Simple Stress and Strains 9.1 Introduction Statics, dynamics and strength of materials are the three fundamental areas of engineering mechanics. statics and dynamics deals primarily with the forces and motions associated with particles and rigid badies, whereas, strength of materials deals withthe relations between externally applied loads and their roca effects (stress and strain) onthe real bodies, (that i, bodies of finite dimensions that deform under Toads) or elastic bodes, in which we go one step further by examining the stresses and strains inside real bodies. Strength of materialsis also called as mechanics of materials or mechanics of deformable bodies. 9.2 Normal Stress and Strain ram ‘As shown in Figure 9.2.1 consider a prismatic'bar of negligible weight which is rigidly fixed at end A and subjected to axial? tension by the action of a vertical load P applied at end B and acting along the axis of the bar AB. The applied load P elongates the bar slightly and also tends to pull it apart, ie. it produces rupture. This tendency to rupture is at resisted by intemal forces (ie. the actions and reactions ™—)—}—* © . between various particles) within the bar. ‘The intemal forces in the bar are exposed if we make an imaginary cut through the barat section m-n perpendicular to its longitudinal axis. ‘We now isolate the lower portion of the bar asa free body (Figure 9.2.1 (b), At the lower end of the free body, the external force P is applied on the upper end of the free body tre show the actions of the particles of the upper part ofthe = 8 | ° bar upon the lower part (ic. free body). This action consists of a continuously distributed force action over the entire ross section. The resultant of these uniformly distributed y intemal forces is equal to the externally applied load P. (2) Frew Boy Diagram Figure 9.2.1 The intensity of the force (that is the resistance force per unit area) is called the stress and is denoted by Greek letter o (Sigma). -2 on A Where, P= Resultant of distributed forces and is equal to applied load. ‘A= Cross sectional area of the bar. (1) Prismatic bars a straight structural member having the same cross section through out its length. (2) Axial force is aload directed along the axis of the member, resulting in either tension or compression in the bar.ite. | = Engineering Mechani OOO 9.2.1 Tensile Stress When the bar is stretched by the force P, the stress so is tensile stress. Such a force is known as a tensile force. (Figure 9.2.2) Figure 9.2.2 Bar in Tension P Thus,tensilestress, o = 4 9.2.2 Compressive Stress When the bar is compressed under the action of force P, the stress, so produced is compressive stress. Such a force is known asa compressive force, (Figure 9.2.3) Compressive stress, oy = F Units : Stress. has units of force per unit area. Force is expressed in newtons (N) and area in square meters (m?). Consequently stress has units of newtons per square meter (Nim?). i.e. pascals (Pa). Generally we work with large multiples like megapascal (MPa). Limitation : Figure 92.3 Bar in Compression The equation =P/Ais valid only if the stress is uniformly distributed over the cross section of the bar. This condition is realized if the axial force P acts through the centroid of the cross sectional area. 9.3 Normal Strain A straight bar will deform (thatis change in length) when Ioaded axially, becoming longer when in tension (Figure 9.3.1 (a) and shorter when in compression (Figure 9.3.1 (b) L L ‘ThAdeformation (elongation or shortening) perunit length is defined as strain and is denoted by the Greek letter ) € (epgilon). __ Change in length (8L) Thal, strain= original Iength (L) o fend If thy bar is in tension the, strain is called a tensile strain, represerfing an elongation of the bar. If the bar is in compression the strain is compressive strain and the bar shortens. Tensile strain is usually taken as positive and compressive stain as negative. The strain € is called a normal strain because itis associated with normal stresses. Normal strain is the ratio of two lengths, it isa dimension less quantity i.e. it has no units. However, itis common touse units of meters per meter or millimeter per meter when referring tostrain. Figure 9.3.1‘ Simple Stress and Strains | a 9.4 Hooke's Law Within the range of clastic behavior of the material, stress is directly proportional to strain. i.e. stress a strain or oaae Or 7 BE a (9.4.1) o o ¢g @ = E, aconstant Where, Eis the constant of proportionality and is known as young's modulus of elasticity. Since strain, isadimensionless quantity the unit for modulus of elasticity E, is identical to the unit for stress. fromequation (9.4.1) o = Ee Pi. pol o ET ofan = Fe i.e. the elongation SLs proportional to the applied force Pand the length L of the bar and itis inversely Proportional: to the cross-sectional area A of the bar and its modulus of elasticity E. | Hooke's La Infact the Hook's