger.
Sunspots appear as dark spots on the Sun, and are believed to be cooler than the rest of the Sun. They appear in 11-
year cycles.
Planet is the term used for a body in orbit around the Sun. The word comes from the Greek planetes, and means
“wanderers.” Our solar system has nine planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune,
and Pluto. An easy way to remember their names in the correct order is to keep in mind the following sentence:
My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nine Pickles. The first letter of each word is the first letter of each
planet. Since 1994, evidence has been found that planets also exist beyond our solar system. At least 10 planets
existing in other solar systems have been discovered.
Satellite (or moon) is the term for a body in orbit around a planet. As long as our own Moon was the only moon
known, there was no need for a general term for the moons of planets. But when Galileo Galilei discovered the
four main moons of the planet Jupiter, Johannes Kepler wrote Galileo a letter suggesting he call them “satellites”
(from the Latin satelles, which means attendant). The word means the same thing as “moon.”
Orbit is the term for the path traveled by a body in space. It comes from the Latin orbis, which means circle. Some
orbits are nearly circular, but the orbits of most planets are ellipses—shaped like ovals.
Asteroids, also known as the minor planets, are small bodies orbiting the Sun that resemble planets. More than
5,000 asteroids have been discovered, and most are found between Mars and Jupiter. Usually having an irregular
shape, asteroids—at least those discovered thus far—can range in size from 580 miles (940 km) in diameter, which
is the size of the asteroid Ceres, to just 33 ft. (10 m) in diameter.
Comets are made up of frozen dust and gases, and have been described as large, dirty snowballs with icy centers.
They often travel on extremely elongated orbits around the Sun. Some comets have orbits that take just 10 years to
circumnavigate while other comets have orbits that take hundreds of thousands of years to circulate. The tail of a
comet, called a coma, forms when the comet comes within 100 million miles of the Sun. It is then affected by the
solar wind (hydrogen and helium that travel away from the Sun at high speeds), which causes a tail of dust and
gases to form behind the comet.
Meteors are fragments of comets, planets, moons, or asteroids that have broken off. It is estimated that a billion
meteors enter our atmosphere every day. Contact with our atmosphere causes most to disintegrate before reaching
Earth. Those that do not disintegrate completely but fall to Earth are called meteorites.
Stars are composed of intensely hot gasses, deriving their energy from nuclear reactions going on in their interiors.
Our Sun is the nearest star. Stars are very large — some are even bigger than planets. Our Sun has a diameter of
865,400 miles—making it a comparatively small star.
White dwarfs occur when a star runs out of energy and shuts down. The force of gravity at its center pulls the mass
of the star in on itself, forcing it to collapse. It resembles the glowing cinders of a fire that has died down. It is
called a white dwarf because it emits a white glow.
Brown Dwarfs are also called failed stars. They lack enough energy to be true stars but are also too massive and
hot to be planets.
A supernova is an extremely large exploding star. Just before the star dies, it releases huge amounts of energy,
briefly becoming millions of times brighter than it was. Then it immediately shrinks.
Neutron stars are formed after a supernova explodes and shrinks. The shrunken form of the star becomes
incredibly dense and compact as gravity pulls all of its matter inward. It becomes so compressed that a million tons
of its matter would hardly fill a thimble. This density crushes together the electrons and protons that make up its
atoms, turning them into neutrons.
Pulsars are believed to be rapidly spinning neutron stars that give off bursts of radio waves at regular intervals.
Pulsar is a shortened version of Puls[ating st]ar.
Quasars (quas[istell]ar objects) are believed to be the most remote objects in the universe. Despite their small size
they produce tremendous amounts of light and microwave radiation: not much bigger than Earth's solar system,
they pour out 100 to 1,000 times as much light as an entire galaxy containing a hundred billion stars.
A black hole is created by the total gravitational collapse of a massive star or group of stars. It is the final phase of
some stars, in which gravity sucks the star in on itself—it implodes rather than explodes. This makes it so dense
that not even light can escape its gravitational field.
A nebula is a giant glowing cloud thought to be made up of dust and gas. Nebulae were thought to have been
galaxies that appeared as a blur because they were so far away, but as more powerful telescopes were created, they
showed that nebulae were not clumps of stars but in fact a hazy cloud of gasses. A nebula is illuminated by bright
stars nearby. More than 300 nebulae have been named.
The Solar System

THE SUN
The diameter of our closest star, the Sun, is 1,392,000 kilometers. The Sun is thought to be 4.6 billion
years old. The Sun is a medium–size star known as a yellow dwarf. It is a star in the Milky Way galaxy and the
temperature in its core is estimated to be over 15,000,000 degrees Celsius.
In the Sun's core, hydrogen is being fused to form helium. The energy created by this process radiates
up to the visible boundary of the Sun and then off into space. It radiates into space in the form of heat and light.
Because the Sun is so massive, it exerts a powerful gravitational pull on everything in our solar system.
It is because of the Sun's gravitational pull that Earth orbits the Sun in the manner that it does.
The Sun has several layers: the core, the radiation zone, the convection zone, and the photosphere
(which is the surface of the Sun). In addition, there are two layers of gas above the photosphere called the
chromosphere and the corona.
Events that occur on the Sun include sunspots, solar flares, solar wind, and solar prominences. Sunspots
are magnetic storms on the photosphere that appear as dark areas. Sunspots regularly appear and disappear in
eleven-year cycles. Solar flares are spectacular discharges of magnetic energy from the corona. These discharges
send streams of protons and electrons outward into space. Solar flares can interrupt the communications network
here on Earth. Solar winds are the result of gas expansion in the corona. This expansion leads to ion formation.
These ions are hurled outward from the corona at over 500 kilometers per second. Solar prominences are storms
of gas which erupt from the surface in the form of columns which either shoot outward into space or twist and loop
back to the Sun's surface.
The Sun gives off many kinds of radiation other than light and heat. It also emits radio waves, ultraviolet
rays, and X-rays. The Earth's atmosphere protects us from the harmful effects of the ultraviolet rays and the X-rays.
The Sun does rotate, but because it is a large gaseous sphere, not all parts rotate at the same speed. This is
known as a differential rotation.
Corona - The very hot outermost layer of a star's atmosphere. Our Sun's corona can only be seen during a total
solar eclipse.
Solar Flares - A magnetic storm on the Sun's surface which shows up as a sudden increase in brightness. Solar
Prominences - Gases trapped at the edge of the Sun which appear to shoot outward from the Sun's surface.
Solar wind - A continuous stream of charged particles which are released from the Sun and hurled outward into
space at speeds up to 800 kilometers per second. Solar winds are very prominent after solar flare activity. Sunspot
- A magnetic storm on the Sun's surface which appears as a dark area. A sunspot is approximately 1500 degrees
Celsius cooler than its surrounding material. The number of sunspots we see on the Sun at any given time appears
to cycle every 11 years.
THE PLANETS
There are nine planets in our solar system including Earth. So far, no life as we know it exists on any
planet other than our own.
Mercury
Mercury, the planet closest to the Sun, has almost no atmosphere, and its dusty surface of craters
resembles the Moon. The planet was named for the Roman god Mercury, a winged messenger, and it travels
around the Sun faster than any other planet. Mercury is difficult to see from Earth—in fact, the famous astronomer
Nicolaus Copernicus, for all his years of research and observation, never once was able to see Mercury.
Venus
Venus is often called Earth's twin because the two planets are close in size, but that's the only similarity.
The thick clouds that cover Venus create a greenhouse effect that keeps it sizzling at 864°F. Venus, named after
the Roman goddess of love and beauty, is also known as the “morning star” and “evening star” since it is visible at
these times to the unaided eye. Venus appears as a bright, white disk from Earth.
Earth
Earth is not perfectly round; it bulges at the equator and is flatter at the poles. From space the planet looks
blue with white swirls, created by water and clouds.
• Size: Four planets in our solar system are larger and four are smaller than Earth
• Diameter: 7,926.2 miles (12,756 km)
• Surface: Earth is made up of water (70%), air, and solid ground. It appears to be the only planet with
water
• Atmosphere: Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), other gases
• Rotation of its axis: 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds
• Rotation around the Sun: 365.2 days
• Mean Distance from Sun: 92.9 million miles (149.6 million km)
• Satellites: 1
• Rings: 0
Mars
Because of its blood-red color (which comes from iron-rich dust), this planet was named for Mars, the
Roman god of war. Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun, situated between Earth and Jupiter. Three-quarters red,
Mars also has dark blotches on it and white areas at the poles—these are white polar ice caps.
Jupiter
A belt of asteroids (fragments of rock and iron) between Mars and Jupiter separate the four inner planets
from the five outer planets.
Jupiter, the largest planet in our solar system, was named for the most important Roman god because of
its size. About 1,300 Earths would fit into it. Viewed through a large telescope, Jupiter is stunningly colorful—it is
a disk covered with bands of blue, brown, pink, red, orange, and yellow. Its most distinguishing feature is “the
Great Red Spot,” an intense windstorm larger in size than Earth, which has continued for centuries without any
signs of dying down. It has 63 moons and 4 rings.
Saturn
Saturn, the second-largest planet, has majestic rings surrounding it. Named for the Roman god of
farming, Saturn was the farthest planet known by the ancients. Saturn's seven rings are flat and lie inside one
another. They are made of billions of ice particles. It has 31 moons and about 1000 rings.
Uranus
Uranus is a greenish-blue planet, twice as far from the Sun as its neighbor Saturn. Uranus wasn't
discovered until 1781. Its discoverer, William Herschel, named it Georgium Sidus (the Georgian star) after the
English king, George III. Later its name was changed to Uranus, after an ancient Greek sky god, since all the other
planets had been named after Roman and Greek gods. It has 27 moons and 11 rings.
Neptune
Neptune, named for an ancient Roman sea god, is a stormy blue planet about 30 times farther from the
Sun than Earth. Neptune was discovered when astronomers realized that something was exerting a gravitational
pull on Uranus, and that it was possible that an unknown planet might be responsible. Through mathematical
calculations, astronomers determined there was indeed an undiscovered planet out in space—a year before it was
actually seen for the first time through a telescope (in 1846). It has 13 satellites and 4 rings.
Pluto
Pluto, named after the Roman and Greek god of the underworld, is the coldest, smallest, and outermost
planet in our solar system. Pluto and its moon, Charon, are called “double planets” because Charon is so large it
seems less of a moon than another planet. Pluto was predicted to exist in 1905 and discovered in 1930. It is the
only planet that has not yet been studied closely by a space probe. During each revolution around the sun, Pluto
passes inside Neptune's orbit for 20 years, making Neptune the outermost planet for that time. Pluto passed inside
Neptune's orbit in 1979 and remained there until 1999.
THE MOONS
Earth's Moon is a small ball of gray rock revolving 239,000 miles around Earth. It is just one of many in
the solar system. The Moon has no air and no water. It is about one-fourth as large as Earth.
The Moon travels around Earth in an oval orbit at 36,800 kilometers per hour. The Moon does not
have an atmosphere, so temperatures range from -184 degrees Celsius during its night to 214 degrees Celsius
during its day except at the poles where the temperature is a constant -96 degrees Celsius.
The Moon is actually a little lopsided due to the lunar crust being thicker on one side than the other. When you
look at the Moon, you will see dark and light areas. The dark areas are young plains called maria and are
composed of basalt. The basalt flowed in and flooded the area created by a huge impact with an asteroid or comet.
The light areas are the highlands, which are mountains that were uplifted as a result of impacts. The lunar surface
is covered by a fine-grained soil called “regolith” which results from the constant bombardment of the lunar
rocks by small meteorites.
Scientists theorize that the Moon was the result of a collision between Earth and an object the size of
Mars. One theory states that the debris from the impact was hurtled into space where, due to gravity, it combined.
This resulted in the formation of the Moon.
The gravitational pull of the Moon on the Earth affects the ocean tides on Earth. The closer the Moon
Science I - 37 -
is to Earth, the greater the effect. The time between high tides is about 12 hours and 25 minutes.
“Full Moon and No Moon describe two phases of the Moon as it orbits Earth. When the Moon is
between the Sun and the Earth, its sunlit side is turned away from the Earth and we say there is no Moon. When
the Earth is between the Sun and Moon, we can see the entire sunlit side of the Moon and call it a full Moon.
!
The Far Side of the Moon is always facing away from Earth because of the force of gravity. So when we
look at the Moon, we always see the same side.
The moons of Jupiter: Jupiter has 63 moons. 45 of these moons were discovered between 2000 and
2003. Astronomers believe that the moon count of Jupiter could go as high as 100. The newer moons were named
after members of the god Jupiter's (Zeus to the Greeks) entourage, among them : Themisto, Iocaste, Harpalyke,
Praxidike, Taygete, Chaldene, Kalyke, Callirrhoe, Megaclite, Isonoe, and Erinome.
The moons of Saturn: Saturn has 31 moons. 12 of them were discovered in late 2000 and another one
was announced in 2003. The older moons were named after figures in Greek mythology (Pan, Atlas, Pandora,
Calypso, etc.). The newer moons of Saturn were named after Norse (Ymir, Thrym, Skadi, Suttung, Mundilfari),
Celtic (Tarvos, Albiorix), and Inuit (Paaliaq, Siarnaq, Kiviuq, Ijiraq) legends.
The moons of Uranus: Uranus has 27 moons. Astronomers detected five of them between 1787 and
1948. The space probe Voyager discovered 10 more in 1985 and 1986. The names of these moons are the names of
characters from plays by Shakespeare. They are: Oberon, Titania, Umbriel, Ariel, Miranda, Puck, Portia, Juliet,
Cressida, Rosalind, Belinda, Desdemona, Cordelia, Ophelia, and Bianca. Miranda, with its deep scars and jumbled
surface is one of the strangest objects in the solar system. It seems to have been shattered by a collision, then
pulled back together by gravity! In 1997, two more moons were discovered, Caliban and Sycorax—also characters
from Shakespeare. 1999 brought Stephano, Prospero, and Setebos. A satellite discovered in 2001 was dubbed
Trinculo.
The moons of Neptune: Neptune has 13 moons, with Triton the largest. It is covered with a frosty crust,
where active volcanoes shoot crystals of nitrogen that look like geysers. The surface temperature of Triton is –
390°F, making it the coldest object in the solar system. Five new Neptunian moons were discovered in 2002 and
2003.
BIOLOGY POINTERS
Biology
- the area of science dealing with living things. It includes biological concepts and process skills, technology and
attitudes and values for addressing the needs and problems of society. In recent years, the development of
techniques in genetic engineering and increased understanding of the molecular basis of cellular processes have
led to the emergence of a new and exciting field of scientific research called biotechnology.
Introduction
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- characterized by the presence of carbon.
a. Carbohydrates - are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (e.g., sugar, starches, and cellulose)
atoms. They have the general formula CnH2nOn. Their sizes range from the small simple sugars like
glucose and fructose to the large and complex forms like starch and glycogen. Only the simple sugars
(monosaccharides) can easily pass across cell membranes. Most carbohydrates serve as energy
molecules or energy reserves in living organisms.
Cellulose - gives strength and protection to plant cells.
b. Lipids – are macromolecules such as fats, oils and waxes. They are made up of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen. The building blocks used to form fats are fatty acids and glycerol. Some excess food in
the body is stored as fats. Lipids that are liquid at room temperature are known as oils. Waxes serves
as protective body covering to organisms. They make plant and animal tissues water-resistant.
c. Proteins - are made up of repeating units of amino acids. They are a component of the muscles and
all other tissues. In the form of enzymes, they control the rate of chemical reactions inside the cell.
Without the enzymes, such chemical processes hardly occur.
d. Enzymes - are proteins that act as catalysts (substances that can increase or speed up chemical
reaction). Enzymes are specific in their actions.
e. Nucleic Acids - are carriers of hereditary information in living organisms. What an organism looks
like, and what it can do, are controlled by nucleic acids.
f. Vitamins - are substances necessary in very small amount for body growth and activity. They are
also needed to prevent certain diseases. Vitamins are organic substances essential to life but not
required as energy sources. The sources of most Vitamins are plants and bacteria.
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- characterized by the absence of carbon.
a. Water - is the most abundant inorganic compound. About 65% to 95% of the substances of every
living thing is water. It is the medium of transport for food, minerals and other substances in living
system.
b. Carbon dioxide - supplies the carbon found in substances made by living things.
- are chemical elements or compounds occurring naturally. They may come from the soil maybe
dissolved in water, or maybe found as salt in seawater. Minerals are absorbed by plant roots in the
form of ions.
LIFE FUNCTIONS
- All living things carry out certain activities or functions in order to maintain life.
a. Nutrition is the process of ingesting and absorbing food to provide the energy for life, promote growth,
and repair or replace damages tissues.
b. Transport involves movement of nutrients water, ions, and other materials into and out of the various
cells and tissues of organisms. This process includes absorption of small molecules across cell
membranes and secretion of biochemicals such as enzymes, mucous, and hormones. In many species,
the circulatory system plays an important role in transport.
c. Metabolism includes the process by which nutrients and simple molecules are used to form more
complex molecules for growth, repair, and reproduction (anabolism). Metabolism also includes the
process of breaking down complex molecules to release energy from chemical bonds (catabolism) and
to provide small molecules such as simple sugars and amino acids as budding blocks for more complex
molecules (anabolism).
d. An internal balance in all aspects of metabolism and biological function is called homeostasis.
e. Digestion is a special form of catabolism that breaks food down into smaller molecules and releases
energy.
f. Absorption allows small molecules to pass through cell membranes throughout the body tissues. This
allows for a gas exchange and in some species such as plants and fungi nutrients are obtained by
absorption from soil and water.
g. The behavior of living things is a response to stimuli in the environment. These stimuli may include
things such as light, chemical signals, noise, or a change in the seasons.
h. Excretion is the elimination of waste products.
i. Reproduction is the process by which an organism produces offspring either sexually or asexually. Its
main purpose is for the perpetuation of species. It is classified into two types, namely:
1. Asexual - is the reproduction without the use of gametes or sex cells. One parent
organism ran reproduce by itself.
a. Fission - is the splitting of the body of an organism into two identical parts.
(e.g., Paramecia and planaria)
b. Budding - is the growing of bud out of the parent cells of bodies which
when detached can grow into another organism that resembles the
appearance of parent (e.g., sponges, and yeast)
c. Sporulation - is the spore formation as in fern plant and mushrooms.
2. Sexual - requires the union of male and female gametes called "fertilization". Male
gametes are called sperm cells and female gametes are called egg cells. Fertilization is
classified into two types, namely:
a. External Fertilization - the union of sperm cells and egg cells
happen outside the body of the female organisms. (e.g., seashells,
starfishes, frogs, fishes)
b. Internal Fertilization - the union of sperm cells and egg cells happen
inside the body of a female organism (e.g., higher forms of animals
and human)
Cells
- are the smallest structures capable of basic life processes, such as taking in nutrients, expelling waste, and
reproducing. All living things are composed of cells. Some microscopic organisms, such as bacteria and
protozoa, are unicellular, meaning they consist of a single cell. Plants, animals, and fungi are multicellular;
that is, they are composed of a great many cells working in concert.
Cell Structure
PROKARYOTIC CELL
- found only in bacteria and archaebacteria, all the components, including the DNA, mingle freely in the
cell’s interior, a single compartment.
- are among the tiniest of all cells, ranging in size from 0.0001 to 0.003 mm (0.000004 to 0.0001 in) in
diameter.
- can be rod like, spherical, or spiral in shape, are surrounded by a protective cell wall.
- live in a watery environment, whether it is soil moisture, a pond, or the fluid surrounding cells in the human
body. Tiny pores in the cell wall enable water and the substances dissolved in it, such as oxygen, to flow
into the cell; these pores also allow wastes to flow out.
Anatomy of a Simple Bacterium
Bacteria cells typically are

