NAME: MEDHA HIMANSHU

SEMESTER: THIRD
ROLL NO: 2020/1516
Q. HOW DO THE SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS LIFE INTERSECT EACH
OTHER? DRAW ILLUSTRATIONS FROM THE PRESCRIBED TEXTS.
Emile Durkheim is a French sociologist, in his book “The elementary forms of
religious life” have pronounced the primitive nature of religion, its central form of
rites, its origin, and its significance. He also in-depth studied the Australian
aborigines. He represented religion in a basic elementary form. He set two things
straight, one that religion was not godly or supernatural but a product of the
society. Second, he emphasized the common things of religious beliefs and how
they impacted lives within society.
Durkheim affirmed that every cult has two intertwined dimensions; a positive and
a negative. To understand them as individualistic, it’s crucial to understand them
separately. He defined rituals, the notion of sacredness, and ways in which it led to
the formation of the negative cult. Rituals are an essential tool that is used to
separate sacred from profane and therefore maintains that discontinuity. The
concept of religious prohibitions is derived from the notion of sacredness, through
which religion is implemented and practiced. It prevents them from coming in
contact encroaching on one another through prescribing abstinence. The system
forbids certain acts, and ethnographically they take the form of the ‘taboos’.
Prohibitions have many forms, let us see the example of Australian tribes
Prohibition is found in every religion and even in magic, the only difference is that
there are different kinds of prohibitions. Violation of Religious prohibitions results
in material disorders, punishment, blame, and public probation, that affect the
guilty man. Eg- wakelbura- the scaffold upon which the corpse is laid must be
made of the materials belonging to the phratry of the dead man. The deceased body
is sacred and the other things of the phratry are sacred but in a different light.
Violation of magic ethnographically prohibitions are judged by material
consequences produced by forbidden acts. In magic, there is no sin, it thrives on
profanations, built on utilitarian maxims- earlier forms of hygienic and medical
prohibitions. The common trait of prohibitions depends on the fact that there is a
relation of disparity and incompatibility among sacred beings, prohibitions don’t
only imply separation.
1. Primarily, Prohibition of contact is considered taboo which is based on the
separation of profane from sacred.
NAME: MEDHA HIMANSHU
SEMESTER: THIRD
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2. Blood flowed in the initiation ceremony acquires a religious virtue and
becomes a subject to prohibition. The corpse of a dead man is sacred thus the
bones of the body must not be carried until it’s wrapped in a piece of bark because
the soul animates and stays with the corpse and haunts the spot.
3. Another intimate form of contact is through the consumption of food. There
is interdiction against eating sacred animals and vegetables, especially those
serving as totems. If not followed it leads to cause sickness and death. This is
based on the belief in mythical kinship where animals are presumed as a man's kin.
Certain food is forbidden because they are sacred, others are forbidden to the
person of a sacred character because they are profane. Eg, certain animals are
designated for women to consume and are believed to participate in femaleness
and hence are profane.
4. Contact established through gaze is prohibited, the sight of sacred things is
forbidden to profane. Eg, a woman must not see the instruments of the cult, she can
take a glimpse from far, at most. She can’t see the totemic paintings executed on
the bodies of the officiants in important ceremonies. The face of the dead man
must not be seen.
5. Speech establishes contact and communicably speaking outwards and
breath. Thus it’s inhibited to the profane to be in the presence of the sacred.
6. Certain sounds and words are sacred and must not reach profane ears or lips.
A woman is barred from hearing a bull's roar, certain ritual songs. Certain names
of certain people are seen to be sacred hence profane is barred from pronouncing it
in his life. Amongst ‘Warramunga”, a snake ‘Wollunqua” name is taboo. During
the mourning of a dead man, his name must not be mentioned. For a man to part in
ritual rites must follow nakedness to capture the pureness. Eating, working is
profane thus it is prohibited during religious periods. The aim is to not confuse
profane life with religious life. These rituals are followed by people because they
gain a religious quality.
Since interdicts are based on the notion of sacredness, we shall discuss two
fundamental interactions here.
1. Religious life and profane life cannot co-exist in the ‘same space' thus the
institution of temples and sanctuaries are built. These institutions serve as a
NAME: MEDHA HIMANSHU
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residence for religious things and beings. Eg, Ertnatulunga is a sanctuary to store
churingas. Anything profane in nature is forbidden to enter these places.