law is valid upto proportional limit. The proportional limit is usually the same as, or slightly below | the elastic lit. Hence for many materials the two limits are assigned the same numerical value. In case of mild steel, for + \ practical purposes the yield stress, the elastic limtt and the proportional limit are assumed to be equal. This situation } 1 rials. Rubber is elastic far beyond the proportional limits. i 9.5 Shear Stress and Strains Shear stress is caused by forces acting along or parallel to the area resisting the forces, whereas tensile and compressive stresses are caused by forces acting normal to the area on which they act Accordingly, tensile and compressive stress are called normal stresses, whereas a shearing stress is called a tangential stress, — a Ss—_—_- Figura 9.5.1 Ashearing stress is produced whenever the applied load (s) cause one section of a body to tend to slide pastitsadjacent section. e . Consider the rectangular block fixed at the lower surface and subjected to a tangential (parallel to the surface CDEF) force Pat the upper surface, as shown in Figure 9.5.2. ‘The block may be assumed to made up of several layers iS which under the action of force P tends to slide past its adjacent layer and will get deformed and the rectangle . ABCD will change to ABC'D' (Figure 9.5.3). The resistance Rigidy to this action per unit area is known as shear stress denoted 952 Teskecey by _ tangential force by T (Tau) Thus, shear stress = 5 oT ODER3 ak ota sk i ives the value ‘The above equation of shear stress gives the val of average shearing stress. Actually, the shearing stress across a section is Practically never uniformly distributed. 9.5.1 Shear Strain ; ‘Shearing forces cause a shearing deformation, and it undergoes a change in shape froma rectangle toa tel shown in Figure 9.5.3. : PasThe shearing stain may be defined as the angular change between the perpendicular faces of an Figure 0.5.3 element. ; oe tan = ES DD Oy er Where ¢) is the shear strain (If is a very small angle in radians, tan 6 = 4) 9.6 Modulus of Rigidity ; ‘The ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain is called modulus of rigidity or modulus of elasticity in shear, Itis denoted by G or C, and is a constant for a given material. “ G-go 7= GO Since the shear strains a dimensionless quantity, the units of modulus of rigidity are the same as those ofshear stresses. 9.7 Complementary Shear Stress The shear stress is always accompanied by a balancing shear stress across the planes at right angles. These balancing shear stresses are called complementary shear stresses. The complementary shear stresses are always equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. The equality of complementary shear stresses such as t and t! can be established from the equilibrium conditions of the element. Consider an element ABCD, as shown in Figure 9,7. 1 let dzis the thickness of the element normal to the plane of the paper. Therefore the area on which shear stress acts = BC.dz= AD.dzand the force acting cntthe faces AD and BC =t(BCdz) = 1(AD.dz). These two forces acting on faces AD and BC will forma couple having the magnitude of moment equal to (%.AD. dz)DC in clockwise direction, To maintain equilibrium of the clement there must be a restoring couple q It with equal moment but opposite in direction. The couple formed by the shear stress t'willbe (t' ABdz) AD=(t' CD.dz)AD for equilibrium condition v (ADdz) DC = (t'ABdz) AD Figure 9.7.1 or (k=? as AB=DC \ —S‘imple Siress and Strains = 9.8 Stress Strain Diagram 7 "The design of machine pars and structures so that they will function properly requires that We undersand the mechanial behaviour of the materials being used. To determine how materials behave ‘when they are subjected to loads, we perform experiments. The usual procedure is to place smi specimens of the material in testing machine (such as UTM) apply the foads, and then measure the Hesulting deformations suchas change in length and diameter. Tensile Test ‘The teat specimen i installed between the two grips ofthe universal testing machine then gradually increasing tensile load is applied until itbreaks. oa : |» Pp LO 4 Gauge <— Onn r<— Figure 9.8.1 tensile test specimen is shown in Figure9.8.1. Faerie ifthe circular specimen are enlarged where they fit inthe grips, 80 that failure will not cot near the grips. Ina properly designed specimen, failure will occur in the prismatic portion ofthe specimen aaa ie stress distribution is uniform and the bar is subjected only to pure tension. As per the ‘American “ociety for testing and materials (ASTM) the standard tension test specimen has a diameter of 12.5 mm anda gauge length of 50 mm. co Ultimate stress. al yield stress F (Fracture ) Elastic limit Proportional Limit i Perfect Strain Neckit Lit lecking region elasticity hardening : or yielding Figure 9.8.2. Stress - strain diagram for a typical structure steel