surrounded by a rigid, protective cell
wall. The cell membrane, also called
the plasma membrane, regulates
passage of materials into and out of
the cytoplasm, the semi-fluid that
fills the cell. The DNA, located in
the nucleoid region, contains the
genetic information for the cell.
Ribosomes carry out protein
synthesis. Many baceteria contain a
pilus (plural pili), a structure that
extends out of the cell to transfer
DNA to another bacterium. The
flagellum, found in numerous
species, is used for locomotion.
Some bacteria contain a plasmid, a
small chromososme with extra
genes. Others have a capsule, a sticky substance external to the cell wall that protects bacteria from attack by white blood cells.
Mesosomes were formerly thought to be structures with unknown functions, but now are know to be artifacts created when cells are
prepared for viewing with electron microscopes.
Plasma Membrane is a thin membrane pushed up against the inner surface of the prokaryotic cell wall. The plasma
membrane, composed of two layers of flexible lipid molecules and interspersed with durable proteins, is both supple
and strong. Unlike the cell wall, whose open pores allow the unregulated traffic of materials in and out of the cell,
the plasma membrane is selectively permeable, meaning it allows only certain substances to pass through. Thus, the
plasma membrane actively separates the cell’s contents from its surrounding fluids.
Cytoplasm is the semifluid that fills the cell enclosed in the plasma membrane. Composed of about 65 percent
water, the cytoplasm is packed with up to a billion molecules per cell, a rich storehouse that includes enzymes and
dissolved nutrients, such as sugars and amino acids. The water provides a favorable environment for the thousands
of biochemical reactions that take place in the cell. Within the cytoplasm of all prokaryotes is deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA), a complex molecule in the form of a double helix, a shape similar to a spiral staircase.
Ribosomes, also immersed in the cytoplasm are the only organelles in prokaryotic cells—tiny bead-like structures.
These are the cell’s protein factories. Following the instructions encoded in the DNA, ribosomes churn out
proteins by the hundreds every minute, providing needed enzymes, the replacements for worn-out transport
proteins, or other proteins required by the cell.
EUKARYOTIC ANIMAL CELLS
- are typically about ten times larger than prokaryotic cells. In animal cells, the plasma membrane, rather than
a cell wall, forms the cell’s outer boundary. With a design similar to the plasma membrane of prokaryotic
cells, it separates the cell from its surroundings and regulates the traffic across the membrane.
Animal Cell
An animal cell typically
contains several types of
membrane-bound organs,
or organelles. The nucleus
directs activities of the cell
and carries genetic
information from
generation to generation.
The mitochondria generate
energy for the cell.
Proteins are manufactured
by ribosomes, which are
bound to the rough
endoplasmic reticulum or
float free in the cytoplasm.
The Golgi apparatus
modifies, packages, and
distributes proteins while
lysosomes store enzymes
for digesting food. The
entire cell is wrapped in a
lipid membrane that selectively permits materials to pass in and out of the cytoplasm.
Eukaryotic cell cytoplasm is similar to that of the prokaryote cell except for one major difference: Eukaryotic cells
house a nucleus and numerous other membrane-enclosed organelles. Like separate rooms of a house, these organelles
enable specialized functions to be carried out efficiently. The building of proteins and lipids, for example, takes
place in separate organelles where specialized enzymes geared for each job are located.
Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane that surrounds eukaryotic cells is a dynamic structure composed of two layers of
phospholipid molecules interspersed with cholesterol and proteins. Phospholipids are composed of a hydrophilic,
or water-loving, head and two tails, which are hydrophobic, or water-hating. Tiny gaps in the membrane enable
small molecules such as oxygen (upper right) to diffuse readily into and out of the cell.
Nucleus of a Cell
is the largest organelle in an animal cell. It contains numerous strands of DNA, the length of each strand being
many times the diameter of the cell. The nucleus, present in eukaryotic cells, is a discrete structure containing
chromosomes, which hold the genetic information for the cell. Separated from the cytoplasm of the cell by a
double-layered membrane called the nuclear envelope, the nucleus contains a cellular material called nucleoplasm.
Nuclear pores, present around the circumference of the nuclear membrane, allow the exchange of cellular
materials between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
Endoplasmic Reticulum is an elongated membranous sac attached to the nuclear membrane. Endoplasmic reticulum
takes two forms: rough and smooth. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is so called because it appears bumpy
under a microscope. It functions on synthesis of membrane proteins, secretory proteins and hydrolytic enzymes and
also formation of transport vesicles. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum functions on lipid synthesis, carbohydrate
metabolism in liver cells, detoxification in liver cells and calcium ion storage.
Ribosomes in eukaryotic cells have the same function as those in prokaryotic cells—protein synthesis—but they
differ slightly in structure. Eukaryote ribosomes bound to the endoplasmic reticulum help assemble proteins that
typically are exported from the cell. The ribosomes work with other molecules to link amino acids to partially
completed proteins. These incomplete proteins then travel to the inner chamber of the endoplasmic reticulum, where
chemical modifications, such as the addition of a sugar, are carried out. Chemical modifications of lipids are also
carried out in the endoplasmic reticulum.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER), lacks ribosomes and has an even surface. Within the winding channels of
the smooth endoplasmic reticulum are the enzymes needed for the construction of molecules such as carbohydrates
and lipids. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is prominent in liver cells, where it also serves to detoxify substances
such as alcohol, drugs, and other poisons.
Golgi apparatus, an organelle that resembles a stack of deflated balloons. It is packed with enzymes that complete
the processing of proteins. These enzymes add sulfur or phosphorous atoms to certain regions of the protein, for
example, or chop off tiny pieces from the ends of the proteins. The completed protein then leaves the Golgi apparatus
for its final destination inside or outside the cell. During its assembly on the ribosome, each protein has acquired a
group of from 4 to 100 amino acids called a signal. The signal works as a molecular shipping label to direct the
protein to its proper location.
Lysosomes are small, often spherical organelles that function as the cell’s recycling center and garbage disposal.
Powerful digestive enzymes concentrated in the lysosome break down worn-out organelles and ship their building
blocks to the cytoplasm where they are used to construct new organelles. Lysosomes also dismantle and recycle
proteins, lipids, and other molecules.
Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell. Within these long, slender organelles, which can appear oval or bean
shaped under the electron microscope, enzymes convert the sugar glucose and other nutrients into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). This molecule, in turn, serves as an energy battery for countless cellular processes, including
the shuttling of substances across the plasma membrane, the building and transport of proteins and lipids, the
recycling of molecules and organelles, and the dividing of cells. Muscle and liver cells are particularly active and
require dozens and sometimes up to a hundred mitochondria per cell to meet their energy needs. Mitochondria are
unusual in that they contain their own DNA in the form of a prokaryote-like circular chromosome; have their own
ribosomes, which resemble prokaryotic ribosomes; and divide independently of the cell.
Cytoskeleton, a dynamic network of protein tubes, filaments, and fibers, crisscrosses the cytoplasm, anchoring the
organelles in place and providing shape and structure to the cell. Many components of the cytoskeleton are assembled
and disassembled by the cell as needed. During cell division, for example, a special structure called a spindle is built
to move chromosomes around. After cell division, the spindle, no longer needed, is dismantled. Some components
of the cytoskeleton serve as microscopic tracks along which proteins and other molecules travel like miniature trains.
Recent research suggests that the cytoskeleton also may be a mechanical communication structure that converses
with the nucleus to help organize events in the cell.
EUKARYOTIC PLANT CELLS
- Plant cells have all the components of animal cells and boast several added features, including
chloroplasts, a central vacuole, and a cell wall. Chloroplasts convert light energy—typically from the Sun—
into the sugar glucose, a form of chemical energy, in a process known as photosynthesis. - contain a variety
of membrane-bound structures called organelles. These include a nucleus that carries genetic material;
mitochondria that generate energy; ribosomes that manufacture proteins; smooth endoplasmic reticulum that
manufactures lipids used for making membranes and storing energy; and a thin lipid membrane that
surrounds the cell. Plant cells also contain chloroplasts that capture energy from sunlight and a single fluid-
filled vacuole that stores compounds and helps in plant growth. Plant cells are surrounded by a rigid cell wall
that protects the cell and maintains its shape.
Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, possess a circular chromosome and prokaryote-like ribosomes, which manufacture
the proteins that the chloroplasts typically need.
Central vacuole of a mature plant cell typically takes up most of the room in the cell. The vacuole, a membranous
bag, crowds the cytoplasm and organelles to the edges of the cell. The central vacuole stores water, salts, sugars,
proteins, and other nutrients. In addition, it stores the blue, red, and purple pigments that give certain flowers their
colors. The central vacuole also contains plant wastes that taste bitter to certain insects, thus discouraging the
insects from feasting on the plant.
Cell wall surrounds and protects the plasma membrane. Its pores enable materials to pass freely into and out of the
cell. The strength of the wall also enables a cell to absorb water into the central vacuole and swell without bursting.
The resulting pressure in the cells provides plants with rigidity and support for stems, leaves, and flowers. Without
sufficient water pressure, the cells collapse and the plant wilts.
SUMMARY OF COMAPRISONS BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYTIC CELLS
Cell Structure Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic
Nuclear MEmbrane absent Present
Membrane-bound organelles absent Present
Ribosomes Small Large
Chloroplasts absent Present
Mitochondria absent Present
Chromosomes Single circular Multiple double helix
ANIMAL CELLS VS PLANT CELLS

Plant cells contain cell walls, vacoules, and chloroplasts that animal cells don’t. On the other hand,
animal cells ahave centiroles and lysosomes that plant cells don’t.
Life Classification of Organisms

Biologists use a standard way of naming organisms. A systematic ay of giving scientific names is by using
the genus and species names of an organism. This is known as binomial nomenclature.
Levels of Classification
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
Family - group of genera with related characteristics. The family is below the order and above the genus in
biological groupings. The names of families in modern classification are usually derived from a genus of the
family, called the type genus. The family names of animals always end in idae, as in Equidae, the horse family;
those of plants almost always end in aceae, as in Dipsacaceae, the teasel family.
Genus - category of classification of living things; specifically, a group of species closely related in structure and
evolutionary origin. The position of a genus, in classification of the kingdoms of living forms, is below family or
subfamily, and above species.
Species - is a group of closely related organisms that are able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring
THE FIVE KINGDOMS
The Kingdom Prokarya or Bacteria are distinguished from the life forms in all other kingdoms in that they
do not have a membrane bound nucleus containing the genetic material of the cell. They are called "prokaryotes".
The genetic material is simply found in strands ("plasmids") within the cell's cytoplasm. Note that what was
previously called blue green algae are now classified as cyanobacteria because they are prokaryotes. Since they are
so different from all other life, under the five kingdom system, Bacteria also comprise the Superkingdom Prokarya.
The cells of life forms in the other four kingdoms are classified as "eukaryotes" and have a nucleus in which the
genetic material is organized on "chromosomes" within a cellular nucleus. These four kingdoms comprise the
Superkingdom Eukarya. Besides the presence or absence of a nucleus, there are other major differences between
prokaryotes and eukaryotes. For example, Bacteria are all over the map in whether they utilize oxygen or another
gas such as nitrogen or methane. Some cannot even tolerate oxygen—for these "anaerobic" Bacteria, oxygen is a
poison. Almost all eukaryotes are aerobes—they need oxygen to live. That some Bacteria require an oxygen-free
environment harkens back to the earth's earliest times and suggest their ancient origin.
The Kingdom Animalia is comprised of multi-celled organisms which develop from an embryo resulting from the
fertilization of an egg by a much smaller sperm. However, even among the vertebrate animals, there is an
exception to sexual reproduction that makes the definition slightly less than a 100% accurate. A species of lizard
of the genus Cnemidophorus reproduces by parthenogenesis—no males or sperm required. Yet I think everyone
would accept that this lizard is an animal (this lizard being one exception that proves the rule—there are other a
few other parthenogenetic animals). Animals also share the characteristic that most must ingest or eat other living
or decayed organic matter as food to live (or live as parasites or symbionts off of the nutrients provided by other
living things) (although this trait is also shared with some of the members of the Kingdom Protoctista).
The Kingdom Plantae is composed of multi-celled organisms that grow from embryos that are usually the result
of sexual fusion of a male and female cell. Again there are exceptions although somewhere in every plant's past,
there were sexual forbears. Most plants (but again not all) plants engage in photosynthesis—that complicated and
almost miraculous process whereby the energy of sunlight is used by the plant to produce carbohydrates and
gaseous O2from H2O and CO2. As a result, plants are the great producers of life. Plants generally have a rigid cell
wall composed of cellulose. They are non-motile (the entire organism does not move about under its own energy)
but some produce motile cells.
The Kingdom Fungi is comprised of non-motile cells that have cell walls made of chitin (the same hard stuff that
the outer bodies of insects are made of) and not cellulose. Therefore, some argue that fungi are more closely
related to animals than plants. Fungi develop from spores without any embryonic stage. They digest other living
things outside their bodies by releasing enzymes and then absorbing the product.
Kingdom Protista is the catch-all kingdom for everything that does not fit into the other four. It is comprised of
many microscope organisms that are of great interest to this group (as well as some macroscopic organisms).
These include protozoa (or protista under the more modern name) and algae but also such diverse organisms as
slime molds and slime nets. Although we often think of this group from its microscopic members, it is also
comprised of some large organisms such as giant kelps that can grow as much as 10 meters (over 30 feet).
MOST COMMON VERTEBRATES

Characteristics Examples
Vertebrate
Type
Jawless fishes Cold-blooded animals that live in water. These fishes have no bone Hagfish, lamprey
structure and their sole support is from a simple cartilaginous rod known
as the notochord.
Cartilaginous Cold-blooded animals that live in water. Their notochord is Sharks, skates, rays, fishes
surrounded by rings of cartilage known as vertebrae. chimaeras
Bony fishes Cold-blooded animals that live in water. Their skeleton is made of Sturgeon, herring, salmon,
bone, and most bony fishes also have an internal bladder that aids in perch, cod, coelacanth
buoyancy.
Amphibians Cold-blooded animals that live some part of their life on land but Frogs and toads,
usually must breed and develop from egg to larvae to adult in water. salamanders, newts, Most
amphibian larvae use gills to breathe underwater. These gills caecilians
are then replaced in adults by lungs for breathing air.

Reptile s Cold-blooded animals with an outer covering of scales or bony plates Snakes, crocodiles,
that prevents their bodies from drying out when not near water. alligators, lizards, turtles,
Reptiles reproduce by laying eggs protected by shells or by giving birth tortoises
to live young. They do not have a larval stage. Mostly landdwellers,
they breathe air using lungs.
Birds Warm-blooded animals whose body is covered with feathers. Birds Penguin, flamingo, eagle,
have wings that in most cases help them fly. turkey, thrush, parrot
Mamm als Warm-blooded animals, the females of which have milk-secreting Platypus, kangaroo, bat,
organs that they use to feed their young. Mammals have highly lion, wolf, mouse, seal,
developed brains, giving them an intelligence unmatched by any other antelope, cow, dolphin,
group of animals. Most mammals reproduce by giving birth to live whale, lemur, monkey,
young. They are the only animals with hair, and they have specialized ape, human
teeth that make it possible to eat a wide variety of plants and animals
for food.
MOST COMMON INVERTEBRATES
Type Characteristics Examples

Porifera Simple, multicellular animals with tissues but no distinct organs. Sponges
Commonly known as sponges, they typically attach to rocks, shells, or
coral.
Cnidaria Aquatic radially symmetrical animals with tentacles encircling the Coral, hyd ra,
mouth at one end of the body. Cnidarians appear in two forms during jellyfish, P ortuguese r,
their life cycle, the sessile, cylindrical polyp and the free-swimming man-of-wa sea
medusa that looks like a jellyfish. anemone
Ctenophora Jellyfish-like marine animals distinguished by eight rows of cilia that Sea walnut s, comb
propel the body in swimming. They feed on other invertebrates using jellies
two retractable sticky tentacles to capture prey. All ctenophores are
hermaphroditic and reproduce sexually. Many are luminescent.
Platyhelminthes Structurally simple worms with no anus or circulatory system. Known Flatworms , flukes,
as flatworms, their flattened bodies enable internal tissues to be near
tapeworms the skin surface, permitting gas and nutrient exchange with the
environment..
Kinorhyncha or Tiny worms with spiny bodies. An outer protective cuticle is Echinoder es,
Echinodera segmented and articulated. Found in the muddy bottoms of coastal res
Condylode
waters, they feed on microorganisms and organic particles by means of
a sucking pharynx. Reproduction is sexual.
Nematoda Commonly known as roundworms, these animals are one of the most Ascarids, vinegar diverse
and geographically widespread invertebrate phyla. eels, cyst nematodes,
heartworms,
hookworms
Mollusca Diverse animals found in water and on land. Most mollusks have a Chitons, oysters,
hard shell that protects a soft body, although in some mollusks the snails, clams,
squid hard shell is missing or hardly visible. A feeding organ called a radula contains rows
of teeth used to scrape food into the mouth. Enzymes in salivary glands partially digest food
before it reaches the intestines.
Reproduction is sexual and some mollusks have a larval form.
Annelida Segmented worms with a muscular body wall used for burrowing. Lugworms,
External hairs called setae aid in traction during burrowing. An internal earthworms, leeches
coelom is divided into compartments by walls known as septum. The
digestive system stretches from the mouth to the anus, differentiated
into regions, each with a different function.
Reproduction is sexual.
Arthropoda Largest and most diverse invertebrate phylum characterized by animals Ants, beetles,
with jointed limbs, a segmented body, and an exoskeleton made of butterflies, lobsters,
chitin. Arthropods are abundant and successful in almost all habitats shrimp, crabs,
scorpions, spiders,
ticks
Echinodermata Marine animals distinguished by their radial symmetry in which the Sea stars, brittle stars,
body can be divided into five parts arranged around a central axis. sea urchins, sand
dollars, sea cucumbers
Life in Organisms: Plants

Plants are multicellular eukaryotes—that is, their cells contain membrane-bound structures called organelles. Plants
differ from other eukaryotes because their cells are enclosed by more or less rigid cell walls composed primarily of
cellulose. The most important characteristic of plants is their ability to photosynthesize. During photosynthesis,
plants make their own food by converting light energy into chemical energy—a process carried out in the green
cellular organelles called chloroplasts A few plants have lost their chlorophyll and have become saprophytes or
parasites—that is, they absorb their food from dead organic matter or living organic matter, respectively—but details
of their structure show that they are evolved plant forms.
Classification
Non- flowering or non seed forming plants – produces pores for propagation
Flowering or seed plants
a. Gymgiosperms – seeds are expose or naked, meaning they are not enclosed within fruits. They do not
produce fruits, instead they form cones.
b. Angiosperms – sees are found within fruits.
i. monocotyledons ii.
dicotyledons
Tissue Systems
There are many variants of the generalized plant cell and its parts. Similar kinds of cells are organized into
structural and functional units, or tissues, which make up the plant as a whole, and new cells (and tissues) are formed
at growing points of actively dividing cells. These growing points, called meristems, are located either at the stem
and root tips (apical meristems), where they are responsible for the primary growth of plants, or laterally in stems
and roots (lateral meristems), where they are responsible for secondary plants growth. Three tissue systems are
recognized in vascular plants: dermal, vascular, and ground (or fundamental).
DERMAL SYSTEM
The dermal system consists of the epidermis, or outermost layer, of the plants body. It forms the skin of the
plants, covering the leaves, flowers, roots, fruits, and seeds. Epidermal cells vary greatly in function and structure.
VASCULAR SYSTEM
The vascular tissue system consists of two kinds of conducting tissues: the xylem, responsible for conduction
of water and dissolved mineral nutrients, and the phloem, responsible for conduction of food. The xylem also
stores food and helps support the plants.
Xylem
The xylem consists of two types of conducting cells: tracheids and vessels. Elongated cells, with tapered ends
and secondary walls, both types lack cytoplasm and are dead at maturity. The walls have pits—areas in which
secondary thickening does not occur—through which water moves from cell to cell. Vessels usually are shorter
and broader than tracheids, and in addition to pits they have perforation—areas of the cell wall that lack both
primary and secondary thickenings and through which water and dissolved nutrients may freely pass.
Phloem
The phloem, or food-conducting tissue, consists of cells that are living at maturity. The principal cells of phloem,
the sieve elements, are so called because of the clusters of pores in their walls through which the protoplasts of
adjoining cells are connected. Two types of sieve elements occur: sieve cells, with narrow pores in rather
uniform clusters on the cell walls, and sieve-tube members, with larger pores on some walls of the cell than on
others. Although the sieve elements contain cytoplasm at maturity, the nucleus and other organelles are lacking.
Associated with the sieve elements are companion cells that do contain nuclei and that are responsible for
manufacturing and secreting substances into the sieve elements and removing waste products from them.
GROUND SYSTEM
The ground, or fundamental, tissue systems of plants consist of three types of tissue. The first, called
parenchyma, is found throughout the plants and is living and capable of cell division at maturity. Usually only
primary walls are present, and these are uniformly thickened. The cells of parenchyma tissue carry out many
specialized physiological functions—for example, photosynthesis, storage, secretion, and wound healing. They also
occur in the xylem and phloem tissues.
Collenchyma, the second type of ground tissue, is also living at maturity and is made up of cells with
unevenly thickened primary cell walls. Collenchyma tissue is pliable and functions as support tissue in
young, growing portions of plants.
Sclerenchyma tissue, the third type, consists of cells that lack protoplasts at maturity and that have thick
secondary walls usually containing lignin. Sclerenchyma tissue is important in supporting and
strengthening those portions of plants that have finished growing.
Plant Organs
The body of a vascular plants is organized into three general kinds of organs, stems, and leaves. These
organs all contain the three kinds of tissue systems mentioned above, but they differ in the way the cells are
specialized to carry out different functions.
ROOTS
The function of roots is to anchor the plants substrate and to absorb water and minerals. The epidermis is
just behind the growing tip of roots and is covered with root hairs, which are outgrowths of the epidermal cells. The
root hairs increase the surface area of the roots and serve as the surface through which water and nutrients are
absorbed.
Internally, roots consist largely of xylem and phloem, although many are highly modified to carry out
specialized functions. Thus, some roots are important food and storage rgansxample, beets, carrots, and radishes.
Such roots have an abundance of parenchyma tissue.
STEMS
Are usually above ground, grow upward, and bear leaves, which are attached in a regular pattern at nodes
along the stem. The portions of the stem between nodes are called internodes. Stems increase in length through the
activity of an apical meristem at the stem tip. This growing point also gives rise to new leaves, which surround and
protect the stem tip, or apical bud, before they expand. Apical buds of deciduous trees, which lose their leaves during
part of the year, are usually protected by modified leaves called bud scales.
LEAF
The primary photosynthetic organ of most plants. Leaves are usually flattened blades that consist,
internally, mostly of parenchyma tissue called the mesophyll, which is made up of loosely arranged cells with spaces
between them. The spaces are filled with air, from which the cells absorb carbon dioxide and into which they expel
oxygen. The mesophyll is bounded by the upper and lower surface of the leaf blade, which is covered by epidermal
tissue. A vascular network runs through the mesophyll, providing the cell walls with water and removing the food
products of photosynthesis to other parts of the plants.
The leaf blade is connected to the stem through a narrowed portion called the petiole, or stalk, which
consists mostly of vascular tissue. Appendages called stipules are often present at the base of the petiole.
Many specialized forms of leaves occur. Some are modified as spines, which help protect plants from
predators. Insectivorous plants possess highly modified leaves that trap and digest insects to obtain needed nutrients.
The individual parts of flowers—carpels, stamens, petals, and sepals—are all modified leaves that have taken on
reproductive functions.
Life in Organisms: Animals

Types of Animals
Presently, animals are classified according to a broader range of characteristics, including their internal anatomy,
patterns of development, and genetic makeup. These features provide a much more reliable guide to an animal's
place in the living world. They also help to show how different species are linked through evolution. Scientists
divide the animal kingdom into approximately 30 groups, each called a phylum (plural phyla).
VERTEBRATES AND INVERTEBRATE
Vertebrates
One phylum of animals, the chordates, has been more intensively studied than has any other, because it comprises
nearly all the world's largest and most familiar animals as well as humans. This phylum includes mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians, and fish together with a collection of lesser-known organisms, such as sea squirts and their
relatives. The feature uniting these animals is that at some stage in their lives, all have a flexible supporting rod,
called a notochord, running the length of their bodies. In the great majority of chordates, the notochord is replaced
by a series of interlocking bones called vertebrae during early development. These bones form the backbone, and
they give these animals their name—the vertebrates.
Vertebrate Embryos
Vertebrates that evolved from fish pass through similar embryonic stages. As a flexible notochord
develops in the back, blocks of tissue called somites form along each side of it. These somites will
become major structures, such as muscle, vertebrae, connective tissue, a
later, the larger glands of the body. Just above the notochord lies a hollow nerve cord. Such similarities formed the basis for German
biologist Ernst Haeckel’s biogenetic law, which states that an animal’s embryonic development recapitulates its evolution. Although
scientists now know that this law does not hold absolutely, Haeckel’s idea has remained influential.
Invertebrates - are far more numerous and diverse and include an immense variety of animals from sponges,
worms, and jellyfish to mollusks and insects. Compose the 98 percent of the animal kingdom. The only
feature these diverse creatures share in common is the lack of a backbone.
COLD-BLOODED AND WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS
Cold blooded or ectoderm
- an animal whose temperature is dictated by its surroundings. Reptiles, amphibians, and fish.
- Although they do not maintain a constant warm temperature, some of these animals do manage to raise
their body temperature far above that of their surroundings. They do this by behavioral means, such as
basking in direct sunshine when the surrounding air is cool.
Warm blooded or endoderm

- an animal that keeps its body at a constant warm temperature by generating internal heat.
- these animals generate heat through their metabolic processes, and they retain it by having insulating
layers of fat, fur, or feathers. Because their bodies are always warm, they can remain active in some of the
coldest conditions on earth.
CARNIVORES AND HERBIVORES
Meat Eaters and Plant Eaters

