~ 4. Scaling and approximation technique (Chapter 3) 4.1 Scaling Scaling is a process of identifying the correct orders of magnitude of the variables in a problem, so that general equations can be simplified to facilitate analyses. a. Order of magnitude We use x~y to indicate the order of magnitude (or scale) of x, which means the maximum values of x and y differ by a factor less than 10. b. Scaled variables Scales variables are those nondimensionalized by their characteristic scales. These scales can also be used to estimate order of magnitude of derivatives by assuming smooth variations. Example: Heat transfer in a wire Consider the steady-state temperature in a cylindrical wire of radius R that is heated by passage of an electric current and cooled by the convective heattransfer to the surrounding air. The local heat rate Hy is assumed to be constant. ek tT : GE: ee oh fon fab 2.2. id, a) Ay C24 fie mess rdr dr k Hectfow ) BC: aT adr =0 at r=0 -d aR atr=R where / is the heat transfer coefficient and T.. is the ambient temperature of the air. General solution: : ror, = MeR (Lyn) Hk i“ 4k For large Bi=hR/k, HR? r T-T.=——[1-(-’ ~ oe [ Qi and therefore the temperature difference scales as AyR'Ik.This scale for the temperature difference can be obtained without solving GE subject to BC: Assume (T -T.,) ~ AT where the scale AT is to be determined. Introducing dimensionless variables ela AT ° r n=— yields GE 1d, do HR = q—) =- ndn adn kAT BC dO _ an a at n=0 @=0 at n=1 RHS of GE must be order one since n~1 and O~1. ThereforeH,R? AT ~ k Using the scales finds at HVR aT Hy dr k > dr* k which agree with the exact solutions. 4,2 Reductions in dimensionality All physical problems are 3D, but can possibly be simplified by symmetry, aspect ratio and series resistances. a. Symmetry Choosing an appropriate coordinate system and using the symmetry of a problem can reduce the dimensionality. b. Aspect ratio Dimensionality may be decreased if the object has very different dimensions.c. Series resistances Objects with very different resistances in series allow simplification of a problem. 4.3 Simplification based on time scales The speed at which a system responds to a change imposed allows simplification. A fast response may justify the use of a steady-state or pseudo-steady-state model. A slow response may allow one to model a region as infinite or semi-infinite. Example: diffusion in a membrane areas A Membrane Ce alt) ff COO*L C2 ce) i. X=0 XeL membraneInside the membrane GE: aC _ pac pee pect & or ax? pt IC & BC: C(x,0) =0 C(0,t) = KC, (1) C(L,t) = KC,(t) In external compartments GE: dc ac y—t=AD—(0,t dt ox (0.4) dC. ac V— =-AD—(L,t dt ox (Lat) BC: C=C, C,(0) =0KC ty t3 ts ti Short time behavior: penetration analysis The characteristic length is the penetration depth 5(t) ~ (D)"”” 2 t<< D BC become CO,t)=KCy, Cl,t)=0 The concentrations in the external compartments remain unchanged. This problem can be solved by the similarity method, which transforms a PDE to an ODE by combining theindependent variables into a composite one. Introducing O=CIKC)y yields 20 _ 0 ot ax? IC & BC: Q(x,0) =0 (0,1) =1 ~ O(c,1) =0 Proposing n=x/ g(t) and setting 8g'=2D with g(0)=0 yields 2 ae +2n S =0 subject to @(0)=1 Q(-) =0Solution: O(n) =1- zl exp(-s? ds = 1 ~ exf (n) = exfe@) g=2(D1)"”” n= x D1)" Long time behavior: pseudo steady state 2 t>>— D Inside the membrane GE: ac oe 0 ox Solution: C(x,t) = KC, (t) + KIC, (1) -C, (ole