PSNA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

M.E (STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING)

ST7006 - DESIGN OF BRIDGES

PART A- TWO MARK QUESTION ND ANSWERS

UNIT I - SHORT SPAN RC BRIDGES

1. How will you effective width of slab for a single concentrated load?

be = k a (1- (a / L)) + bw

Where,
k -Constant depending on B/L ratio
be- Effective Width of the slab
L- Effective span
bW- Dimension of the tire in the direction right angle to the span plus twice
the thickness of wearing coat.
a- Distance of centre of gravity of load for the near support.

2. What are the forces acting on bridges? (OR) Mention the various loads and forces to be
Considered in the design of bridge members.

Dead load, Snow load,

Live load,
IRC class AA Loading (IRC 70 R class loading)
IRC class A Loading
IRC class B Loading
.Impact or dynamic effect due to vehicles, Impact due to floating body or vessels
Wind load,Longitudinal forces caused by the tractive effort of vehicles.
Centrifugal forces due to curvature,.Horizontal forces due to water currents.
Longitudinal forces due to frictional resistance of expansion bearings.
Temperature effects.Deformation effects xii .Secondary effects. Erection stress.
3. State the functional classification of bridges.
Aqueduct bridge, Viaduct bridge
Pedestrian bridge,Highway bridge
Railway bridge,Road cum rail bridge

4. What do you understand by Economic span?

Economic span is one for which total cost of the bridge is minimum.
For the most economical span is “cost of sub structures is equal to cost of super structures”

1. Explain the IRC Specifications for live load for IRC class AA loading?

(Ref IRC - 6-2010 code book, Page no.9-10, fig no. 1)

2. Explain the loading standards of bridges.

a. According IRC – 6 Code, Live load is classified in to three types

IRC class AA Loading or (IRC 70 R class loading)
IRC class A Loading
IRC class B Loading
3. Explain the IRC Specifications for live load for IRC class A loading?

(Ref IRC - 6-2010 code book, Page no.10-11, fig no. 2)

8. What are the span range for solid and Tee beam bridges?

T beam and slab continuous bridges are economical for the span range of 10 to 35 meters.

9. Explain the IRC Specifications for live load for IRC class B loading?

(Ref IRC - 6-2010 code book, Page no.12-13, fig no. 3)

10. Explain the IRC Specifications for live load for IRC class 70R loading?

(Ref IRC - 6-2010 code book, Page no.9-10, fig no. 1)

11. Explain the procedure for shear stress calculation in Solid slab bridges.

(Ref IRC - 21-2000 code book, Page no.35-37, Cls no. 304.7.1.2)

12. What is the limitation of Pigeaud’s curves?

Pigeaud’s curves has the following Limitations.
a. Only loads placed at the center can be considered in practice.A number of wheel loads
can occupy on single slab panel.while oneload can be placed at the center.other loads
will be non central Some approximation will have to used while considering the non
central loads.
b. When v/L is small the reading values of m1 and m2 from the curves becomes less
accurate.
c. This method is most useful When K is more than 0.55.

13. Define impact factor.

 In order to account for the dynamics effect of sudden loading for vehicles on bridge
structures an impact factor is used as multiplier for live load on certain structural
elements.
 Its depends on
i. Weight of vehicles
ii. Its velocity of vehicles
iii. Surface characteristics of the load
The impact factors are specified by different authorities for different types of bridges.
14. Name the two methods generally used to estimate the distribution of live loads among the
Longitudinal girders.What are the methods used for the design of the longitudinal girders?
Courbon’s method, Guyon massonet method, Hendry jaegar method

15. What are the types of bridges recommended if the span is (a) less than 10 m and
(b) between 500 to 2000 m?
a) Slab Culvert bridge is recommended for less than 10 m
b) Suspension bridges and cable stayed bridges is recommended for span between 500 m to
2000m.