in tension, not to scale,Engineering Mechanic, igure 9.8.2 where the axial strains are iagram for mild steel is shown and the corresponding stresses as ordinate, 1, Proportional Limit ‘The diagram begins witha straight line from the origin Oto point A, which means that the Hooke's law is valid in this region. Beyond point A, the proportionality between stress and strain no longer exists, hence the stress at Ais called the proportional limit. The slope ofthe straight line fron toAiscalled the modulus of elasticity, 2. Elastic Limit 3. The Yield Point The yield point is the point at which considerable clongation of the test specimen occurs with no noticeable increase in the tensile load (Stress). This phenomenon is = known as yielding of the material and point C is called the yield point. The corresponding stress is known as the yield Stress. In this region (i.e. between points C and D) the a material becomes perfectly plastic, which means that it 7 ‘Lower and Upper Yield urs’ deforms without an increase in the applied load. The elongation of specimen in the perfectly plastic region is typically 10 to 15 times the elongation that occurs upto the Proportional limit. Some times yielding is accompanied by an abrupt decrease in load, and the stress strain diagram has a shape shown in Figure 9.8.3. In such a case the upper and lower limits of the load at y, and y; divided by initial cross sectional area, determines ‘the upper and lower yield stresses Tespectively. The lower yield stress is used as a basis for > Mt 02% offset hye : Arbitrary yield stress determined determining working stresses. by ie ofset mats Figure 9.8.4 A sharply defined yield point is a characteristic of materials like structural steel, bronze and brass. There are other materials, which do not havea Pronounced yield point. When a material such as aluminum which does not have an obvious yield point and yet undergoes large strains after the Proportional limit is exceeded, an arbitrary yield stress is determined by offset method Figure 9.8.4). A straight line is drawn Parallel to the initial tangent of the stress-strain curve, this line being started at an arbitrary offset stain, usually of 0.2% (or 0.002 m/mor2 mm/m). 4, Ultimate Stress After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding, the steel specimen begins 10 strain harden, During strain hardening the material undergoes a ehange in its crystalline structure, resulting in increased resistance against deformation. Elongation ofthe specimen in this region requires an increase in the load, and therefore the stress-strain diagram climbs to point E representing the maximum tensile stress or the ultimate strength or the ultimate stress.395 Simple Stress and Strains oro) 5. The Rupture Strength Region of The rupture strength is the stress at failure. The stretching ofthe barbeyond ultimate point is actually accompanied by a reduction in the load and fracture finally occurs at a point 4 suchas F. ‘The rupture stress at Fis less than the ultimate stress at E Aoeess (as shown by bold curve EF) is somewhat misleading. When Nechng of ed stool bar in tandion atest specimen is stretched, lateral contraction occurs atted tne represents the dimension The resulting decrease in cross sectional area is too small of bar before load is applied and bold line after the application of load to have a noticeable effect on the calculated values of the stresses upto the yielding region, but beyond that point the reduction in area begins to alter the shape of the curve. In the vicinity of the ultimate stress, the reduction in cross- sectional area of the specimen becomes clearly visible and a pronounced necking of the bar occurs. If the actual cross sectional area of the narrowest part of the neck is used to calculate the stress, the true stress-strain curve (shown by dotted line upto F’) is obtained. 9.8.1 Nominal Stress and True Stress When the initial area of the specimen (based on original diameter or nominal diameter) is used in the calculation, the stress is called the nominal stress (or conventional stress or engineering stress). ‘Amore accurate value of the axial stress, called the true stress, can be determined by using the actual area of the bar at the cross-section where failure occurs. Since the actual area in a tension test is always less than the intitial (nominal) area, the true stress is larger than the nominal stress. 9.8.2 Nominal Strain and True Strain If the initial gauge length is used in the calculation, then the nominal strain is obtained. Since the distance between the gauge marks increases as the tensile load is applied, we can calculate the true strain (ornatural strain) at any value of the load by using the actual distance between the gauge marks. In tension true strain is always smaller than the nominal strain. The conventional stress strain curve OABCDEF, which is based upon the original cross-sectional area of the specimen and is easy to determine, provides satisfactory information for use in engineering design. 