2. Religious life and profane life cannot co-exist at ‘the same time. Religious
days must have specified days or periods to separate them from profane days.
That's how the concept of holy days emerged.
After reading about negative cults, we learned that negative cults prescribed a
system of abstinences aiming at a separation of profane life from religious life but
through an unexpected inhibiting effect, negative cults exerted a positive and
highly important influence upon the religious and moral nature of the individual. In
the process, men practiced detachment from their natural being and submit
themselves to the prescribed prohibitions where the negative rites conferred
positive capacities to influence the individual through asceticism. The man is then
introduced to a sacred world that can also be achieved through positive operations.
Thus, the negative cult served as an introduction and preparation for the positive
cult.
Positive Cult: In the Elements of the Sacrifice
we discussed that how the negative cult indirectly retains positive effects. It allows
access to religious life through presuppositions. The presuppositions direct an
individual towards the sacred world. The system believes in maintaining positive
bilateral relations through sets of rituals practices and organization and thus are
called a ‘positive cult'. Eg, Arunta celebrates a ceremony of Intichiuma (spencer &
Gillen). Intichiuma means to ‘teach’ is a ceremony that is performed by young men
for initiation into the traditions of the tribe. The date on which Intichiuma takes
place depends upon the season. Australia experiences two seasons; a dry but long
season, another is the rainy season that is short and irregular and hence it cannot be
judged accurately. The Alatunja- the chief of the totemic group assesses the day
Intichiuma has to be celebrated because of the varying climatic conditions. Every
totemic tribe has its own Intichiuma, different from one another. Eg, Warramunga
is different from Arunta. However, Intichiuma occurred in successive phases. The
first phrase determined prosperity, it ensured the well-being of the animals,
vegetables serving as a totem. Mythical ancestors left traces of their passage in
form of stones and rocks. These rocks were considered as the bodies or body parts
of the ancestors who once lived on earth, represented as a memory. An individual
and its totem are considered to be one thus the rocks are believed to represents the
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animals and vegetables because of the same ancestors. Let’s look at the Intichiuma
at the Witchetty Grub clan at Alice Springs and understand the reproduction of the
totemic species. The ceremony takes place secretly. On the day decided by the
chief, the ceremony is celebrated were men of other, totems have to keep a
distance, men from Arunta are barred from attending the rites. Sometimes men
from the same pantry but different totem is allowed to be there as a witness. The
ritual is of high weightage in nature. Once men assemble they leave the camp, 2-3
men left in the camp stand solemnly in a complete state of nakedness, unarmed,
conforming with religious purity. He reaches a place where the large block of
quartzite- which is a representation of the Witchetty grub in its adult state, is fixed
in the earth, surrounded by small rounded stones. The Alatunja strikes it with a
wooden tray ‘apmara’ while reciting a chant whose aim is to invite the animals to
lay eggs. Something similar is done with the rocks representing eggs, and gum tree
branches. All these rites were interpreted, to remove the dust from the stones,
Alatunja strikes them, the dust was regarded as the holy germ of life that contained
a spiritual principle. As soon as these would get introduced to new organisms they
would give birth to new beings. There were cases when men mixed their substance
with that of the stone to increase the right effectiveness. In Hakea Flower
Intichiuma among the Arunta, young men open their veins and let their blood gush
onto the rock, in a sacred place, among sacred people whose eyes represent Hakea
flowers. The process aims at infusion of new life into the stone virtues to make it
powerful. The blood also carries the mystical seeds to ensure the reproduction of
the totemic species. Blood of men also possesses the capacity to awaken the life of
a sick man. A similar technique is used to increase the number of kangaroos at
kangaroo Intichiuma at Undiara(Arunta). There is a water hole hastily overhung by
a rock. The rock is the representation of an Alcheringa animal- Kangaroo who was
killed and situated by a man kangaroo of the same period. The aim of the
ceremony is directed towards freeing the spirits of animal kangaroos by spilling the
blood of the man kangaroo over them. Some rites had blood as an active principle
for eg, in the Emu group no stones, were used, but the Alatunja and others soaked
the group with their blood, the moistened ground traced lines of various colors
representing different parts of Emu's body. They kneel and chant monotonous