16. What are the main differences between class ‘A’ loading and class ‘B’ loading as per
IRC?
Class A loading consists of a wheel load train composed of a driving vehicle and trailers of
specified axle spacings. This loading is normally adopted on all roads on which permanent
bridges are constructed. Class B loading is adopted for temporary structures and bridges in
specified areas.
(Ref IRC - 6-2010 code book, Page no.10-11, fig no. 2)
(Ref IRC - 6-2010 code book, Page no.12-13, fig no. 3)

17. How will you consider the impact effect for IRC class ‘A’ loading?
(Ref IRC - 6-2010 code book, Page no. 20, Cls no. 208.2)

18. What is the distribution coefficient suggested by Courbon’s theory? (or )what are the
parameters governing the distribution coefficient ?
Distribution coefficient = σ W / n [1+ nel1X1/ σ I X2]
W – Eccentric concentrated load
n = the number of longitudinal girders
e = the eccentricity of the wheel load from the center line of deck
X1 = the distance of the girder under consideration from the central axis of the deck
σ X2 = the sum of distances of longitudinal girders from the center line of deck.
I1 = the moment of inertia under consideration
I = the moment of inertia of n girders.

19. What do you mean by effective width of Dispersion?

The width of the slab over which the action of loads prevails is known as the effective
width.the extent of effective width depends on the location of wheel load with reference to
the support and dimensions of slab.
(Ref IRC - 21-2000 code book, Page no.52, Cls no. 305.16.1 and305.1602)
20. What are the factors to be considered while selecting a site for bridge construction?
i. Width of bridge
ii. Volume of traffic
iii. Types of load and quantity of load act them.

22. What is meant by culvert?

The reinforced concrete slab decks are often called as culverts and are commonly used for
small spans. In the case of culvert slab is supported on the two opposite sides on piers or
abutments.
 Culvert is a structure which covers gap.
 The span of bridge is less 6m means it’s called as culvert.

23. Define bridge.

A bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle without closing the way beneath.
The required passage may be for a road, a railway, pedestrians, a canal or a pipeline. The
obstacle to be crossed may be a river, a road, railway or a valley.
In other words, bridge is a structure for carrying the road traffic or other moving loads over a
depression or obstruction such as channel, road or railway.
A bridge is an arrangement made to cross an obstacle in the form of alow ground or a stream
or a river without closing the way beneath.

24.How will you consider the impact effect for IRC class A load?
Impact factor for reinforced concrete bridges = 4.5/(6+L)
Impact factor for reinforced concrete bridges = 9/(13.5+L)

25. What are the assumptions in courbons theory?

The span –width ratio is greater than 2 and less than 4.
At least five symmetrical cross girders connecting the longitudinal girders are present.
The depth of cross girders is at least 3/4th of the depth of longitudinal girders.

25.What is the reason for the reduction in the length of the exterior spans in continuous bridges?

26.Write the use of influence lines in continuous girder bridge.

 To determine the value of the quantity for a given system of loads on the span of the
structure.
 To determine the position of live load for the quantity to have the maximum value and
hence to compute the maximum value of the quantity.
27. Write the advantages of prestressed concrete bridges.

 High-strength concrete and high-tensile steel, besides being economical, make for
slender sections, which are aesthetically superior.
 Prestressed concrete bridges can be designed as class I type structures without any
tensiles tresses under service loads, thus resulting in a crack-free structure.
 Prestressed concrete is ideally suited for composite bridge construction in which
Precast prestressed girders support the cast in situ slab deck. This type of construction is
very popular since it involves minimum disruption of traffic.

28.What is the maximum eccentricity of parabolic cables in prestressed bridges?

e = Zt*Zb [Finf-Fsup] / A[ Fsup Zt+Finf Zb]

29.What should be the approximate depth of plate girders?

Overall depth of plate girders, D: l/18 ≤ D ≤ l/12 (Highway bridges) and l/10 ≤ D ≤ l/7
(Railway

bridges) Here, l is the length between points of zero moment.

30.Give the general types of bridge bearings.

 Pin bearing
 Roller bearing
 Rocker bearing
 Metal sliding bearings
31.Give the typical forms of Box girder bridges.