9.8.3 Stress-strain Diagrams for Different Materials High Carbon ore Steel 8 Cast ron ‘Auuminum ‘Concreto o Sain oak, Figure 9.8.7 A Typical stress-strain diagram for a : brittle material showing the proportional limit Figure 9.8.6 Comparative stress-strain (Point A) and fracture stress (Point B) diagram for different materials3 ps. Engineering Mechanicy Stress Hard Rubber Soft Rubber Stain Strain Figure 9.8.8 Typical stress-strain diagram Figure 9.8.9 Stress-strain curves for {gr an aluminum alloy two kinds of rubber in tension ' Based on the discussion on stress-strain curve, the stresses pertaining to various limit are defined as follows : (a) Elastic stress . Elastic load (or normal stress) initial cross-sectional area of specimen (&) Ultimate stress, _ Ultimate load initial cross-sectional area of specimen Load of fracture initial cross-sectional area’of specimen (©) Fracture stress OF (or Rupture stress) (d) True breaking Stress _ Load at fracture (or True fracture stress) Actual cross sectional area at the point of breaking (i.e. Area of neck) Increase in length original gauge length ~ 100 (c) Percentage elongation = 1 ie. % elongation = ( = 9) x 100 L! Length of specimen at the point of breaking. L - Gauge length. ' Dec! i tional Area (p Percentage reduction = ae inA Original area of specimen A-A ie. % reduction in Area= (4=*) 100 cross-sectional area of neck Al- Minimum cross-sectional area at fracture ‘A- Original Area of cross section Ce rncah ‘Simple Stress and Strains 397 9.9 Factor of Safety While analysing and designing any structure a large number of factors at aan rently some assumptions pertaining tothe design are also made, thedesign. Uncertainties in design are mainly because of a The assumptions made in the analysis of stress and deformation. @ Inaccuracies in construction. ‘© Variability in the quality of workmanship. Variations in the properties of materials. Deterioration due to corrosion or other environmental effects. © Service loads and maintenance etc. i Pieescount for uncertainties in various aspects of analysis and design of swucttrS- Iti importance that the actual strength of structure must be more han the required strength. ‘The ratio of the actual strength to the required strength is known as factor ofsafetyn. Thus, taken into consideration: fhich lead to uncertainties 1n s of practical Actual Strength Required Strength ‘The factor of safety must be greater than 1.0 ifthe failure istobe avoided. Ifthe factor of safety used is too low and the allowable stress is too high, the structure may Prove weak in service. On the other hand, «pan the working stress is relatively low and the factor of safety is relatively high, the structure becomes heavy and uneconomical. Inaircraft design, the margin of safety is used instead of the factor of safety. The margin of safety is defined as the factor of safety minus one. i.e. margin of safety=n—1 Margin of safety is often expressed asa percentage ; thus astructure having an actual strength that is L stimes he required strength hasa factor of safety of 15 andamargin “of safety of 0.5 (or 50%). When the targin of safety is reduced to zero or less the structure may be presumed tobe failed. 9.10 Allowable Stress (or Working Stress) “The allowable stress or working stress is the maximum safe stress 2 material may carry within the elastic range. Since the elastic limit is difficult to determine accurately, it is usual practice to base the ‘working stress on either the yield point or the ultimate strength divided by factor of safety. yield strength Thus, Allowablestress = “factor of safety u Factor of safety,n “The yield stress is selected as a basis for determining allowable stress in structural steel. For other materials, the allowable stress is usually based on the ultimate strength. ultimate stress ‘Thus, Allowablestress= Factor of safety. 9.11 Mechanical Properties of Material 9.11.1 Elasticity and Plasticity “Assume that a specimen is loaded in tension, in such a way thatthe stress-strain go from the origin O to point Aon + stress-strain diagram of Figure 9.11.1. Nowifthe load isremoved, the material follows exactly the same curve back to origin O. This property of a material, — Plastic by which it returns to its original dimensions when the load is removed is called elasticity, and the material itself is sald to baal be elastic, Figure 9.11.1a wm Engineering Mechanics Now suppose that the same material is loaded to a higher level, so that point B is reached on the stress-strain diagram (Figure 9.11.2) when the load is removed from Point B, the material follows line BC on the diagram. The —F unloading line BC is parallel to a tangent to stress-strain curve at the origin, When point ¢ reaches, the load has been completely removed, but a residual strain, or permanent strain (Represented