FOOD RESOURCES 

INDICATORS OF FOOD CONSUMPTION 

Gateway 1: how and why have food consumption patterns changed since the 
Food consumption per capita​: ​The average amount of food a person consumes per year 
1960s? 
● There are 3 main food groups 
○ Cereals (i.e. wheat, rice) 
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES (DCs) AND LESS DEVELOPED COUNTRIES (LDCs） 
○ Meat 
We can determine how developed a country is with the Human Development Index  ○ Fruits and vegetables 
(HDI)  ● DCs eat more meat, fruits and vegetables, and more food overall than LDCs 
● Counted in kg/capita/yr 
 
 
Economic indicators  Social indicators 

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per  Adult literacy rate  Total daily calorie intake​: ​The total number of calories from food consumed per person 
capita  ● Percentage of aged 15 and above  each day 
● GDP: Total value of all goods and  who can read and write a short, 
services produced by a country in a  simple statement on their everyday  ● DCs likely to have higher daily calorie intake than LDCs 
given year divided by the total  life  ● Average recommended = 2500-3500 calories 
population  ● Higher literacy rate → more 
● Higher GDP = more developed  professionals who can contribute   
country  skills + expertise → better economy 
● Countries with high GDP = large  ● Higher adult literacy rate = more  Starchy staples as a percentage of calories​ can also be an indicator of food 
number of productive industries +  developed country 
consumption. 
well-developed service industry 

Employment opportunity  Life expectancy  ● Staple food: main part of diet 

● Availability of jobs in a country  ● Average number of years a person  ● Cereals are the world’s main source of energy intake 
● More employment opportunities =  (born in a country) is expected to  ○ High in carbohydrates, low in fat 
more jobs for locals  live 
○ LDCs = 81% of global demand of cereals between 1995 - 2020 
● More people employed = have  ● Influenced by level and quality of 
better income = improved standard  health care, water, sanitation, food  ● Meat is high in protein and fats 
of living  supply, living conditions  ● Fruits and vegetables are high in vitamins, minerals, fibres, and low in fat 
● Area affected by war, disease, 
poverty → lower local life   
expectancy 

  CHANGING FOOD PREFERENCES 

Developed countries (DCs): Countries that rank high across the development indicators  Cereals​: ​crops harvested for grain 

● Most important food source in the world 

  ○ When income goes up, rice is substituted with wheat 
■ See in Japan, China, South Korea 

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 ○ 50% of global calorie intake  rice consumption per capita decreased by 6%, meat consumption tripled, 
○ 30% calorie intake in DCs  consumption of marine products increased by 2½ times 
● Consumption of cereals per capita declines at higher income levels  ○ From 1959-1991, meat consumption in Taiwan increased by 4 times, fish 
○ 40% of diet in LDCs, 13% for DCs  consumption increased by 2 times, and rice consumption decreased by half 
○ When disposable income increases in DCs, quality of diets increase 
 
■ Afford more food with certain health benefits and are generally 
Meat​: ​Domesticated animals  more expensive 

● High in protein   
● Increase in income = increase in meat consumption 
● People in LDCs are more affected by ​food prices​ than DCs 
○ Some DCs consume less meat now due to health problems (i.e. obesity, 
○ People in LDCs have lower disposable income than most in DCs 
heart disease etc.) 
○ When food prices rose worldwide from 2006 to 2008, there was a global 
  food crisis. People in LDCs were unable to afford staple food. This food 
crisis pushed more than 10 million people into chronic hunger and poverty 
Both DCs and LDCs have an increase in consumption of ​fruits and vegetables​.  ■ Bad weather destroyed crops 
● LDCs consuming more due to increase income  ■ Growing demand for biofuels results in farmland being used to 
● DCs consuming more as there is increase awareness of health benefits  grow them instead of food crops 
■ Rising energy prices pushed up transport costs 
  ■ Restrictions on export on rice and wheat 
■ Governments attempts to control the price of food 
Increase in food prices in LDCs sparked food riots and street protests 
FOOD CONSUMPTION PATTERNS VARY BETWEEN DCs AND LDCs  ○
■ Government attempts to control the price of food → Food prices rise 
Economic​ factors affect food consumption.  significantly 

