Revision Guide Certain tare l= (3 International AS and A Level NEW for 2016 elt Second Edition Physics ' * *. Gs HODDERRevision Guicle eee Scography Psychology If you found this guide helpful you can get the same quality revision support for your other exams. ¢ Plan and pace your own revision ¢ Improve your exam technique © Get advice from experienced examiners Visit www.hoddereducation.com/revision to discover our complete range of revision material.Revision Guide Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Second Edition Richard Woodside Series editor: Mary Jones 6 BRON ER LEARN MOREHodder Education, an Hachette UK company, Carmelite House, 90 Victoria Embankment, London EC4Y ODZ Orders Bockooint Ld, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 458 tel 01235 977877 fax: 01235 400401 ‘e-mail education@bookpoint co.uk Lines ate open 900 am.~5.00 pn, Monday to Saturday, with a 24-hour message answering service You can aso order through the Hodder Education welssce: vnvwhoddereducation cou. @ Richard Woodside 2015 ISBN 978-1-4718-2043-7 Fist printed 2005 Impression number 43 21 Year 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015, [Aighes reserved no part of cis publication may be reproduced, scored ina reteeval system, or transmitted in any form of by any mers, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of Hedder Education ora licence permitting restricted copying in the Unived Kingdom ised by che Copyright Licensing Agency Lid, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Stree, London ECIN BTS. Cover photo reproduced by permission of Uadeimir Bakunovich/Forolia “Typeset by Greenhill Wood Studios Printed in Spain “This text has not been through the Cambridge endorsement process. Hacheste UK's policy isto use papers that are natura, renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin.Everyone has to decide his or her own revision strategy, but it isessential to review your work, lean it and test your Understanding, This Revsion Guide will help you to do that ina planned way, copic by topic. Use the book as the ‘comerstone of your revision and don't hesitate to write in it — personalise your notes and check your progress by ticking ‘off each section as you revise 1 Tick to track your progress Use the revision planner on pages 4 art 5 to plan your revision, topic by topic. Tick each box when you have: ‘@ revised and understood a topic © tested yourself ‘© practised the exam-style questions ‘You can ako keep track of your revision by ticking off each ‘topic heading in the book. You may find it helpful co add_ your own notes as you work through each topic. Features to help you succeed xz> —~—~—~S Throughout the book there are tips from the experts on. how to maximise your chances, kkxe:m>” —UCUCUC~«d ‘Advice is given on how to avoid the typical mistakes students often make cx PoE Clear, concise definitions of essential key terms are provided on the page where they first appear. Key words from the sylabus are highlighted in bold for yu throughour the book. Emerton Bxam-style questions are provided for AS and A level. Use them to consolidate your revision and practise your exam skil | PEMEres ee ‘These short, knowledge-based questions provide the firs: step in testing your learning, Answers are atthe back of the book. (aimcnee a ‘These activities will help you to understand each topic in am interactive way.My revision planner eed - . | Revised Tested Bam 1 Physical quantities and units ready 9 Sl units L_] 4 u 11. Scalars and vectors 2 Measurement techniques 414 Measurements sl WR st Ht LJ 17 Errors and uncertainties 3 Kinematics 19. Equations of motion 4 Dynamics 27 Momentum and Newton's laws of motion 30 Linear momentum and its conservation 5 Forces, density and pressure 33 Types of force. . 34 Turing effects of forces 35 Equilibrium of forces 38. Density and pressure 6 Work, energy and power 40 Work and efficiency. . 41 Energy conversion and conservation... 42. Potential energy and kinetic energy. 43 Power. Lt Oo Oo 4 7 Deformation of solids 45. Elastic and plastic behaviour. a Hf LI 46 Stress and strain. 8 Waves 48. Progressive waves 50 Transverse and longitudinal waves. 50 Determination of frequency and wavelength of sound waves.. 51 Doppler effect. H 52. Electromagnetic spectrum 9 Superposition 54. Stationary waves 57. Diffraction. i 57 Interference... 10 Electric fields = _ 61. Concept of an electric field i Mat J 61. Uniform electric fields. ® Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide11 Current of electricity 63 Electric current. 64 Potential difference and power. 65. Resistance and resistivity. 12 D.C. circuits 68. Practical circuits. 70 Kirchhoff's laws. 72 Potential dividers... vos 13 Particle and nuclear physics 75. Atoms, nudei and radiation. 78 Fundamental particles... AS experimental skills and invesiigarions 81 Making measurements. . 83. Presentation of data and observations 86 Evaluation of evidence 88 Evaluating the experiment. 90 AS exam-style questions and answers Revised Tested Exam reads 97 Kinematics of uniform circular motion 99. Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force 15 Gravitati nal fields 101 Gravitational forces between point masses. 104 Gravitational potential 16 Ideal gases 107 Equation of state 107 Kinetic theory of gases 109 Kinetic energy of a molecle......oesennennerene 47 Temperature 411 Thermal equilibrium. ANT Temperature scales... ccsersenentuennnennennene 418 Thermal properties of materials 113 Specific heat capacity and specific latent heat 119. Internal energy and the first law of thermodynamics. 19 Oscillations 121 Simple harmonic oscillations. My Revision PlannerMy revision planner Revised Tested i 124 Energy in simple harmonic motion 125. Damped and forced oscillations, resonance... 20 Waves 128. Production and use of ultrasound in diagnosis....... 21 Communication 132. Communication channels. 134. Modulation 136 Ly 138 Relative merits of channels of communication. ~ LJ 140 Attenuation O 22 Electric fields 142. Electric forces between point charges A Oo 143. Electric field of a point charge 143. Electric potential... 23 Capacitance 146 Capacitors and capacitance. 149. Energy stored in a capacitor . 24 Current of electricity and D.C. circuits 150 Sensing devices and potential dividers... 25 Electronics 152. The ideal operational amplifier 153. Operational amplifier circuits. 156 Output devices. 26 Magnetic fields 158. Concept of magnetic field .. ss 160 Force on a current-carrying conductor......... i ee Manco 162. Force on a moving charge H ‘a 168 Magnetic fields due to currents. 168 Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging........e0 27 Electromagnetic induction 170 Laws of electromagnetic induction 28 Alternating currents 172 Characteristics of alternating currents. 174 The transformer. L_] H: LJ 175. Transmission of electrical energy . 176 Rectification 29 Quantum physics 179. Energy of a photon. © Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide181 Energy levels in atoms and line spectra......... 183 Wave-particle duality... 185 Band theory 187. Production and use of X-rays. 30 Particle and nuclear physics 198 Mass defect and nuclear binding energy 196 Radioactive decay A level experimental skills and investigations 199. The examination questions... cess 200 How to get high marks in Paper 5 204 A level exam-style questions and answers Tested po ooo 215 Now test yourself answers My Revision Planner @Countdown to my exams 6-8 weeks to go Start by looking atthe syllabus — make sure you know exactly what material you need to revise and the style of the examination. Use the revision planner on pages 4 and 5 to familiarise yourself with the topics, ‘Organise your notes, making sure you have covered everything on the syllabus, The revision planner will help you to group your notes into topics Work outa realistic revision plan that will allow you time for relaxation, Set aside days and times for all the subjects that you need to study, and stick to your timetable, Set yourself sensible targets. Break your revision cdown into focused sessions oF around 40 minutes, divided by breaks, This Revision Guide organises the basic facts into short, memorable sections to make revising easier rn Pane Read through the relevant sections ofthis book and refer to the expert tips, cypical miscakes and key terms, Tick off the topics as you feel confident about them, Highlight those topics you find difficult and look at therm again in detail ‘Test your understanding of each topic by working through the ‘Now test yourselP questions in the book. Look up the answers at the back of the book. Make a nowe of any problem areas as you revise, and. ask your teacher to go over these in class. Look at past papers. They are one of the best ‘ways to revise and practise your exam skills. Write cr prepare planned answers to the examstyle ‘questions provided in this book. Check your answers with your teacher. Try different revision methods. For example, you ‘can make notes using mind maps, spider diagrams or flash cards, ‘Track your progress using the revision planner and sive yourself a reward when you have achieve! your target ARN La one) Try to fic in at east one more timed practice of an entre past paper and seek feedback from your teacher, comparing your work closely with the ‘mark scheme. Check the revision planner to make sure you havent missed aut any topics. Brush up on any ateas of difficulty by talking them aver with a friend or getting help from your teacher. ‘Attend any revision classes put on by your teacher, Remember, he or she isan expert at preparing people for examinations. Revise The day before the examination Flick through this Revision Guide for useful reminders, for example the expert tips, typical mistakes and key terms. ‘© Check the rime and place of your examination. ‘© Make sure you have everything you need — extra pens and pencils, a calculator, tissues. a watch, bottled water, sweets. ‘Allow some time to relax and have an earty ‘ight to ensure you are fiesh and alert for the examinations Paper 1 Date: Location:.. Paper 2 Date: Location: Paper 3 Date: Location: Paper 4 Date: «. Location: Paper 5 Date: Location:.. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide1 Physical quantities and units SI units Base quantities ez) { } ‘All quantities in science consist ofa number anda unit. SI units are based on the units of sx SI base quantities: ‘© mass — kilogram (kg) mera mene (r) [suits Syste nteational ) all «'Unités) are carefully defined units that © temperature — kelvin (K) ae used throughout the scientific world electric current — ampere (A) ‘or measuring al quantities. ‘© amount of subscance — mole (mol) ‘Base quantities are fundamental ‘uartities whose units are used to ‘The moleis included for completeness. Itis nota required unit for AS— only | GATE AIAN for level. The mole is ciscussed in Topic 16, together with the Avogaclo constant. \ Although icis not formally an i unit, the degree Cebius (‘C) is often used as a ‘measure of temperature, Each of these units has a precise definition, You do not need to remember the details of these definitions. The units ofall ocher quantities are derived from the base units. For example, speed 5 found by dividing the distance travelled ty the time taken, Therefore, ‘the unit of speed is metres (m) divided by seconds (@). At O-level or IGCSE you ‘wll probably have written this unit as m/s. Now that you are taking your scudies ‘a stage further, you should vate it as ms" Base units are the units of the base quantities. Derived units are combinations of base unis een ‘The uni of force isthe newton. What is thisin base SI units? Answer The newton is defined from the equation: Giz ‘When a unit ike watts is asked for in force = mass x acceleration unit oF mass = ke | base units take extra care ' Uunicof acceleration = ms watt = Ils / Princo the definaequation | Change from this format tos“ then a substitute Nm for and concn a, Units ofnewion = kg xm x sor kans? nome Homogeneity of equations = {_ } IF you are not sure ifan equation is correct you can use the units of the different quantities to check it. The units on both sides of the equation must be the same Physical quantities and units (@))Worked example ‘When a body falls in a vacuum, all its gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. By comparing units, show thatthe equation mgh = mv is a possible solution co this equacion. Answer (Write dawn the units ofthe quantities on each side ofthe equation. Lefchand side: unit of m = kg: unit of g= ms7% uric of =m Right-hand side: unt of & = none unit of m= kg: unit of v= Compare the two des (expert tip } Units of mgh = ke, x ms"? sm =kgm?s? ‘There are lots of worked examples in units of Yarnv? = kg x (mst? = kgmn?s? this book. Try them before reading the answer and then compare your answer Both sides of the equation are identical. TRON oe Hed a 4 = 5 a = a a i = r=] = S ej > a E ES i a Using standard form ‘One way to deal with very large or very small quantities is to use standard form, Here, the numerical part of quantity is wricten asa single digc followed by 2 decimal point, and as many digits after the decimal point as are justified thisis then multiplied by 10 to the required power. Worked example {@ The ourput from a power station is 5600000000WW. Express this in watts, using standard form. {© The charge on an electron f 000000 000000000000 16C. Express this in standard form Answer (9 Seoacooan0w =56x 10° Ww {8.0000 000000000000000 16¢ = 16x 10°C 10" means that Ue ube, ths case 1.6 ive by 10% ‘Mistakes are often made when dividing ‘An added advantage of using standard form is that it also indicates the degree trenton oer tease ‘of precision to which a quantity is measured. This will be looked at in more Dee he ne ee « detail in the section on practical skills De EE Ure RTT ol Reg Cry Sometimes, the base unicis either too large or too small. Prefixes are used to alter the size ofthe unit. Table 1.1 shows the prefixes that you need to know. Remember hat Ie? 2g (noe p00 ‘These are the recognised SI prefixes. The deci- (@) prefixis often used in of 1ms is really (dm). Hence itis measuring volume — decimetre cubed (dr) is particularly useful eget 0" * 10 * 10 Making estimates of physical quantities ‘There are a number of physical quantities where you should be aware of the ‘rough values, for example the speed of sound in air ( 300m”). Lists of such ‘values are given in appropriate parts of this guide — for example, Table 8.1 on page 52. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideTable 11 Prefix | symbol | Meaning pico |p + 1000000000000 | x 10° anon + 1000000000 |x 102 micro | + 1000000 |x 10% mili | m. +1000 |x 107 enti_ |e +100 | x 10 ded |d =10 |x 107 kilo |k x 1000 |x 10? mega_|M x 1000000 | x 105 giga |G % 1000000000 | x 10? ter |T x 1000000000000 | x 107 Scalars and vectors Scalar quant Ascalar quantity has magnitude only, Examples are mass, volume and energy. PE Ryra come eel ty Avector quantity has magnitude and direction. Examples are force, velocity and acceleration. When scalars are added, the total is simply the arithmetic total. For example if there are two masses of 24kg and 5.2kg, the total mass is Z6kg, ‘When vectors ae added, ther directions must be taken into account. Two forces of 3N and §N acting in the same direction would give a total force of 8N. However, if they actin opposite directions the total force is (5 - 3)N = 2N, in the direction of the SN force. fchey act at any ocher angle co each ather the triangle of vectors is used. Constructing a vector diagram Ina vector diagram. each vector is represented by a lin. The magnitude of the ‘vector is represented by the length of the line and its direction by the direction ‘ofthe line. If two vectors act aca point, their resultant can be found by drawing ayector triangle. The folowing rules will help you co draw a triangle of vectors (Figure 11) 1 Choose a suitable scale. Draw line to represent the first vector (V4) in. both magnitude and direction. Draw a second line starting from the tip of the first ne, to represent the second vector (Vy) in both magnitude and direction. 2. Draw alin from the beginning ofthe frst vector to the end of the second line to complete a triangle. 3. The resultant vector is represented by the length ofthis line, and its direction 1 2 ve 3 ve v, v/ / : f Resultant Figure 1.1 Drawing a triangle of vectors fea i 7 © Make. copy of this table ona plece of card to refer to during the course, ‘The larger the scale you choose, the ‘greater precision you should achieve in your answer itis ood practice to include your scale on the diagram. ‘When measuring distances use a ruler, and when measuring angles use a protractor, a a ie E ae) al a o = =] i S = Ga 3 = oh a a Physical quantities and units @)(eos ‘An aeroplane ying with velocity relative to the ar of B0kratt 200k in a direction due north. There is a wind blowing tly from a direction of 30 degrees north of west at 80 mh“! (Faure 12). Calculate the velocity of the aaft eave tothe ground. Figure 1.2 Answer Draw vector diagram to ascae of LOcm:40kmhr* (Figure 13). length of the resulranc'= 435cm Muley by the scaling: velocity = 435 x 4Dkmb-! = 174kmbh+ Measure the ange @, using a protractor (0 = 23; so the direction is 23” east of north, a 4 = 5 a = a a i = r=] = S ej > a E ES i a ‘You vill observe that the directions of the original vectors go round the triangle (GEEaSUa in the same direction (in this example clockwise). The direction of the resultant | Ifyou ried to work aut the answer _g086 in the opposite direction (anticlockwise). the original vectors had gone {0 this worked example for yourself round che triangle in an anticlockwise direction, che resuitanc would have been _ before looking at the one supplied, dodnise. compare the layout of your answer with Figure 13. 1s your layout dear? Gan the examiner see what you have tried to.do? This is most important in ‘akculations, where some credit will be given even if an arithmetic error leads to your giving the wrong answer. Resolving vectors Just asit is useful to be able to combine vectors itis ako useful to be able to resolve vectors into components at right angles to each other. Figure 14 shows a vector, V, acting at an angle @ to the horizontal @ tb) Z\ Va Figure 14 ‘The triangle of vectors in Figure 14(@) shows that this vector can be considered ‘0 be made up from a vertical component (V,) and a horizontal component (Vj). tis sometimes easier to use a diagram similar to Figure 14(b) when resolving vectors — this emphasises that the vectors are acting at the same point. By inspection you can see that cos 6 = V/V. Therefore, Vy = Veos and V, = Vsind @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuidePes A box of weight 20N lies ac rest on a slope, which sat 30* 0 the horizoncl, Calculate the frictional force on the box up the slope Answer Resclye the weight (29N) into components parle! to and. perpendicular to the slope (Faure 15) The fictional force, is equal to che component of the weight down the slope: F=20sn30= 10N [oes ed Which of the following are base quantities? time, speed, volume, energy Which of the following are base units? kilogram, metre squared, joule, kelvin The unit of potential difference isthe vol. Give this in base units. The pressure exerted beneath the surface of aliquid i given by the equation: p=heg ‘where p is pressure his depth below the surface, ps density ofthe liquid and gis the acceleration due to gravity. Show that the equation is homogeneous. 5 Calculate the number of micrograms in a kilogram. Give your answer in standard form: 6 Use standard form to show how many metres there are in a nanometer. Answers on p.215 Physical quantities and units @)PACU a cence (ees Measurements Physics is science of measurement so you will need ro develop the ability 1 use a variety of diferent instruments. Belov is a list of instruments and techniques that you should to be able to use. You will have used most of these ‘during the course ard this book refers to them where relevant. Nevertheless, it ‘would be a good idea to copy the list and, once you feel confident that you can Use the inserument proficient, tick it off You should be able co use a ruler, verner scale and micrometer to measure length ‘atop pan balance and a spring balance to measure weight a protractor to measure angles a clock and stopwatch to measure time intervals «a cathoce-ray oscilloscope to measure potential difference a cathade-ray oscilloscope with a calibrated time base to measure time intervals and frequencies, 1a thermometer to measure temperature ‘an ammeter to measure current voltmeter to measure potential difference a galvanometer in null methods Vannes Rulers can measure to the nearesc milimetre, Vemier calipers measure to the nearest ofa millmete To ead an instrument with averier scale igure 21): 11 Read the milimetres from the main scale marking, which is just before the zero on the veriet, 2 Take the next figure (enths of a milimente) from the fist vernier mark to ‘coincide with a main scale mark. Vernier scale os al Main scale (asneaetmemuestaeniiaala Figure 2.1 Vernier scale Cans What isthe reading on the instrument shown in Figure 21? Answer rain sale racing = 11mm vvernier reading = 04mm Calculate the final reading by adding the two readings. final reading = TL4enm Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guideae) Verrier sales can be used to measure 0 the nearest of rilimete Micrometer can messure tothe nearest 1 of millet Micrometers have an accurately tumed screw thread (Figure 2.2. When the thimble is urned through one revolution, the jaws are opened (or closed) by a predetermined amount. With most micrometers ths is 050mm. There will be 50 divisions on the thimble, so turning it through one division clases, or opens, the jaws by 050mm divided by 50 = 0.01 mm. Jaws Barrel Thimble Ratchet Figure 2.2 A micrometer screw gauge To measure the diameter or thickness of an object the jaws are closed, using the ratchet, until they just apply pressure on the object. To read the micrometer: 1. Take the reading of the milimecres and half milimecres from the barrel 2 Take the reading from the thimble. 3. Add the readings together Toes Cnn What isthe reading on the micrometer in Figure 22? ‘The 0 is often missed, so the worked example answee would be given as ag 322mm, Some careless students reading on the barre = 35mm might add the 22'to the 35 to givean answer of 3522mm. reading on the thimble = 022mm. (Calculate the final reading by adding the two readings final reading = 372mm (© Trace the diagram of the scaleand. vvernier. Cut them apart, then slide the vernier along the rain scale and practise taking readings. Ten lee ‘Accathode-ray oxtilloscope (Cro) can be used to measure both the amplicude ‘of signals and short time intervals. A potential difference applied to the y-input ‘controls the movement of the trace in a vertical direction. A potential cifference applied across the xinput controls the trace in the horizontal direction, Measurement of potential difference The y-sensitivity is adjustable and is measured in volts per cm (Vem) or volts pet division (Viv). Inthe example in Figure 23 the y-sensitvitys set at 2.V dv" A de. supply is applied across the y-input. No voleage is applied across the x input. The trace ‘appears as 2 bright spot. Pa & = = < < oS ey 2 my = Fy = 2 = FA 2 bi P= atert ty < = So 2 2 Pry < 7] 5 2 = FA cs bi P= 7 Figure 2.3 Usinga cathode ray oscilloscope to measure potential ifference In Figure 23; ‘© Screen 1 shows the cathode-tay osciloscope with no input, ‘© Screen 2 shows a deflection of 0.75 of a division, The voleage input across the y-platesis 0.75 x 2= 15V. ‘© Screen 3 shows a deflection of 15 divisions, The voltage input across the yplatesis 15 x2 = 30V. ‘© Screen 4 shows a deflection of -0.75 divisions. The voltage input across the _yeplates is -075 x 2 = ~15,, in other words 15V in the opposite direction. Measurement of time intervals ‘To measure time intervals, a time-base voltage is applied across the xinput (Figure 24), This drags the spot across the screen, before flying back to the beginning again, The rate at which the time-base voltage drags the spot across the screen can be measured either in seconds per division (scl) or divisions per second (divs™), You must check which method has been used. Figure 2.4 Application ofa time-base voltage across the s-input ofa cathode-ray oscilloscope In Figure 24 ‘© Screen 1 — the spot moves slowiy across the screen before flying back to the beginning and repeating the process. ‘© Screen 2— with a higher frequency time base, the spot moves across the screen more quickly The fluorescence on the screen lasts long enough for a shor tail tobe formed. ‘© Screen 3 — with a much higher frequency, the fluorescence lasts long enough for the spot to appear as a continuous tne If successive pulses are applied to the y-plate while the time base voltage is applied, the trace might appear as in Figure 25, The time interval between the pulses can be calculated by multiplying the number of divisions between the Figure 2.5 Using cathode-ray oscilloscope ‘wo pulses by the time base ‘tomeasure time intervals ‘Worked example ‘A survey ship sends a pulse of sound down to the seabed and the echo Is decected The two pulses are shown in Figure 2 with the cathode-ray csclloscope rime base being set at SOmsdiv-1Caleulate the depth ofthe sea, given that the speed of sound in water 1500s" Cs) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideAnswer time interval becween pulses = number of divisions x time base = 25 x 50 = 15ms= 0125s. specs = #2NCC Time Theeiore distance = speed > time = 1500 x 0.125 = 1875 depth of the wate! ‘You might use sensors whose output is not proportional to the quantity you ‘are attempting to measure. A good example is the ourput from a thermocouple thermometer, which you will have met in your pre-AS course. The worked ‘example below shows how yout can use a calibration curve when using this type of inssument. Pa & = = < < oS ey 2 my = Fy = 2 = FA 2 bi P= a Cars Figuie 26 shows the calbration curve for a thermocouple emf./mv 0.30 used to measuite temperatures from 1 to 250°C. Deduce the eenperature when che themacouple produces an emf. of ine 0.250. Answer Draw a horizontal ine from 0250mrV on the yas to the curve ‘Draw a vertical line from where this line Incersects with the curve to cut the xaxis. 