In carnivores (right), the front of the skull
has a pair of enlarged canine teeth and the
lower jaw moves only in an up and down
direction, which assists with the capture and
holding of prey. In herbivores (left), the
canine teeth are absent and the premolars
- 19 -
Science II
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and molars are well developed. The jaw construction also allows for the lateral movement of the lower jaw in relation to the upper jaw,
which helps to provide a grinding motion necessary for rendering plant materials into a state suitable for swallowing and digestion.
Plant-eaters, or herbivores, often do not have to search far to find things to eat, and in some cases—for example
wood-boring insects—they are entirely surrounded by their food. The disadvantage of a plant-based diet is that it
can be difficult to digest and is often low in nutrients.
Carnivores live on flesh from other animals that is often nutrient-rich and easy to digest but difficult to obtain.
Finding and capturing this kind of food calls for keen senses. But even though a hunter has acute vision or a highly
developed sense of smell, a large proportion of a hunter's victims manage to escape. If this happens too often, a
predator quickly starves.
Omnivore, an animal that eats both animal flesh and vegetable matter. The term omnivore indicates similarities in
the behavior and physiology of many unrelated animals; for example, many small birds and mammals are
omnivorous.
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction, animals produce offspring without needing a partner. Asexual reproduction is most common
in simple animals such as flatworms and cnidarians.
Sexual reproduction, involves two parents. The parents produce sperm and egg cells (gametes), which are brought
together to form a fertilized cell (zygote) with a new and unique combination of genes. In this genetic lottery,
offspring inherit unique combinations of characteristics that increase the likelihood that at least some individuals
in the population can survive changes in the environment. In most cases, each partner is either male or female, but
in some animals—such as earthworms, slugs, and snails–each one is a hermaphrodite, an animal that has both
male and female organs. Hermaphrodites usually fertilize each other, with both partners producing young.
Internal fertilization takes place inside the female's body. The male typically has a penis or other structure that
delivers sperm into the female's reproductive tract. All mammals, reptiles, and birds as well as some invertebrates,
including snails, worms, and insects, use internal fertilization.
Internal fertilization does not necessarily require that the developing embryo remains inside the female's
body. In honey bees, for example, the queen bee deposits the fertilized eggs into special compartments in the
honeycomb. These compartments are supplied with food resources for the young bees to use as they develop.
Organ Systems of the Body
MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
The human skeleton consists of more than 200 bones bound together by tough and relatively inelastic connective
tissues called ligaments. The different parts of the body vary greatly in their degree of movement. Thus, the arm at
the shoulder is freely movable, whereas the knee joint is definitely limited to a hingelike action. The movements of
individual vertebrae are extremely limited; the bones composing the skull are immovable. Movements of the bones
of the skeleton are effected by contractions of the skeletal muscles, to which the bones are attached by tendons.
These muscular contractions are controlled by the nervous system.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous
System
Organization
The nervous
system is
composed of the
central nervous
system and the
peripheral
nervous system.
The central
nervous system,
which includes
the brain and
spinal cord,
processes and
coordinates all
incoming
sensory
information and
outgoing motor
commands, and
it is also the seat of complex brain functions such as memory, intelligence, learning, and emotion. The peripheral nervous system
includes all neural tissue outside of the central nervous system. It is responsible for providing sensory, or afferent, information to the
central nervous system and carrying motor, or efferent, commands out to the body’s tissues. Voluntary motor commands, such as moving
muscles to walk or talk, are controlled by the somatic nervous system, while involuntary motor commands, such as digestion and heart
beat, are controlled by the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is further divided into two systems. The
sympathetic nervous system, sometimes called the “fight or flight” system, increases alertness, stimulates tissue, and prepares the body
for quick responses to unusual situations. In contrast, the parasympathetic nervous system, sometimes called the “rest and repose”
system, conserves energy and controls sedentary activities, such as digestion.
The nervous system has two divisions: the somatic, which allows voluntary control over skeletal muscle, and the
autonomic, which is involuntary and controls cardiac and smooth muscle and glands. The autonomic nervous
system has two divisions: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic. Many, but not all, of the muscles and glands
that distribute nerve impulses to the larger interior organs possess a double nerve supply; in such cases the two
divisions may exert opposing effects. Thus, the sympathetic system increases heartbeat, and the parasympathetic
system decreases heartbeat. The two nervous systems are not always antagonistic, however.
Human Brain
The human brain has three major structural components: the
large dome-shaped cerebrum (top), the smaller somewhat
spherical cerebellum (lower right), and the brainstem
(center). Prominent in the brainstem are the medulla
oblongata (the egg-shaped enlargement at center) and the
thalamus (between the medulla and the cerebrum). The
cerebrum is responsible for intelligence and reasoning. The
cerebellum helps to maintain balance and posture. The
medulla is involved in maintaining involuntary functions
such as respiration, and the thalamus acts as a relay center for
electrical impulses traveling to and from the cerebral cortex.
Lack of blood flow to any part of the brain results in a stroke,
permanent damage that interferes with the functions of the
affected part of the brain.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Human Circulatory System The human circulatory system is composed of the muscular heart and an intricate
network of elastic blood vessels known as arteries, veins, and capillaries. These structures work together to
circulate blood throughout the body, in the process delivering life-preserving oxygen and nutrients to tissue cells
while also removing waste products.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
system that depends on recognizing a portion of the surface pattern of the invader. The two parts of the system are
termed cellular immunity, in which lymphocytes are the effective agent, and humoral immunity, based on the
action of antibody molecules.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiration is carried on by the expansion and contraction of the lungs; the process and the rate at which it
proceeds are controlled by a nervous center in the brain.
Human Lungs
Air travels to the lungs though a series of tubes and airways. The two branches of the trachea, called bronchi, subdivide within
the lobes into smaller and smaller air vessels. They terminate in alveoli, tiny air sacs surrounded by capillaries. When the alveoli inflate
with inhaled air, oxygen diffuses into the blood in the capillaries to be pumped by the heart to the tissues of the body, and carbon dioxide
diffuses out of the blood into the lungs, where it is exhaled.
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Reproduction is accomplished by the union of male sperm and the female ovum. In coitus, the male
organ ejaculates more than 250 million sperm into the vagina, from which some make their way to the uterus.
Ovulation, the release of an egg into the uterus, occurs approximately every 28 days; during the same period the
uterus is prepared for the implantation of a fertilized ovum by the action of estrogens. If a male cell fails to unite
with a female cell, other hormones cause the uterine wall to slough off during menstruation. From puberty to
menopause, the process of ovulation, and preparation, and menstruation is repeated monthly except for periods of
pregnancy. The duration of pregnancy is about 280 days. After childbirth, prolactin, a hormone secreted by the
pituitary, activates the production of milk.
Female Reproductive System

The bones of the human female pelvis form a bowl-shaped cavity that supports the weight of a developing fetus and encloses the organs
of the female reproductive tract. Two ovaries, the female gonads, produce mature eggs. Leading away from the ovaries are the fallopian
tubes, or oviducts, the site of fertilization. The uterus, a muscular organ with an expandable neck called the cervix, houses the
developing fetus, which leaves the woman's body through the vagina, or birth canal.
Male Reproductive System The organs of the male reproductive system enable a man to have sexual intercourse and to fertilize female
sex cells (eggs) with sperm. The gonads, called testicles, produce sperm. Sperm pass through a long duct called the vas deferens to the
seminal vesicles, a pair of sacs that lies behind the bladder. These sacs produce seminal fluid, which mixes with sperm to produce
semen. Semen leaves the seminal vesicles and travels through the prostate gland, which produces additional secretions that are added to
semen. During male orgasm the penis ejaculates semen.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Pituitary Gland
Called the master gland, the pituitary secretes hormones that control the activity of other endocrine glands and regulate various
biological processes. Its secretions include growth hormone (which stimulates cellular activity in bone, cartilage, and other structural
tissue); thyroid stimulating hormone (which causes the thyroid to release metabolism-regulating hormones); antidiuretic hormone
(which causes the kidney to excrete less water in the urine); and prolactin (which stimulates milk production and breast development in
females). The pituitary gland is influenced both neurally and hormonally by the hypothalamus.
In addition to the integrative action of the nervous system, control of various body functions is exerted
by the endocrine glands. An important part of this system, the pituitary, lies at the base of the brain. This master
gland secretes a variety of hormones, including the following: (1) a hormone that stimulates the thyroid gland and
controls its secretion of thyroxine, which dictates the rate at which all cells utilize oxygen; (2) a hormone that
controls the secretion in the adrenal gland of hormones that influence the metabolism of carbohydrates, sodium,
and potassium and control the rate at which substances are exchanged between blood and tissue fluid; (3)
substances that control the secretion in the ovaries of estrogen and progesterone and the creation in the testicles of
testosterone; (4) the somatotropic, or growth, hormone, which controls the rate of development of the skeleton and
large interior organs through its effect on the metabolism of proteins and carbohydrates; and (5) an insulin
inhibitor—a lack of insulin causes diabetes mellitus.
DIGESTIVE AND EXCRETORY SYSTEMS
Human Digestive System The human digestive system consists of a series of organs and structures that
help break down food and absorb nutrients for use throughout the body. Food enters the digestive system through
the mouth and passes through the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and rectum. Other organs,
such as the liver, further aid in the breakdown of food, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of undigestible
materials from the body.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Structure of the Skin

The skin consists of an outer, protective layer (epidermis) and an inner, living layer (dermis). The top layer of the epidermis is
composed of dead cells containing keratin, the horny scleroprotein that also makes up hair and nails.
The skin is an organ of double-layered tissue stretched over the surface of the body and protecting it
from drying or losing fluid, from harmful external substances, and from extremes of temperature. The inner layer,
called the dermis, contains sweat glands, blood vessels, nerve endings (sense receptors), and the bases of hair and
nails. The outer layer, the epidermis, is only a few cells thick; it contains pigments, pores, and ducts, and its
surface is made of dead cells that it sheds from the body. (Hair and nails are adaptations arising from the dead
cells.) The sweat glands excrete waste and cool the body through evaporation of fluid droplets; the blood vessels
of the dermis supplement temperature regulation by contracting to preserve body heat and expanding to dissipate
it. Separate kinds of receptors convey pressure, temperature, and pain. Fat cells in the dermis insulate the body,
and oil glands lubricate the epidermis.
Cell Division and Reproduction
Mitosis
Cell division produces two daughter cells in each succession that are roughly identical copies of the
parental cell before it starts to enlarge or grow. This kind of cell division constitutes what is exactly called mitosis.
Mitosis is made up of four main stages:
1. Prophase- each chromosome gradually condenses and thickens, and becomes more visible even
under an ordinary light microscope; the nuclear membrane and nucleolus gradually dissociate and
spindle fibers radiating from two opposite poles are formed.
2. Metaphase- each chromosome moves toward an imaginary line, called the equatorial plate, that
divides the cell into two; the chromosomes are perpendicular to the long axes of the spindle fibers.
3. Anaphase- the kinetochore that joins two sister chromatids together splits and each chromatid or
single stranded chromosome moves toward opposite poles.
4. Telophase- the single stranded chromosomes relax into the extended state upon reaching the
poles; the nuclear membrane and nucleolus re-form in each pole. Cytokinesis, which divides the
cytoplasm, usually occurs at the latter part of this stage.
Meiosis
Meiosis takes place in special cells that produce what we call the sex cells. During meiosis, two cell
divisions occur to produce four daughter cells from the original parent cell. Each resulting cell has half the
chromosomal DNA of the parent cell. A half set of chromosomes in an organism is known as the haploid number.
In the first cell division of meiosis the chromosomes of a gamete cell duplicate and join in pairs. The paired
chromosomes align at the equator of the cell, and then separate and move to opposite poles in the cell. The cell then
splits to form two daughter cells. As meiosis proceeds, the two daughter cells undergo another cell division to form
four cells, each of which bears half of the number of chromosomes found in the other cells of the organism. It also
ensures that reproduction will produce a zygote that has received one set of chromosomes from the male parent and
one set of chromosomes from the female parent to form a full set of chromosomes. The entire set of chromosomes
in an organism is known as the diploid number. Once formed, the zygote continues to divide and grow through the
process of mitosis.
Prophase 1 The nuclear membrane breaks down
The nucleolus disappear
Spindle fibers begin to form
Single chromosome strands appear and double up
Metaphase 1 Two sister chromatids pair with its homologous sister

chromatids
crossing over between the homologue pair spindle
fibers completely forms
Anaphase 1 homologoues of each pair split and move to the opposite

sides, the chromosomes number on each side is half the
original number the cell membrane begins to pinch
Telophase 1 the nucleolus appear the

nuclear membranes fro
pinching of the cell membrane is completed so there are
two new cells
Meiosis II
Prophase 2 spindle fiibers begin to form the

nuclear membrane breaks
Metaphase 2 the chromosomes align at the center spindle

fibers form completely
Anaphase 2 the chromatids of each chromosome are pulled

apart and move toward opposite sides
Telophase 2 the nuclear membrane appears

the membrane pinches completely to form cells
Heredity
- process of transmitting biological traits from parent to offspring through genes, the basic units of heredity.
Heredity also refers to the inherited characteristics of an individual, including traits such as height, eye color, and
blood type.
Some of Mendel’s Basic Concepts
GENETICS is the study of how heredity works and, in particular, of genes.
GENE is a section of a long deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule, and it carries information for the construction
of a protein or part of a protein. Through the diversity of proteins they code for, genes influence or determine such
traits as eye color, the ability of a bacterium to eat a certain sugar, or the number of peas in a pod. A virus has as
few as a dozen genes. A simple roundworm has 5000 to 8000 genes, while a corn plant has 60,000. The construction
of a human requires an estimated 50,000 genes.
ALLELES are members of a gene pair.
GENOTYPE – The genetic composition of a cell or individual. Genotypes can be any of the following examples
AA – homozygous dominant (made of two dominant alleles)

Aa – a hetrozygous dominant (made of one dominant an one recessive allele
Aa – homozygous recessive (made up of two recessive alleles)
PHENOTYPE – the expression or manifestation of the genotype (can be morphological, physiological or

biochemical, sexualo, behavioral) AA- will exhibit a dominant trait
Aa- will also exhibit a dominant trait
Aa – will exhibit the ercessive trait
LAW OF INDEPENDENT SEGREGATION states that members of a gene 9pair) separate independently
of the separation of the other gene pairsduring meiosis or gamete formation
LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT states that diferent gene pairs assort to recombine with each
other independently of the assortment of the other gene pairs during meiosis or gamete formation.
Females have two X chromosomes, and males have one X and one Y chromosome. The Y chromosome is about
one-third the size of the X chromosome. A sperm, the reproductive cell produced by the male, can carry either one
X or one Y chromosome. An egg, the reproductive cell produced by the female, can carry only the X chromosome.
When a sperm with an X chromosome unites with an egg, the result is a child with two X chromosomes—a female.
When a sperm with a Y chromosome unites with an egg, however, the result is a child with one X and one Y
chromosome—a male. Thus, the father determines the gender of the child.
CODOMINANCE- when the two alleles in a gene pair appear together in the individual that is heterozygous for
the trait
Dominant-Recessive Inheritance
The dominant-recessive pattern of inheritance, a relatively simple pattern, involves paired alleles that influence one
trait. In this pattern, one of the two alleles contains information for a certain characteristic—the lavender color of
sweet pea flowers, for example—while the second allele directs the production of an alternate characteristic—the
white flower color. In sweet peas, if these two alleles occur together, the allele for lavender flowers is expressed,
and the flowers are lavender. The allele for lavender is therefore called the dominant allele. The allele for white is
known as the recessive allele. Lavender flowers also occur when two alleles for lavender color are paired. Only
when two alleles for the recessive characteristic are paired do white flowers appear. This genetic rule applies
regardless of the organism or the trait. In the dominant recessive pattern, the recessive trait shows up only when two
recessive alleles are paired.
Polygenic Inheritance
A significant number of human traits, such as eye color, skin color, height, weight, and muscle strength are typically
regulated by more than one allele in a pattern known as polygenic inheritance. Several thousand alleles, for example,
may combine to determine a person’s potential for pole-vaulting, and several hundred may play a role in establishing
a person’s normal weight. Certain diseases may result from mutations in one or more alleles involved in polygenic
inheritance. Researchers have identified nearly a dozen mutated alleles that are associated with diabetes mellitus,
and a similar number are linked to asthma. Heart disease may be linked to two or three times that number. Some
types of cancer may be correlated with more than 100 different genes. Polygenic inheritance is quite complex, and
the ways in which multiple genes interact to produce traits are not fully understood.
X-Y Linked Inheritance

Fruit Fly Chromosomes
The chromosomes of the fruit fly,
Drosophila melanogaster, lend themselves
well to genetic experimentation. There are
only 4 pairs—one of which, marked here
with Xs and Ys, determines the fly’s sex—
versus the human complement of 23 pairs. In
addition, the fly chromosomes themselves
are large. Thomas Hunt Morgan and his
associates based their theory of heredity on
studies using Drosophila. They found that
chromosomes were passed from parent to
offspring in a way that Gregor Mendel
ascribed to genes. They proposed, correctly,
that genes in fact occupy specific physical
locations on chromosomes.
X-Y linked, or sex-linked, inheritance results

from the size differences between the
X and Y chromosomes. The longer X
chromosome carries an estimated 250 genes,
which are responsible for critical biochemical functions such as normal blood clotting. The shorter Y chromosome
carries 6 genes, which are responsible for other traits, such as producing significant amounts of testosterone, the
male sex hormone.
X-Y linked conditions typically occur in a male when the single X chromosome carries a mutated allele, one that
prevents normal blood clotting, for example. A male does not have a second X chromosome with a normal allele to
override the mutation. As a result, the male in this case will have hemophilia, a disease in which blood does not clot
normally. If one of the female’s X chromosomes carries the mutated allele, however, her second X chromosome is
usually normal. The normal allele is the dominant allele, so the female does not have hemophilia. Thus, females are
typically carriers of X-Y linked diseases but do not develop them unless they receive a mutated allele from each
parent, an unusual event. Among the genetic disorders typically carried by females but inherited by males are
hemophilia, color blindness, and Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy.
Ecology
The study of the relationship of plants and animals to their physical and biological environment. The physical
environment includes light and heat or solar radiation, moisture, wind, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients in soil,
water, and atmosphere. The biological environment includes organisms of the same kind as well as other plants and
animals.
Food Chain
A succession of organisms in an ecological community that constitutes a continuation of food energy from one
organism to another as each consumes a lower member and in turn is preyed upon by a higher member.
Food Web
A set of interconnected food chains by which energy and materials circulate within an ecosystem (see Ecology).
The food web is divided into two broad categories: the grazing web, which typically begins with green plants, algae,
or photosynthesizing plankton, and the detrital web, which begins with organic debris. These webs are made up of
individual food chains. In a grazing web, materials typically pass from plants to plant eaters (herbivores) to flesh
eaters (carnivores). In a detrital web, materials pass from plant and animal matter to bacteria and fungi
(decomposers), then to detrital feeders (detritivores), and then to their predators (carnivores).
Food Web
The sun is the original source of energy in virtually all ecosystems. Producers (plants) convert the light energy into chemical energy,
storing it in their cells. When primary consumers (herbivores) eat the producers, the energy changes into a form that can be stored in
animal cells. Secondary consumers (carnivores) transform the energy once again. Decomposers may occupy several positions in the
pyramid, both receiving energy from decaying plants and animals and supplying it to detrivores and fungus-eaters.
Ecosystem
Organisms living in a particular environment, such as a forest or a coral reef, and the physical parts of the
environment that affect them. A community of interacting living and nonliving things. Producers, consumers,
decomposers, and abiotic matter form an integrated, functioning whole driven by the Sun’s energy.
Symbiosis
(Greek symbioun, “to live together”), in biology, term for the interdependence of different species, which are
sometimes called symbionts. There are three main types of symbiosis, based upon the specific relationship
between the species involved: mutualism, parasitism, and commensalism.
MUTUALISM
Symbiosis that results in mutual benefit to the interdependent organisms. An example of mutualism is the
coexistence of certain species of algae and fungi that together compose lichens. Their close association enables
them to live in extreme environments, nourished only by light, air, and minerals. Living separately, the alga and
fungus would not survive in such conditions. Another example is the relationship between most mycorrhizae and
certain plants. Mycorrhizae are fungal growths on the roots of such plants as heaths, orchids, and many conifers.
The fungi penetrate the roots of the plants and make soil nutriments such as nitrogen available to the plants,
receiving carbohydrates in return.
PARASITISM
Also known as antagonistic symbiosis, one organism receives no benefits and is often injured while supplying
nutrients or shelter for the other organism (see Parasite). Parasites include viruses and bacteria that cause many
diseases; certain protozoans that can infect plants and animals; tapeworms and flukes that infest the intestinal
tracks and internal organs of animals; and external parasites such as lice and ticks. There are also parasitic plants
like mistletoe that draw their nourishment from the branches of other plants.
COMMENSALISM
Is an association between two different kinds of nonparasitic animals, called commensals, that is harmless to
both and in which one of the organism benefits. Many commensals are free to separate. Other commensals
function together so completely that they cannot separate. They are not considered parasitic, however, because
they do not harm each other. An example is a polyp found in deep water off the coast of Newfoundland and
Labrador. It attaches itself to the shell of a certain species of hermit crab and, by budding, covers the entire shell
with a colony that dissolves the original shell. Because the colony grows at the same rate as the crab, it furnishes
continuous protection, and the crab does not shed its shell at periodic intervals as it normally would. The polyp, in
turn, benefits by moving about with the crab, thereby obtaining a greater food supply than it would if attached to a
stationary object. Commensalism is most common among marine invertebrates, but it often occurs among land
animals—for example, in the association of ants with other insects such as aphids and beetles. The association of
colon bacteria with humans and other animals, especially plant-eating animals, is also a type of commensalism.
COMPETITION
When a shared resource is in short supply, organisms compete, and those that are more successful survive.
Within some plant and animal populations, all individuals may share the resources in such a way that none obtains
sufficient quantities to survive as adults or to reproduce. Among other plant and animal populations, dominant
individuals claim access to the scarce resources and others are excluded. Individual plants tend to claim and hold
onto a site until they lose vigor or die. These prevent other individuals from surviving by controlling light,
moisture, and nutrients in their immediate areas.
PREDATION
One of the fundamental interactions is predation, or the consumption of one living organism, plant or animal,
by another. While it serves to move energy and nutrients through the ecosystem, predation may also regulate
population and promote natural selection by weeding the unfit from a population. Thus, a rabbit is a predator on
grass, just as the fox is a predator on the rabbit. Predation on plants involves defoliation by grazers and the
consumption of seeds and fruits. The abundance of plant predators, or herbivores, directly influences the growth
and survival of the carnivores. Thus, predator-prey interactions at one feeding level influence the predator-prey
relations at the next feeding level. In some communities, predators may so reduce populations of prey species that
a number of competing species can coexist in the same area because none is abundant enough to control the
resource. When predators are reduced or removed, however, the dominant species tend to crowd out other
competitors, thereby reducing species diversity.
COEVOLUTION
The joint evolution of two unrelated species that have a close ecological relationship—that is, the evolution of
one species depends in part on the evolution of the other. Coevolution is also involved in predator-prey relations.
Over time, as predators evolve more efficient ways of capturing or consuming prey, the prey evolves ways to
escape predation. Plants have acquired such defensive mechanisms as thorns, spines, hard seed-coats, and
poisonous or ill-tasting sap that deter would-be consumers. Some herbivores are able to breach these defenses and
attack the plant. Certain insects, such as the monarch butterfly, can incorporate poisonous substances found in
food plants into their own tissues and use them as a defense against predators. Other animals avoid predators by
assuming an appearance that blends them into the background or makes them appear part of the surroundings. The
chameleon is a well-known example of this interaction. Some animals possessing obnoxious odors or poisons as a
defense also have warning colorations, usually bright colors or patterns, that act as further warning signals to
potential predators. See Adaptation; Mimicry.
SCIENCE PROFICIENCY
(Chemistry)
Directions: For each statement or question, choose the letter of the word or expression
that, of those given, best completes or answers the question. Then on your answer sheet,
blacken the circle that corresponds to your final answer.
Notes:
BEGIN HERE:
1. A gas measures 100 mL at 26 C and 1atm. What will be its volume at 13 C and 0.5 atm?
a. 50 b. 100 c. 150 d. 200
2. Given the following electron configuration, determine the group number and period number
of the element.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5
a. Period 4, Group 5 c. Period 3, Group 7

b. Period 5, Group 4 d. Period 7, Group 3
3. Balance the following chemical equations:

C6H12O4 + O2 CO2 + H 2O
a. C6H12O4 + 15/2O2 6 CO2 + 7H2O

b. 2C6H12O4 + 15 O2 12CO2 + 14H2O
c. 4C6H12O4 + 30 O2 24CO2 + 26H2O
d. C6H12O4 + 15 O2 6 CO2 + 7 H2O
4. Cyanogen (C2N2) can be prepared by a catalyzed phase reaction between HCN and NO2.
The products of the reaction are C2N2, NO, and H2O. What is the balanced chemical
reaction?
a. 4 HCN + 2 NO2 2 C2N2 + 4NO + 2H2O

b. 2 HCN + NO2 C2N2 + NO + H2O
c. 4 HCN + NO3 2 C2N2 + NO + 2H2O

d. 2 HCN + 3 NO2 C2N2 + 3NO + H2O
5. A chemical bond is an attractive force that holds atoms together. What type of chemical
bond which refers to the electrovalent or electrostatic attraction between positive and
negative ions?
a. Ionic Bond
b. Crystal Lattice
c. Covalent Bond
d. Polar Covalent Bond
For nos 6- 8, Fill the table below.
1
Element Mass # Atomic # Proton # Electron # Neutron #
Radon (6) 53 (7) (8) 74
a. 53 b. 74 c. 106 d. 127
For nos. 9 – 12 refer to the choices below

a. Combination c. Single Replacement
b. Decomposition d. Double Replacement
9. FeCl 2 + Na3PO4 Fe (PO4)2 + NaCl
10. CaCO3 CaO + CO2
11. Mg + N2 Mg3N2
12. Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
13. What volume of HCl is neeed to prepare 3L of 3 molar hydrochloric acid from 6 molar
solution?
a. 1.0 L c. 2.0 L
b. 1.5 L d. 2.5 L
Nitrogen gas reacts with hydrogen gas to produce ammonia as shown in the following equation:
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
14. How many moles of H2 are needed to react with 2.5 mole N2?
a. 2.5 c. 7.5
b. 5.0 d. 10.0
15. From the answer in no. 14, how many grams of H2 will be produced?
a. 2.5 c. 7.5
b. 5.0 d. 10.0
16. A gas measures 450 mL at a temp of 30C, what will be its volume at 50 C?
a. 250 mL c. 750mL
b. 500 mL d. 1000mL
17. A mixture shows the following properties: Its particles do not settle down, can not be
filtered, and cannot be seen by the naked eye. The mixture does not show the Tyndall
effect. Which of the following best describe this mixture?
a. homogeneous c. colloid
b. solution d. suspension
18. If the volume of one mole of gas molecules remains constant, lowering the temperature
will make the pressure
a. increase c. increase then decrease
b. decrease d. decrease then increase
19. What happens to the volume of a confined gas if its pressure is doubled and its
temperature remains constant?
a. increase c. will remain the same
b. decrease d. all of the above
20. The formula that indicates the local number of atoms of the elements in a compound is
the
2
a. empirical formula c. structural formula
b. molecular formula d. simplest formula
21. What chemical equation will represent the reaction of MgCl2 and KOH?
a. MgK + HCl
b. Mg + KCl2 + H2O
c. MgO + K + HCl
d. Mg(OH)2 + KCl
22. Which of the following statement is true?

a. Orbitals make up a subshell; subshells make up a shell.
b. Subshells make up a shell; shells make up an orbital.
c. Shells make up an orbital; orbitals make up a subshelll.
d. None of the above.
23. Which of the following does not belong to the group?

a. Molarity
b. Molality
c. Normality
d. Acidity
24. If 50 g of reactants are used up in a reaction, what will be the mass of the products?
a. 25 c. 45
b. 30 d. 50
25. Which of the following is not a chemical reaction?

a. burning paper
b. rusting of metal
c. ripening of fruit
d. freezing carbon dioxide
26. Which of the following is true about sub atomic particles, mass number and atomic
number?
a. mass number is equal to the number of neutron
b. proton plus electron is equal to the mass number
c. atomic number is equal to the number of protons
d. neutron number can be calculated given only the mass number
27. In a compound, the sum of the total positive oxidation numbers and negative oxidation
numbers must be equal to _____________.
a. 0 b. 1 c. 2 d. 3
28. Atoms of the same elements having the same atomic number can have different mass
number due to differences in their number of neutrons. These atoms are _______.
a. neutrons b. protons c. isotopes d. isomers
29. Random movement of particles is least observable in what phase of matter?

a. gas b. plasma c. solid d. liquid
30. What are electrons found in an incomplete outer shell of an atom called?
a. electronegativity c. lone pair

b. electron configuration d. valence electrons
3
PHYSICS
BASIC LAWS AND CONCEPTS
PHYSICS
- major science, dealing with the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces they
exert on one another, and the results produced by these forces. Sometimes in modern
physics a more sophisticated approach is taken that incorporates elements of the three areas
listed above; it relates to the laws of symmetry and conservation, such as those pertaining
to energy, momentum, charge, and parity.
VECTORS AND SCALARS
Vectors and Net Force

Often, an object will have many forces acting on it
simultaneously. Calculating the effect of each of the
forces separately can be extremely complex and difficult.
However, forces are vectors, and as such, any number
of forces can be combined into a single net force vector
(R) from which the object’s behavior can be determined.
Scalar – a measure with magnitude but no direction.

(e.g., distance, mass, speed)
Vectors – a measure with both magnitude and direction.

(e.g., force, acceleration, velocity)
Mechanics
Mechanics, branch of physics concerning the motions of objects and their response to forces. Modern
descriptions of such behavior begin with a careful definition of such quantities as displacement
(distance moved), time, velocity, acceleration, mass, and force. Until about 400 years ago, however,
motion was explained from a very different point of view. For example, following the ideas of Greek
philosopher and scientist Aristotle, scientists reasoned that a cannonball falls down because its
natural position is in the earth; the sun, the moon, and the stars travel in circles around the earth
because it is the nature of heavenly objects to travel in perfect circles.
The Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo brought together the ideas of other great thinkers of his
time and began to analyze motion in terms of distance traveled from some starting position and the
time that it took. He showed that the speed of falling objects increases steadily during the time of
their fall. This acceleration is the same for heavy objects as for light ones, provided air friction (air
resistance) is discounted. The English mathematician and physicist Sir Isaac Newton improved this
analysis by defining force and mass and relating these to acceleration. For objects traveling at speeds
close to the speed of light, Newton’s laws were superseded by Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity.
For atomic and subatomic particles, Newton’s laws were superseded by quantum theory. For
everyday phenomena, however, Newton’s three laws of motion remain the cornerstone of dynamics,
which is the study of what causes motion.
Kinetics
1
Falling objects accelerate
in response to the force
exerted on them by
Earth’s gravity. Different
objects accelerate at the
same rate, regardless of
their mass. This
illustration shows the
speed at which a ball and
a cat would be moving and
the distance each would
have fallen at intervals of
a tenth of a second during
a short fall.
Kinetics is the description

of motion without regard
to what causes the
motion. Velocity (the time
rate of change of position) is defined as the distance traveled divided by the time interval. Velocity
may be measured in such units as kilometers per hour, miles per hour, or meters per second.
Acceleration is defined as the time rate of change of velocity: the change of velocity divided by the
time interval during the change. Acceleration may be measured in such units as meters per second
per second or feet per second per second. Regarding the size or weight of the moving object, no
mathematical problems are presented if the object is very small compared with the distances
involved. If the object is large, it contains one point, called the center of mass, the motion of which
can be described as characteristic of the whole object. If the object is rotating, it is frequently
convenient to describe its rotation about an axis that goes through the center of mass.
To fully describe the motion of an object, the direction of the displacement must be given. Velocity,
for example, has both magnitude (a scalar quantity measured, for example, in meters per second)
and direction (measured, for example, in degrees of arc from a reference point). The magnitude of
velocity is called speed.
Several special types of motion are easily described. First, velocity may be constant. In the simplest
case, the velocity might be zero; position would not change during the time interval. With constant
velocity, the average velocity is equal to the velocity at any particular time. If time, t, is measured
with
a clock starting at t = 0, then the distance, d, traveled at constant velocity, v, is equal to the product
of velocity and time.
d = vt
In the second special type of motion, acceleration is constant. Because the velocity is changing,
instantaneous velocity, or the velocity at a given instant, must be defined. For constant acceleration,
a,
starting with zero velocity ( v = 0) at t = 0, the instantaneous velocity at time, t, is
v = at
The distance traveled during this time is
d = at2
An important feature revealed in this equation is the dependence of distance on the square of the
time
(t2, or “t squared,” is the short way of notating t × t). A heavy object falling freely (uninfluenced by
air friction) near the surface of the earth undergoes constant acceleration. In this case the
acceleration is
9.8 m/sec/sec (32 ft/sec/sec). At the end of the first second, a ball would have fallen 4.9 m (16 ft)
and would have a speed of 9.8 m/sec (32 ft/sec). At the end of the second second, the ball would
have fallen 19.6 m (64 ft) and would have a speed of 19.6 m/sec (64 ft/sec).
Circular motion is another simple type of motion. If an object has constant speed but an acceleration
always at right angles to its velocity, it will travel in a circle. The required acceleration is directed
toward the center of the circle and is called centripetal acceleration (see Centripetal Force). For an
object traveling at speed, v, in a circle of radius, r, the centripetal acceleration is
Science IV -3-
Another simple type of motion that is frequently observed occurs when a ball is thrown at an angle
into the air. Because of gravitation, the ball undergoes a constant downward acceleration that first
slows its original upward speed and then increases its downward speed as it falls back to earth.
Meanwhile the horizontal component of the original velocity remains constant (ignoring air
resistance), making the ball travel at a constant speed in the horizontal direction until it hits the
earth. The vertical and horizontal components of the motion are independent, and they can be
analyzed separately. The resulting path of the ball is in the shape of a parabola.
DYNAMICS
To understand why and how objects accelerate, force and mass must be defined. At the intuitive
level, a force is just a push or a pull. It can be measured in terms of either of two effects. A force can
either distort something, such as a spring, or accelerate an object. The first effect can be used in the
calibration of a spring scale, which can in turn be used to measure the amplitude of a force: the
greater the force, F, the greater the stretch, x. For many springs, over a limited range, the stretch is
proportional to the force
F = kx
where k is a constant that depends on the nature of the spring material and its dimensions.
Components of Velocity
Neglecting air resistance, a ball thrown into the air at an
angle will travel in a parabolic path. The velocity of the
ball (V) has independent vertical (V) and horizontal (H)
components; the horizontal component stays the same
the entire time the ball is in the air, while the vertical
component, the only component affected by gravity,
changes continuously while the ball is aloft.
TORQUE
For equilibrium, all the horizontal components of the

force
must cancel one another, and all the vertical components must cancel one another as well. This
condition is necessary for equilibrium, but not sufficient. For example, if a person stands a book up
on a
Science IV -4-
table and pushes on the book equally hard with one hand in one direction and with the other hand in
the other direction, the book will remain motionless if the person’s hands are opposite each other.
(The net result is that the book is being squeezed). If, however, one hand is near the top of the book
and the other hand near the bottom, a torque is produced, and the book will fall on its side. For
equilibrium to exist it is also necessary that the sum of the torques about any axis be zero.
A torque is the product of a force and the perpendicular distance to a turning axis. When a force is
applied to a heavy door to open it, the force is exerted perpendicularly to the door and at the
greatest distance from the hinges. Thus, a maximum torque is created. If the door were shoved with
the same force at a point halfway between handle and hinge, the torque would be only half of its
3
previous magnitude. If the force were applied parallel to the door (that is, edge on), the torque
would be zero. For an object to be in equilibrium, the clockwise torques about any axis must be
canceled by the counterclockwise torques about that axis. Therefore, one could prove that if the
torques cancel for any particular axis, they cancel for all axes.
NEWTON’S THREE LAWS OF MOTION
.
Acceleration and Newton's Laws
Newton’s second law states that the net force on an
object is proportional to the acceleration that object
undergoes. If there is no net force, then according to
Newton’s first law, there can be no acceleration. A book
on a table experiences a downward force due to gravity,
and an upward force due to the table pushing on the
book (called the normal force). The two forces cancel
each other out exactly; there is no net force, so the
book does not accelerate off the table.
Newton’s first law of motion states that if the vector sum of the forces acting on an object is zero,
then the object will remain at rest or remain moving at constant velocity. If the force exerted on an
object is zero, the object does not necessarily have zero velocity. Without any forces acting on it,
including friction, an object in motion will continue to travel at constant velocity.
The Second Law
Newton’s second law relates net force and acceleration. A net force on an object will accelerate it—
that is, change its velocity. The acceleration will be proportional to the magnitude of the force and in
the
Science IV -5-
same direction as the force. The proportionality constant is the mass, m, of the object.
F = ma
In the International System of Units (also known as SI, after the initials of Système International),
acceleration, a, is measured in meters per second per second. Mass is measured in kilograms; force,
F, in newtons. A newton is defined as the force necessary to impart to a mass of 1 kg an acceleration
of 1 m/sec/sec; this is equivalent to about 0.2248 lb.
A massive object will require a greater force for a given acceleration than a small, light object. What
is remarkable is that mass, which is a measure of the inertia of an object (inertia is its reluctance to
change velocity), is also a measure of the gravitational attraction that the object exerts on other
objects. It is surprising and profound that the inertial property and the gravitational property are
determined by the same thing. The implication of this phenomenon is that it is impossible to
distinguish at a point whether the point is in a gravitational field or in an accelerated frame of
reference. Einstein made this one of the cornerstones of his general theory of relativity, which is the
currently accepted theory of gravitation.
Friction
Microscopic bumps on surfaces cause
friction. When two surfaces contact
each other, tiny bumps on each of the
surfaces tend to run into each other,
preventing the surfaces from moving
past each other smoothly. An effective
lubricant forms a layer between two
surfaces that prevents the bumps on
the surfaces from contacting each
other; as a result the surfaces move
past each other easily.
Friction acts like a force applied in the direction opposite to an object’s velocity. For dry sliding
friction, where no lubrication is present, the friction force is almost independent of velocity. Also, the
friction force does not depend on the apparent area of contact between an object and the surface
upon which it slides. The actual contact area—that is, the area where the microscopic bumps on the
object and sliding surface are actually touching each other—is relatively small. As the object moves
across the sliding surface, the tiny bumps on the object and sliding surface collide, and force is
required to move the bumps past each other. The actual contact area depends on the perpendicular
force between the object and sliding surface. Frequently this force is just the weight of the sliding
object. If the object is pushed at an angle to the horizontal, however, the downward vertical
component of the force will, in effect, add to the weight of the object. The friction force is
proportional to the total perpendicular force.
Where friction is present, Newton’s second law is expanded to
The left side of the equation is simply the net effective force. (Acceleration will be constant in the
direction of the effective force). When an object moves through a liquid, however, the magnitude of
the friction depends on the velocity. For most human-size objects moving in water or air (at subsonic
speeds), the resulting friction is proportional to the square of the speed. Newton’s second law then
becomes
The proportionality constant, k, is characteristic of the two materials that are sliding past each other,
and depends on the area of contact between the two surfaces and the degree of streamlining of the
moving object.
The Third Law
Newton’s third law of motion states that an object experiences a force because it is interacting with
some other object. The force that object 1 exerts on object 2 must be of the same magnitude but in
the opposite direction as the force that object 2 exerts on object 1. If, for example, a large adult
gently shoves away a child on a skating rink, in addition to the force the adult imparts on the child,
the child imparts an equal but oppositely directed force on the adult. Because the mass of the adult is
larger, however, the acceleration of the adult will be smaller.
Newton’s third law also requires the conservation of momentum, or the product of mass and velocity.
For an isolated system, with no external forces acting on it, the momentum must remain constant. In
the example of the adult and child on the skating rink, their initial velocities are zero, and thus the
initial momentum of the system is zero. During the interaction, internal forces are at work between
adult and child, but net external forces equal zero. Therefore, the momentum of the system must
remain zero. After the adult pushes the child away, the product of the large mass and small velocity
5
of the adult must equal the product of the small mass and large velocity of the child. The momenta
are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, thus adding to zero.
Another conserved quantity of great importance is angular (rotational) momentum. The angular
momentum of a rotating object depends on its speed of rotation, its mass, and the distance of the
mass from the axis. When a skater standing on a friction-free point spins faster and faster, angular
momentum is conserved despite the increasing speed. At the start of the spin, the skater’s arms are
outstretched. Part of the mass is therefore at a large radius. As the skater’s arms are lowered, thus
decreasing their distance from the axis of rotation, the rotational speed must increase in order to
maintain constant angular momentum. IV - 7 -
ENERGY
Pendulum
A moving pendulum
changes potential
energy into kinetic
energy and back
again. When the bob
(weight on the end
of string) is first
released, it has
potential energy due
to its height, but no
kinetic energy since
it is not yet moving.
As the bob
accelerates
downward, potential
energy is traded for
kinetic. At the
bottom of its swing,
the bob has no
potential energy
since it cannot fall
any further. The bob
Energy of a
is moving quickly at this point since all of its former potential energy has been transformed into
kinetic energy.
The quantity called energy ties together all branches of physics. In the field of mechanics, energy
must be provided to do work; work is defined as the product of force and the distance an object
moves in the direction of the force. When a force is exerted on an object but the force does not cause
the object to move, no work is done. Energy and work are both measured in the same units—ergs,
joules, or footpounds, for example.
If work is done lifting an object to a greater height, energy has been stored in the form of
gravitational potential energy. Many other forms of energy exist: electric and magnetic potential
energy; kinetic
energy; energy stored in stretched springs, compressed gases, or molecular bonds; thermal energy;
and mass itself. In all transformations from one kind of energy to another, the total energy is
conserved. For instance, if work is done on a rubber ball to raise it, its gravitational potential energy
is increased. If the ball is then dropped, the gravitational potential energy is transformed to kinetic
energy. When the ball hits the ground, it becomes distorted and thereby creates friction between the
molecules of the ball material. This friction is transformed into heat, or thermal energy.
Electricity
Electricity, one of the basic forms of energy. Electricity is associated with electric charge, a property
of certain elementary particles such as electrons and protons, two of the basic particles that make up
the atoms of all ordinary matter. Electric charges can be stationary, as in static electricity, or moving,
as in an electric current.
Projectile, in military terminology, a missile discharged from small arms or from artillery weapons or
a self-propelled weapon such as a rocket or a torpedo, or guided missiles. The terms projectile, shell,
and missile are loosely interchangeable, but in modern military usage projectile is preferable as a
more precise term. In physics and ballistics, a projectile is any body projected through space.
ELECTRIC CHARGE
Electricity consists of charges carried by electrons, protons, and other particles. Electric charge comes
in two forms: positive and negative. Electrons and protons both carry exactly the same amount of
electric charge, but the positive charge of the proton is exactly opposite the negative charge of the
electron. If an object has more protons than electrons, it is said to be positively charged; if it has
more electrons than protons, it is said to be negatively charged. If an object contains as many
protons as electrons, the charges will cancel each other and the object is said to be uncharged, or
electrically neutral.
Electricity occurs in two forms: static electricity and electric current. Static electricity consists of
electric charges that stay in one place. An electric current is a flow of electric charges between
objects or locations.
Static electricity can be produced by rubbing together two objects made of different materials.
Electrons move from the surface of one object to the surface of the other if the second material holds
onto its electrons more strongly than the first does. The object that gains electrons becomes
negatively charged, since it now has more electrons than protons. The object that gives up electrons
becomes positively charged. For example, if a nylon comb is run through clean, dry hair, some of the
electrons on the hair are transferred to the comb. The comb becomes negatively charged and the
hair becomes positively charged. The following materials are named in decreasing order of their
ability to hold electrons: rubber, silk, glass, flannel, and fur (or hair). If any two of these materials
are rubbed together, the material earlier in the list becomes negative, and the material later in the
list becomes positive. The materials should be clean and dry.
Coulomb’s Law
Objects with opposite charges attract each other, and objects with similar charges repel each other.
Coulomb’s law, formulated by French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb during the late 18th
century, quantifies the strength of the attraction or repulsion. This law states that the force between
two charged objects is directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them. The greater the charges on the objects, the larger the
force between them; the greater the distance between the objects, the lesser the force between
them. The unit of electric charge, also named after Coulomb, is equal to the combined charges of
6.24 × 1018 protons (or electrons).
Electric current - is a movement of charge. When two objects with different charges touch and
redistribute their charges, an electric current flows from one object to the other until the charge is
distributed according to the capacitances of the objects. If two objects are connected by a material
that lets charge flow easily, such as a copper wire, then an electric current flows from one object to
the other through the wire. Electric current can be demonstrated by connecting a small light bulb to
an electric battery by two copper wires. When the connections are properly made, current flows
through the wires and the bulb, causing the bulb to glow. Electric current is measured in units called
amperes (amp). If 1 coulomb of charge flows past each point of a wire every second, the wire is
carrying a current of 1 amp.
Conductors are materials that allow an electric current to flow through them easily. Most metals are
good conductors.
7
Insulators Substances that do not allow electric current to flow through them are. Rubber, glass, and
air are common insulators. Electricians wear rubber gloves so that electric current will not pass from
electrical equipment to their bodies.
Voltage, or Potential Difference
When the two terminals of a battery are connected by a conductor, an electric current flows through
the conductor. One terminal continuously sends electrons into the conductor, while the other
continuously receives electrons from it. The current flow is caused by the voltage, or potential
difference, between the terminals. The more willing the terminals are to give up and receive
electrons, the higher the voltage. Voltage is measured in units called volts. Another name for a
voltage produced by a source of electric current is electromotive force.
Resistance
A conductor allows an electric current to flow through it, but it does not permit the current to flow
with perfect freedom. Collisions between the electrons and the atoms of the conductor interfere with
the flow of electrons. This phenomenon is known as resistance. Resistance is measured in units called
ohms. The symbol for ohms is the Greek letter omega, Ω.
Ohm’s Law
The relationship between current, voltage, and resistance is given by Ohm’s law. This law states that
the amount of current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across the
conductor and inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor. Ohm’s law can be expressed
as an equation, V = IR, where V is the difference in volts between two locations (called the potential
difference), I is the amount of current in amperes that is flowing between these two points, and R is
the resistance in ohms of the conductor between the two locations of interest. V = IR can also be
written R = V/I and I = V/R. If any two of the quantities are known, the third can be calculated. For
example, if a potential difference of 110 volts sends a 10-amp current through a conductor, then the
resistance of the conductor is R = V/I = 110/10 = 11 ohms. If V = 110 and R = 11, then I = V/R =
110/11 = 10 amp. ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
An electric circuit is an arrangement of electric current sources and conducting paths through which a
current can continuously flow. There are two basic ways in which the parts of a circuit are arranged.
One arrangement is called a series circuit, and the other is called a parallel circuit.
Series Circuits
If various objects are arranged to form a single conducting path between the terminals of a source of
electric current, the objects are said to be connected in series. The electron current first passes from
the negative terminal of the source into the first object, then flows through the other objects one
after another, and finally returns to the positive terminal of the source. The current is the same
throughout the circuit. In the example of the light bulb, the wires, bulb, switch, and fuse are
connected in series.
Parallel Circuits
If various objects are connected to form separate paths between the terminals of a source of electric
current, they are said to be connected in parallel. Each separate path is called a branch of the circuit.
Current from the source splits up and enters the various branches. After flowing through the separate
branches, the current merges again before reentering the current source.
MAGNETISM
Magnetism, an aspect of electromagnetism, one of the fundamental forces of nature. Magnetic forces
are produced by the motion of charged particles such as electrons, indicating the close relationship
between electricity and magnetism. The unifying frame for these two forces is called electromagnetic
theory (see Electromagnetic Radiation). The most familiar evidence of magnetism is the attractive or
repulsive force observed to act between magnetic materials such as iron. More subtle effects of
magnetism, however, are found in all matter. In recent times these effects have provided important
clues to the atomic structure of matter.
-
LIGHT
Light, form of energy visible to the human eye that is radiated by moving charged particles. Light
from the Sun provides the energy needed for plant growth. Plants convert the energy in sunlight into
storable chemical form through a process called photosynthesis.
and Emission
When a photon,
or packet of light
energy, is
absorbed by an
atom, the atom
gains the energy
of the photon,
and one of the
atom’s electrons
may jump to a
higher energy
level. The atom
is then said to be
excited. When
an electron of an
excited atom
falls to a lower
energy level, the
atom may emit
the electron’s
excess energy in
the form of a
photon. The
Light Absorption energy levels, or orbitals, of the atoms shown here have been greatly simplified to
illustrate these absorption and emission processes. For a more accurate depiction of electron orbitals,
see the Atom article.
WAVELENGTH, FREQUENCY, AND AMPLITUDE
The wavelength of a monochromatic wave is the distance between two consecutive wave peaks.
Wavelengths of visible light can be measured in meters or in nanometers (nm), which are one-
billionth of a meter (or about 0.4 ten-millionths of an inch). Frequency corresponds to the number of
wavelengths that pass by a certain point in space in a given amount of time. This value is usually
measured in cycles per second, or hertz (Hz). All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed, so
in one second, more short waves will pass by a point in space than will long waves. This means that
shorter waves have a higher frequency than longer waves. The relationship between wavelength,
speed, and frequency is expressed by the equation: wave speed equals wavelength times frequency,
or
c=
lf
Where c is the speed of a light wave in m/sec (3x108 m/sec in a vacuum), l is the wavelength in
meters, and f is the wave’s frequency in Hz.
The amplitude of an electromagnetic wave is the height of the wave, measured from a point midway
between a peak and a trough to the peak of the wave. This height corresponds to the maximum
strength of the electric and magnetic fields and to the number of photons in the light.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared light, visible light,
ultraviolet light, x rays, and gamma rays. Visible light, which makes up only a tiny fraction of the
electromagnetic spectrum, is the only electromagnetic radiation that humans can perceive with their
ey
9
BEHAVIOR OF LIGHT
Light behavior can be divided into two categories: how light interacts with matter and how light
travels, or propagates through space or through transparent materials. The propagation of light has
much in common with the propagation of other kinds of waves, including sound waves and water
waves.
Interaction with Material
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the frequency of the light and the atomic structure of the material. In transparent materials, the
electrons in the material oscillate, or vibrate, while the light is present. This oscillation momentarily
takes energy away from the light and then puts it back again. The result is to slow down the light
wave without leaving energy behind.
Refract
ion of
Light
Refract
ion is
the
bendin
g of a
light
ray as
it
passes
from
one
substa
nce to
anothe
r. The
light
ray
bends
at an
angle
that
depen
ds on the difference between the speed of light in one substance and the next. Sunlight reflecting off
a fish in water, for instance, changes to a higher speed and bends when it enters air. The light appears
to originate from a place in the water above the fish’s actual position.
Refraction
Refraction is the bending of light when it passes from one kind of material into another. Because light
travels at a different speed in different materials, it must change speeds at the boundary between two
materials.
Reflection
Reflection also occurs when light hits the boundary between two materials. Some of the light hitting the
boundary will be reflected into the first material. If light strikes the boundary at an angle, the light is
reflected at the same angle, similar to the way balls bounce when they hit the floor.
Scattering
Scattering occurs when the atoms of a transparent material are not smoothly distributed over
distances greater than the length of a light wave, but are bunched up into lumps of molecules or
particles. The sky is bright because molecules and particles in the air scatter sunlight.
The Speed of Light
Scientists have defined the speed of light in a vacuum to be exactly 299,792,458 meters per second
(about 186,000 miles per second).
SOUND
Sound, physical phenomenon that stimulates the sense of hearing. In humans, hearing takes place
whenever vibrations of frequencies from 15 hertz to about 20,000 hertz reach the inner ear. The hertz
(Hz) is a unit of frequency equaling one vibration or cycle per second. Such vibrations reach the inner
ear when they are transmitted through air. The speed of sound varies, but at sea level it travels
through cool, dry air at about 1,190 km/h (740 mph). The term sound is sometimes restricted to such
airborne vibrational waves. Modern physicists, however, usually extend the term to include similar
vibrations in other gaseous, liquid, or solid media. Physicists also include vibrations of any frequency
in any media, not just those that would be audible to humans. Sounds of frequencies above the range
of normal human hearing, higher than about 20,000 Hz, are called ultrasonic.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Frequency
Frequency
We perceive frequency as “higher” or “lower” sounds. The frequency of a sound is the number of
cycles, or oscillations, a sound wave completes in a given time. Frequency is measured in hertz, or
cycles per second. In these examples, the frequency of each higher wave is double that of the one
below, producing the same note at different frequencies, from 110.00 Hz to 880.00 Hz. Waves
propagate at both higher and lower frequencies, but humans are unable to hear them outside of a
relatively narrow range.
Amplitude
Amplitude
and Volume
Amplitude is
the
characteristic
ic of sound
waves that
we perceive
as
normal, or zero, position is the amplitude; this distance corresponds to the degree of motion in the air
molecules of a wave. As the degree of motion in the molecules is increased, they strike the ear drum
with progressively greater force. This causes the ear to perceive a louder sound. A comparison of
samples at low, medium, and high amplitudes demonstrates the change in sound caused by altering
amplitude. These three waves have the same frequency, and so should sound the same except for a
perceptible volume difference.
Intensity
Sound Intensities
Sound intensities are measured in decibels (dB). For example, the intensity at the threshold of
hearing is 0 dB, the intensity of whispering is typically about 10 dB, and the intensity of rustling
leaves reaches almost 20 dB. Sound intensities are arranged on a logarithmic scale, which means
that an increase of 10 dB corresponds to an increase in intensity by a factor of 10. Thus, rustling
leaves are about 10 times louder than whispering.
Quality
Quality is the characteristic of sound that allows the ear to distinguish between tones created by
different instruments, even when the sound waves are identical in amplitude and frequency.
Overtones are additional components in the wave that vibrate in simple multiples of the base
frequency, causing
the differences in quality, or timbre. The ear perceives distinctly different qualities in the same note
when it is produced by a tuning fork, a violin, and a piano.
Speed of Sound
The speed of sound in dry, sea level air at a temperature of 0°C (32°F) is 332 m/sec (1,088 ft/sec).
The speed of sound in air varies under different conditions. If the temperature is increased, for
example, the speed of sound increases; thus, at 20°C (68°F), the speed of sound is 344 m/sec
(1,129 ft/sec). The speed of sound is different in other gases of greater or lesser density than air.
The molecules of some gases, such as carbon dioxide, are heavier and move less readily than
molecules of air. Sound progresses through such gases more slowly.
Decibel Scale
The decibel scale is used primarily to compare sound intensities although it can be used to compare
voltages.
Decibels Typical sound