by line OC) remains in the material, This residual elongation of the bar is called the permanentset. The | = bar being tested is longer than it was before loading. In this ane OK 2 > se joalduat case the total strain developed during loading is OD, the ‘on YK anasto strain recovered clastically during unloading is CD, the recovery permanent stress is represented by OC. Thus during E - Elastic Limit Figure 9.11.2 unloading the bar returns partially to its original shape, and so the material is said to be partially elastic. “The characteristic ofa material by which it undergoes a permanent deformation beyond the strain at the elastic limit is knownas plasticity. Brittle materials show negligible plasticity where 9.11.2 Ductility and Brittleness Materials that undergo large permanent strains before failure are classified as ductile. Thus ductility is the property of material that enables it to be bent into a circular arc or drawn into a wire without breaking, Ductile materials are capable of absorbing large amount of strain energy prior to fracture. In ductile materials a visible distorsion occur if the load become too large, thus it provides an opportunity to take remedial action before an actual fracture occurs. } Lack of ductility is brittleness. A brittle material fractures under loading with negligible plastic elongation. Thus brittleness is the property that restricts elongation generally beyond the elastic limit 9.11.3 Malleability ‘This is the property by virtue of which a material may be hammered or pressed into sheets without rupture. This property generally increases with increase in temperature. 9.11.4 Stiffness The ability of a material to resist changes in shape is called stiffness. The stiffness is proportional to modulus of elasticity. 9.11.5 Toughness (or Tenacity) ‘Toughness is the strength with which the material opposes rupture or the ability ofa material to absorb energy without fracture. This property of material is due to the inter molecular attraction, and is equal to the area under the entire stress-strain curve. | 9.11.6 Hardness Hardness is defined as resistance of material to penetration and scratches. 9.11.7 Creep Forloads acting overa long period of time and at high temperatures a metal continue to deform under aconstant load which may be much less than the ultimate load. This phenomenon is called creep. 9.11.8 Fatigue Many machine parts are frequently subjected to varying stresses, taking places at high frequencies sas it is considerable in ductile materials. >— Simple Siress and Strains 399 and under these conditions failure is found to occur at stresses smaller than the ultimate strength of the eee static loads. This phenomenon of the decreased resistance of a material to repeated stress is called fatigue. 9,12 Lateral Strain Figure 9.12.1 ___ When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied by lateral contraction (ie. contraction normal to the applied load) as shown in Figure 9.12.1. ‘The dashed lines represent the shape of the bar after loading. Let, initial diameter of the bar is D, and the diameter after loading is reduced to (D-8d) thenlateralstrain, ¢/ = change in diameter original diameter or, El = ae D The lateral contraction is easily seen by stretching a rubber band. 9.13 Poisson's Ratio Within elastic limit the lateral strain at any point in the bar is proportional to the axial strain at the same point. The ratio of these strains is a property of the material known as poisson's ratio. Itis denoted by v(nu) orb Lateral strain Thus poisson's Ratio = ——— Po ‘Axial strain € ‘€ or, | Vv Itisa’ dimensionless ratio. The negative sign indicates that the lateral and axial strains normally have opposite sign. 9.14 Modular Ratio It is the ratio of modulus of elasticity of two materials and is denoted by p. Modulus of elasticity of material 1 modular ratio= Ye dulus of elasticity of material 2 Ey on) B= ge 9.15 Volumetric Strain When a body is subjected to external force its axial and lateral dimensions change, which results in the change in its volume. The ratio of change in volume, to the original volume, is called as volumetric strain, and is denoted by € y : Change in volume Volumetric Strain = — nat volumeEngineering Mechanic rig che 9.16 Superficial Strain Itis defined as change in cross-sectional area per unit original area and is denoted by &, Change in cross sectional area Superficial Strain ~ — Gr inal cross sectional area ej = oA A 9.17 Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (or Volume Modulus of Elasticity) The bulk modulus can be defined as the ratio of the spherical stress (i.e. triaxial stress) to the volumetric strain within elastic limit. Itis denoted by K. Spherical or volumetric stress ™ ~ Volumetric strain Volumetric stress, 7 =(0; + 0) + O2)/5 (Ge + Oy + 0%) 3€y 9.18 Principle of Superposition This principle is valid when ever the quantity to be determined is a linear function of the applied loads (i.e. Hook's law is valid). When that is the case, the desired quantity may be found due to each load acting separately, and then these results may be superposed to obtain the desired quantity due to all loads acting simultaneously. This principle is usually valid for stresses, strains and bending moments. 