100150 200 Temperature/*C ‘This intersects at 235°C, hence the required temperature is 235°C. Errors and uncertainties a_i) ‘An error is 2 mistake in taking a reading, Erors and repeated readings are discussed in decail on pages 82-83. Accuracy, precision and uncertainty Accuracy and precision are terms chat often cause confusion. ( > Accuragy is how dose to the ‘eal ‘Consider a rod of ‘true’ diameter 52.8012 mm. Suppose that you use a ruler and value’ a measurement is. Measure it to be 53mm. This is accurate but it S not very precise. your friend | reeision is that part of accuracy that uses a micrometer screw gauge and measures it as 52.81 mm this is more precise, | the experimenter contro’s by the choice ‘even though the final figure is not totally accurate. cof measuring instrument and the skill swith wich itis used No measurement can be made to absolute precision — there is always some uncertainty. Ifa result is recorded as 84°55, this implies thac there is an uncertainty of at least ) 041s perhaps more, You might see such a reading writen a5 84 + 0.25, The (02s in tis readings caled the absolute uncertainty \ ( ‘Uncertainty is the range of values in hich a measurement can flItis often convenient to express an uncertainty as a percentage of the reading. This s known as the percentage uncertainty. absolute uncertainty . 993 reading ‘The percentage uncertainty in the previous example is 82 100% = 0.26% Bes Precision of measurement When making a static measurement for example, the length of a pendulum) you should normally measure to the nearest division on the instrument. The exception to thisis ifthe divisions are one millimetre of mote apart. In this case, you need to judge to the nearest hal division or better. When making a dynamic measure (for example, che height to which a ball bounces), other considerations come into play — the balls moving, so you have to judge when itisac its maximum height. Ths isa much more difficult cask. You can probably measure only to the neares:§ millimetres percentage uncertainty 9 FA 2 = A rs = 3 3 = 4 5 E g ] 3 e ES a Many digital stopwatches measure to V/100 ofa second, However, the uncertainties in the reaction times of manually starting and stopping @ stopwatch are much greater than this. The bes: you can manage is to measure 1 the nearest 1/10 of a second. Until 1977, world records for running events ‘wete given to only this precision, It was only with the advent of electronic timing, that it became possible to record them to 1/100 ofa second. The current world record for the men’s 100m is 958s This suggests an absolute uncertainty of +40.01s, percentage uncertainty of approximately 01% This has the knock-on «effect that for the world record to be valid the track musc also be measured to a precision oF 0.9% or better. This means an absolute uncertainty of 10cm, ‘The precision can also be estimated from taking repeat readings If ive readings ‘of the time taken fora ball to run down a track are taken, itis acceptable to give ‘the uncertainty as half the range ofthe readings. For example ifthe readings ‘were: 5.25 5.25 545, 505,518. The range is the difference between the largest and smallest values (5.4 — 50 = 0.43), so the uncertaincy is +04s/2 = 40.2 Rens es ‘1 What isthe reading on the vermier scale in Figure 2.7? 2. What isthe reading on the micrometer in Figure 2.8? 3. Ifthe time base in Figure 25 i given as 5 sd, deduce the rime between the pulses. 4 In Figure 2.6, deduce the reading on the volemerer when the remperacure is 100%C. 0 70] Di i | Figure 27 Figure 2.8 Answers on p.215 @s) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide3 Kinematics Equations of motion Seem cued sy ‘You should kriow the definitions of the terms distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration. ‘© Distance is a scalar quantity. thas magnitude only. ‘© Displacement isa vector quantity. It has both magnitude and direction, (© Speed isa scalar quantity. e refers co the total discance travelled. (© Velocity i a vector quantity, being derived from displacement — not che total distance travelled. ‘© Acceleration isa vector quantity, Acceleration in the direction in which a body ‘s cavaling will increase its velocity. Acceleration in the opposite direction from ‘which a body is traveling will decrease its velocity. Acceleration atan angie ‘0F 90" to the direction a body is traveling in wil change the direction of the velocity but will noc change the magnitude of the velocity Peo nya Ue Ty = Distance isthe length between two ppoints measured along the straight line ‘pining the two points. Displacement is the distance of an object from a fixed reference point in a specified direction, Speed is the distance travelled per unit tie. Velocity isthe change in displacement fer unit time, ‘Acceleration isthe rate of change of velocity. | a vvis the velocity and As is the change of dislacement in time At. x ar ‘where ais the acceleration and Av is the change in velocity in time At. Units ‘Speed and velocity are measured in metres per second(s"). where ‘Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time. Velocity is measured in ‘metres per second (ms~ and time is measured in seconds (9, which means that the acceleration is measured in metres per second every second (ms" per) which is written as ms" (ano ‘toy wain travel round one dreut ofa circular crack of circumference 241m in 48s Calculace () the average speed the average velocity Answer (@ xis the dicance traveled so average speed. 48G) (sis the dsplacement, which after one lap is 2er0, The train finishes atthe same point at which it started. Hence: As _ O(n) 20) andy =oms? Reser OY a 486) | In general, che symbol A means ‘change, | soAsisthe change in displacement | and Atis the change in time. Icisgood practice to include units in your calculations, as shown in | this eaample — it can help to avoid | mistakes with multiples of units. ft | canalso help you to seeif an equation ‘does not balance. inthis book, in order | to make the equations clear, units are | only included inthe final quantity. Kinematics‘Worked example A car travels 840 malong a straight level rack at constant speed of 35s". The iver chen apples the brakes and the car deceerates to rest ata constant rae in a further 70s. Calculate. (9 chetime for which the caris traveling at constant speed. (©) the acceleration ofthe car when the brakes ate applied Answer Gra we a8 ‘The minus sign shows that the velocity 35 decrease rather than increases. Ie is alo worth noting that the given quantities inthe question are to two Significant figures. Therefore, the answer should aso be recorded to two significant figures. 2 Fe g E 3 & ad a ‘Graphs give a visual representation of the manner in which one variable changes ‘with another. Looking at motion graphs can help us to see what is happening, ‘over a period of time. Displacement-time graphs Figute 31 shows the displacement of a body that increases uriforrnly with time. ‘This shows constant velocity. The magnitude of the velocity is equal to the gradient of the graph, As v= gradient = Gzap rv ‘When you measure the gradient of a gaph, use as much ofthe graph 2s posable. This wll reduce the petcentage error in your ealulation, Displacement s/ms“ Time t/s Figure 3.1 Displacement-time graph for constant velocity Figure 3.2 shows an example of a body's velocity steadily increasing with time. To find the velocity ata particular instant (the instantaneous velocity), draw a ‘angent 0 the graph ac the relevant point and calculate the gradient of that tangent, Displacement s/ms" Time t/s Figure 3.2 Displacernent-time graph for increasing velocity @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideVelocity-time graphs 8 Figure 3.32) shows a body moving with a constant velocity; Figure 3.3(b) shows =} «that the velocity of the body is increasing at a constant rate — it has conscant £ acceleration. = @ © Fo Velocty Velocity v4. = fms ims" ” a Timers Figure 3.3 Velocty-time graphs: (a) constant velocity, (b) velocity increasing at ‘constant rate ‘The gradient of a velocity-time graph is the change in velocity divided by the time taken. Iris equal to the magnitude of the acceleration. ovou wy Displacement from a velocity-time graph ‘The cisplacement is equal to the area under a velocity-time graph. This can be ‘leary seen in Figure 3.3(@), The shaded area isa rectangle and its area is equal to: height x length = velocity x time Figure 3.3(0) shoves changing velocity the distance vaveled is the average velocity multiplied by the time. For constant acceleration from zero velocity this ishalF the maximum velocity multioied by the time — the area ofa triangle, (aes Velocity/ms-* e070 80 Time/s Figure 3.6 Figure 34 shows the motion ofa cyclist as shetravelsfrom Answer one stage to thernextin a race, Calculate: aakeearsTaari sonst wo-0 @) the acceleration from A to B (H The maximum speed can be read directly from the graph. (@ the maximum speed of the cyclist Icis 10s" (@ thecoualdixance he cys waves (@ distance traveled = area under the praph @ the acceleration from C0 D = (6x 10% 1) + (10% 50) + 04% 1021 @ acceleration = graciene = 2 = -a5ms?Figure 35 shows the motion of a body that has accelerated at a uniform rate, from an initial velocity w toa final velocicy vin time t 3 Kinematics Time Figure 3.5 Equation 1 ‘The acceleration of the body: vou t Rearranging this equation gives: veutat Equation 2 ‘The distance s travelled by the body can be calculated in two ways. First verage velocity x time vtu 2 Equation 3 ‘Second, the distance travelled is equivalent to the area under the graph: rea of rectangle ABDE + area of triangle BCD t Equation 4 A fourth equation is needed to solve problems in which the time and one other variable are not known. Equation 1 rearranges to: a ‘Substitute this in Equation 2: vu you Rearranging gives Pau + 2as @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guidethe journey that is being considered. Summary Erma 8 The equations of uniformly accelerated motion are ‘tessa otnatnesionve | esl . bat © sur wat? used if there is constant acceleration s {including constant deceleration and 5 ° eee Per anre eater g & ” ing the equations of uniformly accelerated motion Acommon type of problem you might be asked to analyse isthe journey of a vehicle between two fixed points. (oo During the teing ofa cr cistimed overs measured klomette In ane tet ‘enters the timing zone at a velocity of 501s“ and decelerates at a constant rate oF 0.80ms*, Calculate: @ the velocity of che car as it leaves the measured kilometre (theme takes ro cover he messed emere Answer @u=50ms? G=zp §=10km=1000m Icmight seem tedious writing out % all the quantities you know and oo the equation you are going to use. » However, this wll mean that you are less likely to make a careless error and, oe ee if you do make an arithmetic error, it ete a helps the examiner to see where you Substitute the relevant values and solve the equation: hhave gone wrong, so that some marks canbe awarded. = 50 + 2x (080) x 1900 = 2500 ~ 1600 = 900, ms (0 Reauired equation: OTe “Two common mistakes in this type oF eo question are: Substitute in the relevant variables ee 30-50-80 x1) negative acceleration $= 50=30_ 55 (© forgetting to convert kilometres to 08 metres Analysing the motion of a body in a uniform gravitational field ‘The equations of uniformly accelerated motion can be used to analyse the motion ‘ofa body moving vertically under the influence of gravity. In this type of example itis important to call one direction positive and the other negative and to be ‘consistent throughout your calculation. The next example demonscrates this. Cees ‘A boy throws a stone veracaly up into the airwith a velocity ©£60ms" The stone reaches maximum height and falls inco the sea, whichis 12m below the point of release (Figure 36). ‘Calculate the velocity ac which the tone his the water surface. (Gcceleration due to gravity = 98ms%)In this example, upwards hasbeen chosen as the postive direction; hence wis +605"! Consequenty, che distance