0 threshold of hearing
10 rustle of leaves in gentle breeze
10 quiet whisper
20 average whisper
20-50 quiet conversation
40-45 hotel; theater (between performances)
50-65 loud conversation
65-70 traffic on busy street
65-90 Train
75-80 factory (light/medium work)
90 heavy traffic
90-100 Thunder
110-140 jet aircraft at takeoff
130 threshold of pain
140-190 space rocket at takeoff
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Nuclear Fusion
The release of nuclear energy can occur at the low end of the binding energy curve (see
accompanying chart) through the fusion of two light nuclei into a heavier one. The energy radiated
by stars, including the Sun, arises from such fusion reactions deep in their interiors. At the
enormous pressure and at
temperatures above 15 million ° C (27 million ° F) existing there, hydrogen nuclei combine
according to equation (1) and give rise to most of the energy released by the Sun.
Fission and Fusion
Nuclear energy can be released in two different ways: fission, the splitting of a large nucleus, and
fusion, the combining of two small nuclei. In both cases energy—measured in millions of electron
volts (MeV)—is released because the products are more stable (have a higher binding energy) than
the reactants. Fusion reactions are difficult to maintain because the nuclei repel each other, but
fusion creates much less radioactive waste than does fission.
ENGLISH QUIZZES SOLUTION SETS
PARTS OF SPEECH AND GENERAL GRAMMAR RULES
1. b We are looking for pronoun that will function as an object of the preposition to in the
prepositional phrase To the preoccupied Rose and ____________. Therefore, we
must choose the pronoun in the Objective Case. Among the choices, only me is in
the objective case.
2. b The proper pronoun to use is its, which is singular, because crowd is a collective
noun and is singular in this case. Its is also in the third person, which is the person of
the noun crowd, which its replaces.
3. d We must fill the blank with a pronoun in the Nominative Case because it would be
the Subject of the verb phrase must learn. Among They and We, which are both in
the nominative case, we choose We because of the possessive pronoun our near the
end of the sentence, which indicates that the speaker or speakers belong to the group
Filipinos.
4. d Choose letter d because both blanks are Objects of the preposition to. We know that
when a pronoun is the object of the preposition, it must be in the Objective Case.
5. b Generally, nouns ending in f are pluralized by removing the f and adding -ves
instead. So elf and shelf become elves and shelves, respectively. However, dwarf is
an exception. It becomes plural by the addition of s.
6. b In the first blank, we are looking for a pronoun that would replace each of the
alumnae. The rule for proper pronoun use says that a pronoun must agree with its
antecedent in person, number and gender. Each of the alumnae is singular, feminine,
and is in the third person. So among the choices, only her fits the first blank. In the
second blank, we are looking for a verb that would agree with the subject scissors.
Scissors is a special noun that is always plural. Therefore, the verb following must
be plural as well. Among choices a and b, both of which have her for the first word,
only b has the plural verb were.
7. a Since John and Susie jointly own the yacht, the rule for joint possession applies. To
indicate joint possession by John and Susie of the yacht, add an apostrophe s (’s) to
the last name.
8. a The presence of the word among indicates that the subject she is being compared to
many. Thus, the superlative degree of comparison must be used.
9. c All the blanks need a preposition of time. In is the answer to the first blank because
its object is a month; at is the answer to the second blank because its object is an
exact and specific time of the day; and on is the answer to the third blank because its
object is the specific date or day.
10. a For specific addresses (#312 Mahabagin Street), we use the preposition at. For land-
areas (Quezon City), we use the preposition in.
11. b To indicate a difference of opinion or belief with another person, you use the phrasal
verb differ with. To indicate the difference of one thing from another (difference of
one’s thoughts to another’s), use differ from.
12. a The subject is the plural members. Therefore, use a plural verb. Between cut, which
is in the present tense, and have cut which is in the present perfect tense, choose cut
because the word always in the sentence indicates that the action keeps on occurring.
The sentence is therefore a general statement of fact.
13. c Tag questions require the verb used in the main statement, plus the pronoun that
refers to the subject of the same main statement.
14. a Indices here is used as a word in itself, and should thus be singular. it must also be in
the present tense because it is a general statement.
15. c Money is always considered as a singular subject. Whereas the second person you is
always considered to be plural.
16. d Procter and Gamble is the name of one company, and is therefore a singular subject.
One, which is also singular, is the subject of the second sentence.
17. d Since the satin remained, much or many cannot be used. Little is the answer because
bleach, which the missing adjective modifies, is a non-countable (cannot be counted)
noun.
18. d The whole sentence is expressing the sentiment “aside from… but also.” Thus, the
answer is the correlative conjunction not only… but also.
19. a Grammatically speaking, only letter a fits the blank. It’s is an abbreviation for It is,
which is inappropriate for the blank. It has and It was are also incorrect.
20. c The context is not clear on whether the aquarium contains different types of fish
(whence you use fishes) or just one type (whence you use fish). Thus, any of the two
will do.
21. a We need the noun advice rather than the verb advise. Advisory is inappropriate for
the context, as it means some kind of periodic report or warning. One may argue for
advising which may be a gerund, and thus a noun form. But since a better word
(advice) is among the choices, one must not choose the inferior advising.
22. c Further is used for explaining more or elaborating on a subject matter. Farther is for
going forward (pertaining to distance). We do not use the superlative because there’s
no comparison among many things.
23. a Use the adjective good instead of the adverb well when it comes after a linking verb
that pertains to sense. Using well would make the sentence mean you have a well-
honed sense of smell, not the compliment to you that it was supposed to be.
24. a Use the adjective bad instead of the adverb badly after a linking verb that pertains to
sense. Using badly would mean there’s something wrong with the speaker’s sense of
feelings, not what it was meant to be, which is that the speaker was saddened by the
circumstances.
25. c Alternative may be a noun or an adjective. As an adjective, it means different which
is what we need for the blank.
26. c We use besides, which means aside from.
27. a We use the plural verb here because of the word dishes at the end of the sentence.
This tells us that macaroni and cheese are considered as two separate dishes by the
speaker.
28. b We use the singular form of the verb because in fractional expressions, we follow the
object of the preposition of, in number. Here, the object of the preposition of in the
prepositional phrase that follows the fractional expression, is the collective noun
class. Collective nouns are generally considered singular. We do not use be which is
in the subjunctive mood because the statement is in the indicative mood (just stating
a fact).
29. a Use be which is in the subjunctive mood because the dependent clause that a
ruler____ good is stating a requirement or condition. we know that for such cases,
we must use the subjunctive mood.
30. a Use were, which is in the subjunctive mood. The dependent clause If I ____ a horse
is expressing a wish. Thus it ought to be in the subjunctive mood.
31. c Use the past perfect tense had studied because in this statement, the studying is a
precursor to passing the UPCAT. Therefore, two actions (as the sentence indicates
that the chance for both have already passed) would have occurred in succession (had
they occurred). Use the past perfect for the earlier action.
32. b In such sentences, use There are if the subjective complement is plural. In this case,
the complement of there is mountains, which is plural. We do not use the past tense
because this is a general statement.
33. a Use the future perfect tense will have finished because the finishing will occur before
a definite time in the future.
34. c We need the intransitive (that which does not need an object) verb and in the past
tense (because of last month). Thus the answer is lay, which is the past tense of the
verb lie.
35. a We need the transitive verb (since the missing verb has an object issue) and we need
it is the past or past perfect tense. The transitive verb is lay and its past tense is laid.
Thus, the answer is laid.
36. c We need the intransitive rise up because the missing verb needs no object.
37. d Incorrect pronoun case. Replace him with the nominative he because this underlined
pronoun is being compared to the nominative I.
38. a This underlined word is the subject of the sentence. therefore, this form of the who
must be in the nominative case. Replace it with Whosoever.
39. c Incorrect pronoun case. This pronoun is being compared to the negated indefinite
pronoun No one, which is in the nominative case. Therefore, this underlined pronoun
must also be in the nominative case. Replace than her with than she.
40. d Letter d is a case of misplaced modifier. As it is, the sentence means that the bonus
will arrive during the meeting yesterday. This is plainly illogical.
41. b Unique is one of the adjectives that do not take to comparison. One is either unique
or not unique. There’s no more unique or most unique.
42. b This is one expression where the adjective always comes after the noun it modifies.
Replace apparent heir to heir apparent.
43. a Wrong use of idiomatic preposition. Since the speaker is angry with a person, the
preposition with must be used instead of at. The latter is used only if the object of
anger is a thing, and not a person.
44. d Wrong use of idiomatic preposition. Since the argument is between groups of
people, the preposition with should be used instead of about.
45. e
46. a Incomplete idiomatic expression. Looking forward goes with the preposition to,
which is missing here.
47. c Wrong verb tense. The adverb of time today indicates that the verb should be in the
present tense. Replace were with are.
48. b Use the past perfect tense because the past action of giving up occurred before the
other past action of coming back.
49. a The second person pronoun You is quite unnecessary in this imperative sentence.
Remove it.
50. e
51. b The subject of the sentence may be compound but one of the subjects is affirmative
or positive (The committee members) while the other is negative (not the chair). In
such positive and negative conjugations, the verb follows the positive subject in
number. The committee members is plural. Therefore, we must change has agreed
with have agreed.
52. e
53. c Letter c has the right progression of verb tenses. For the earlier past action, the past
perfect was used (had walked). For the later past action, the simple past tense is used
(gave out). The limiting adverb only is also correctly placed before fifteen miles.
54. a This sentence follows the general order of adverbial phrases that are of different
kinds. First comes the adverb of manner (enthusiastically), then the adverb of place
(to the park), then the adverb of frequency (every morning), then the adverb of time
(before breakfast), and finally the adverb of purpose (to exercise his heart).
55. b This sentence follows the prescribed order for adverbial phrases of different kind and
of same kind. The adverb of place comes before the adverb of time. And between
the adverbs of place, the more specific (to Italy) comes before the more general
adverb of place (in Europe). Then comes the more specific adverb of time (in June)
followed by the more general adverb f the same kind (next year).
SYNTAX AND MECHANICS
1. b The comma belongs inside quotation marks, even the comma that is separating a direct
quotation from a narration.
2. c Parenthetical expressions like this one—“ as well as my father”—are usually preceded and
concluded by a comma.
3. d Use a comma in a series. Even if the conjunction and separates the last element from the rest,
parallelism requires that a comma still precede it. Note though that it is acceptable for the
comma to be omitted. However, the best answer is still the one with a comma.
4. b To separate two independent clauses that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction like
and, but, yet, and so on, us the semi-colon instead of the comma to avoid a run-together
sentence or a comma splice.
5. d However (or therefore, thus, moreover, nevertheless, etc.) is not a very strong connective.
Thus when it joins two clauses, we must use a semi-colon before it, and a comma after it.
6. d When namely introduces an enumeration, use a semi-colon before it and a comma after it.
7. b Use a comma before not to be clear on which this adverb of negation is modifying.
8. a Use a comma after Ever since so as to avoid making the sentence into a fragment.
9. a A colon is appropriate because following the direct quotation is a comment on the quotation.
The colon comes after the close quotation mark, because the rules of mechanics say that a
colon belongs outside quotation marks.
10. a To show possession, add ’s to the end of a noun, may it be simple or compound.
11. b Lord should be followed by an exclamation mark, seeing as it is followed by an interjection.
12. b The word and is used in itself (that is, and is used as a word and not a connective). To make it
plural, it is appropriate to add an apostrophe before s.
13. d Use the colon instead of the semi-colon because an enumeration follows.
14. a This is a dangling prepositional phrase. It is dangling because the prepositional phrase In
exam-taking has nothing to modify in the sentence.
15. b This is an indirect quotation and should not therefore be enclosed in quotation marks.
16. a This is the title of a book. Thus, the significant words must all begin in capital letters. The
small caps prince should be changed to Prince.
17. e
18. a At the beginning of sentences, numerical expressions should be spelled out. Change P250 to
Two hundred fifty pesos.
19. c The pronoun he has an ambiguous reference, as it may refer to either father or Jim.
20. c Use a comma to separate the appositive clause that I can give you all my best to the word it
modifies thing.
21. d A comma should come after rapidly because it prevents this adverb from becoming a
squinting modifier; that is a modifier that may either modify running or throbbed (running
rapidly, or rapidly throbbed).
22. a This is the sentence that has the most parallel structure—Subject-Verb-Noun Clause. The first
clause has philosophers for a subject, and the second clause has Plato, another philosopher, as
its subject. The use of the verb believed in both clauses makes the sentence consistent in
content. The right punctuation (the comma) was also used before the subordinating
conjunction while. This is in accordance with rules of mechanics. The modifier only is
properly located immediately before the preposition through, which only modifies.
23. d All the other sentences are fragments There is no verb after the word debris.
24. c Letters b and d are fragment infinitive phrases. Letter a has an inappropriate punctuation, the
colon. Letter c is properly punctuated and is not a fragment.
25. c Letters a and b unnecessarily repeats right hand. Letter d incorrectly capitalizes Right. Letter
c is within the bounds of correct sentence construction.
26. d Letter a unnecessarily shifts from the third person to the second person when it replaced the
third person academic spirit with the second person your. Letter b incorrectly capitalizes
Academic. Letter c unnecessarily shifts from the second person your to the third person
academic spirit.
27. a Letter b has a dangling participial phrase and an unclear reference in Calling out to anybody
who would listen, seeking out her lost sons. Letter c incorrectky uses a semi-colon instead of
a comma. Letter c uses the pronoun She without naming its antecedent first. Letter a has
none of these outlined problems.
28. c Letters a and b have inappropriately placed modifiers For getting the first prize… which
seems to modify the school. Letter d has an unnecessary shift in subject from Gregory to
Most Outstanding Student Award. Letter c clearly indicates that Gregory got the first prize
and thus was given an award by the school for this accomplishment.
29. b Letter a contains a dangling infinitive phrase To get what is dreamed of because it doesn’t
modify anything in the sentence. It cannot logically modify avenues. Letter c incorrectly uses
the comma to separate the independent clause you must fight all fights from the rest of the
sentence. Letter d unnecessarily shifts from the third person one to the second person you.
Letter b, on the other hand does not contain a dangling modifier, does not shift in person, and
is rightly punctuated.
30. c Letters a and b have misplaced elliptical clauses When a young girl which seems to modify
Grandfather. Letter d uses she which has an ambiguous reference as it may refer to either the
girl or her grandmother. Letter c has no ambiguity and does away with the elliptical clause.
31. b Letter a has an illogical coordination as it uses and and makes the rest another independent
clause, thereby weakening the whole sentence. It could have been simply The Institute for the
Blind stood in the plaza grounds through the efforts of the city officers. Letter c is lacking a
comma after officers to mark the end of the parenthetical expression. Letter d incorrectly
capitalizes Plaza. Letter b correctly subjugates the prepositional phrase Through the efforts of
the city officers to the rest of the sentence, and uses proper punctuations besides.
32. c :Letter a uses pronoun it which is ambiguous in reference as it may refer to either DepEd or
ABCD school. Letter b is an illogical sentence because it lacks the word respectively and thus
does not properly allocate who had no business registration and who had no license to teach.
Letter d is unnecessarily wordy and therefore weak. Letter c is the best sentence as it has no
ambiguity and unnecessary wordiness.
33. c Letter a improperly uses a comma instead of a semi-colon before however which connects two
clauses. Letter b places only before the prepositional phrase at my face, thus making only
incorrectly modify this aforementioned phrase. You may very well ask the question: Where
else does the speaker want his forgiveness thrown back? Letter d incorrectly places all my
pride between the phrasal verb gave up, and misplaces only, too. Letter c has none of the
abovementioned problems. It notably places only in an acceptable place.
34. a The sentence clearly expresses an enumeration of the automobiles. In such cases, one might
very well use the dash. Letter c makes it seem as if there was a truck, a sedan an SUV, and
another three automobiles. Letter d misplaced the enumeration and used the wrong
punctuation.
35. d These sentences have monster constructions which ought to be separated by semi-colons. The
non-use of these semi-colons in the other sentences make them confusing and open to
misunderstanding.
36. a Letter a has a parallel construction, has the proper use of punctuations, and correct sentence
order and construction.
37. a Letter a does not misplace the modifying clause which I had brought from the library and
thus, this clause clearly modifies the book. This cannot be said for letters b and c. Letter d, on
the other hand uses an awkward word order by placing the adverbial phrase from the library
between the phrasal verb brought back and its object a precious book. Letter d also lacks the
relative pronoun that between book and I.
38. a This is the sentence which correctly places the modifying clause which had been uninhabited
for years after the word it modifies cabin, and which has an elegant sentence construction by
following the natural order of sentences: Subject-Verb-Complement. Letter b has an awkward
sentence construction, as it uses an ineffective transposed order. It also uses the preposition
on instead of the correct preposition in. Letter c misplaces the modifying clause as this clause
comes after cliff. Letter d is missing a comma after years.
39. b This sentence is consistent in the use of the imperative mood all over the sentence. Letter a
unnecessarily shifts from the imperative to the advising tone. Letter c shifts from the advising
to the imperative tone. Letter d is an example of primer sentences. It divides a perfectably
acceptable single construction into two very “elementary” sentences.
40. c Letter c is clearly and effectively constructed, as well as being a parallel construction when
and joined similar constructions (infinitive phrases). Letter a is an unclear construction,
carelessly using the pronoun them which in the same clause refers first to nurses and then to
patients. Letter b lacks a comma after patients. Letter d suffers from weakness due to an
awkward construction.
41. b Letter a shifts from one subject to another, from answer to child. Letter c is an awkward
construction by unnecessarily using It as the subject when the appositive the answer to your
question would do as well. Letter d has a misplaced modifier when it places being obvious
after question. It seems here that the question, not the answer, is obvious. Letter b does not
shift in subject, and is clear and effective in construction, too.
42. b Letter a is confused in tenses, using the present and the past tense simultaneously without any
clear cause and effect or progression from the past to the present. Letter c’s first sentence has
no subject and is thus a fragment. Letter d is another fragment. Only letter b is consistent in
tense, and contains no fragment elements.
43. b Letter a is an incomplete construction. After has should have been the past participle form of
the verb to be been because the present or base form be in the compound verb has and always
will be will not do. Letter b, however, is correctly constructed because the verbs is and will be
are both complete in themselves. Letter c lacks the preposition to which must have come
before Anyone. Letter d has no sentence construction problems but has wrong capitalization.
It capitalizes the first letter of a common noun education.
44. d Letter a uses an incorrect punctuation, the semi-colon when no punctuation or a comma would
have been more proper. Letter b is an incomplete construction, as it lacks the preposition of
after disapproved. This sentence is actually saying disapproved with me, which is an error in
idiomatic prepositions. Letter c uses the present form disapproves when the past participle
form disapproved would have been more appropriate. Letter d uses all the correct verb forms,
punctuations, and prepositions.
45. b Letter a is an incomplete comparison because it omitted as in the comparative construction
as…as. Another as should have been placed after stubborn to make this sentence correct.
Letter c uses the comparative more stubborn, instead of the correct superlative most stubborn.
Letter d is missing a comma after the second as. Letter b, as you can see, is a complete
comparison with both as present. It also has a comma after the second as. Furthermore, it
uses the superlative most stubborn.
46. a Only this sentence logically compares the speaker’s pride with the pride (replaced by the
pronoun that) of those who sail manufactured boats. The rest of the sentences illogically
compares the speaker’s pride with those who sail manufactured boats. These sentences use
illogical comparison because they compare an abstract idea (pride) to people (represented by
the pronoun those).
47. b Letter a is a mixed construction because it uses a modifying phrase With large numbers in a
class as a subject. Letter c places the modifying clause in a very weak position, at the end of
the sentence. Letter d makes large numbers in class a party to the discussion that the teachers
and students are supposed to be having. Letter b correctly makes the phrase With large
numbers in a class function as the modifying phrase it is, placing it at the beginning of the
sentence, to be immediately followed by it which it modifies.
48. d Letter d is the only sentence that does not weaken itself with an excess of trailing subordinate
constructions, thereby retaining its clarity and effectiveness.
49. a This sentence is composed of two independent clauses joined by the coordinating conjunction
but, which is correctly preceded by a comma. The number of years One hundred fifty is also
properly spelled out since it comes at the beginning of the sentence. Letter b contains a
mechanical error because it begins the sentence with a numerical expression. Letter c uses a
singular verb is when the subject is plural A twinkle to a star and three lifetimes. Letter d
lacks a comma before but.
50. b Letters a and c are mixed constructions. Letter a uses The reason… because construction
which is an unacceptable construction. The presence of The reason necessitated that a
substantive (a noun or a noun form) fulfill it, not because. Letter a may have been modified to
be The reason the population is increasing very rapidly is the fact that people are no longer
dying like flies, not the supposition that they are reproducing like rabbits. Letter c uses
another unacceptable construction Because… that’s why. Because makes the clause it belongs
to a subordinate one. But in this construction, this subordinate or dependent clause Because
people are no longer dying like flies, not because they reproduce like rabbits actually has no
principal or independent clause to depend upon. It is a redundant construction since That’s
why the population is increasing very rapidly does not need the aforementioned clause. This
sentence may be restated to say The population is increasing very rapidly because people are
no longer dying like flies, not because they reproduce like rabbits. Letter d is actually
grammatically okay. Compared to letter b, however, the latter comes out the better
construction.
DICTION AND VOCABULARY