hymns, preventing the species from dying out. Among the clan Wonkgongaru,
blood played a vital role in the Intichiuma where certain kinds of fishes were used
as a totem. According to Durkheim, certain assumptions were made for the cases
that did not turn how they were expected to be. One of the assumptions was if the
results are below expectancy then it must have been canceled out by the evil deeds
of some hostile group. If the vegetables and animals multiplied before initiating
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Intichiuma, some other Intichiuma must have been celebrated. TheThe
extraordinary prohibitions and the rites comes to end. Witchetty Grub is very
sacred amongst the Arunta. After the grub is completely mature people of totem
and others bring them to the main camp to cook them till they’re hard and crisp,
contained a ‘pitchi’ – a wooden container. Fewer numbers of grub concern the
Alatunja. The institution summons everyone to the man’s camp where others place
their supply before the totem. Content of one pitch is taken by the Alatunja and is
ground by him between the two stones. A little of the content is consumed by him
and the rest of it gets distributed among the rest of the people in a directed
quantity. If the set limits are exceeded the powers necessary to celebrate
Intichiuma would not result in reproduction. The Institution of sacrifice is one of
the foundation stones of the positive cult. Robertson Smith's work revolutionized
the traditional sacrifice theory of obligatory tribute and renunciation. His work
shredded light on the concept of sacrifice to be seen as the first and foremost act of
alimentary communion in the form of a meal. Shared food creates the effects of
shared kinship. The animal gets turned into a sacred being through a whole series
of preliminary steps in sacrifice – washing, anointing, prayers. Hence the
sacredness is communicated to the faithful who participated. In the Intichiuma
rites, a similar process takes place. When the totemic animal has been killed the
Alatunja and others who participate commune and absorb the sacredness. The only
difference is animals used here are sacred naturally. The function of the
communion is manifestation as every member of the totemic clan contains a mystic
substance that is a part of his being and his soul. His powers, social position is
derived from it so it becomes crucial to keep it intact within a perpetual youth age.
The people of a totemic clan renew their totemic principle in them by consuming
what they reproduce. Often the first of the fruits of the harvest that contain the
most energies are considered to be the most sacred and get reserved for sacred
beings.
Smith argued over the undisputed existence of the rites, and the universality of the
right was hypothetical.
Smith questioned the concept of sacrifice-offering to be absurd because
communion was considered as the only element of sacrifice and contradicted for
god to expect food from their man. He concluded the combined idea of sacrifice-
offering that is derived from the great religions. Earlier gods were conceived as
kings who owned land and its products. Thus, sacrifice was confounded with the
tribute in return for the rights. Smith quoted “the idea of property makes
everything it touches material” forms a bartering between a man and the deity.
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With claim the med that sacred things and beings are considered so because men
have formulated beliefs in them, even though they exist in superiority but can live
only through human consciousness. The cult brings profane into communion with
sacred brings and also keeps sacred things alive. The ritual and social life move
around a circle, they are interdependent owning to the rule the part is equal to the
whole.
Durkheim discussed ‘mimetic' rites which were composed of movements and cry
not necessarily bloody sacrifices but intended to mimic the animals, plants whose
reproduction was wished for. Eg, after Intichiuma of the Witchetty grub's rites that
included rocks, completed men returned but one mile away from the camp they
used to decorate themselves ritually. The decorations announced the importance of
the ceremony to be performed. Meanwhile, the old men built ‘Umbana’- chrysalis
from which insects came. Men who didn’t belong to the pantry of the witchetty
grub and others used to lie down facing the earth until they were allowed to rise
again. The hymn was chanted in the Umbana which seemed like an oral
commentary, describing different phases of animals' lives of development. The
Alatunja gets out of the Umbana along with the rest of his companions as it
represented the inspect leaving the chrysalis. Another Intichiuma was ‘Unchalka’
where the participants covered themselves the designs that represented unchalka
bush. Two kinds of shields are used in this imitation rite, bucklers. One represents
the tracks of the grub by zigzag lines, another is centric circles of unequal size that
represented the eggs of the insect.
