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NA 4 Tata McGraw-Hill Copyright © 2004, 1995, by Tam McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, Saath reprint 2006 RQLZRRYKRADZQ No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, eleconic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a dotabase or retrieval system without the print writen permission of the publishers. ‘The program listings (if any} may be entered, stored and executed in @ computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. ‘This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, ‘Tata MeCraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, ISHN 0-07-058370-6 Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, typeset in Times at Script Makers, 19, A1-B, DDA Market, Paschim Vihar, New Delhi 110 083 and Priated at Gopaijee Enterprises, 19/3 Main Road, Maujpur, Delhi 110053 Cover: MeenakshiContents Preface to the Second Edirion atl Preface to the First Edition Acknowledgements ‘L.__ Qualities of Measurements 1 Lttomducrinn_—t a. LS Types of Static Error_§ Li Sources of Error 17 Dynamic Characteristics 9 LB Statistical Analysis 1 L9__Standard 14 1.10 Atomic Frequency and Time Standards /7 LL_Electrical Standards £8 LI2 Graphical ical Representation of Measurements as a Distribution _/9 Review Questions 20. Practice Problems 21 EE Further Reading 27 2. Indicators and Display Devices 2 2.1 Introduction _22 , ] 2.2__fani Meter Mogement_24 ‘24 Eleetrodynamometer 29 2:5 Moving Iron Instrument 32 2.6 Concentric Vane Repulsion. tron Instrument 24 : 2.7__ Digital Display System and Indicators _35 2.8 Classification of Displays 35 2.9 Display Devices 36 i 2.10 _Ligit Emitting Diodes (LED) 37 2.11 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) 38 212 Other si 213__Printers 52 *‘Vill ma Contents 216 Character at a Time Impact Printers for Fully Formed — ' ‘Characters (Drum Wheel} 53 Woe 217 at a Impact Printers for Fully Formed Characters (Line Printers) 55 . | 2.18 Drum Printer 57 2.20 Character at a Time Dot-Matrix Impact Printer 58 2.21 _Non-Impact Dot-Matrix (NIDM) Primers 60 Review Questions 66 Further Reading 61 2. Ammeters. 6 21__DC Ammeter 62 3.2 Multirange Ammeters 63 3.3__ The Aryton Shunt ot Universal Shunt _6¢ a4 _ aselreniets ct Siu 7 350 tending of Ammeter Ranges 67 3.6 RF Ammeter (Thermocouple) 68 3.7___ Limitations of Thermocouples 70 Effect of Free on Calibration 70° 3.9 Measurements of Very Large Currents by Thermocouples _7/ Review Questions 73 Review Questions 73 - Further Reasling 73 42 Basic Meter asa DC Volumeter 75 4.3 DC Voltmeter 75 44 Multirange Voltmeter 76 45 Exleaglag Valitcki Resali 78 4.6 Lov ‘50 4.6 Loading $0 — 4.7 Transistor Voltmeter (TVM) 4 48 fuer The DE Aug is Sete ct eearuiaaaae vaiieen Gi’ 4.12 _AC Voltmeter using Rectifiers 92 ' 4.13 AC Voltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier 93 4.14 _AC Voltmeter sing Full Wave Rectifier o4 4.15 Multirange AC Volimeter 96 4.16 Average Responding Voltmeter 96 4.17 Peak Responding Voltmeter 97 4.18 Tre RMS Voltmeter 94.26 Multimeter Operating Instructions 110 ‘Review Questions 11 Further Reading 113 5. Digital Voltmeters 14 SL datruduction JL 5.2 pTechnigue 1/5 : 5.3 Dual Slope I i DVM ‘oltage to Time Conversion) 1/6 i $4 Integrating Type DVM (Voltage to Frequency Conversion) 1/9 5.5 Most Commie weed Principles of ADC Analog to Digital Conversion) [2 5.6 Successive Approximations _/22 5.7__Continuous Balance DVM or Servo Balancing - Potentiometer Type DVM _/26 5.8 3¢-Digh 127 : a 5.9 Resolution and Sensitivity of Digital Meters 127 5.10 General Specifications of aDVM 129 re ‘Based DVM 129 Review Questions 132 a Further Reading 132 6. Digital Instruments 1336.14 Microprocessor-Based Instruments 160 6.15 The IEEE 488 Bus f6l Review Questions 161 Further Reading 162 7. Oseilllascope— 163 74 Block Dii of i72 7s CRO 173 7.6 Vertical, i ATS 7.1 Horizontal System 176 7.10 Delay Line in Triggered Sw Sweep 178 7.11 Syne Selector for Continuous Sweep CRO 179 7.12 Typical CRT Connections 179 ee 7.13 Dual Trace Oscilloscupe /82 ‘7L.16_Electronic Switch 188 7.17 _(VHF) Sampling Oscilloscope _J89 718 St i VLF Si 190 7.19 Digital Readout Osci 193 7.20 Measurement of by Lissajous Method 194 7.27_ Standard Specifications of a Single Beam CRO 203, 128_Profes for CRO 205 ‘1.29 Attenuators 208 7.30__Applications of Osei 210 731 Delayed Sweep 212 x 7.32 Digital Storage Oseilloscope (DSO) 2 733 Fit Onis ORT Reconlite Grellscae 2s 7.34 Oscilloscope Operating Precautions 2/6 7.35__Placing an Osci in ion 217 Review Questions 218 Practice Problems 219 Further Reading 219Contonts sax 8. Signal Generators. 