32.What is the siginificance of articulation?

The junction of cantilever and simply supported span is referred as articulation.
 Critical sections are designed for maximum bending moment,normal thrust and
shear.
 Beams are supported on rocker and roller bearings.

33.Differentiate cross girder and diaphragm.

Cross girders: Typically these are the transverse beams (also very strong/stiff) which are
provided for transverse stiffness. This transverse diaphragm will make sure that if you have
multiple main girders, they share loads between them and don't behave independently.
Diaphragm is a member that resists lateral forces and transfers loads to support. ... The main
function ofdiaphragms is to provide stiffening effect to deck slab

34.Write down any four advantages of prestressed concrete bridges.

 High-strength concrete and high-tensile steel, besides being economical,make for slender
sections,which are aesthetically superior
 Psc bridges can be designed as Class 1-type structures without any tensile stress under
service loads, thus resulting in a crack-free structure.
 Psc bridges are economy in the use of costly high-tensile steel in the girder
 In comparison with steel bridges,Pcs bridges require very little maintenance.
35.What are the various types of expansion bearings?
 Sliding type bearing
 Sliding cum rocker bearing
 Stell roller cum rocker bearing
 R.C.rocker cum roller bearing
 Elastomeric bearing

36.Where is cellular type pier is recommended?

Recommended for the construction of massive piers carrying multilane traffic, it is
economical to use cellular type reinforced concrete piers which results in savings of concrete.
However cellular type piers require costly shuttering and additional labour for placing of
reinforcement. For tall piers, slip forming work can be adopted for rapid construction.

37.What is the main advantage of using diaphragm in box girder bridges?

Diaphragms are adopted in concrete box girder bridges to transfer loads from bridge decks to
bearings. Since the depth of diaphragms normally exceeds the width by two times, they are
usually designed as deep beams.It also contribute to the provision of torsional restraint to the
bridge deck.

38.What are the functions of end block in prestressed concrete bridges?

 Provide Lateral (horizontal) stability from wind and other horizontal (Racking) loads.
 Provide additional vertical load capacity for the ends of the joists from point loads above.

39.What is a concordant cable profile?

It is a profile that produces no support reactions due to prestressing(i.e)It does not produce
secondary moments and there will be no reactions at the supports due to prestressing action.

40. What is the main function of vertical and bearing stiffeners in a plate girder?How they differ.
 Vertical stiffeners prevent the web plate from buckling under shear stresses.
 Bearing stiffeners are required in places where there are points of load concentration
and for locations where factored concentrated loads or reactions exceed the factored
compressive resistances of plate girder webs, bearing stiffeners are provided.

41.What is dynamic argument in load calculation?

42.What are the different types of foundations used for bridge structures?
The foundation mainly used for bridge piers and abutments are classified as

1. Shallow foundation
a) Footing and Raft Foundation
2. Deep foundation
a) Pile foundation
b) Well Foundation or Open Caissons
c) Pneumatic Caissons

43.Draw the typical neat sketch of a rocker bearing.

45.How will you select span and profile of girder in continuous bridges?

 The Exterior span made shorter than interior span. This result in reduction of moment in
span
 The end spans are made about 16 to 20 % Smaller than intermediate span
  The girder depth at support generally 1.5 to 2.5 times the minimum thickness at mid
span
 A parabolic profile is generally adopted with maximum depth at intermediate support
and minimum depth at mid span as shown in figure

46. When will you suggest balanced cantilever bridges?

For span more than 15-20m t-beam bridges are not economical, since the depth of the
girder are large with large quantities of reinforcement. continuous span structures or ,RC arches
are not safe to construct on yielding soil since a slight settlement of a structure affects the nature
of the stress considerably . on such situations for spans in the range of 20-30m balance cantilever
bridges are the ideal solution for the following reasons

 Advantage of continuity

 reduction in moments

 not affected by settlement of supports

47.How will yo design end block of post tensioned PSC T- beam and slab bridges?