In the compartments: GE:dC, __ ADK 1=-5"(¢,-€ dt VL (G,~@) dC, _ ADK m=" (¢,-C. dt VL (G-@) BC: C,O)=C,, C,(0) =0 Solution: C= Son +exp(-t/T)] C= Sn —exp(-t/T)] VL with the characteristic time 7 = 2ADK: After a sufficient time elapsed, the changes in the external concentration will be controlled by the time scale 1, while the response time for the membrane is LID. The pseudo-steady-state model also requires L _2ALK 2a Dt V <1ie., the membrane concentration profile will respond almost immediately to changes in the external concentration. ALK is the effective volume of the membrane, representing its capacity for solute.4.4 Perturbation analysis When the governing equations contain a small parameter é, a perturbation analysis can be used to solve the equations to obtain approximate solutions. The basic strategy is to obtain a solution valid for e=0, and then to add correction terms. a. Regular perturbation analysis Example: Heat transfer in a wire ~ The previous problem is now modified by assuming large Bi and k=k,[l+a(T-T.)I H,=H_,[1+a(T -T,,)] GE: ld aT -——(rk—)+ H, =0 are 7. ‘i BC: aT Tee at r=0T=T, at r=R Introducing r T-T. aH _,R? n= — SE aeereeeen screaen e= R> H,R’/k° k., yields 14 ing 460) 2) 41400=0 n dn dn with do a>, @(1)=0 When the temperature dependence is small, i.e., e<<1, the solution can be expressed as O= > ©,@e" n=0 Substituting the above form in the ODE and BC finds oe): Gy ®y) +1=0 ndn- dn witha, £0 (9) =0 _ ee ©, (1) =0 Solution: 1 9, =40 -n*) Ove’): aed Ay , 1. 8, a 7 IMO" 0 a Bolt =0 with dO, mo. =o Solution: 1 —(1-n* ea! n’) Therefore e=7d- + aie n*)+0(e") Higher order terms in € can be solved for in a similar way.b. Singular perturbation analysis It is also called the method of matched asymptotic expansions. The main feature of a singular perturbation problem is that the small parameter € multiplies the highest-order term (or highest derivative) in the equation. Example: Solution of an algebraic equation ex? +x-1=0 Exact solutions are -ltvl+4e 2€ For é<<1, Vi+4e ~1+26 + O(€”) Hence x=1+0(€) r=-+-140() € Singular perturbation approach:Setting e=0 yields x=1. How do we find the other solution? The missing of the other solution is due to the assumption of x~O(1) we have made. A properly scaley d x must be introduced to make the second-order term important. Introducing X =E°X eX? 4+e°%X -1=0 and a=1 So X?+X-e=0 Using X= > Xe" n=0 finds X =-1-€+0(e’) X =e+0(e’)Example: Diffusion in a cylinder with a_ fast homogeneous reaction cH Co GE: peer %)-Kc =0 BC: C=C, at r=R aC _ Hee at r=0 Introducing @= a er gives@O 140 E( +——)-0=0 dn? nan ee ee D with © = Pa" = k,R? aoe , Subject to de a O79, eq) =1 Introducing a new variable g=e"(1-n) yields dé? 1-€e* d& An analysis finds b equal to —1/2, and the above equation for O(1) & further simplifies to d O -0=0 ag Go _ dé* The solution form is @=0, +é'7O, + Ole) ec? +&e!? +O(e)] Ol):ao < 22-0, =0 dé ©,(0) =1 Solution: ©, = 4 exp(-§) + (1- ay) exp(§) The coefficient a) must be determined by matching the solution with that outside the concentration boundary layer: OE) |e ..= OM) lyn as 60 So A =1 os”): 0, feel dO, dé? t dé ©,(0)=0 Solution: g 8, i sexes)(overall solution) = (inner solution) + (outer solution) — (matched solution) @=exp(-€)[1 + bei +O(E)] -1,3 Tals 4 +0€)! = exp( The thickness of the boundary layer ~ (D/ky)\” Exact solution: 9 — fone”) Ine") where Jp is the modified Bessel function of the first kind.