● Rising income = higher ​disposable income   

○ Disposable income = amount of income left to an individual after taxes have 
Socio-cultural​ factors may also cause food consumption patterns. 
been paid 
○ People living in DCs = higher disposable income  ● Concerns regarding health, moral principles, income and the environment 
○ Disposable income increasing in both DCs and LDCs → higher  influence people’s ​food preferences​. 
consumptions of certain food groups  ○ Fast food: food that can be prepared easily and quickly, may be eaten as a 
○ Increased income has different effects on food consumption patterns  quick meal or packaged for take-away 
■ For every USD1 increase in income in DCs, only 20% is spent on  ○ People opt to eat fast food due to convenience and affordability 
food. For every USD1 increase in income in LDCs, up to 60% of  ○ Fast food chains can be set up in many LDCs 
increased income is spent on food.  ○ People are trying too much fast food 
○ Increased income → larger variety of food  ■ Harmful effects on human health 
■ More meat, less cereals  ■ Large amounts of oil, processed meat, chemicals used to prepare the 
○ When South Korea experienced rapid economic growth from 1970-1980,  food 

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 ○ Organic food: food grown without the use of artificial inputs  find/buy food. 
○ Organic food is perceived to have health benefits  ■ Zimbabwe was faced with food shortage in 2008 after a severe 
■ Avoidance of pesticides during food production  drought. The worst affected are those living in the rural and 
○ More organic fruits and vegetables are being grown in DCs  neglected areas of the country. 
■ Survey in the USA revealed that 58% of the population would prefer 
 
to eat organic good to non-organic food 
● Food safety​ provides guidelines, and ensures proper handling, preparation, 
 
transportation and storage of food that prevents foodborne diseases  
● Population growth​ is of the key drivers in the increasing demand for food  ○ Government plays active role 
worldwide  ■ Sets food safety standards 
○ Population growth rates are higher in LDCs than in DCs  ■ Ensures that these safety standards are met 
■ Lack of family planning and need for farm labour → higher birth  ■ Tracks down contaminated foods that cause outbreaks of foodborne 
rates in LDCs  diseases 
○ Demand for food is greater in LDCs  ■ Remove these foods from the shelves 
○ High demand of food will cause the food system to strain  ○ Ensures food is safe for consumption 
○ In Vietnam, there are higher birth rates due to its economic growth. There  ■ In Fukushima, Japan, the 2011 Earthquake triggered a tsunami, 
is a higher demand for food, resulting in a strain in the food system.  which damaged the nuclear plants. Radiation from the release of 
radioactive materials contaminated farmland and water resources. 
 
Seafood imports from Japan to Singapore were restricted for many 
Political​ factors (e.g. governments) are able to influence the stability of food supply and  months to ensure the safety of consumers in Singapore. 
food safety.  ○ Threats to food safety may come from unexpected events 
■ Outbreaks of foodborne diseases  
● Food stability​: The accessibility and availability of food  ■ Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), also known as “mad cow 
○ Government can increase food imports and food production   disease”, had an outbreak in Europe in the late 1990s, and in the 
■ Can be increased by improving technology to increase crop yield  USA and Canada in 2005. The US government took action in 
■ Increase agricultural land for agriculture  response to the outbreak to prevent the spread. 
○ DCs can increase food imports more easily than LDCs  ■ Decrease in consumption as humans may contract disease with 
■ LDCs have capacity to increase agricultural land  these foods 
■ LDCs lack the access to technology → lower ability to increase food 
supplies.    
■ DCs have greater access to technology for food production 
○ Can be affected by ​civil wars​ and ​natural disasters 
IMPACT OF INADEQUATE FOOD CONSUMPTION ON INDIVIDUALS AND COUNTRIES 
■ During the civil wars in Libya, April 2011, the United Nations World 
Food Programme (UNWFP) reported that food stocks in the country  Inadequate food consumption can lead to​ health​ problems. 
were rapidly being depleted and were not being replenished. Cities 
● A severe shortage of food may result in starvation 
and areas with heavy fighting reported food and water shortages., 
○ Starvation: the state of extreme hunger from a severe lack of food 
while safety concerns restricted people from venturing out to 
○ An extreme form of malnutrition 

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 ○ Ill Health→ Malnutrition → Starvation → Death 
● There will be ​long-term debt due to food and financial aid 
● Starvation is much more common in LDCs 
○ Food and financial aid can be given to help people and countries cope with 
○ Greater population of people living in poverty 
insufficient supply of food 
○ Absence of resources to recover from natural disasters 
○ Financial aid may lead to long-term debts problems for the receiving 
○ Unstable political situation (rebellions, wars)  
country 
● In Mali, 2012, 5 million people were threatened with starvation due to poor 
○ The USA contributes about half of all global aid, but food must be bought 
harvest and civil rebellion 
from their suppliers and transported on their ships 
● As of 2010, the FAO estimated that 98% of people facing starvation can be found in 
○ According to the Human Development Report in 2005, 2006 and 2009 have 
LDCs 
found that LDCs incurred losses amounting to US$5-7 billion.  
○ More than 60% of LDCs can be found in Asia 
○ Rest of LDCs can be found in sub-saharan Africa, South America, Central   
America 
● Lack of calcium → osteoporosis  Inadequate food supply leads to inadequate food consumption, causing ​political 
instability​ in the form of wars and social unrest. 
 