of the sea below the point of release (12m) and the aceleraron due ro graity (105-2) are considered nepatve because they 2 Fe g E 3 & ad are both in the downward direction. a Recuired eiatiory The final velocity ofthe scone is ako in che downward direction. aw + Qos ‘Therefore it should be recorded as -165ms® v= 608 + 2 x (-98) x (12 =36 +235 =271 Itisalso worth noting that ar resistance on a stone moving at these speeds & negligible. Mass and weight ‘Mass and weight are often confused. Weight i the gravicationa pull on a body and depends on the strength ofthe gravitational field at the position ofthe ‘wash ial eee body, Mass is a property of a body itself and does not vary with the position of | fae tae togan Ook the body, Weight isthe gravitational pull on a In general, the two are connected by the equation: body. Weight isa type of force and ike W=mg all forces its unit is the newton (N). ee, ‘where W is weight, m is mass and gis the gravitational fied strength (or acceleration of free fll). ‘The gravitational field strength near the surface of the Earth is BN kg” Thetefore, a mass of about 100g (0.1kg) has.a weight of just less than 1N (098N) on the Earths surface. Its weight on the Moon is only O.16N because the gravitational field stength on che Moon is only about % of that on Earth. Exe al Inthe absence of air resistance, all bodies near the Earth fall with the sarne acceleration. This is known as the acceleration offre fall. Similarly bocies near any other planet will fll with equal accelerations. However, these accelerations «wll be different from those near the Earth. This is explored further in Topic 4 (Dynamics). Measurement of the acceleration of free fall Figure 3,7 shows apparatus that can be used to measure the acceleration of free fall. Equipment Photograph Strobescopic light all bearing Metre ruler —_ Digital camera 8 e s Figure 3.7 Apparatus to measure the acceleration offre fll Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘The stroboscopic light flashes at @ fixed frequency and the shutter of the ‘camera is held open. This results in a photograph that shows the position of the ballin successive time intervals, a in Figure 37. In this example the stroboscopic light was sec to flash at 20 H2. In Table 31, the third column shows the distance travelled by the bal in each time interval and the fourth colurnn shows the average speed curing each interval. Table 3.1 Time/s | Positionim | Distance travelled/m | Speed/m: a00 | 000 0.00 00 0s | 001 aor o2 910 | 0.05 0.04 08 os | om 0.06 12. 020 | 020 0.09 18 025 | 030 oi 22 o30 | 4a O18 28 035 | 0.60 016 32 940 | 078 018 36 ‘Acgraph of the speed against time is plotted (Figure 38). The acceleration of the ballis equal to the gradienc of chs graph 010 0.20 0.30 040 Timers Figure 3.8 Readings from Figure 3.8: (046, 4 and (0.13, 19) 41-10 = Tens Effect of air resistance ‘When you kick a football or hit tennis ball you will be aware of the effect of air resistance. Air resistance affects all moving bodies near the Earth’ surface, including the motion of falling bodies. Air resistance depends on che shape of ‘a body and also on the speed at which the body travels. The resistance on a sieamlined body is lower than on a less streamlined body. Car manufacturers spend a lot of time and money researching the best shape for a car 0 as to redhlce air resistance. Ait resistance, of drag, increases as the velocity of a body increases, As a falling body acceleraces, the drag. force increases. Therefore, the resultant force on ic will decrease, meaning that the acceleration decreases. When the drag force is equal {0 the gravitational pull on che body ic will no longer accelerave, but fll with @ ‘constant velocity, This velocity is called the terminal velocity. s 2 3s 5 ) | Ss ”Figure 39 shows how the velocities ofa shuttlecock and of a tennis ball change as they fall from rest. Speed > y y 3 Kinematics Time Figure 3.9 ‘© At point A the air resistance (or drag force) is negligible and both the shutelecock and the tennis ball fall with the same acceleration, g ‘© At point B the air resistance (compared wich the weight of the bal) remains scrall and i continues to fall wth the same acceleration; the shurtlecack has a much smaller weight than the ball and the air resstance on itis significant compared with its weight, so its acceleration is reduced, (© Atpoint € the air resistance is equal co the weight of the shuttlecock. It no Songer accelerates and fals with ts terminal velocity ‘© At point D the air resistance on the balls now significant an! its acceleration is reduced, ‘© At point € the air resistance is equal to the weight ofthe ball and it als with ‘ts weminal velocity. (airman ‘You should be able ro develop many equations from more fundamental ‘equations, Some of these fundamental equations are given at the beginning of tthe exam paper; others you must lear by heart. It is good idea to write out ‘these equations on a plece of ard and stick the card on your bedroom mirror to help learn chem by heart. In this chapter the ‘must-earn’ equations are: ‘The others are either on the lis on pages 66~67 ofthe syllabus or you should be able to derive them. Now test yourself Describe one similarity and one difference between speed and velocity. 2 Acartravelling ac 15ms-! applies its brakes and comes ro rest after 4.05. Calculate the acceleration of the ca ‘Anastronaut on the Moon dropsa hammer from a height of 7.2m, The hammer strikes the ground 1.2s ater being released, Calculate the acceleration due to gravity on the Moon. Abullet of mass 50. is fired horizontally from a height of 1.2m. The bullet leaves the gun ata speed of 280m: Describe the path the bullet takes b Assume the ground is level. Calculate: | the time that i rakes for the bullet to hit the ground Ii the distance the distance the bullet craves before It hits the ground. il Stare any assumptions you made in | and ll and explain the effect they will have on your answer to Answers on p.215 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideMomentum and Newton's laws of motion >—_____YY-ez7_) ‘Newton's laws are the basis on which classical mechanics was built. Many of the ideas are seen as selt evident today but were revolutionary when Newoon first developed his ideas. Before discussing Newton’ laws of motion in detail you need to understand the ‘concept of momentum, Linear momentum (ps defined as ‘the product of mass and velocity: The unit of momencum is kgrns"\.tc i formed by multiplying a vector by a pew scalar and is, therefore, a vector itself This means, for example, that a body of mass 2g travelling at 3ms" has a momentum of 6kgms"™A body of the ‘same mass traveling at the same speed but in the opposite direction hasa momencum of ~6kgms”.Itisimportant when you consider interactions between bodies that you understand the vector nature of momentum, Ciro Calculate the momencum of a cruise liner of mass 20000 tonnes when icis traveling ac &.0ms” (Ironne = 1000ks). Answer ‘Convert the mass to ke: 20000¢ = 20000 x 1000kg = 20000000kg p=my= 20000000 x 60 = 120000000 kgms" Newton's laws Newtons first law Abody will remain at rest or move with constant velocity unless acted on by resultant force ‘The fist part of this law is relatively straightforward; we do not expect an object 10 move suddenly for no reason. The second part requiresa lctle more thoughe. A got ball putted along level ground will gradually sow dow, as will a cyclist freewheeling along.a level path. In both these cases frictional forces actin the ‘opposte direction to the velocity of the body and cause it to decelerate, ‘When we observe motion on the Earth we cannot diminate friction and we ‘earn’ (falsely) that a force is needed to keep bodies moving, In practice, we ‘only need that force to overcome frictional forces. |F you think of a rock moving through outer space, there is no force on it — yer it will continue moving in a straight line forever, or until it encounters another body, perhaps in another galaxy. owanics @)Certs) Newton's second law ‘A resultant force acting on a body will cause a change in momentum in the direction of the force. The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the magnitude of the force. Newcon’ first law describes what happens when there is na force on a body, | ‘The second law explains what happens when there isa force on a body. ‘The second law defines force: something that tends to cause a change From this law we can write: in momentum af a body. pele . a ‘A constant of proportionality defines the size of the unit of force. The newton is defined by raking the constant equal co 1, when momentum is measured in kgm" and time is measured in s. You see from this equation chat force is measured in kgm s*. 1 kgs" called IN (newton). Cass 4 golf ball of mass 45 is putted slong a level green with an intial velocity of 40ms” It decelerates ata constant rate and comes to rest after 30s. Calculate the frictional force on the ball Answer CCorvert the mas to kg 45g Bese ke=0045ke inal momentum = 0.065 x 4= 018kgms" final momentum =0 change in momentum = -O:18kgms-" “The minus sigh in the answer shows that the force is acting in the opposite sbrecsion from the inal velocity. Acceleration of a constant mass In many sintations including the previous worked example, the mass of the body on which the force is applied remains corstant (or nearly constant). ‘Consider the basic equation: pee Ae ‘Now Ap = Adm) and ifm is constanc tis can be rewritten as p = mAw ‘Therefore: may = ma The previous worked example could be solved using chis equation, rather chan the rate of change of momentum, Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideCano A car of mass 12 tonnes accelerates from Sms to 30ms*in 75s. Calulate the average accelerating force on the cat, Answer change in velocity _ 30 Peels acceleration = SEE (Convert the mass to kilograms, 120 1200ke force =mass x acceleration = 1200 x 33 = 4000N ‘This equation also gives a deeper insight into the concept of mass, You can see that the greater the mass of a body, the harder its to change its uniform velocity, You begin to see that mass isa measure ofthis reluctance to change’, orinertia. Newton's third law ‘The third law looks atthe interaction between two bodies. Ifbody A exerts a force on body B then body 8 will exert a force on body ‘A of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction. @) © ee ff} J \ ] Figure 41 (a) Two protons repel each other, (b) two magnets attract each other, (¢) the Earthand the Moon attract each other ‘The examples in Figure 41 show forces on two bodies of roughly equal size; it is easy to appreciate that the forces in each example ate of equal size. However, itisalso crue with objects of very different sizes. For example, when you jump ‘off a wall there isa gravitational pull on you from the Earth that pulls you down ‘owaids the ground (See Figure 4.2). What you do not think about is that you. ako pull the Earth upwards towards you with an equal sized force. OF course, the movement ofthe Earth is negligible because itis so much more massive than you are — but the force is still there ‘The child is pulled down by ‘the Earth with a force, W | nesonpmon Figure 4.2 Interaction between two bodiesLinear momentum and its conservation n of momentum Certs) ‘One of the useful results chat can be developed fromm Newton's third law is ‘hat momentum is conserved in any interaction. This means that the total momentum of a closed system (that is,a system on which no external forces act is the same after an interaction as before, ‘Consider two bodies that move towards each other, asin Figure 43, and then stick to each other after the collision. Positive direction game! gomst | , Or a i aa Trill a naly Figure 4.3 Collision between two bodies total momentum before the colision = total momentum after the collision If we consider the positive direction to be from left to right: (20x 38)+G0x -40)=5y -44= 50 0.88ms" ‘The negative sign means that the velocity after che collision is from right to left. ‘A formal statement of the law é 2s follows The total momentum of a closed system before an interaction is equal to the total momentum of that system after the interaction. Collisions in two dimensions ‘The example above considers a heacL-on collision, where all the movement isin single direction. The law applies equally if there isa glancing collision and the two bodies move offin different directions. In this type of problem the momenta must be resolved so that the conservation of momentum be ‘considered in two perpendicular directions ot Before collision After collsion Figure 46 o— Figure 44 shows a disc A of mass mia, with a velocity u, moving towards a stationary dsc B of mass mg. The discs collide. After the collision disc A moves off with velocity vg at an angle @ to its original