1. c Obstreperous is a formal word meaning noisy and unruly. The context indicates that this is
the correct word since the noise would have induced the teacher to yell to be heard.
discreet = cautious, prudent; subtle
morose = bad-tempered and unhappy; sullen
truculent = aggressive and defiant
2. b The context indicates we need a verb, an action, that is similar to telling the team to try harder
in the face of overwhelming odds. We need a word that is similar to urge. The answer is
exhort because it means to urge strongly.
emulate = a formal word meaning to try to do as well or better by imitation
flout = to defy or to show contempt (for the law)
instigate = to bring about; to provoke, especially to a wrongdoing
3. c The context indicates that some kind of flowers are being discussed. Thes flowers are
apparently something to New England. This being so, the speaker hasn’t seen them before.
The answer could only be indigenous which means native or belonging naturally to an area.
exigent = a formal word for urgent
fluent = able to speak or write a foreign or second language with ease and
competence
ingenuous = clever, inventive or resourceful.
4. c The sentence says that Roberto pretended to know a lot about the opera. The blank is looking
for a word that restates Roberto’s quality of pretending about the opera. The answer is
dilettante which is a name for a dabbler in a subject, usually the arts.
catalyst = anything that speeds up change
chimera = an impossible or fanciful idea or image
supernumerary = a formal word for someone or something extra
5. b The sentence provides these clues: forceful expression of opinions which apparently put off
the professor’s students for them to begin leaving the course. The answer is dogmatic which
means the quality of asserting opinions arrogantly.
credible = believable and convincing
dormant = inactive
lucid = clear and enlightened
6. c The clue word in the sentence is trouble. What word do we usually associate with this word?
And the answer is instigating which is synonymous to provoking (trouble, usually). This,
among all other words, is the best word because the sentence also suggests that the child has
calmed down later in life. Thus, appeasing, curtailing, and mortifying hardly fit.
appeasing = pacifying
curtailing = restricting, limiting
mortifying = shameful, humiliating
7. c We get in trouble for making pejorative remarks. Pejorative means insulting or unpleasant.
benign = kind
blithe = happy, gay, cheerful; insensitive (because cheerful and gay
remarks in inappropriate situations are deemed insensitive)
pensive = deeply or sadly thoughtful
8. d A person who has never been to an art museum may be a person who has no knowledge about
the fine arts. A person thus, is described as a philistine, which is a name appropriate for a
person who doesn’t understand or admire music, art, or literature.
hedonist = self-indulgent; a word that describes a man concerned with his
pleasures
martyr = a person who would rather suffer death than renounce a faith or
belief
patrician = refined, aristocratic; an aristocrat
9. b The whole sentence provides the context. There is a jury, indicating that a man is on trial for
supposed wrongdoing. The only word appropriate for the context is exonerated, which means
freed from blame or obligation.
augmented = increased, supplemented
expatriated = exiled; a word which describes a man who left his own country
and resides in another.
subjugated = conquered or controlled
10. c When people hear horrid news, they are usually disturbed and negatively affected by it.
Malaise is the answer, as you would have known had you looked at its prefix mal, which
means bad. Malaise is actually a feeling of discomfort, uneasiness or depression.
blasphemy = impious or disrespectful statement about sacred things
largess = gifts or money generously given
11. c The word became in the sentence clues us in to the fact that we are looking for a word that
signifies a change. The answer, therefore, is metamorphosis, which means a change of form
or character.
accolade = an award or honor; much praise and approval
epithet = an adjective or descriptive phrase substituted for a person’s name
milieu = social surroundings or environment
12. d When a subject could not be understood by anyone, it must be a complex subject that must
require much study and expertise to be deciphered. The answer is esoteric, which describes a
subject matter that is likely to be understood only by those with a special knowledge or
interest.
auspicious = favorable, promising
austere = severe, harsh (conditions); serious, stern, self-disciplined
(person)
equitable = fair, just, impartial
13. d The clause no one is sure he’ll be working there next month indicates uncertainty. and as this
uncertainty pertains to Sherman’s hold on his job, the context indicates that Sherman’s hold
on his job is quite weak for his job to so uncertain. Thus, the answer to this item is tenuous,
which means delicate, flimsy, slight, and weak.
eminent = distinguished, famous (person); outstanding, remarkable (thing
or characteristic)
putative = supposed or assumed
serendipitous = accidental; a chance discovery
14. b The answer is culminated, which means reached the highest proportion or conclusion. This
can only be the answer because of the reference to perfect season that ends in a championship
win.
alleviated = lessened or eased
fomented = aroused or stirred up (trouble or discontent)
fulminated = protested loudly and bitterly
15. c The expression see-through implies that a lie or a front must have been put up that could be
seen through. And since the lawyers are doing the lying, their lies must have sounded
genuine. The word we are looking for is specious, which means superficially plausible but
actually wrong or false.
onerous = troublesome; requiring much effort
palpable = able to be seen or felt; obvious
stoic = a description for someone who shows great self-control,
especially in times of trouble
16. b When one couldn’t follow even the most simple of directions, one must obviously be stupid.
The answer is obtuse, which means dull-witted, simple-minded, and stupid when used in
reference to a person.
candid = frank, outspoken, honest
officious = too ready to offer services or advice; bossy and interfering
opulent = luxurious or showy wealth
17. a When is it not a good idea to take balloon rides? When the weather, of course, is bad or
stormy. The answer is adverse, which means unfavorable, hostile, or contrary.
affable = friendly and amiable, polite
malleable = easily influenced or changed; able to be hammered or pressed
into shape
18. c The whole sentence, is obviously an expression of wonder. The answer is enigma, which
means a puzzling person or thing, a mystery.
antipathy = a feeling of strong dislike or hostility, an aversion
archetype = the ideal or original form; model or prototype
idiosyncrasy = a manner of thought or behavior peculiar to an individual; a
quirk or eccentricity.
19. b Replete with means full of and is thus the answer.
resolute = firmly determined; steadfast
virulent = dangerous, harmful (disease); bitterly hostile (attack or action)
20. a The actions bowed and scraped indicate extreme humility on the part of the prime minister.
This great humility may be appropriately given by a man of power – the Prime Minister – to a
Queen.
21. a The sentence indicates that the bad situation was made worse, due to the presence of the
words only and an already bad situation. The answer is exacerbated, which means made a
problem, disease, pain, etc., worse. It is also synonymous to aggravated.
obfuscated = made confusing or difficult to understand; clouded or darkened
preempted = prevented something by taking advance action; forestalled
22. d The tone of the sentence is subtly hostile or negative. Admittedly, disdain is a negative word.
However, temerity is more appropriate for the blank. The answer therefore is temerity, which
is a formal word for rashness, audacity, and effrontery.
discretion = freedom to act according to one’s own judgment
disdain = scorn, contempt, or dislike
surfeit = too much of something, especially of food and drink.
23. b When everyone falls asleep within five minutes of a lecture, only one thing can be said for
that lecture. It must be very boring. The answer, therefore, is banal, which means not
interesting, dull, or trite.
ascetic = self-denying and austere, with severe self-discipline; a person
leading such a life especially for religious reasons
astute = shrewd, having keen insight
ineffable = a formal word for too great or too scared to be expressed in
words.
24. d When a couple decides to get married, the parties concerned usually think deeply about it.
The sentence implies that the Darwin couple took months to think about their future before
deciding to get married. Among the choices, the word we are looking for is ruminated, which
means pondered or meditated (upon something). Note too, that only letter d can be used in the
blank without committing an error in the use of idiomatic prepositions. You don’t say
deferred upon but deferred to; incited upon but incited to; precluded upon but just precluded
or precluded from.
deferred = yielded to a person’s knowledge or wishes
incited = urged to action; provoked or agitated
precluded = prevented ; made impossible
25. a The task, to be challenging, must be either difficult or large. Among the choices, enormity is
the only possible answer, as it means the quality of being large or huge.
hiatus = a break in continuity; an interruption
lethargy = an extreme lack of energy and/or interest, feeling, etc.
omen = an event supposedly predicting future good or evil
26. b The presence of the word mysterious and a comma before the blank means that we are looking
for a word that is similar in meaning to or compatible with mysterious. Furthermore, we need
a word that may describe music that charms the listeners. The answer is ethereal, which
means eerie, otherworldly, and delicate.
sanguine = confident, optimistic; cheerful
viable = feasible; practical
27. d The answer is salient, which means most noticeable, or most important and significant.
gratuitous = unwarranted or uncalled for; given or done free of charge
perfunctory = unthinking, automatic, mechanical; dutiful
28. b The teacher’s job is to educate his or her pupils. The answer is edify, which means to improve
the mind or to educate.
comprise = include, encompass; contain
stipulate = to specify, to lay down (rules or conditions); to require or to
demand
29. c Farmers plant a second crop to try to counteract the effects of a bad farming year. The answer
is mitigate, which means to alleviate, to lessen, or to ease. Remember that you can’t destroy
the effects of a bad year, you may only try to ease it. that’s why the answer remains to be
letter c.
censure = to criticize or to reprimand
decimate = to destroy or to annihilate
obliterate = to wipe out or to destroy
30. c Lying on the couch and watching TV all day speaks of a very lazy person and inactive
lifestyle. From a previous item, we know that lethargy means extreme laziness or inactivity.
Thus, lethargy is the answer.
animosity = hostility or hatred
futility = uselessness or pointlessness
reticence = reserve or uncommunicativeness
31. c Cacophony and harmony are mean opposite things. Cacophony means harsh, unpleasant
discordant sounds. From the choices, only miniscule (small or minute) and gargantuan
(gigantic) are antonyms and thereby show the same relationship as cacophony and harmony.
education and edification = both lead to improvement of the mind or
learning
equality and order = maybe related because equality (fairness)
may lead to order (peaceful arrangement)
subjugation and labor = subjugation means defeat, and labor means
work. These are not antonyms.
32. b Vacillating and indecisive are synonymous to each other. Vacillating and indecisive may
describe a person who keeps changing his or her opinions. Impecunious and impoverished are
also synonyms. Both mean poor or the state of being low in funds or money.
capricious and predictable = are antonyms. Capricious means
unpredictable, which is exactly the opposite
of predictable.
inept and competent = are another set of antonyms. Inept means
incompetent.
vacant and brilliant = may also be thought of as antonyms. Vacant
may mean stupid or dull-witted. Brilliant, as
we know, means exactly the opposite.
33. d Disparage and commend are antonyms. Disparage means to belittle, whereas commend is a
formal word that means to praise. Surreptitious and candid are also antonyms. Surreptitious
means secretive or stealthy, whereas candid means open and honest.
auspicious and favorable = are synonyms.
obscure and hidden = are also synonyms, as they both mean not
obvious or not apparent.
relegate and send away = are quite similar as well. Relegate means to
demote or to move down to a lower rank or
position. Send away clearly indicates a
movement away from a focal point.
34. a or b Condone and overlook are synonyms. To condone means to overlook or to
disregard, especially wrongdoings and misbehaviors. Assiduous is the formal word for
persevering or diligent, and it is synonymous to ambitious. Erudite is a word describing a
learned, or scholarly man.
frenetic and serene = are antonyms. Frenetic means frantic and
hectic. being such, it is opposite to serene,
which means tranquil or peaceful.
sagacious and obtuse = are also antonyms. Sagacious is a formal
word for shrewd. This is opposite to obtuse,
which means stupid and dull-witted.
35. c Innate and inherent are synonyms. Both pertain to natural characteristics. Exigent (the formal
word for urgent) is similar in meaning to demanding.
corporal and spiritual = are not synonyms. Corporal means of the
body. Spiritual means of the spirit.
ephemeral and eternal = are antonyms. Ephemeral means short-lived
or temporary, while eternal means
permanent and everlasting.
spurious and authentic = are antonyms. Authentic means genuine or
true, whereas spurious means not genuine,
not real, or false.
36. b Scrupulous and lackadaisical contradict each other. Scrupulous may mean very careful or
exact (diligent), whereas lackadaisical means without determination or enthusiasm, or just
plain lazy. Immutable and impermanent also oppose each other in meaning. Immutable
means cannot be changed, or permanent. Impermanent is obviously not permanent.
extraneous and irrelevant = are synonyms. Extraneous (from the word
extra) means unrelated or irrelevant to the
matter at hand.
impetuous and impulsive = are also synonyms. They both describe a
person who acts rashly and without much
thought.
inane and senseless = are synonyms, too. Inane means absurd,
foolish, or senseless.
37. d Abstemious and ascetic are similar in meaning. Being abstemious means one is being
moderate, especially in eating and drinking. Ascetic describes a person who denies himself of
excesses and pleasures (self-denying). Virulent and deadly are also synonyms. Virulent,
when used with disease, means harmful or deadly.
amorphous and distinct = are antonyms. Amorphous means shapeless
and indefinite, and therby indistinct.
dubious and positive = are antonyms. Dubious means doubtful or
uncertain. Positive may on usage mean
certain.
negligent and conscientious = are antonyms. One who is negligent fails to
give proper attention or care. One who is
conscientious has a clear sense of obligation,
and is thereby diligent.
38. a Assuage and provoke oppose each other. To assuage means to ease or to take the edge off (of
an explosive situation, for example). To provoke means to incite or to aggravate (make
worse). Abstruse and straightforward show the same relationship as the aforementioned.
Abstruse means difficult to understand, or obscure. Straightforward, of course, is the
opposite.
belligerent and quarrelsome = are synonyms. A belligerent and quarrelsome
person is hotheaded and is always ready to
fight and quarrel.
lugubrious and morose = are synonymous, too. Lugubrious and
morose both mean mournful and doleful.
mercurial and unpredictable = are synonymous. Mercurial means lively or
changes very quickly. An unpredictable
person also quickly changes his mind and
desires from one moment to another.
39. a Cryptic and definite are quite antonyms. Something is cryptic when the meaning is hard to
decipher because it is hidden or obscure. Thus, it cannot be definite (explicit or clear) at the
same time. Arduous and easy are antonyms. Arduous means hard, which is the opposite of
easy.
diffident and timid = are synonyms. Diffident means hesitant or
timid.
circumspect and severe = have no relationship. Circumspect means
cautious and prudent. Severe means harsh or
stern.
purported and supposed = are synonyms. To purport something is to
suppose or to allege something.
40. a Vilify and malign are synonyms. To vilify someone is to speak evil of this person. To malign
someone is to slander or to speak evil of this person, too. Exuberant and ebullient are
synonyms, as both mean in high spirits.
surrogate and original = are not synonyms. Surrogate means
substitute or replacement (as in surrogate
mother), whereas original is the real thing,
that which is replaced.
vitiate and purify = Vitiate is the formal word that means to
weaken, spoil, or harm. It is not
synonymous to purify, which means to
cleanse or sanitize.
zealous and indifferent = are also not synonyms. Zealous means
enthusiastic or eager. Indifferent means
lacking interest, care, or concern.
41. b Change crabby (which is a slang word) with irritable.
42. d This is too full of jargon. Replace it with cake or bread or whatever the product of the baking
skills maybe.
43. d This is pretentious language, as it unnecessarily uses a foreign phrase for something that could
be stated in English. replace entre nous with between the two of us.
44. b Unnecessary and awkward repetition of the word matter.
45. b Inappropriate diction. Do not use domicile which connotes legal action and the courts. Use
house, instead, which connotes structure and building materials.
46. c Wrong choice of word. replace affect with effect.
47. c Wrong choice of word. Replace further with farther as the sentence is talking about distance.
48. a Wrong gender. Rebesa, from the sentence, is a female. She is therefore an alumna, not an
alumnus.
49. e
50. e
READING COMPREHENSION
1. b Idyllic is the answer since the whole passage describes a restful, peaceful, and countrified
scene.
2. d From the passage, the old newspaper soared above the rooftops. Only a particularly strong
gust of wind could have lifted it as high as that.
3. b This main idea can be found at the topic sentence, which is the last sentence of the passage.
4. b The first paragraph is a specific illustration of the passage. The illustration came first before
the generalization.
5. a Self-explanatory.
6. b The actual comparison is between Preparation for fighting a war and preparation for taking a
cruise in a small boat. Therefore, remove preparation for and we see that fighting a war is
compared to taking a cruise or sailing a small boat, letter b.
7. c The fifth sentence of the passage is the answer to the question.
8. d The first sentence is the clue to this question.
9. d We know that as summer ends and winter approaches, the nights lengthen and the days
shorten. The lengthening nights therefore symbolize a transition in seasons, and thus, the
passing of time.
10. a From the sixth sentence onwards, the whole passage becomes a recurring admonition to move.
Thus this implies that the author is advising decisiveness.
11. b In the second life, his replaces and refers to love found in the first line.
12. b The poem tells the reader to follow and yield. This means that the reader may choose to follow
or yield or concede. One is therefore not helpless (as letter a supposes). Letter c won’t do as
well. Yielding and following intimate surrender, not a fight. The fact that the reader will
suffer (letter d) might be true, but that is not at all the point of the author.
13. d Look at the fourth sentence for the answer.
14. c Inference, remember, is resolving something using the details provided in the passage. The
fact that people are moving in large numbers to developed countries is not actually a response
to liberalized policies in these countries. The liberalized policies only took away the stopper
that inhibited the movement of people from developing to developed countries. People, of
course, would like to move to the developed countries because of the higher wages.
15. b Look at the first sentence for the answer.
16. b Self-explanatory. The whole passage is about the problem brain-drain.
17. a Region IV indeed has the largest population among all the regions.
18. c There’s no population data differentiated for gender so the reader has no basis for saying if
this statement is true or not.
19. b This statement is false. If we arrange the regions according to population size, we’ll find out
that Regions VIII and I actually have median, and not extreme, population.
20. c As there’s no data for the population of children, there’s really no basis for saying whether
this statement is true or not.
21. c As this is data for the year 2000 only, we cannot say whether the population of the Philippines
has increased through time.
22. b The difference between the population of Southern Tagalog and the population of National
Capital Region is 1,861,000. The difference between the population of Central Luzon and
National Capital region is 1,891,615. Obviously, the latter is greater. This makes the
statement false.
23. c The tongue and pen stand for saying aloud and writing down, respectively, both of which are
ways of expressing feelings. The feeling in It might have been is regret and longing for what
did not come about. The figurative expression is therefore saying, the saddest feeling that can
be expresses is the longing for lost opportunities.
24. d The misunderstanding does not come because of the greatness. Nor does being misunderstood
the mark of being great. What the statement wants to say is that few people can understand
the sentiments of great persons. Most people misunderstand the great person.
25. c By we cannot insure our own prosperity except by insuring that of everyone else, the
figurative expression is saying that in order to personally succeed, he must help other people
succeed, too. This is another way of saying that a person must have concern for other people.
The line Mankind has become so much one family simply means that men are interdependent.
26. b Of course man owns his body. The product of his hands can only refer to the result of his
labors. Man’s property then is determined by his labors.
27. c The examination is used in lieu of what was actually meant, reflection. When a life is not
worth living, it must lack meaning. Thus, if the unexamined life is not worth living, Socrates
is cautioning us that Reflection is the key to a truly meaningful life.
28. d We mean here that man’s personality affects and influences what he knows and learns. That’s
letter d.
29. d A man is the center of his own universe means that man is self-centered and self-focused.
There are as many universes as there are men means that all people think of himself first
before thinking of others.
30. d If love increases with convenience and decreases with inconvenience, then the factor that
determines the love a person feels is convenience.
31. b This statement is obviously the opening sentence. It is supported by the rest of the sentences
which outline the confession.
32. a The presence of Aside from which makes this sentence the natural successor to sentence letter
d. It adds to the confession made in sentence d.
33. d After cleaning the area to be painted (c) and before applying the first coating of paint (b), one
should prime the brush and dip it into pre-treated paint.
34. a This is the sentence that naturally follows the third sentence (b). The recurrence of the word
coating rounds it off nicely.
35. c C is the first sentence. A is next because of eyes, repeated from the first sentence. The use of
they and those rounds the transition to sentence d. They and those both refer to eyes which
have been roaming inside the room. Sentence d comes after. The word mirror reinforces the
connection to sentence d.
36. c The rest of the sentences are an academic discussion of birth. Sentence c is a personal
comment.
37. a The rest of the sentences had a recurring theme: feeling of belonging. Letter a is quite far
removed from this themes and talks about the opening of a play.
38. d The rest of the sentences discuss what are necessary if one is to pass a college entrance exam.
Letter d is irrelevant to the topic as it discusses review centers that offer UPCAT review
services.
39. d This sentence is about opportunities. The rest of the sentences are about regrets.
40. c This group of sentences may take two directions: the father’s happiness over the speaker’s
graduation, or what exactly happened at the graduation rites. Since the first direction is
supported by a, b, and d, while the latter direction is supported only by letters a and c, we take
the first direction. We throw over sentence c and declare it irrelevant to the direction we have
taken.
SOLUTION SET (MATH I)
1. 800  40  9 2  17  8  2 2  3 2   20  81  9   4  9  20  9  13  16