● Social unrest​: a political situation in which people protest or behave violently, 
Inadequate food consumption has a negative impact on ​economic​ activity as a whole.  often to communicate unhappiness about a political system 
● Food prices in Mozambique increased as much as 30% in 2010, due to a food 
● There will be ​lower productivity​ due to insufficient food consumption 
drought in Russia which decreased its wheat production → the price of wheat 
○ Workers fall sick more often when consuming imbalance amounts of 
○ Left 400 people dead after protests 
nutrients → lowers productivity 
○ Lower productivity → lower income, due to inability to work   
○ Children suffering from inadequate food consumption fall sick more often, 
hence loss of school days, leading to the loss of educational opportunities  Due to ​social factors​, some people may resort to survival responses to scavenging to 

○ According to a report in 2011 by the International Food Policy Research  overcome their inadequate food supply. 

Institute (IFPRI), there is a significant link between nutrition and  ● Scavenging:​ searching through things that other people throw away. 
productivity. Due to poor health, farmers may be less innovative, less  ● Scavengers eat whatever they can find in order to prevent starvation 
experimental, or unable to implement improvements  ● Carries health risks 

  ○ Scavenged food may contain high levels of bacteria/chemicals (e.g. heavy 

metals) 
● There will be a ​diversion of financial resources to health care​. This leads to a  ● Could place people in dangerous/illegal situations 
bigger strain on the economy.  ○ Trespassing private property 
○ More people fall sick → public health expenditures increase → limited  ● Scavengers are perceived as a nuisance to public 
financial resources for other areas (education, housing, transportation,  ○ Sometimes verbally/physically harassed 
agriculture)  ● In Manila, Philippines, people without money to buy food sift through rubbish for 
○ Slows down the country’s economic development and growth  meals that have been thrown out 
○ Many families set up makeshift homes near Smokey Mountain (a rubbish 
 
dump) to have quick and easy access to waste 

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 Excessive food consumption has various impacts on ​society​. 
IMPACT OF EXCESS FOOD CONSUMPTION ON INDIVIDUALS AND COUNTRIES 
● Food wastage​ is one of the impacts from excessive food consumption 
Excessive consumption of food will have adverse effects on ​health​.  ○ According to the FAO, consumers in DCs wates almost as much food as the 
entire amount of food of food available in Sub-Saharan Africa for food 
● Obesity:​ the condition having excessive fat accumulation due to overconsumption 
consumption (230 million tonnes) 
of nutrients 
○ Food waste is a serious problem in DCs 
● Obesity affects most of the body’s systems → health problems (high blood 
■ Both producers and consumers throw away food that is still edible 
pressure, diabetes, coronary heart disease, certain cancers) 
○ Inefficiency in food usage puts more strain on landfills 
○ More common in DCs than LDCs 
○ Resources (water and oil) to produce food are wasted as well 
○ Higher disposable income + stronger purchasing power → higher calorie 
● People may become ​overweight​ due to excessive food consumption 
intake 
○ Choose to on a diet to lose weight 
● From 1971-2000, obesity rates in the USA rose from 14.5-30.9% of the population. 
○ Dieting: the practice of regulating the amount of food consumed in order to 
● Rising disposable income in LDCs (Brazil, South Africa) os causing obesity to be 
maintain an ideal body weight 
more common there 
○ People who are dieting also engage in physical exercise 
  ○ Weight loss industry in the USA is valued at US$20 billion, and can create 
jobs in the health sector 
Excessive food consumption often lowers ​economic productivity.  

● More people obese → more workers absent from work → take more days of leave 
due to obesity related issues → lower productivity 
○ Lower productivity can lead to lower income 
○ Children suffering from obesity may fall sick more often → loss of school 
days → loss of educational opportunities 
○ Employees who are absent from work due to sickness may cost companies 
millions in productivity and insurance costs nationally 
○ Among the employees of Duke University, USA, those with a BMI of over 40 
were twice as likely to fall sick or be injured while doing work 
● Treating obesity-related health conditions → increased public health expenditure 
○ Governments will have to channel more funds to the health care system 
○ Less funds for economic development 
○ When other sectors of the economy receive less monetary support from the 
government with time, the overall progress of a country can decline 
○ USA has increasing obesity rate, hence more it has the highest amount of 
money spent per capita on healthcare 

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