velocity and disc B moves with a velocity vp at an angle of @ to the original velocity of A. ‘Momenta parallel tu momentum before colsion = mau ‘momentum after colliion = mav,cos@ + mahgcos @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘Therefore: gu =m,v,cos0 + mscos ED , -Momenca perpendicular © Theanglsat which A and 8move | ‘momencum before colson = 0 mus both be measured inthe , fame dretion ound the re; rmomencum ater colison = myyqsin@ + myiysing i Eee Therefore: direction is chosen. This makes erie epoca O= mavasin 8+ mgrysing eat noeiaee ‘A particle moves towards stationary partie of equal mass, with a velocity u of 2.00ms". After the collision one partie moves (ff with velocity 100ms ar an angle of 0 ro the orginal velocity The second particle moves off with a velocty of magninude “V73ms-1. Calculate the angle the second particle makes withthe original velocity. Answer Momenta parallel to Therefore: momentum before collision 0 =1.00rn sin60 + musing momentum after cllsion = 10000360 + miycosp 0= 0866 +vasng Therefore: gS = 0.866 [equation 2] 2m= Loom cos60 + mycoep Divide equation 2 by equation =05 + vgc0s@ sng, ees 059 15 ugcosp=15 [equation 1] Set on Gace Momenta perpendicular tou. momentum before clision =0 momentum after collision = 1.00msin60 + mivasin Beart) Elastic Ian elastic interaction not only is momentum conserved but kinetic energy is also conserved. On the macroscopic scale this s rare. However, many interactions do approximate to being perfectly elastic and the mathematics of ‘an elastic interaction can be used to model these. On the microscopic scale, for ‘example, the collision between two charged particles such as protons can be considered to be elastic Iris worth noting chat in any perfectly elastic collision the relative speed of approach before the interaction is equal to the relative speed of separation after the interaction. A good example of this s the nearly elastic inceraction of a golt ball being struck by the much more massive club (Figure 45). ‘golf club approaches ‘The dub continues to move at a velocity of very nears) v. The ball moves off at @ speed the ball at a veloaty of v. cf (nearly) 2v. The speed of separation of the ball from the dub is equal to the speed of ‘approach of the club to the ball Figure 45 An elastic collision Inelastic Ian inelastic collbion some ofthe initial kinetic energy is converted into other forms, such as sound and intemal energy. The kinetic energy is less after the ‘olision than before ic Asin all collisions, momentum is conserved, There are ry a 5 S S > =) <)rnuimerous examples and degrees of inelastic colsion — from neatly perfectly elastic, such as one billard ball scrking another, to two bodies sticking cogether, such as two identical trolleys colcing and sticking together as shown in Figure 46. Certs) ———+v Pin Cork —> "v ‘One trolley moves towards a second ‘The two tralleys stick together and identical stationary trolley with aspeed v. move off with a combined speed of tiv. Figure 4.6 An inelastic collision ‘Worked example Ernst A plier of mass 0.20kas moving at ms onan ai rack towards a second ‘Note thac each step in the explanation alder of mass 025ke, which & moving at 20ms“in the opposte deston. is clearly explained and thatthe final When the two gliders colide they stick togethes. comment completes the answer {@) Calculate thet joint velocity after the coision. (Show thatthe collsion is inelastic. xp Answer ‘An elastic collision between two equal @ momentum before the eolsion = (0.20 x 36) + (025 x -20) masses always leads to the two masses somes having velocities after the collision, - that are perpendicular to each other. momentum after the collsion = (0.20 + 0.25)v = 0454, where vs the velocity Wisc beckto ie eee eae ofthe two gliders after the eolsion ‘on page 31, which involves an elastic ‘momentum after che collsion = momentum before che collision ccolision. 022= 0450 Mee (nee) (kinetic energy before the colin = (x02 « 342) + (5 025 20%) Werk tina paler Caton 13405=18) ves a key term from this chapter, kinetic energyafter the colsion = 0x 045 x 0%) ~ 0054 and the other gives an explanation iinet CH AA OA) 0054) Of the term. Change places until ll the key terms have been covered. Do thisat the end of every chapter “The kinetic energy after the calsion isles than the kinetic energy befare the callsion, therefore che cellsion is inelastic. Now test yourself ‘Avbal-bearing falls ata constant speed through oil. Name the forces acting on it magnitude of the resultant force an it. ‘Acar of mass 1200kg accelerates from rest to 18ms~ in 6.35. Calculate: athe acceleration of the car b the average resultant force acting on ic the momentum of the car when itis travelling at 18s“ the vertical direction and state the ‘ball of mass 250 travelling at T3ms-* collides with and stick toa second stationary ball of mass 4008, Calculate the speed ofthe balls after the impact. 'b Show whether or not the collision is elastic. 4 Adis of mass 24 kgis moving at a velocity of 6.0ms“'at an angle of 40* west of north. Calculate its momentum in: a the western direction bb the northem direction Answers on p.215, @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideS 5 Forces, density and pressure Types of force In your work before AS you will have met the idea of a force being a push or a pull. You should now recognise the slightly more sophisticated idea that a force ‘cauises, or tends to cause, a change in the velocity of a body. ‘You have met various types of force already. Here is alist ofthe types of force ‘with which you should be familiar: (© gravitational forces © electric forces © upthrust or buoyancy forces © frictional and viscous forces Cee tees a | ‘Ammass in a gravitational field experiences a force. You have already seen that the ‘Sze of che force depends on the strength of the gravitational field and the mass ‘ofthe object: F=me ‘where Fis force (or weight), m is mass of the body and gis the gravitational field srength Neat the Farths surface (or any planerary-sized body) the gravitational field is ‘uniform, Therefore, che gravitational force s the same wherever the body is placed near the planet's surface. Consequently, the body wil fall with a conscant ‘acceleration (ignoring air resistance). Near the Earths surface the gravitational field is approximately 98 Nkg”. This will cause any object to fall with an ‘acceleration of 98m? The gravitational field near che Moon is 16N kg ‘Consequently, an object near the Moon's surface wil fall towards the Moon's surface with an acceleration of 16ms® Feet sed A charged object will experience forces due to other charged objects nearby. ‘The behaviour of a charged object in @ uniform electric felis investigated in Topic 10, Urine nane Bodies wholly or partly immersed in fluids experience an upthrust cue to the sighcly cliferenc pressures exerted on their ower and upper surfaces. This is ‘explored further on page 39. Forces, density and pressure @)fe FI a Fe 2 a a] € a > 2 rf = 3 a] ¢ 3 & G 2 vy Frictional forces have already been discussed. The term ‘rction’ is usually applied. ‘where chere is resistance ro motion due to contact between two solids. arises because no two surfaces are perfectly smooth and the lumps in them tend to interlock when thete is relative movement between the bodies (Figure 5.1) ‘Wooden, block Table Magnified view showing the roughness of the two surfaces ‘and how they inteclock Figure 5.1 Frictional forces The term Viscous tends to be used when fluids (liquids and gases) ae involved, Itis the difference in viscosity that makes water flow much more quickly than ‘il Sirilarly, the vscous forces on a body travelling through oil are much larger than those on an object traveling through water. Gases tend to produce far less viscous drag than liquids. Even so, ac high speeds the viscous drag on cars and aircraft is significant, Turning effects of forces Moment of a force ‘The turning effect ofa force about a point (sometimes known as torque) is G@EEESUD) ‘ known as its moment about that point. When considering a single force, the force itself does not have a unique point about which the force is producing its turning effect must be specified. ‘moment. It all depends on the point | about which the force has a turning ‘The moment of a force about a point equals the force multiplied by the | effect. Therefore when referring to a perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the point. ‘moment you should always refer to Consider a spanner turninga nut Figure 52) The force is not perpendicularto _ispelngabout which the moment i the spanner. Therefore either the component of the force perpendicular to the saa spanner or the perpendicular distance from the centre of the nut to the line oF action of the force must be used in the calculation, The perpendicular distance ‘ofthe line of accion of the 30N force from the cencre of the nut isthe distance x = 250520 = 235cm, Hence the torque about the centre of che nut is 30 x 235 = 705Nem. t 25cm Figure 5.2 Turing forces on a spanner, Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideIeis worth noting that torque is a vector Ifa torque that tends to turn a body in a clockwise sense is considered to be positive, then a torque that tends to cause the body to move in an anticlockwise sense is considered negative, iororens ‘Accouple is produced when two parallel forces of equal magnitude actin ‘opposite directions and have lines of action that do not coincide. You apply a ‘couple when you tum on a tap. When considering the torque ofa couple you do not need to worry about the specfc point that the torque is produced about. The torque is che same whatever point is chosen. The corque of the ‘couple is equal to the sum of the moments about any point of each of the two forces. torque of a couple = magnitude of one ofthe forces x perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces Accouple tends to produce rotation only. A single force may tend to produce Totation but it will always tend to produce acceleration as well (Fgure 53). = ed Sereno 6 ‘Acceleration of Ball Figure 5.3 (=) footballer kicks the ball, striking the side of the ball. (b) The ball accelerates but aso tends to rotate ina clockwise direction Equilibrium of forces Equilibrium Ifthe resltant force acting on a point object i zero then it fin equitrium. If however, the body is of finite size then che possi of rotational as well as ‘rarslational movement must be consicered. Fora body of finite size 10 be in equilibrium: ‘© the resultanc force on the body must be zer0 ‘© the resultant torque on the body must be zero Centre of gravity The weight of a body does not act froma single point but is spread through all the particles of the body. However, itis often convenient co consider the weight acting ata single point — this point is called the centre of gravity of the body. ‘ =i 3 FA 4 a 3 = a > 2 3 is o a] 3 2 G ir Py point through which allthe weight of ‘The centre of gravity of a bodys the ‘the body may be considered to act. ‘term used commonly in examinations iss uniform body: This ‘means that the centre of gravity ofthe body is at the geometric centre of the body. te CMU The principle of moments i a restatement of the second condition for a body be in equilibrium: For a body to be in equilibrium, the sum of the moments about any point ‘A useful way of using this when you are considering coplanar forces is to say ‘the -dockwise moments = the anticlockwise moments. =] Forces, density and pressure ®)Carns ‘A sudent has a uniform metre sur of weight 1.20N. He atcaches a weight of 150N at the 100cm point and places the ruler on a knife edge. He adjusts the knife edge unt the ruler balances, Deduce the position af the ke ede, Answer Drawa diagram ofthe setup (igure 54). soem — pe i a Fe 2 a a] € a > 2 rf ie 3 3 3 & G 2 vy 1.50N 1.20N Figure 5.4 ‘The ruler is uniform and therefore the centre of gravity isa its centre, Take moments about the pivor: clockwise moment = (50-2) 120Nem anticlockwise moment = (x~ 10) x 160Nem_ For equilibrium, the clackwise moments = the anticlockwise moments: (0-2) « 12=( 10) 15 78cm trea eget Ce) In the section on vectors you met the idea of using vector diagrams to add. vectors acting at different angles, and you also met the concept of resolving vectors into their component parts, Vector diagrams can also be used when @ body's in equilibrium. ‘Consider a lamp of weight W pulled to one side with a horizontal force F's that icrmakes an angle @ with che vertical, as shown in Figure $5. T r z Ww w| FE Draw the vectors Complete the triangle, w| Wand F ‘The thied side represents the tension T. ‘The diagram shows the forces ‘acting on the lamp. Tis the tension in the flex Figure 5.5 Forces in equilibrium Note the difference between this and using the triangle of forces to find the resultanc of two forces. This is a closed triangle, with all che arrows going the samme way round the triangle. This shows that the sum of these three forcesis, zero and that the body is in equilrium. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideCann ‘Ahelium balloon is tethered to the ground usinga cable that can withstand a maximum force of 100kN before breaking, The net upward force on the balloon due to its Buoyancy is 8.OKN (Figure 5.6) (Calculate the maximarn horizontal force the wind can produce on the balloon before the cable snaps, and the angle che cable makes with the vertical when chs force & applied, Answer Refer to Figure $7: 1 Dawa vertical arow of length 40cm to represent the tupthrust on the balloon, 2. Drawa horizontal construction line from the top of the vertical arrow. Separate theneedle and the pencil tip of your compasses by a dstance of 5 cm to represent the tension force in the cable. Place the needle on the bottom of the vertical ine and draw an arc to intersect with the horizontal construction line. Figure 5.7 4 Join from the intersection to the botworn ofthe vertical ine, This represents the tension inthe cable. 5. Draw an arrow to represent the horizontal force from the wind. ‘The length of the horizontal arrow = 30cm. Therefore che force due o the wind is 60%N, The angle with the vertical, measured with a protractor = 37° Scale: 2em = 1kN Forces, density and pressure 5 Forces, density and pressurepe i a Fe 2 a a] € a > 2 rf ie 3 3 3 & G 2 vy Density and pressure Q—________————_-ez_) You will have met the of density in eater work. ( " fou will have OILS SOY ET Density is the mass per unit volume: The unit of density i kilograms per metre cubed (kgm) or grams per es ‘centimetie cubed (gem) density (= Some (ass ‘A beaker has a mass of 48g When 120cm’ of copper sulfate solution are poured Inco the beaker it found to havea coral mass of 174g. Calculate the density of the copper sulfate solution, Answer rrass of copper sulfate solution = 174 48 = 126g, m_ 26 E105 gen" Pressure can easily be confused with force, the difference being that pressure phesnive' wiki hetrrel Ree per UE ‘considers the area on which a force acts, area: 4 Pressure is measured in newtons per metre squared (Nim), IN mis called pressure (o)= SS 1 pascal (Pa). It is sometimes convenient to use Nm”, \ Pressure, unlike force, isa scala. Therefore, pressure does not have a specific r >) 1 pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of 1 newton actng normally on an area of 1 metre squared. direction, Cans Coins are produced by sanping blank discs with a die The diameter ofa blank sdscis22cm and the pressure on the disc during camping is 2.8 x 10° MPa, Calculate the force required co push the die against the blank disc. Answer area of the coin 38cm? = 38x 104m? neaaF = n@22797 presse Hence force = pressure x area =28 x 105x 108 x 38x 10-4= 106% 10° Pressure in a liquid A liquid exerts pressure on the sides of its container and on any abject in the liquid, The pressure exerted by the liquid increases as the depth increases. Figure 5.8 shows a beaker containing a liquid of density p. =e Areaa SS Figure 5.8 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘The pressure on the area A is due to the weight of the column of water of height h above it welghhe= mass x g (where gis the gravicaional field strengh) mass of the colurin = density x volume, where the volume of the column of water =A xh mass of the column = px A xh weighc of the column = px A xh xg force _ weight pressure on area A = ORE area area =pxaxhek e ny pressure = phg Cares mens ‘Atmospheric pressure & 108 x 108 Pa, A diver descends to a depth of 24m in ‘The total pressure is equal to the seawater of densty 103 > 10° kgm, Calculate the total pressure on the dives pressure due to the water plus atmospheric pressure. Its easy to Answer forget to include atmospheric pressure, presaire due to seawater = hpg = 24 x 103% 108 x 98 = 242 x 105Pa teal pressure = 242 « 105+ 106% 10° = 348 x 103Pa (EEE (© Include these ‘must lea’ equations ‘You can now see how upthrust (or buoyancy force) is produced. Consider a ‘on your bedroom mirror ist: rectangular box in aliquid — the boctom of the box is ata greater depth chan mass the top, Thus the pressure on the bottom is greater than the pressure on the eT = ear, top. Since the two surfaces have the same area, che force on che bottom is force greater than the force on the top and the box s pushed upwards. pressure (p) = 2 Re es ‘A uniform picture of weight 3.6N is attached co a wall using a string as shown in Figure $9, Each end of the string makes an angle of 40° with the horizontal Calculate the tension in the string ‘Two forces oF 8ON act on either side ofa bolt head of diameter 24cm. Calculate the couple produced on the bolt. ‘A.umiform metre ruler is pivoted on the 30cm mark. When a mass of 0.20kg 5 hung from the 14cm mark the ruler balances, Calculate the mass ofthe rue. ‘A.niform metre rulers pivoted at its midpoint. weight of 600N is hung fiom the 30.0cm mark The rulers held in equilibrium by a string attached to the 10cm mark making an angle of 60° withthe ruler. Caleulte the tension in Figures.9 the string Oil of density 850kgiis poured into a measuring cinder toa depth of (0.300m. Calculate the pressure exerted on the base of the measuring cylinder bythe oll Answers on p.215 Forces, density and pressure 2 = E 4 i a ian] 5 > 2 a 2 Gy sc 3 y Gg 2 wn6 Work, energy and power Work and efficiency ea—_____ex) Work has.a precise meaning in physics and care must be taken when using this term. The uni of work isthe Joule (J) ‘Work is defined as being done when 9 force moves is point of application in Both force and displacement are vectors. Note that for work to be done there | the direction in which the fore acs. must be a component of the force that s parallel to the dispiacement. joule of works Seen ‘When calculating work done, care must be taken that the force and che ‘force of 1 newton moves its point of displacement are parallel, Consider a chi siding down a slide (Figure 61). application 1 metre in the direction of ‘the force, Child started here from resi 3.0m Weight = 250N Figure 6.1 ‘The force causing the child to move down the slope isthe child's own weight, 2S0N, which acts verticaly downwards. The cotal distance moved is § 0m but the displacement parallel to the force is only 301. So: ‘work done by the force = 250N x 30m = 750) Ieis worth noting that in this example the work is done on the child by gravity, rather than the child doing work. In general component of the force parallel to displacement work done = Fxcos@ work done = x the displacement ————-> Displacement Foose * Figure 62 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideCans Figure 63 stows a man wheeling a burrow. He applies force of ‘540 to the barrow in a direction 75’from the horizontal He moves the barrow 301m along level ground, Calculate the work he does against fection. Answer work done = Fcos@ work done Ey] ES 3 a 3 s 8 id 3 < S z= G = re) Energy is not an easy concept and, like work, ic has. precise meaning in physics. Like work, energy is measured in joules, When a body has 300] oF energy it means that it can do 300) of work. Different forms of energy are shown in Table 6.1. Energy is defined as the ability (or ‘apacity) to do work. Table 6.1 a a ee eerste tere Gravitational potential | The ability to do work due to the position of a body in ] a gravitational field [ Hastie potential |The ability to-do work due the deformation ofa body (e.g, a compressed or extended spring) Sound The ability to de work due tothe kinetic and potential energy of the vibrating particles ina sound wave Internal The sum ofthe random kinetic and potential energies of the molecules ina body. Hectieal potertel | The ablity to do work due tothe postion of a cherged particle in an electric field Chemical potential | The ability to do work due to potential energy of the particles making up substances Nuclear potential The ablity to do work due to the potential energy of the subatomic particles in the quelei of atoms Enna eernee ‘Machines are used to do work, converting energy from one form to another In practice, machines are never 100% efficent. This means that che total energy input is greater than the useful work output, Some of the energy input i, ‘converted to unwanted forms such as thermal energy and sound, useful work output total energy input Efficiency is quoted either asa ratio ora percentage. Consequentty efficiency has no units. efficiency of a machine = 100% Work eneray and power3 A a Bo] a ig Pr] 5 2 G ES re Cat A petrol moror used co hea bag of sand of mass 2700kg from the ground up roa window 12m above the graund. Eighteen per cent of che inpur energy Is converted inta gravitational energy of the sand. (9 Calculate the energy input to the motor. () Diccuss the energy changes involved in the process. c=D Answer ‘No attempt has been made to discuss ‘what happens inside the motor. ust wondone gh = 270038 1231750) Peto pete lime iso ioe ponueeaa tale bburme and puc under pressure, and the ‘conversion ofthis to kinetic energy = TSAO] w TEM ofthe oscillating piston, Attempts to discuss what happens inside the motor are unlikely to succeed and should be avoided. (©) The chemical potential energy ofthe petrol is converted into internal energy in the motar and 18% ofthis is used to do work against gravity in lifting the sand. “The remaindé i transferred to the surroundings as they are heated. (eimactuicisess ey | ‘The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of a closed system is constant. For examination purposes, you should explain this statement by saying that this, means that energy can be transformed from ane form to another bur it can nether be created nor destroyed — the total energy of a closed systern will be the same before an interaction as after it, When energy is transformed fram one form to another either: ‘© work is done — for example, a man does work againse gravity by lifting a large mass onto his shoulders or ‘© energy is radiated of received in the form of electromagnetic radiation — for ‘example, intemal energy is radiated away from the white hot filament of a lamp by infrared and light radiation Potential energy and kinetic energy Gravitational potential energy ‘Consider a mass m lifted through a height ht. ‘The weight of the mass is mg, where gis the gravitational field strength. ‘work done = force x distance moved. mghh Due 10 its new position, the body is now able to do extra work equal co mgd, Ichas gained extra potential energy, AW = mgd: change in potential energy = mgAh If we consider @ body to have zero potential energy when at ground level, we ‘can say chat gravitational potential energy (E,) = mgh @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideIn these examples we have considered objects close to Earth’s surface, where we ‘can consicer the gravitational field to be uniform. in your Aclevel stucties you wil ‘explore this Furcher and consider examples where the gravitational field fs not uniform, Kinetic energy ‘Consider a body of mass my, at rest, which accelerates to a speed of v over a distances ‘work cone in accelerating the body = force x distance Wats But MTA ieyMeU Cron ( =ma Im the equation v? = u? + 2as,u = 0. Hence: The body is now able co do excra work = Yomnv# due to ies speed. Ir has kinetic energy = Ysmv* (aero A cricketer bows aball of mass 160 gata speed of Zkmh", Answer Calculate the kinetic energy ofthe ball Convere the speed from koh"? to ms" 12490 x 1009 4 Okmb* = 120 x eEEms = ams ; Convere 160g t0 kg = O16kg. Yan? = Ye x O16 x 333 a) fae era ret is Thete are various types of potential energy, one being elastic potential energy (Sometimes teferred to as stain energy). When a force causes an object to change its stape, che particles of the body are either squashed together or Pulled apart, Therefore, they have extra potential energy. This is looked at in ‘quantitative terms in the section on deformation of solids. Power Power (Ps the rate of doing work or transforming energy. The unit of power is work done che wate (W). Power = time taken energy tansforred ‘There isa power of 1 watt when energy is transferred or work is done at ec the rate of 1 joule per second. (aero A pebble of mass 120gisfired from a caapulk. The pebble. Answer accelerates ftom resto 1Sms" in 04s Calculate the average og =012ke power gain ofthe pebble dunng the fing process. gain in kinexic energy = Yrv? =05 x 012 x 18 = 125) BS power gain = 32= 96w Work eneray and powerPower and velocity ‘Consider a car travelling at constant velocity v along a straight, level road. The engine must continue to da work against fiction. I the frictional force is, chen ‘he engine will supply an equal-sized force in the opposite direction, The work done by