The bursting tension is computed using table 10.2 in IRC 18-2000.Area of the steel can be
calculate by dividing bursting force by 0.87 fy .

48. What are the forces considered while analyzing piers?

1. Dead Load of Super Structure and Pier

2. Live Load of Vehicles moving on the bridge
3. Effect of eccentric live load
4. Impact effect for different class of loads
5. Effect of buoyancy on submerged part of pier
 6. Effect of wind load acting on the moving vehicles and superstructure
7. Forces due to water current
8. Longitudinal force due to tractive effort of vehicles
9. Longitudinal force due to braking of vehicles
10. Longitudinal force due to resistance in bearing
11. Effect of earthquake forces
12. Force due to collision of piers in navigable rivers

49. How will you check the stability of an abutment?

50. What are the circumstances under which balanced cantilever bridges are provided.

For span more than 15-20m t-beam bridges are not economical, since the depth of the
girder are large with large quantities of reinforcement. continuous span structures or ,RC arches
are not safe to construct on yielding soil since a slight settlement of a structure affects the nature
of the stress considerably . on such situations for spans in the range of 20-30m balance cantilever
bridges are the ideal solution for the following reasons

 Advantage of continuity

 reduction in moments

 not affected by settlement of supports

51. What are the advantages of box girder bridges ?

 In recent years, single or multi-cell reinforced concrete box Girder Bridge have been
proposed and widely used as economic aesthetic solution for the over crossings, under
crossings, grade separation structures and viaducts found in modern highway system.
 The very large Torsional rigidity of the box girder‘s closed cellular section provides structures
beneath is more aesthetically pleasing than open-web type system.
 In case of long span bridges, large width of deck is available to accommodate prestressing
cables at bottom flange level.
 For large spans, bottom flange could be used as another deck accommodates traffic also.
 The maintenance of box girder is easier in interior space is directly accessible without use of
scaffolding.
52.List different types of bearings used in bridges.

 Expansion type bearing

o Sliding type bearing
o Sliding cum rocker bearing
o Stell roller cum rocker bearing
o R.C.rocker cum roller bearing
o Elastomeric bearing
 Fixed type bearing
o Steel rocker bearing
o R.C.hinge(rocker) bearing

53 What is meant by abutment.

An abutment is a structure located at the end of a bridge.The basic function of an

abutments are

 Supporting the bridge deck attheends

 Retaining the approach road embankment

 Connecting the approach road to the bridge deck

54. Under what circumstances the box girder bridge is preferred?

A box girder is formed when two web plates are joined by a common flange at both the top and
the bottom. The closed cell which is formed has a much greater torsional stiffness and strength
than an open section and it is this feature which is the usual reason for choosing a box girder
configuration.
Advantages
 Reduces the slab thickness and self-weight of bridge
 Cost effective
 Greater strength per unit area of concrete
Disadvantages
 Structural steel girders are costly
 Logistical inefficiencies and transportation cost
55. List the special features of PSC against RCC

1. The use of high strength concrete and high strength steel result in slender sections which
are aesthetically superior coupled with overall economy

2. Pre-stressed concrete bridges are designed as Class 1 structures without any tensile
stresses under service loads resulting in a crack free structure

3. Pre-stressed Concrete bridges requires very little maintenance

4. In recent years, Partial pre-stressed concrete (Type 3 Structure) is preferred for bridge
construction with considerable savings in quantity of costly high tensile steel used in the
girder.

56. What are the basic functions of an abutment?

 Supporting thebridge deck attheends

 Retaining the approach road embankment

 Connecting the approach road to the bridge deck

57. What are the main functions of bearings?

Bearings are used to transfer forces from the superstructure to the

substructure,allowing the following types of movements of the superstructure

 Translation movements are displacements invertical andhorizontal

directions due to forces like wind and self-weight
 Rotational movements cause due to moments

58. What are the design loads for Box culvert?

 Concentrated load
 Uniform distributed load
 Weight offside walls
 Water pressure inside culvert
 Earth pressure on vertical side walls
59.Write critical loading stage in pre stressed concrete bridges.