Answer: B
2. 58  42  67  100  67  33

Answer: A
3. 72,846  2  3  7575  72,846  6  5,625  12,141  5,625  6,516

Answer: B
4. A. 2  2  2   6 2  36 C. 2  2  2   8 2  64
2 2
  2
B. 2 2  2 2  2  4 2  4  2  16  6  22 
D. 2  2    4 
2 2 2 2
 16 2  256
Answer: D
5. 5719x to be divisible by 2, 3, and 6 must follow the divisibility rule for 2, 3, and 6.
Divisibility rule for 2: last digit must be an even numbers (0, 2, 4, 6, 8)
Divisibility rule for 3: sum of all digits must be divisible by 3.
Divisibility rule for 6: must follow the divisibility rule for 2 and 3.
Applying the divisibility rule for 6, we now get the sum of all digits to check if this number is divisible by 3.
5+7+1+9+x = 22+x, since we need an even number for the last digit so that it can be divisible by 2, x = 2 so that
22 + 2 = 24, 24 is divisible by 3.
Answer: B
  1 
6. A. 68  8  5 1  5  1  60     5   1  0  1  1  0  0 statement is true.
5 
B. 3 3  33  9  9  0 statement is true.
1 10
C. 3  3 1  3    0 statement is false.
3 3
Answer: C
5 1 7 11 5 1 7 11
7. A. , , ,   0.416,  0.111,  0.875,  0.611 not in ascending order.
12 9 8 18 12 9 8 18
3 1 2 5 3 1 2 5
B. , , ,   0.187,  0.143,  0.400,  0.833 not in ascending order.
16 7 5 6 16 7 5 6
6 7 3 4 6 7 3 4
C. , , ,   0.316,  0.583,  0.750,  0.800 in ascending order.
19 12 4 5 19 12 4 5
13 1 3 5 13 1 3 5
D. , , ,   0.867,  0.250,  0.375,  0.833 not in ascending order.
15 4 8 6 15 4 8 6
Answer: C
8. let x = original length of the rope

 1  3   2  3  6 12
x1     6  x    6  x  6  x  6   x  12
 3  4   3  4  12 6
Answer: D
9. let x = total no. of people in Rocky’s party

 1  1   1  4  4 10
x1  1    16  x    16  x  16  x  16   x  4  10  x  40
 2  5   2  5  10 4
Answer: C
10. let x = original number of packages before the 1st delivery

4 1 4 1 85 3 10 90
x 9  x  x  x  9  x  9  x  9  x  9  x   x  30
5 2 5 2 10 10 3 3
Answer: C
11. 0.143  0.27  0.852  0.009  0.235  0.51  0.006  1.274  0.751  0.523
Answer: C
12. 87.5  0.01  1,000  0.875  1,000  0.000875  8.75  10 4

Answer: B
13. 2.45  0.06   0.057  0.3  0.147  0.19  0.337

Answer: D
50
1 1
14. k = 0.02,   0.02 1  2 100
k 0.02
Answer: A
15. 2:3, ratio of men to women. Let k = constant which we will use as multiplier to the ratio
350
2k  3k  350  5k  350  k   k  70 the total number of women in the concert is (70)(3) = 210
5
Answer: B
16. 6:5:4 – ratio of apples, banana, & peaches respectively. Let k = constant which we will use as multiplier to the ratio
225
6k  5k  4k  225  15k  225  k   k  15
15
weight of apple = (6)(15) = 90, weight of banana = (5)(15) = 75, weight of peaches = (4)(15) = 60
weight of apple – weight of peaches = 90 – 60 = 30 grams
Answer: A
17. 24 hours – 9 hours (sleeping) = 15 hours (awake)

30% of 15 hours = 0.3 x 15 = 4.5 hours per day reading a novel
4.5 x 14 days/2 weeks = 63 hours reading novels in 2 weeks
63  7 hours/novel = 9 novels she can read in 2 weeks
Answer: B
18. let OP = original price

discounted price = OP – 0.1OP = 0.9OP
tax = 0.9OP x 0.1 = 0.09OP
amount paid = discounted price + tax = 0.9OP + 0.09OP = 0.99OP
Answer: C
19. let P = original cost of car

1
selling price of car = P + 0.25P = P  P
4
11  1
tax =  P  P
24  8
Answer: B
20. let x = total number of participants

63
(30%)x = 63  0.3 x  63  x   x  210
0 .3
Answer: B
21. first day of the fall: the reservoir is 60% of full capacity
during heavy rains, the reservoir raises 40% of 60% full capacity of the reservoir
after the rain = 60% + ( 0.4 x 0.6) = 60% + 24% = 84% full capacity of the reservoir
Answer: C
83  86  89  90  x 348  x
22.  85   85  348  x  85  5  348  x  425  x  425  348  x  77
5 5
Answer: B
23. five consecutive integers: x, x +1, x + 2, x +3, x + 4

25
x   x  1   x  2    x  3   x  4   35  5 x  10  35  5 x  35  10  5 x  25  x   x5
5
so the five consecutive integers are: 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
let check if their sum is 35: 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 = 11 + 7 + 8 + 9 = 18 + 8 + 9 = 26 + 9 = 35
the prime numbers are 5 and 7.
Answer: C
24. six consecutive integers: x, x +1, x + 2, x +3, x + 4, x + 5

24
sum of first three terms: x   x  1   x  2   27  3 x  3  27  3 x  24  x   x8
3
so the six consecutive integers are: 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.
The sum of last three integers: 11 + 12 + 13 = 36
Answer: D
25. n is any integer, let n = 1 for odd numbers & n = 2 for even numbers.
If n = 1,
A. n, n + 1, n + 3 (1), (1) + 1, (1) + 3 1, 2, 4 not a consecutive odd integers
B. n, n + 2, n + 4 (1), (1) + 2, (1) + 4 1, 3, 5 a consecutive odd integers
C. 2n + 1, 2n + 2, 2n + 3 2(1) + 1, 2(1) + 2, 2(1) + 3 3, 4, 5 not a consecutive odd integers
D. 2n + 1, 2n + 3, 2n + 5 2(1) + 1, 2(1) + 3, 2(1) + 5 3, 5, 7 a consecutive odd integers
If n = 2,
A. n, n + 1, n + 3 (2), (2) + 1, (2) + 3 2, 3, 5 not a consecutive odd integers
B. n, n + 2, n + 4 (2), (2) + 2, (2) + 4 2, 4, 6 not a consecutive odd integers but consecutive even integers
C. 2n + 1, 2n + 2, 2n + 3 2(2) + 1, 2(2) + 2, 2(2) + 3 5, 6, 7 not a consecutive odd integers
D. 2n + 1, 2n + 3, 2n + 5 2(2) + 1, 2(2) + 3, 2(2) + 5 5, 7, 9 a consecutive odd integers
D satisfy both sample value for n.
Answer: D
26. Given three consecutive integers: r, s, t and r > s > t. let r = 3, s = 2, t = 1
r  s s  t r  t   3  22  13  1  112  2
Answer: D
27. x and y are negative integers, x > y. let x = -1 and y = -2

A.   xy    1 2   2   4
2 2 2
B. x 2 y   1  2   1 2   2
2
C. xy   1 2   2
D. y  x   2    1  2  1  1
Answer: C
28. x and y are postive integers, x > y. let x = 2 and y = 1
A.
y2 y
 
1  1  1  1 not true
2
x 2
x 22 2 4 2
2 2 
2
x x2 4
B.  2   2  2   2  4 not true
y y 1 1 1
C.
y2 x2
 2 
1  2  1  4  1  4 not true
2 2
x 2
y 22 12 4 1 4
x2 x
D. 2  
2   2  4  2  4  2 true
2
y y 12 1 1 1
Answer: D
29. a and b are odd numbers, let a = 1 and b = 3

A. ab  2  13  2  3  2  5 not an even number
B. 2a  b  21  3  2  3  5 not an even number
C. a  b  1  3  4 an even number
D. a  b  1  1  3  1  5 not an even number
Answer: C
30. 5y – {3y + (2y – 5) – [3 – (2 + 4y)]} 5y – {3y + (2y – 5) – [3 – 2 – 4y)]} 5y – {3y + 2y – 5 – (1 – 4y)}

5y – {3y + 2y – 5 – 1 + 4y} 5y – (9y – 6) 5y – 9y + 6 6 – 4y
Answer: B
B
Math III Solution Set: 7.
80°
Geometry and Trigonometry
25° 75°
A C
1. • • • • • •
A B C D A D Longest side is side opposite the longest angle.
• • • • AB is the longest side. C
A C B D
• • • • • • 2x
A B B C C D 8.
X W
2x
6 Different Segments C L
2. A segment has a unique midpoint. Two

points are contained in one and only one A=L*W A = S2
line. D
= 2x * X = (2x)2
Arectangle = 2x2 Asquare = 4x2
C
X+22
Area of rectangle is ½ the area of square
3. 2x T
9. S
Vertical angles are congruent Q

2x = x+22 R
2x-x = 22
x = 22
A m  TQR = 85°
m  TSR = 85°
4. Total interior angles = (n-2)(180) Opposite angle of a parallelogram are
1800°= (n-2)(180) congruent. D
1800
n-2 =  10 10. TP = 2x+1 RP =y+5
180
SP = 4-3y QP = x-5
n-2 = 10 n = 10+2
TP = RP SP = QP
n = 12 C
 diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each
other.
5. Regular hexagon, n = 6 6 angles
Substituting and Equating
(n-2)(180) (6-2)(180°)
 2x+1 = y+5
180(4) = 720 total interior angles
 4-3y = x-5
720
 120 B using equation 2:
6 x = 9-3y
substituting to equation 2:
6. Rectangle have no congruent angles 2(9-3y) = y+5 x = 9-3 (11 / 7)
False 18-6y = y+5 = (8- 33) / 7
Rectangle is quadrilateral with four 7y = 11 = (56-33) / 7
congruent angles. B 11 23
y= x= Bonus!
7 7
A 6 B
11. x° 14. 13
2x° X Y
y° y°
C D
Vertical angles are congruent
2y = x
x+x+2x+2x = 360 AB  CD
6x = 360 13 
2
x = 60
6  CD
60 = 2y 13 =  26  6  CD
B 2
y = 30°
CD  26  6
12. Similar triangles CD  20 C
27 a b 15. Area of square = S2

x y S=5  A = (25)2
27
= 4S2
M N M cc N
effect when S is doubled:
27
Area’ = (Area)(4) B
27 z
MN = c
a c 16. V = 2 * 12 * q V = 63
 a = 54 c=?
x z = 24q =216
x = 81 z = 27
V solid rectangle = V cube
za 27 * 54 216 = 24q
c=   18
x 81 216 36 * 6
q=  9
24 24
c = 18 q=9 B
B
MN = 18
2 2
A 17. PA= PB PB = PC
3 3
13.
4 AA= 16units = S2
4√2
S2 = 16 S=4
C B D 2
4 PA = 16 = PB PB = 24
3
4√2
2
AB  CD  4 2 24 = PC PC = 36
3
AC  BC  4 4S = 36 S=a
2
AC = S = 81 A
( 4 2 ) 2  ( 4) 2  x 2 16 * 2  16  x 2
48 = x2
A
x= 4 3
18. 7
23. 225° * П radians
Area of a 180°
parralelogram
12
using diagonals = 5 * П radians
4
D
1 = 5/4 П radians
Area of kite = d1d 2
2
d1 = 7 d2 = 12 24. 11/6 П * 180°
1 П radians
A = * 7 * 12  42 A
2 C
11 * 30° = 330°
19.
2
- 4r 25. sin  = tan   ?
3
opposite
sin  =
hypotenuse
r 3r
- r
 not in the 1st quadrant
32 = 22+x2
1 x2 = 32-22
A= bh
2 x2 = 9-4
b = 3r-r = 2r x2 = 5
h = 4r-r = 3r x = 5
1
A = * 2r * 3r  3r 2 y=2 & x=  5
2
2
2
3r  12 so, tan  = C
 5
r2  4
C
r=2 26.
II I
1 Quadrant II
20. A = bh
2 III IV C
b = 2cm h = 3cm
1
A = (2)(3)  3cm 2 C
2 1  sin 2 
27.
sin 
21. P = P S =16
1 = sin 2   cos 2 
P = 48 1- sin 2   cos 2 
P = 48 = 4S and S =12 cos 2  cos 
A = S2 = 122 = 144 C   cot 
sin  sin 
22. d  cot 
D
Area of 3 lots = ¼ of area of rectangle
¼ * 360 = width of lot = 90
C
90/3 = width of 3 lots = 30ft
28.
x
y
30°
20 meters
x cos30 = 20
3
x  20
2
40
x=
3
1
y= x 30 - 60 - 90
2
20 3 20 3
y= *  C
3 3 3
29.
10 8
adjacent 6 5
cos     C
hypotenuse 10 3
y opposite 8 4 D
30. tan     
x adjacent 6 3
Math IV Solution Set: 5y 1 1
 y
5 5 5
1. Function defined as a relation Therefore, range for given
with one-to-one correspondence. equation: all real numbers greater
It means that for every value of than or equal to zero. D
X in the given equation, there
corresponds a unique value of Y. 5. Correction to the question:
y  x , is not a function How much will he save on the
because given a value of x say last week of the third month?
x=4, there corresponds two a1= 10.00 d = 4.00
values for Y, 2 and -2 C an= 4 * 3 = 12wks
a12 = a1+(12-1)d
2. = 10.00 + (11) 4.00
C
= 10.00 + 44.00
3. Solving for the domain, take note = 54.00 B
that division by zero is
undefined. From the given 6. 1st Quiz = 3
equation, x-3 must not be equal 2nd Quiz = 6
to zero and must not be included 3rd Quiz = 12
into the domain. Therefore the a1 = 3 r=2
domain of f(x) are all real a1 (1  r n ) 3(1  2 5 )
Sn  
number except x = 3. D 1 r 1 2
3(1  32) 3(31)

4. Solving for the range is also the Sn  
1 r 1
same as solving for the domain.
 93
2x 2 1 Sn   93
y= 5y = 2x2-1 1
5
5y + 1 = 2x2 93/5 = 18.16 A
5y 1
 x2
2 7. Statement I is false because it
5y 1 shows geometric sequence.
x Statement II is false because the
2 next term is 42. C
Range is defined as all possible
values of y correspond to value 8. Given: a1= 6 d = -3
of x. From the given equation an= -51 n=?
5y 1 an = a1+ (n-1)d
must be greater than or
2 -51 = 6+(n-1)(-3)
equal to zero. -51 = 6 +-3n+3
-51 = 9 + -3n
5y 1 -51-9 = -3n
0
2 -60 = -3n
5y +1  0 n = 20 D
9. Given : b. 26
a7 = 20 c. 25
a20 = 59 d. 24
a7 = a1 +(7-1)d Sum of first 6 terms:
a20 = a1 +(20-1)d a1= -1 a6 = -1 + 5(2)
20 = a1+6d 59 = a1+19d =9
Solving by elimination, we can n
s n  (a1  a 6 )
solve the value of d. 2
6
a1+19d = 59 a1+19d = 59 s 6  (  1  9)
2
- a1+6d = 20 +- a1-6d = -20
= (3)8
= 24 D
13d 39
 14. Given: a1 =1 sn = 127
13 13 a2 =2 n=?
d=3 a 2
Solving for a1: Solving for a25: r 2  2
20=a1+6(3) a25 = a1+24d
a1 1
20 = a1+18 = 2 + 24(3) sum of nth terms in geometric
a1 = 20-18 = 2+72 progression:
a1 = 2 a25 = 74 D
a1 (1  r n )
sn 
10. Getting the distance between the 1 r
two poles, we must get the
number of between the two 1(1  2 n )
poles: 51-1 = 50 127 
1 2
2,250 / 50 = 45 meters B
-127 = 1-2n
-127-1 = -2n
11. a1= 5,600 * 12
-27= -2n
= 67,200 (starting annual salary) B
n=7
n=1 d = 250
a11 = a1+(11-1)d
15. After 6 hrs = 4 amoebas
= 67,200 +10 (250)
After 12 hrs = 4*4= 16 amoebas
= 67,200 +2,500
After 18 hrs =16*4= 64 amoebas
= 69,700 B
After 24 hrs =64*4=256 amoebas
12. Solving for common ration: A
a a a 5
r 2  3  4
a1 a 2 a3 16. x
i 1
1  x1  x 2  x3  x 4  x5
12 36 108 = 5+6+9+13+14
r  
4 12 36 = 47 B
r=3 B 17. Array is the arrangement of data

13. Correction in the choices: according to size or magnitude
a. 25
B
25. Solving for permutation for
different objects
18. n = 30 
1
 1224
nPn =n(n-1)(n-2)...(3)(2)(1) or n!
average: 1224/30 = 40.8 B
5! = 5*4*3*2*1
= 120 ways B
19. To solve for the median, arrange
the set of data in increasing 26. Solving by circular permutation
order. P = (n-1)!
= (5-1)!
21 24 25 28 29 31 31 33 35 35 36 = 4! = 24 C
36 37 38 40 42 43 45 45 46 47
49 50 50 50 51 52 55 58 62 27. Solving by combination
n!
15th = 40 16th = 42 C=
(n  r )!r!
N  1 30  1 31
median = = = n=8 r=4
2 2 2
8! 8 * 7 * 6 * 5 * 4!
= 15.5th score 
x15 = 40 x16 = 42 (8  4)!4! 4!4!
40  42 82 4*2*7*6*5
= = 41 B   2*7*5
2 2 4 * 3 * 2 *1
B C = 70 D
20. Frequent data is 50
21. Correction in choices: 28. Let n = Total number of houses

a. 55 b.50 c. 41 d. 40 n-1 = Odd number of house
Range = Highest value – Lowest Value n 1
= Houses that are painted blue
= 62 – 21 = 41 B 2
22. B C
23. By fundamental principle of
counting 29. Total number of delegates = 8
1st Dice 2nd Dice Total number of boys = 5
1 1 5
2 2 Probability = D
8
3 3
4 4 53
5 5 30. Probability not blue =
6 6 12
8
=
n1 * n2 6*6 12
= 36 ways B =
2
B
3
C
24. 3! = 3*2*1 = 6
SOLUTION SET:
MATH 2 – INTERMEDIATE ALGEBRA
1. A (1,2) B (9,2) C (1,k)