the engine, AW in time At is FAs, where AS i the dstance travelled in time Av: power = AS a uc AS - y cherefore: ‘at power = Fy Cans 3 A a Bo] a ig Pr] 5 2 G ES re Acylsts traveling alonga straight vel road ataconstant Answer velocity of 27am against total rctional forces of SON, Conver: the velocity from kmh" into ms Calculate the power developed by the cys, Dir a7 Parse ower = force x velocity =75x50= 375W Panmee nes ‘© Makes flow chart to show how the units and/or dimensions ofthe quantities in the following list are linked. acceleration energywork force length mass power time (© Include these ‘musteary’ equations on your bedroom mitra ist: work done = Frcos 6 Fp=mgh Ea korn? ‘efficiency ofa machine = eh werk oot 100% work done _ energy transformed Timetaken— timetaken power = Fu power Now test yourself 41 Anincline satan angle of 30" to the horizontal. force of 25N pulls a box 40m along the incline. Calculate: {the total work done by the force 'b the work done against gravity by the force € the gravitational potential energy gained by the box ‘ball of mass0.30kg intially at res falls fom a height of 25m. Ichts the ground ata speed of 18ms~1 Caleulate ‘the potential energy lost by the bal bb the kineric energy gained by the ball the work done against friction ‘Acris travelling ata steady 24ms- along a level road. The power output from the engine is 45 kW. Calculate the total fictional force on the car Answers on p.215, @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide7 Deformation of solids ‘You have already seen how forces produce changes in the motion of bodies they ‘can also change the shape of bodies. Forces in opposite directions will tend to ‘sretch or compress a body. iF two forces tend to stretch a body they are described ‘as tensile. iF they tend to compressa body they are known as compressive. Elastic and plastic behaviour Forces on a spring Figure 77(@) shows apparatus used to investigate the extension of a spring under a tensile force Figure 71(b) shows the results of che experiment. fa) (b) Foxin ia Force [_this region Extended > spring Original length > | apermanent ( - {extension OC Pointer (prevents of é Batension parallax errors) | law region Weights te Figure 71 ‘Analysing the results we see the following: © From © to A the excension of the spring is proportional to the applied force. © With larger forces from A to B, the spring excends more easily and the ‘extension is no longer proportional to the load. ‘© When the force is reduced, with the spring having been stretched beyond, point 8 ino longer goes back to its original length. From © to A, Fis proportional tox: Fax This can be written as an equality by introducing a constant of proportionality: Fe kx ‘where ks the conscant of proportionality, often known as che spring constant. The spring constant isthe force per unit extension. Its a measure of the -siffness ofthe spring. The larger che spring conscant, the larger isthe force ‘equited to stretch the spring through a given extension, The unit ofthe spring ‘constant is newton per metre (Nin-!) Deformation of solidsElastic deformation means that the the limit of proportionality. Very close to this poine, there isa poincB caled the | wat seturn to te oninal hope clastic limit. Up to the elastic limit, the deformation of the spring is sai v0 ‘whencthe loud lever Point A, the point at which the spring ceases to show proportionality is called | be elastic. we 4 Plastic deformation means thatthe ‘body will not return to its original shape Hooke’s law surns up che behaviour of many materials that behave in a similar | when the load is removed, nn, oe! manner to a spring: — Ifthe spring is svetched beyond the elastic limite wil not return co its original length when che load is removed. Its deformation is sid to be plastic. | The extension of a body is directly proportional to the applied force. Nove that Hooke’ law also applies to the compression of a body. In this case, the quantity x in the equation is the compression rather than the extension. ryt Ne CC mu ciel) Figure 72(a) shows the extension of a body that obeys Hooke's law. The work (a) done in screching the body is equal to force muliplied by distance moved. This is equal to the elastic potential enexgy in the body. However, the force is not F the maximum force — its the average force, which is 4F ic} 3 ‘S < ay a & = 2 a a ~ Load F clastic potential energy = Fx ‘This & the area ofthe triangle under the graph, The general rule, even when the extension is not propartional co the load, is Entension elastic potential energy = area under the load-extension graph ‘The equations above cannot be used with @ material that has been extended beyond the limic of proportionality (Figure 72b) or any macerial chat does not follow Hooke's law, However, the energy stored is sil equal to the area under the graph. Extension Figure 72 Stress and strain Figure 73(@) shows the apparatus that could be used to investigate the stretching of a wire. The readings that need to be taken are shown in Table 71. (a) (b) ual igeeme J | — oto uo oy Main scale. vere @ ‘Stress Figure 73 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideTable 7:1 fern Reason fan Lenath of wire Direct use ‘Metre ruler Diameter of wire Enables the cross-sectional area | Micrometer screw to be found gauge Initial and final readings | The difference between the two. | Vernier scale from the vernierslide _ | readings gives the extension Stress is defined as the force per unit cross-sectional area of the wire. Strain isthe extension per unit length of the unstretched wie, The graph obtained (Figure 736) i similar to that obcained for the spring, This shows the general nature of Hooke’ law Itis useful to draw the stress-strain graph (Figure 7), which gives general information about a particular material, rather than fora particular wite. a). The Py zy 9° 8 ‘S < oS S & £ G 3 a Ss ‘The unit of stress is newtons per metre squared or pascals (Nin formal symbol for stress is 6 (the Greek leer sigma} Scrain isa ratio and does not have unies. The forral symbol for serain ise (the ‘Greek leter epsilon). ‘The quantity stress/strain gives inforration about the elasticity of a material. This quantity is called the Young modulus. Young modulus = force (Pf asea (A) ‘extension (x) / length (L) A a “The unit of dre Young modulus isthe same as forstess — the pascal (Pa). Cass A force of 250 is applied to a steel wire oflenath 15m and diameter 060mm, (Calculate the extension ofthe wire (Young modulus for mild steel = 21 x 10" Pa} Answer (eens erosesectonal aes of the wre = (4) =n{ 285207 © Add the following musclean’ ef 2 ‘equations to your bedroom Youre medi mirr list Fok yy 250215 power? ats 0! “283 «107 x AL ast 25015, Young modulus = sain Asse aI = 63 102m=63mm Young modulus: Now test yourself A spring when unloaded hasa length of 15.0cm. A load of 2.4N is placed on the spring and its length increases to 214m, Calculate the spring constant of the spring. b Calculate the energy stored in the spring when iis stretched toa length of 23.0cm. ‘Awire of diameter 4.0 x 10-'m supports a load of 48N. Calculate the stress in the wire Calculate the strain on a wire of unstretched length 2.624m which is stretched so that ts length increases to 2.631. ‘Armild stee wie of length 150m and diameter 0.76mm has a Young modulus of 21GPa, Calculate the extension ofthe ire when i caries a lead of SN. Answers on p.215 Deformation of solidsRAEN 3 In this course you will meet various types of wave, Waves are a way of storing energy (stationary waves) and transferring energy from one place to another (progressive waves). Progressive waves ‘Waves are formed when particles vibrate about a mean position. Waves can be observed in many different situations, Waves are formed on the surface of ‘waver when the water is disturbed, eicher by an abject falling into the water ‘or by the wind blowing actoss the surface of the water. Waves can also be ‘observed when a long spring is shaken from side to side or back and forth, as shown in Figures 8.2 and 83 on page 50 Figure 81 shows @) the displacement ofa particle ina wave against time and (b) the dsplacemenc of ll the particles a a particular moment in time ‘Displacement () ofa partie i its distance from its equilibrium postion, The univis che metre () ‘¢ Amplitude (,) is the maximum dlsplacement ofa particle from is equilbrkim postion. The unit is the metre (ri) ( | ‘ hertz is one complete oscilation per ‘© Period (T) is the time caken for one complete osclation ofa particle in the | second, An oxcllation is one complete ‘wave. The unit isthe second (6), vibration of a partide — for examole, ‘© Frequency (f) of a wave is the number of complete oscillations oF a particle | from its mean position tothe position in the wave per unit time, The unic is the hertz (+2). cof maximum displacement in one direction, back to the rean position, ‘then to maximum displacement in the ‘opposite direction and finally back 19 ‘the mean position. ‘© Wavelength (1) isthe distance between points on successive oscilations of the wave that are vibrating exactly in phase. The unit is the metre (mn). ‘© Wave speed (0) isthe distance traveled by the wave energy per unit time, The umicis the metre per second (ms!) \ w sain wo Ic s easy to confuse these two graphs. ee ee Displacement describes the variation of displacement ha See 4 the varlacion of displacement with Figure 8.1 (a) Displacement of a particle in a wave against time, (b) displacement (ofall the particles ata particular moment in time Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideFrequency and period are related by the equation oe CRE UCR er} The speed ofa partic is given by the equation: distance 6 (9 = sistance eS ae Similarly wave speed —sitance craved by the wave time In time T, the period of oscilation, the wave travels one wavelength, Hence: eS see eevee RCL Progressive waves transfer energy. This can be seen with waves on the sea — ‘energy is picked up from the wind an one side of an ocean and is carried across the ocean and dispersed on the other side. as the wave crashes onto a shore, Intensity is defined as the energy transmitted per unit time per unit area at Tight angles to the wave velocity. Energy transmitted per unit time is the power transmitted, so that intensity = POE area The unit is watts per metre squared (Wm-2) ‘The intensity of a wave is proportional to the square ofthe amplitude of the wave: Tex? This means that ifthe amplitude is halved, the intensity is decreased by a factor of? (aero ‘The intense of ight From a sal amp is versely proportional to the square of the distance ofthe obser from the amp, that oe 1. Observer Ais 1.0m from the lamps observer Bi 4m from te lamp. Cakulste how the amples ao thelighc wares recived by the owo observers carnpare Answer 1a incensity oft at B= (1) (=) ofthat at A incesity = ampitude? Therefore amplinide x finensty 1 amplitude at = 77 ofthatat A amplitude ac B = 14 tharat A RET) (ens Acar horn produces a note of frequency 28012. Sound travels ac a speed of 320ms- Calculate the wavelength ofthe sound. Answer c= 320 = 2804 ‘There are no simple formulae that you. can apply here. You need to ensure that you understand the physics and ‘then work through in a logical fashion. WivesTransverse and longitudinal waves In mechanical waves, particles oscillate about fixed points, When a wave passes along 2 rope, the particles ofthe rope vibrate a ght angesto the recon of | Sirsteat right angles tothe dection transfer of energy of the wave. Water waves can also be considered to behave in| CP ante of energy a similar manner. Ths type of wave is called 2 transverse wave (se2 Figure 8.2). | J (na transverse wave the particles ERENT xelissone otparsces Hane Dreconel Figure 8.2 Transverse wave Sound waves are rather different. The particles vibrate back and forth parallel (© | Ina longitudinal wave the particles if trans f af 2 fe ‘he direction of cransfer of energy of the wave. This forms areas where the aie eee particles are compressed together (compressions) and areas where they are spaced futher apart than normal (rarefactions). This type of wave iscaled a | Ye"ster of energy. longitudinal wave (Figure 8.3). In a compression the particles are loser together than normal, retsvene Ina rarefaction the particles are Sa. further apart than normal. Hina PI 0NUIAHE NGI Figure 8.3 Longitudinal wave Determination of frequency and wavelength of sound waves ‘The frequency of a sound wave can be measured using a cathode-ray ‘oscilloscope. The apparatus for this experiment is shown in Figure 8.4 Cathodevay Signal cocilloscope generator Loudspeaker Microphone Figure 8.4 Measuring the frequency of sound wave ‘The period of the wave can be determined from the time-base setting and the number of waves shawn on the screen (frequency = ‘Yperiod). ‘The measurement of wavelength of sound waves is discussed on page S6. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide(ee In Faure &¢, the time base is set at Sins div, Calculate the frequency ofthe wave, Answer Infour divisions there are 25 waves, “Therefore, in 4 x Sms = 20ms there ae 35 waves. Theeiore 20 ms =57 «107s period (time for 1 wave) = WSHe The Doppler effect Listen to the pitch of a police siren as a police car approaches and passes you. ‘You will observe that on approach the pitch is higher than when the caris scationary, and on leaving you the pitch is lower. Ths is known as the Doppler effect. Figure 8S shows the wave fronts spreading (2) froma stationary source and (b) from a moving source, Notice how the wave fronts from the moving source ‘are much closer in front of the source, giving a shorter wavelength and higher frequency. Behind the source, the waves are Further apart than normal, giving a longer wavelength and lower frequency, © Figure 8. (a) Waves spreading our from a stationary source; (b) waves spreading ‘out from a moving source The telationship between the observed frequency and the source frequency is given by the formula: ae hag % ‘where f, is the observed frequency, fs the source frequency, v is che velocity of the waves and v, is the relative velocity of the source and observer. ) Velocity of source: (ars A loudspeaker connected to a signal generator produces a steady note of Frequency 256 He, An observer moves towards the loudspeaker ac a speed of 25m" Calelate the frequency ofthe sound chat the cbserer hears (peed of sound = 330ms-!) Answer a, 6x0 oi, f- vty, 330-25 sate ‘Uses much ofthe screen as posible toreduce uncertainties, ‘One wavelength is from one peak {or one trough) ta the next peak (or rough). ‘The Doppler effect is the change in frequency of waves due to the relative ‘motion of the wave source and the observer, emma! Ifthe source and the observer are ‘moving towards each other, the frequency increases and a minus sign Is used in the denominator of the ‘equation. IFthe source and observer are moving apart, plus sign is used, leading ta lower frequency. All waves, not just sound waves, ‘exhibit the Doppler effect. The ectromagneti radiation from galaxies shows a decrease in the frequencies in their spectra — known asthe redshift. The fainter the galaxy the greater the Doppler shift, which suggests that the Further away a galaxy isthe faster it is moving away from the Earth, This ives us evidenee for the | expansion of the Universe, RET) woes @)ERENT Electromagnetic spectrum ‘You have met the idea of energy being transferred by giving out and receiving radiation. This radiation consists of electromagnetic waves. The waves described carer are causec by the vibration of atoms or molecules. Electromagnetic waves are quite different — they are procticed by the repeated variations in electric and rragnetic fields Electromagnetic waves have the arvazing property of being able to travel through a vacuum, You see light (a form of electromagnetic wave) ‘hat has travelled through billions of kilometres of empty space from distant stars. Flectromagnetic radiation comes at many different frequencies. Table 81 lists different types of electromagnetic radiation and their approximate wavelengths ina vacuum Table 8.1 Types of electromagnetic radiation eure wavelength in a vacuum/m | Pr eed 10° to 10°" Produced by the disintegration of atomic nuclet, very penetrating, causes ionisation, affects living tissue 10" 107 Produced from rapidly decelerated electrons; properties similar to gamma-rays, the oniy rea difference isin their method of production Utraviolet | 10-Fto 4 x 107 lonising radiation affects living tissue, simulates the production of vitamin D in mammals Visiblelight [4x 107 to7 x 107 ‘Stimulates light-sensitive ces on the retina ofthe human (and other animals) eye Infrared [7 x 10? to 103 Has a heating effect and is used for heating homes and cooking Microwaves | 10-$t0 107 Used in microwave cooking where it causes water molecules to resonate; also used in telecommunications, including mobile telephones Radio waves | 10-1 105 Used in telecommunications Ieis important to recognise that there are no sharp boundaries between these {ypes of radiation. The properties gradually change as the wavelength changes. For example itis not possible to give a precise wavelength at which radiation is no longer ultraviolet and becomes X-radiation, ‘One property chat these radiations have in common is that they all travel at the same speed in a vacuum —a speed of 30 x 108ms-". Consequently, you know radiations frequency, you can caklate its wavelength in a vacuum, Carns “The shortest wavelength thatthe average human eye can detect s approximately 4x 107m which les atthe violet end of the spectrum. Calculate the frequency of this igh. Answer cafh Therefore a Se 300104 56 sohie §-DAT £15 «Mts ® Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guideenna {© List the key terms in this chapter on pieces of card, Write out the meaning ‘of each key term on separate pieces of card. Shuffle the two sets of cards ‘and then try to match each key term with its definition, ‘© Add the following ‘must earn’ equations to your list: Now test yourself RET) Tested 1. a Aspectral nein the sodium spectrum hasa frequency of 5.08 x 10H, Calculate the wavelength ofthe light. (Speed of light ina vacuum = 3.00 x 108ms") Suggest che colour ofthis light. 2 The time base ofa cathode ray oscilloscope is set at Smsdiv~, A student observes that 25 waves cover 4 complete divisions Calculate the frequency ofthe sound. 3 When studying light from a distant galaxy, a scientist observes that the frequency ofthe spectral ine in Question 1 hasa Doppler shit of -042 x 10!*He. Caleulae the speed at which the galaxy is moving away from Earth. Answers on p.215 wows @)9 Superposition _— Stationary waves ‘op ‘that when two or more waves meet at To understand the formation of stationary waves, you need co understand the | point, the resultant displacement at nciple of superposition. ‘that points equal tothe algebraic sum Prnepie of supers of the indvidual waves at that point, eee Uirs = Moving along a progressive wave, the vibrating particle are slightly out oF step with each other — there is @ phase difference between them (Figure 9.1), Displacement Distance Figure 9.1 Phase difference ‘Study Table 91, which describes the phase relationships between the different points on the wave in Figure 91 Table 9.1 Phase relationships ete) Phase difference/ | Phase difference’ | to describe the phase Points | degre eo difference PandR | 360 0r0 moro In phase PandQ | 180 7 Exactly out of phase (ariphase) RandS | 90 Yon 90° or Yan out of phase Phase difference also describes how two sets of waves compare with each ‘other. Figure 9.2 shows two sets of waves that are approximately 45° (Yat) out of phase, Phase difference is measured in degrees in AS work, You will meet racian measurements in Topic 14 (page 97). Displacement Time Displacement Time Figure 9.2 ‘The formation of a stationary wave requires two waves of the same type and. frequency travelling in opposite directions to meet. Superposition can then Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘occur, When the two waves ate exactly in phase they will reinforce to give maximum displacement. When they are exactly out of phase (180) they will subtract, giving minimum displacement. When the phase cifference is not 0° or 180% the resulcant displacernene will vary according to the exact phase difference ‘ofthe 1H waves. < iC) =} 4 a P= 7] fey FI] 7) Cy Ret UCN MT cet eieg Td IF you pluck a stretched string at its centre, it vibrates at a definite frequency, as shown in Figure 93. Thisis an example ofa stationary wave. tis produced by the initial wave traveling along the string and reflecting atthe ends Ic will die away because energy is lose {0 the surroundings, for example by hitting air molecules and producing a sound. “Vibration of string ‘wave. This wave, where there is ust a single loop, is called the fundamental ‘wave or the first harmonic ts wavelength is twice the length of the string, ‘A different stationary wave can be set up by plucking the string at points A Figure 9.3 Fundamental wave, or frst and B (Figure 9.4). Note that the midpoint of the string has zero amplitude. This _ harmonic point is called a node. The points of maximum amplitude are called antinodes The frequency of this wave is twice that of the previous wave and its wavelength ishalf that of the fundamental. is called the second harmonic. ‘These waves die away quickly as energy is transfered to the surroundings. They ‘can be kepe going by feeding energy inco the system (Figure 95) Vibration of string Vibrator S o Figure 9.4 Second harmonic Figure 9.5 A vibrator feeds energy into the system ‘Varying the frequency of the vibrator produces a whole series of harmonics, The first three ate shown in Figure 96. Each harmonic consists ofa whole number of half wavelengths. L Remember that the distance between adjacent nodes, or between adjacent L L antinodes, is halfa wavelength, nat a full wavelength, Figure 9.6 A series of harmonics, Stationary waves ir columns ‘Sound waves can produce stationary waves in air columns. A small loudspeaker ‘ora tuning forks used to feed energy into the system (Figure 9.) CS ‘The diagrams with sound waves are / at, gg kt _,. | patisserie tu displacement against postion along fork the tube. Students often interpret them as showing a transverse Wave == Sound waves are longitudinal, so the Fundamental 2nd harmonic ‘3rd harmonic depaeloorek pone reg deal asd af the tube nat, os the dlagrams can it f= 3if suggest, perpendicular C0 it Figure 9.7 perp ahFJ Differences between stationary waves and progressive f=])) waves Faj)) Some cifferences between stationary and progressive waves are given in ER Tables. 3 ET) Table 9.2 = Posiesive wie SAN) | Energy's stored in the vibrating Energy is transferred from one place to oy | particles another ‘All the points between successive |All the points over one wavelength nodes are in phase hhave diferent phases The amplitudes of different points vay |All he points along the wave have the froma maximum to zero same amplitude Measurement of the speed of sound Air & Tube Water Figure 9.8 Measuring the speed of sound ‘Apparatus for measuring the speed of sound is shown in Figure 98. The height @ayEpRs ‘of che tube is adjusted until che fundamental stationary wave is formed. This can be identified by a clear increase in the loudness of the sound produced. The SE endinele at Ue sop ore tae lenge Ls measured, The tube then moved upwards until the next stationary MSE Devend the cap ofthe tbe, This ‘wave is formed and the new length L, is measured. The wavelength is equal to teallowed for Subapetng TaS. 2{La— Lf tbe frequency ofthe tuning forkis known, the speed ofthe sound readings eliminates the end correction, in the ar column can be calculated using the wave equation, c= f2. Z Cans [A tuning fork of frequency 288 Hz produces a stationary wave when a tube of air's285cm long, The length of the tube is gradually increased and the next stationary wave is formed when che tube is &40cn long Calculate the seed of sound in the tube, Answer YA = (840 285) = 555em A=Wen=1m c= fA = 288 101 = 320mst Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideDiffraction ‘When waves pass through an aperture they tend to spread out Similarly, if ‘waves go round an abject they tend to spread round it Figure 99 shows ‘wavefronts passing through a narrow slit and through a wide sit, and round an object. Thisis called diffraction. Awavefrontis an imaginary line on ‘wave that joins points that are exactly inphase, itd ‘Small aperture Large aperture Figure 9.9 Wave diffraction Interference reticence ‘When two sets of waves of the same cype meet, their displacements add or subtract in a similar way to vectors. At ts most simple, if the two sets of waves ‘are exacty in phase, the combined wave has an amplicude equal to the sum ‘of the two amplitudes. This is known as constructive interference (see Figure 910). Ifthe two sets of waves are 180" out of phase (in antiphase) the wo waves ‘will subtract: Thisis known as destructive interference. If the original amplitudes are equal there will be no disturbance. Interference isan example ‘of superposition. ee VV = In phase ‘Amatunie doe oe ab : Sus of phase Aapliude zero For sources to be coherent the waves must have the same frequency and have & constant phase difference. For interference to occur, two coherent sources of waves are required. in Figure 9.10 Constructive and destructive interference Interference of sound Interference of sound waves can be demonstrated using two loudspeakers driven by the same signal generaror giving coberent waves (Figure 917) < 5 2 3 ry S 3 a 3 rt a