All the rites belonged to the same category but different principles. The first
principle produced contagious magic- “whatever touches an object also touches
everything that has any relationship of proximity or solidarity with that
object” and the second produced sympathetic magic- “like produces like”. Eg,
bewitchment is related to an agent of transmission. Here, the mind joins the idea of
the image and the idea of the model so the effect of the action on the statute gets
transferred to the concerned person where traits were imitated. Rites of Intichiuna
and the bewilderment shared resemblances. However it the former rite focused on
production and creation and the latter was based on contagious communication. An
anthropological scholar, Frazer preferred to call mimetic magic homeopathic
magic where communication is made through similarity and continuity. Durkheim
explained the principle of casualty and its origin from social causes, the idea of
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wakan, the mana, totemic principles. Causes are the reason it manifested power.
Causal relations get established with efficacy, effective power, and active force.
When power is activated it is known as an insect. The first example of power
exerted upon is by the society upon its members through internal experiences.
Impersonal forces contained spiritual elements. In a causal relation the idea of
force manifolds two-character: 1. Inward experiences are crucial 2. The only force
necessary is the ones whose moral forces we can touch. Collective forces are
impersonal, physic- made of up objective feelings and communicable they justify
the two-fold character. Physical forces are different from social forces as they are
external and their effects are perceived not the force. Also, the consciousness of
faithfulness influences beings to be held sacred and profane apart from one
another. Here the idea of power contained elements of ascendancy, mastery,
domination, dependence, and subordination in social nature. Thus, society became
the first form of power humans conceived as they got organized. A man
differentiated himself from animals that humans have soul and force which
remotes. The idea of force is an evolutionary concept, it has causes, effects, and a
constant connection between them.
Emile Durkheim elucidated positive cult further which explained the series of
commemorative rites.
Positive rites are attributed to social and moral character. Spencer and Gillen
observed the intichiuma of the black snake conducted by two celebrants adorned
with figures that represented the black snake. He said that there were Intichiuma
that didn’t aim at the fecundity of animals and plants species. The Warramunga
celebrated and feasted in honor of the snake wollinqua. It was considered a unique
mythical being who lived in ‘Thapauerlu’ – a water hole hidden in the solitary
valley. It’s a totem for individuals who believed warramunga to be their common
ancestor who served as a collective name and he moved to different countries to
sow spirit-children and principles to serve as a soul for the living beings.
Warramunga was divided into two phratries. One, uluuru and the other kingilli,
snakes served as a totem of uluuru, descended of wollunqua. Thus, wollunqua was
imagined to be gigantic in appearance so it equipped the important role assigned to
him in the history of the tribe.
To un understand the piacular rites and the ambiguity of the sacred, Durkheim
illustrated the difference between the positive rites and t negative rites based on
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their features. Positive rites were carried out with joy confidence, and enthusiasm
while on the other hand, negative rites were carried out in sorrow, mutual pity, and
anger. The ceremonies whose objective was to commemorate and meet a calamity
are piacular. The idea suggested by macular is expiration. Durkheim observed that
the piacular rites are initiated by ‘mourning’ and initiating ‘prohibitions’. Taking
the name of the deceased and being at the place of the death is restrained. The
practices performed are of the negative cult because the deceased man is taken as
sacred. Although the mourning rituals required positive acted as well conducted by
relatives and other members or actors.
Spencer and Gillion witnessed the warramunga's commencement where young
men and women executed rites. They howled and mourned the death by streaming
blood out of their bodies by wounding themselves. Interestingly, the manifestations
of the violence were strictly regulated. People who slashed their thighs belonged to
the maternal side of the family likes a maternal grandfather, uncle. Women had to
perform special prohibitions by keeping silent for as long as 2 years. sometimes
they adopted the silent lifestyle. Even in Australia, the funeral rites were conducted
ritually, there must have had differences in ways, tribe, age, sex but the objective
of the ceremony was the same. The difference between these rites was that they
weren’t only sad but they carried anger and the feeling of avenge for the death.
CONCLUSION
From what I have learned from this essay is that the whole religious life gravitated
between pure and impure, Saint and sacrilegious, divine and diabolical. Women's
mensuration was seen as impure. Although these two aspects of religious life were
opposite to one another one thing in common, their kinship to keep profane
separated from sacred. However, the sentiments that inspired both of them were
different. The notions presented by both the cult aid us in understanding what
religion in general is.