Design shall be based on strength (Load Factor Design) and on behavior at service conditions
(Allowable Stress Design) at all load stages that may be critical during the life of the structure
from the time the pre-stressing is first applied.

60.Draw any two cross sections for the pre tensioned concrete bridges.

61.When and where steel cantilever bridges are constructed?

A cantilever bridge is a bridge built using cantilevers, structures that project horizontally into
space, supported on only one end. For small footbridges, the cantilevers may be simple beams;
however, large cantilever bridges designed to handle road or rail traffic use trusses built
from structural steel, or box girders built from pre-stressed concrete.The suspended span may be
built off-site and lifted into place, or constructed in place using special travelling supports.
Steel truss cantilevers support loads by tension of the upper members and compression of the
lower ones. Many truss cantilever bridges use pinned joints and are therefore statically
determinate with no members carrying mixed loads.

62.What are the materials generally used for the construction of piers and abutments?

The Following Types of materials are commonly used for piers and abutments.

1 . Mass Concrete of M-10 Grade Corresponding to mix Proportions of 1:3:6 with 40 mm

Maximum Size aggregates.

2. Reinforced Concrete of M-15 grade Corresponding to mix Proportions of 1:2:4

3. Coursed Rubble Masonry in cement mortar of Proportions 1 : 4
4. Brick Masonry in cement mortar of Proportions 1 : 6
5. Pre Stressed Concrete for Piers Particularly in Viaducts with tall piers .Concrete of M-30
to M-40 is minimum requirement for pre stressing concrete piers.

63.State the types of loading considered in box culvert.

 Live load, dead load, earth pressure being and no water pressure from inside.
 Liveload, dead load, earth pressure acting from outside and water pressure from inside.
 Liveload, dead load acting on the top of the slab and water pressure acting from inside
and no lateral pressure due to live load.

64. Draw any two cross sections for the post tensioned concrete bridges.

65. How will you find the eccentricity of cables in pre stressed concrete bridges?
The eccentricity of the cable at the center of span is obtained by the following relation.

ቀ𝑍𝑡.𝑍𝑏൫Finf −Fsup൯ቁ
𝑒= 𝐴൫Finf Zb−FsupZt൯

Zt-Section modulus @ top of beam

Zb-Section modulus @ bottom of beam

A-Cross sectional area

66. What are the advantages of plate girder bridges?

 Possessing the features of the structure is simple

 Provides convenient transport
 Speedy erection
 Heavy loading capacity
 Great stability and long Fatigue life
 Being capable of an alternative span, Loading Capacity

67.Under what situation shall engineers use jacking at one end only and from both ends in pre-

stressing work ?

During pre-stressing operation at one end, frictional losses will occur and the pre stressing force
decreases along the length of tendon until reaching the other end. These frictional losses include
the friction induced due to a change of curvature of tendon duct and also the wobble effect due to
deviation of duct alignment from the centerline.The stressing at one end only has the potential
advantage of lower cost when compared with stressing from both ends. For multiple spans ( e.g.
two spans) with unequal span length, jacking is usually carried out at the end of the longer span
so as to provide a higher pre-stress force at the location of maximum positive moment.

68. What is the consideration in selecting the orientation of wing walls in the design of bridge
Abutments.

Some of the most common arrangements of wing walls in cases of bridge arguments are as
follows:
Wing walls parallel to abutments:
This method is considered to take least amount of time to build and is simple as well. But on the
downside this method is not the most economical. The advantage of this type of design being
that they cause the least amount of disturbance to the slope embankment
Wing walls at an angle to abutments:
This design method is considered to be the most economical in terms of material cost
Wing walls perpendicular to abutments:
The characteristic of this design is it provides an alignment continuous with the bridge decks
lending a support to the parapets

The following are key in the orientation of wing walls;

 The alignment of the approach roads or rail;
 The flow of the river
 The height of the embankments and the type of the retaining action of the wall