Segment AB = AC
AB = X2 – X1 = 9-1 = 8
AC = Y2 – Y1 = k – 2 = 8
k – 2 = 8; k = 8 + 2
k = 10
answer: B
2. line parallel to: y = 2x – 5

Passing through pt. (1, 1)
Since y = mx + b; m = 2
y = 2x + b; then substitute the coordinates of pt. (1, 1)
1 = 2(1) + b; b = 1 – 2
b = -1
y = 2x - 1
answer: B
3. Slope of the line containing pts. (2, -4) and (-5, 7)

y 2  y1 7  (4) 11
Slope = m = = =-
x 2  x1 52 7
answer: B
4. inspect the graph: the line passes through pts. (1, 2) and (4, -4)
42 6
slope = m = = = -2
4 1 3
y = -2x + b; then substitute any point. We use pt. (1, 2)
2 = -2(1) +b; b = 2 + 2
b=4
y = -2x + 4 or y = 4 – 2x
answer: A
b3
5. a=b+½ =
2
b3
b+½ = ; multiply both sides by 2
2
2b + 1 = b + 3; 2b – b = 3 -1
b=2
a = b + ½ = 2 + ½ = 2 ½ = 5/2
answer: C
6. 2x + 4y - 5z = 19; where z = 3
2x + 4y – 5(3) = 19
2x + 4y = 19 + 15; 2x + 4y = 34, divide both sides by 2
x + 2y = 17, thus, x + 2y + z = 17 + 3 = 20
answer: A
n 2 n
7. 32/n = 3 = 9
answer: B
8. 21  q = 3 + q ; we raise both sides to the second power

21 + q = (3 + q )2 = 9 + 6 q + q
21 – 9 + q – q = 6 q
12 = 6 q , q =2
q=4
answer: B
1 3a 1  3a a2
9. + = , then we multiply by
a3 a2 a2 a2
1  3a
x
a2
=

1  3a  a  2 
a2 a2 a2
answer: D
2 3 2 3 2( x  2)  3
10. - 2 = - =
x  2 x  4 x  2  x  2 x  2   x  2  x  2 
2x  4  3 2x  7 2x  7
= = 2
( x  2)( x  2) ( x  2)( x  2) x  4
answer: D
11. ab – 1 – b + a = ( ab – b) + ( a – 1)
b ( a – 1) + ( a – 1) = ( b + 1) ( a – 1)
answer: C
12. x2 – 6x + 5 = 0
( x – 5)( x – 1) = 0
A. x2 + 1 = 0
B. x2 – x – 2 = 0, ( x -2 )( x + 1) = 0
C. 2x2 – 2 = 0, 2( x2 – 1 ) = 0, 2( x + 1)( x – 1) = 0
D. x2 – 2x – 3 = 0, ( x – 3 )( x + 1) = 0
answer: C
13. perfect square trinomial: a2x2  2abx + b2 = ( ax  b )2

4x2 – 20x + 25 = ( 2x – 5 )2
answer: B
14. ( x + y )2 = 20, where xy = 4
x2 + 2xy + y2 = 20
x2 + 2(4) + y2 = 20
x2 + y2 = 20 – 8 = 12
answer: C
15. -6 is a solution to x2 + 5x + k = 7, substitute -6 to all values of x

(-6)2 + 5(-6) + k = 7, k = 7 – 36 + 30
k=1
x2 + 5x + 1 = 7; x2 + 5x + 1 - 7 = 0
x2 + 5x – 6 = 0; factoring: ( x + 6 )( x – 1 ) = 0
x = -6 and 1
answer: A
16. ( 2x2 + 11x – p ) / ( 2x – 3 )

divisor: 2x – 3 = 0; 2x = 3; x = 3/2
using factor theorem,
2( 3/2 )2 + 11( 3/2 ) – p = 0
2(9/4) + 33/2 – p = 0
9/2 + 33/2 – p = 0
42/2 – p = 0
p = 21
answer: D
17. y = -x + 3
y = -x – 2
from the general form: y = mx + b, where the m is the slope.
both equations have slopes equal to -1
since the have the same slope, these lines are parallel.
answer: B
18. 2x – 3y = 12
3x + y = 7
using substitution method:
3x + y = 7, y = 7 – 3x; then substitute to the other equation
2x – 3( 7 – 3x ) = 12
2x – 21 + 9x = 12
11x = 33
x=3
y = 7 – 3x = 7 – 3(3) = 7 – 9
y = -2
solution: ( 3,-2 )
answer: A
19. let x – smaller number

then x + 17 is the bigger number
the sum of the two numbers is 125
x + x + 17 = 125
2x = 108
x = 54 --- smaller number
answer: A
20. let x – number of ducks

y – number of carabaos
there are 44 feet ( carabaos has 4 and ducks has 2 )
2x + 4y = 44
there are 16 heads
x + y = 16, x = 16 – y
2( 16 – y ) + 4y = 44
32 – 2y + 4y = 44
2y = 44 – 32 = 12
y = 6 --- carabaos
answer: B
21. 4x + 2 = 3x + 9
where x is the number of students per row
4x – 3x = 9 – 2
x = 7, then substitute to above equation
4(7) + 2 = 30 --- students
answer: C
22. let x – adults

then x – 289 is the number of children
there are a total of 737 persons, thus
x + x – 289 = 737
2x = 1026
x = 513 --- adults
children: x – 289 = 513 – 289 = 224
answer: C
d
23. is the speed arriving 2 hrs late. Where d is the distance and h is time ( hrs.).
h
To arrive in schedule, the train has to travel distance d in h – 2 hours.
dis tan ce d
Rate = =
time h2
answer: C
24. Ryan – 3 kph

Jerry – 2.4 kph
Ryan: ( 200m )( 1 hr / 3000m ) = 1/15 hr = 4min
Jerry: ( 200m )( 1 hr / 2400m ) = 1/12 hr = 5min
Difference: 1 min
answer: A
25. 180 miles in a 4-hour travel

1st 3 hours: 50 mph
( 50 m / hr )( 3 hr ) = 150 miles
180 – 150 = 30
30 miles in 1 hr
speed on the 4th hr: 30 mph
answer: A
26. let x – son

3x – man
Now 5 yrs from now

Son x x+5
Man 3x 3x + 5
5 yrs from now, the man’s age is 3 more than twice the age of his son.
3x + 5 = 3 + 2( x + 5 )
3x + 5 = 2x + 10 + 3
3x – 2x = 10 + 3 – 5
x=8
man = 3x = 3(8) = 24
answer: B
27. let x = Jill’s age

x + 14 = Jack’s age
Now 10 yrs from now

Jill x x + 10
Jack x + 14 x + 24
x + 24 = 2( x + 10 )
x + 24 = 2x + 20
2x – x = 24 – 20
x=4
Jack’s present age: x + 14 = 4 + 14 = 18
5 years from now: 18 + 5 = 23
answer: D
28.
+ x =
10 Liters 10 + x
30% 60% 50%
0.3( 10 ) + 0.6x = 0.5( 10 + x )

3 + 0.6x = 5 + 0.5x
0.1x = 2
x = 20 L
answer: C
29.
Rate Time Work
A 1/6 X x/6
B 1/4 X x/4
x x
  1 ; multiply both sides by 12
6 4
2x + 3x = 12
5x = 12
x = 12/5 = 2 2/5
answer: B
30.
Rate Time Work
Grace 1/45 18 18/45
Abby 1/x 18 18/x
18 18
  1 ; multiply both sides by 45x
45 x
18x + 18( 45 ) = 45x
45x – 18x = 810
27x = 810
x = 30 min
answer: C
SCIENCE QUIZZES SOLUTION SETS
GENERAL SCIENCE
1) C. force and distance
Work is equal to force times distance (displacement). W=fxd
2) A. salt water is heavier than water.
Density is directly proportional to mass. D = M/v
3) B. Kinetic energy is energy in motion.
4) C The higher the object is, the greater is the potential energy.
5) C. Convection takes place when there is a movement of air from hot place to cold place. The
sea and Land differ in temperature at night time and daytime, the reason why there is sea
breeze and land breeze at daytime and night time respectively.
6) A. 5.8 mL
Using water displacement method,

Vobject = Vfinal - Vinitial
= 23. 6 – 17.8 = 5.8 mL
7) A. 100 g = 1 N; 17.6 g x (1N/100 g) = 0.176 N

8) D. Work = force x distance = 500 N x 10 m = 5000 Nm = 5000 J
9) A. Ionosphere is the layer of the atmosphere composed of charged ions that returns radio and
tv signals back on earth.
10) C. during a stormy day, heavy black clouds are seen in the sky. these are nimbus clouds.
11) D. many years of stress on the rock may fracture the crust causing one portion to slide upward
or down ward with respect to the other.
12) C. mountain is formed when two plates move toward each other.
13) F = 9/5 __C + 32
F = 9/5 (30) + 32
F = 86 (c)
14) A CFC is not a greenhouse gas. It only damages the ozone layer.
15) C = K – 273 C= 0 – 273 ; 0 Kelvin = -273 C (d)
16) C. the independent variable is the factor that is being changed in the experiment. The amount
of moisture is the factor being changed in the experiment given.
17) C. based on the data table, it can be concluded that molds grow best in cold places.
18) C. using the scientific method, we can let Bisuke and Killua punch the same object a number
of times and compare the damage done. (You would not want to be hurt in an experiment,
right?)
19) A. the sun’s reflection on the moon gives the moon the ability to shine.
20) A. when the moon is closer to the earth, the greater the effect of gravity.
21) A. the crust is the hard outer shell of the earth.
22) C. A composite volcano is formed from alternating quiet and violent eruptions. An example is
Mount Mayon.
1g
23) B. 150mg   0.015 g
1000mg
24) B. blue star is the hottest star followed by the white star, yellow star and finally the red star.
25) B. Venus is called the win planet of the earth because they almost have the same size.
26) D. The smallest, coldest and the outermost planet in the solar system is Pluto.
27) B When two plates (sea floor )move apart (diverging) magma comes out and accumulate
forming a mountain range under the sea called the mid-ocean ridge.
28) C. When engines burn fossil fuels, carbon dioxide, a harmful gas is produced.
29) B. The ozone layer absorbs a portion of the radiation from the sun, preventing it from reaching
the earth.
30) On clear calm evenings, temperature differences between a body of water and neighboring
land produce a cool wind known as the land breeze that blows offshore.
BIOLOGY
1) C. cells grouped together form tissue; tissues working together form organs; organs working
together form a system
2) B. the products of photosynthesis is stored in the form of starch in plants.
3) C. cell walls of plant cells contain a high concentration of cellulose, a substance that cannot be
digested properly by human beings.
4) B. mutualism is the process in which both organisms are benefited from the interaction. Plants
are being benefited when animals release carbon dioxide which is needed by plants to make
food. Animals are also benefited when plants produce oxygen which is needed by animals in
order to live.
5) A. Oryza sativa is the scientific name of rice. The scientific name is taken from the genus and
the species.
6) C. In the levels of classification if both organisms belong to the same class, they must also
belong to the same phylum and kingdom for these are the levels higher than the class.
7) C. A prokaryotic cell does not have endoplasmic reticulum. It does not have a membrane
bound organelle.
8) C. The skin is composed of epithelial tissues wherein cells are compactly arranged.
9) D. Genes are hereditary information contained in the DNA. DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid.
10) C. coevolution is the relationship that refers to the partial dependence of evolutionary changes
of an organism to another specie which it has a close ecological relationship.
11) A. Not all vertebrates are warm blooded animals. Some are cold blooded like fishes and
reptiles.
12) D. coiling up of chromatin, replication of DNA strands and movement of the chromosomes
towards the center all happen during mitosis.
13) D. survival of the fittest suggests that stronger organisms with more favorable characteristics
are more possible to survive and live longer than the weaker ones.
14) A. a plant cell has a cell wall, animals cell doesn’t have.
15) A. a prokaryotic cell does not have a true nucleus. It has chromosomes in the DNA and it also
has a cell membrane that separates itself from the environment.
16) B. simple multicellular animals with tissues but no distinct organs; also known as sponger are
under the phylum Porifera.
17) A. Notochord is the flexible supporting rod of vertebrates.
18) C. The plasma membrane is composed of two layers of phospholipids molecules.
19) C. White blood cells are the soldiers of the body that fight harmful bacteria that enter the
body.
20) B. As the energy level in the food pyramid rises, the transfer of energy decreases to one tenth
of the initial energy in evry stage.
21) B. Metaphase is that stage in meiosis when the paired homologous pair line up along the
equatorial plate forming the spindle fiber
22) D. Hibernation and estivation are both response to extreme temperature.
23) A. When the animal’s temperature drops, the animal may die.
24) B. The nervous system carry nerve impulses to and from the brain.
25) D. When organisms like cockroaches are exposed to some insecticides for a long time, they
are able to create permanent mutation in the next generation giving insect’s resistance from
that insecticide.
26) D. Vascular organs are composed of xylem and phloem (vessels) that transport water and
nutrient to the plant.
27) C. Mammals are vertebrates that have mammary glands.
28) A. Carbon and oxygen cycle is maintained by respiration. Oxygen is taking in and carbon
dioxide is given out by animals during respiration.
29) D. A cold blooded animal has body fluid temperature that adapts to environmental changes.
30) B. Sexual reproduction involves the use of gametes or sex cells.
CHEMISTRY
1) Given:
P1 = 2 atm P2 = 1 atm
V1 = 100mL V2 = ?
T1 = 299 K T2 = 286 K
P1V1T2 2atm  100mL  286 K
V2  
P2T1 1atm  299 K
2) A. There are 7 valence electron in the valence shell 4. The group number can be predicted
from the number of valence electron and the period number from the valence shell. Therefore,
the element is in group7 & period 4 in the periodic table of the elements.
3) The balanced chemical equation is
2C6H14O4 + 15 O2  12CO2 + 14H2O
C= 2x 6 =12 C = 12
H = 2 x 1428 H = 14 x 2 = 28
O = 2 x4 + 15x2 =38 O = 12 x 2 + 14 = 38
4) b. 2 HCN + NO2  C2N2 + NO + H 2O

H=2 H=2
C=2 C=2
N=3 N=3
O=2 O=2
5) a. ionic bond refers to the electrostatic attraction between positive( cation) and negative
(anion) ions.
6) D) mass number = neutron number plus proton number = 74 + 53 = 127
7) a. proton # = atomic number = 53
8) a. in a neutral atom, the number of electron is also equal to the number of protons = 53
9) d. double replacement reaction. Fe replaces Na and Cl replaces PO4.
10) B. Calcium carbonate decomposes into CaO and carbon dioxide
11) A. Mg combines with nitrogen to produce magnesim nitride.
12) C. Zinc replaces hydrogen.
13) Given
M1 = 3M V1 = 3L
M2 = 6M V2 = ?
M 1 V1 3M  3 L
M 1 V1 = M 2 V2  V2  1 .5 L
M2 6M
14) Given
Moles of Hydrogen = ?
2.5 moles N2
Stoic Ratio : 1 N 2 = 3 H2
3molH 2
Moles of H2 = 2.5 mol N2 x = 7.5 mol H2
1molN 2
15) From no. 14, 7.5 mol Hydrogen is produced

2g
7.5 mol H2 x H 2 = 15 g H2
mol
16) Given:
V1 = 450 mL V2 = ?
T1 = 30 C T2 = 50 C
V1T2 450mL  323K
V2 = 
T1 303K
17) Solution is the mixture that particles don not settle down, cannot be filtered, and cannot be
seen by the naked eye.
18) From the combined gas law, pressure is inversely proportional to the volume and is directly
proportional to the temperature. If the temperature is decreased, the pressure also decreases
inside a container.
19) According to Boyle’s law, at constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely
proportional to the amount of pressure exerted on it. If the pressure is doubled, volume will
decrease.
20) The formula that indicates the local number of atoms of the elements un a compound is the
empirical formula.
21) The reaction between magnesium chloride and potassium hydroxide is a double replacement
reaction that produces Mg(OH)2 and KCl.
22) Orbitals (s, p, d, f) make up subshell (2s, 2p, 2d, 2f), subshells make up the shell (energy
levels 1, 2, 3,…7)
23) Molarity, molality, and normality are all modes of expressing concentration of solutions.
Acidity is the measure of alkalinity of solutions.
24) Based on the law of mass conservation,if 50 g of the reactants is used up in a reaction, 50g of
the products will be produced.
25) Freezing carbon dioxide does not involve change in chemical composition and formation of
new peoducts. Therefore, it is physical reaction.
26) Atomic number is equal to the number of protons. Mass num,ber is equal to the number of
protons plus the number of neutrons.
27) In a compound, the sum of the total positive oxidation numbers and negative oxidation
numbers must be equal to zero.
28) Atoms of the same elements having the same atomic number can have different mass number
due to differences in their number of neutrons. These atoms are called isotopes.
29) Random movement of particles is least observable in solids. The particles are compactly
arranged in solids.
30) Electrons found in an incomplete outer shell of an atom are called valence electrons.
PHYSICS
1) A vector is a quantity with both magnitude and direction. Displacement, force, and
acceleration are all vector quantities except speed.
2) Mmmm
3) 1 N is defined to be 1 kg m/s2. Force = weight (gravity due to acceleration= 10m/s2)
4) Illustration:
a = 0.5 km
b= 1.2 km 1.2km East
c=? 0.5
c= a
2
 b2 km
c = 1.3 North
5) a = ΔV / Δt = 20 m/s / 5 s = 4 m/s2
6) a = force / mass
Given : m = 2 kg a = 0.5 m/s2
F = mass x acceleration
F = 2 kg x 0.5 m/s2 = 1 kg m/s2 = 1 N
7) xxxxx
8) Kinematics is the study under dynamics that deals with the space-time relationship in bodies
that are in motion.
mv 2
9) Centripetal force =
r
Given: mass = 100 kg, radius = 60 meters, v = 30 m/s
(100kg )(900m 2 / s 2 )
force   1500kgm / s 2  1500 N  1.5kN
60m
10) In baseball, if the action is the impact of the bat against the ball, the opposite reaction is the
force of the ball against the bat. This satisfies the law of action and reaction.
11) Boni
12) Instantaneous speed is defined as the quantitative measure of the change of an object’s
position over a certain amount of time.
13) Projectile motion is defined as the movement of body launched in space without its motive
power, and travels freely under the action of gravity and air resistance alone.
14) At rest, the distance (meters) is constant, time (seconds) varries. (c)
15) An increase in temperature and distance illutrates a car traveling at constant velocity. (b)
16) xxxx
17) xxxx
18) A. Vf = Vi + aΔt is the equation for the final velocity of an object given the acceleration, initial
velocity and time.
19) Given
L1 = 80 cm (from the fulcrum) L2 = ?
F1 = 500 N F2 = 1500 N
L1 L2 L1 F2 20cm  1500 N
 L2    60cm
F1 F2 F1 500 N
20) xxxx
1 2
21) KE = mv
2
m = 500 kg v = 3.0 m/s
1 2 2
KE = (500kg )(9m / s )  2.25kJ
2
22) a. According to the Law of conservation of momentum, the total momentum of a system is
conserved. When bodies of equal masses and equal speeds collide, they bounce back with the
same speed and distance.
23) Pressure waves of frequencies above the audible frequencies are called ultrasonic waves.
24) A fish might look much nearer to the surface than it really is because light travels at a
different speed on water.
25) Vv
26) Electromagnetic waves are produced by moving charges. They are transverse waves. They
travel with the same speed in the absence of vacuum. They do not require a medium for
transmission.
27) A. polarization is an interaction with matter in which transverse waves are restricted to a
particular plane of vibration.
28) The characteristic of sound that we perceive as volume is the amplitude.
29) Light is 17 860 mph faster than light.
30) In the color spectrum, (Violet to Red) the colors are enumerated in increasing wavelength.

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MSU SASE, SHSEE AND CET- MSSC

The achiever’s guide to academic life and beyond…

Official social media Accounts

Official Fb Account: Tatak Msuans

Official Facebook Page: https://www.facebook.com/mssc2022

4. My father left the decision entirely up to __________ and __________.

7. John and Susie own that yacht. _____________ yacht is a beauty.

13. He is going directly home, ___________?

19. _________ beauty cannot be measured.

21. The student badly needs her teacher’s ___________.

22. I must justify my position ___________ so that they’d understand.

26. Lito works at the supermart __________ moonlighting at the restaurant.

27. Macaroni and cheese __________ my favorite dishes.

28. A large percentage of the class _______ fascinated by the museum.

31. If we __________ harder we would have passed the UPCAT.

32. _____________ mountains aplenty in the Philippines.

37. I believe that I am as good a singer as him. No error.

38. Whomsoever wishes to see a ghost is a fool. No error.

CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE EXPRESSION

MSU SASE, SHSEE AND CET- MSSC

Official Facebook Page: https://www.facebook.com/mssc2022

1. “With great power comes great responsibility__________ Uncle Ben said to

3. Leonardo, Michelangelo, Raphael ___________ Donatello are the four members of

4. Time is gold__________ it waits for no man.

5. Aristotle is a great philosopher____________ Plato is, in my opinion, a better one.

6. Bryce is longing to visit European cities___________Paris, London, Vienna, and

7. I ordered a rare steak____________a well done one.

8. _____________ he has been fond of playing tennis.

11. O Lord. What will happen to me now? No error.

Correct and Effective Expression

5. The professor became so forceful, so _________ in his expression of opinions, that

9. The jury ___________ the mayor of all wrongdoing.

14. The Ateneo University basketball team's perfect season ___________ in a

21. Rhonda's behavior only _____________ an already bad situation.

31. cacophony : harmony

32. vacillating : indecisive

33. disparage : commend

34. condone : overlook

35. innate : inherent

36. scrupulous : lackadaisical

37. abstemious : ascetic

38. assuage : provoke

39. cryptic : definite

40. vilify : malign

41. I am quite crabby today so please don’t try my patience. No error.

Selection 1: From Wolfgang Langewiesche’s A Flier’s World.

1. The scene in the first paragraph could be best described as ______________.

2. The newspaper was lifted by a particularly _____________ wind.

3. The author’s main point was that ______________.

a. a piece of paper is buffeted by the wind

4. Which of the following statements describes the organization of the passage?

Selection 2: by E.B. White

5. What is the general tone of the author?

6. To what is fighting a war compared by the author?

7. The author believes that ____________________.

d. one should be completely prepared before going to war

8. What is the main point of the passage?

Selection 3: by Kahlil Gibran

Love and Lovelife

“When love beckons you, follow him,

International migration of skilled persons has assumed increased importance in recent

13. From the passage, what may be meant by “brain drain”?

14. From the passage, it can be inferred that ________________.

16. How is the above selection organized?

4. My father left the decision entirely up to and .