9.19 Bars of Varying Cross-section and Lengths Consider a circular bar in Figure 9.19.1 is made-up of different lengths having different cross- sectional area and different material. The bar is subjected to the same tensile load P. A Then, stressinsection1, 0, = M/A, me 2 ry stressinsection2, 0; = "Ay p stressinsection3, g,= "a; <—] fa lan a5 > strain on the three sectionsare, b b ‘ to to Figure 9.19.1 eee =P 2 £1" igi * ORR mM SA ‘The change in length of the three sections are - = Ph -2 2h 611" AE bh a? and 613 > A3E3 ° The total change in length of the bar5L= 51, + 5/+ 5/5Simple Sovess and Strains hs [fall the three sections ofthe bar are made up ofthe same materials, their modulus of elasticity willbe same, ie. Ey=E)=E)-E h L I Then, =f 4 — eo OL elect k 9.20 Extension of a Uniformly Tapered Bar x j= Figure 9.20.1 Consider tapered bar AB of solid circular cross-section and length L, is subjected to a constant axiai tensile Perce P The diameter at end Aand B are di and d2 respectively. If we extend the sides ofthe tapered tar they will meet at point O as shown in Figure 9.20.1. Now consider a small element of length dr at a distance x from the point O. Let the diameter of the bar at distance x from Oisd. Ly and L; are the distances from point O toends Aand B. Thus,L,—Ly=L From simillar triangles properties. ad 4 ref. nage or, a=fix or a-fis ‘cross-sectional area of the clement of the bar at distance x from point O is - dy \2_ 2 (42)? a Fe Fb) HE) Intensity of stress at the element PL 4 PL x(a, Md 4 Le) 4 o-f-‘The change in length ofthe element of length de 4PLi_ dr as ( _ S(dx) = Tae E bL Total elongation ve bar may be obtained by performing integration and substituting the limits |, and L2. Thus, 6) = f 4PL,_ de md; x? E L, Arey ! de md} E 2 APL = Tae E tt 1 _ APL 1 1] THE LL, i, 2 4 PL, L,-L, nmageE LL 2 4PL L ) =o f a i ad E (4 oO) Gakise 4PL h) md, E L, —4PL_ (& ) » Lod ade \a EG — 4PL 61 7G\0y! When the rod is of uniform cross-section diameter d;=d)=d 4PL | _ PL Rade ~ TOE a ae L peat } then gy = 9.21 Extension of Bar Due to Self Weight Consider a prismatic bar of cross sectional area A and : Jength L, hanging freely under its own weight as shown in Figure 9.21.1. Consideran clementary strip of length dy ata distance y from the lower end. Figure 921.1_—— 403 The down g "i win eam foes ting on this strip is due to the weight of the bar below the elemental strip, and P= WAy Simple Stress and Strains Where, o is specific weight of the bar i s ‘material. As the load (w Ay) is acting downward, the strip of elemental length dy will clongate by a small amount, say dy ° ™ ° Then dy = E&Y = WAN _ opdy iris tot , : oe al clongaton of the bar may be found out by integrating the above equation between the limits L br lesen > ala) ‘ 0 L ° If Wisthetotal weightofthebar(W=oAL) Then, o= S 7 iT i2¥ EL ole A 2E WL bl= ye From the above result itis observed that the total elongation of the bar duc to self weight is equal to the elongation that would be produced if half of the weight of the bar is applied at its end. 9.22 Strain Energy and Resilience When a prismatic bar is subjected to a force. The bar elongates or shortens, depending upon the nature of the force. The elongation or shortening of the bar in the direction of the force applied does a certain amount of work, which is equal to the product of force and the distance through which it moves. The work done by the external load on the bar is stored in the material and is termed as strain energy. Itis denoted by U. Strain energy, (U)=work done by the load. Resilience represents the ability of a material to absorb and release, energy within the elastic limit. * The strain energy stored by abody, within clastic limit when loaded externally is called resilience. * The maximum energy which a body stores upto clastic limit is called proof resilience. Modulus of resilience is the energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without creating a permanent distortion. 9.22.1 Strain Energy due to Gradually Applied Load Consider a prismatic bar of length L subjected to a tensile force P. The load is applied slowly, so that it gradually increases from zero to its maximum value P. Such a load is called a static load. The bar gradually elongates as the load is applied and reaches its maximum elongation 8L when load reaches its maximum value P. (Figure 9.22.1) During the loading process, the load P moves slowly through the distance 8L and does certain amount of work which is stored in the bar material in form of strain energy. strain energy (U) stored In the bar=work done by the load