220 8.1 Introduction 220 8.2 Fixed Frequency AF Oscillator 22 §.3__Variable AF Oscillator 221 84 — Basic Standard Signal Generator (Sine Wave) 222 8.5 Standard Signal Generator 222 §.6 Modern Laboratory Signal Generator 223 8.7 AF Sine and Square Wave Generator 225 §.8 Function Generator 226 $.9 “Square and Pulse Generator (Laboratory Type) 228 $.10 Random Noise Generator 230 B.11 Sweep Generator 23/ 8.12 TV Sweep Generator 232 8.14_Marker Generator 233 8.14 Sweep-Marker Generator 234 8.15 Wobbluscope 235 9. Wave Analyzers and Harmonic Distortion 247 9.1 Introduction 247 9.2 Basic Wave Analyzer 245 9.3 Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer 249 9.4 Heterodyne Wave Analyzer 250 95 Harmonic Distortion Analyzer 252 9.6 Spectrum Analyzer 254 9.7 Digital Fourier Analyzer 258 9.8 Practical FFT Spectrum Analysis using a Waveform Processing Software (SS-36) 261 Review Questions 264 Further Reading 265 10. Measuring Instruments 266 * 10.1 Introduction 266 10.2 _Quiput Power Meters 266 10.3 Field Strength Metcr_267 10.4 Stroboscope 269 10.5 Phase Meter 270 10.6 Vector Impedance Meter (Direct Reading) 271xl ee Contants: 10.7 Meter 274 10.8 LCRBridge 283 10.9 RX Meters 297 10.10 Automatic Bridges 292 10.11 Transistor Tester 294 10.12 Megger 298 10.13 Analog pH Meter 299 Review Questions 303 Practice Problems 304 further Reading 304 11. Bridges 305 1L1_Introduction 305 11.2 Wh "s Bridge (Measurement of Resistance) 305 113 Kelvin's Bridge 312 11.4 Practical Kelvin's Double Bridge 3/5 15 idge Controlled Cireuits 3/6 11.6 ital Readout Bri S18 i7_Mi Controlled Bridges 319 118 _ACBridges 320 19 itance Bri 321 11.10 Inductance Comparison Bridge 322 11.11 Maxwell's Bridge 327 11.12 Hay's Bridge 324 11.13 Schering’s Bri 327 L114 Wien's Bridge 329 11.15 Wagner's Earth (Ground) Connection 337 11.16 Resonance Bridge 333 11.17 Types of Detectors 334 11.18 Precautions to be Taken When Using a Bridge 335 Review Questions 335 Practice Problems 336 Further 339 12.4 Null Type Recorder (Potentiometric Recorders) 347 12.5 Circular Chart Recorder 351 Li X-¥ Recorder 352 12.7 Magnetic Recorders 355 12.8 Frequency Modulation (FM) Recording 358 12.9 Digital Duta Recording 360 12.10 Objectives and Requirements of Recording Data 362Ma Contents mam xii 12.11 Recorder Selections for Particular Applications 363 12.12 Recorder Specifications 363 12.15 Applications of a Strip Chart Recorder 371 Review Questions 373 Further Reading 374 Transducers 315, 13.1 Introduction 375 13.3 Selecting a Transducer__377 15.11 Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) 404 13.12_Pres: sure Inductive Transducer_¢08 13.13 Capacitive Transducer (Pressure) 415 Le Cell Eira 13.16 Photo Electric Transducer 4/9 13.17 Photo-Woltaic Cell #27 13.18 Semiconductor Photo Diode 423 13.19 The Photo-Transistor #24 13.20 Temperature transducers 425 13.21 Frequency Generating Transducer 447 13.22 Reluctance Pulse Pick-Ups 447 13.23 Flow Measurement (Mechanical Transducers) 448 13.24 Mechanical Flow Meter _4¢9 13.25 Magnetic Flow Meters 449 13.26 Turbine Flowmeter 45 13.27 Measurements of Thickness Using Beta Gauge 453 Review Questions 457 Further Reading 459 Signal Conditioning 460 14.1 _Intenduction 460 14.2. Operational Amplifier (OPAMP) 464 14.3 Basiclnstrumentation Amplifier 479 144 Applications of Instrumentation Amplifiers (Specific Bridge) 485Adv eee Contents, 16. 14.5. Chopped and Modulated DC Amplifier 489 14.6 Modulators 490 Filters. 500 Li.1_Iniroduction _500 15.2 Fundamental Theorem of Filters 500 15.3 Passive Filters 504 15.4 Active Filters 508 15.5 Butterworth Filter 5/2 15.6 Band Pass Filter 523 15.7 Band Reject (Stop) Filter 537 15,8 All Pass Filter 534 15.9 Universal Active Filters 536 15.10 Designing Procedures for FLT-U2_ 537 15.11 Types of Active Filters 54! 15.12 Digital Filters 544 15.13 Discrete Functions $46 15.14 1-D Sampling Theorem 546 15.15 The 2-D Sampling Theorem S47 15.16 The 1-D Z-Transform 547 15.17 Fundamental Properties of 1-D Digital Systems 547 15,18 Fundamental of 2-D Digital S; 549 15.19 Domain ntation 549 15.20 Fir |-D Digital Filter Design (The Window Method) 554 15.21 Design Methods for IR Digital Filters 556 15.22 1-DIIR Filter Design 559 15.23 Pro; for the Design of Butterworth schev UR Digital Filters by Means of the Bilinear Transformation 563 15.24 Microprocessor Based Digital Filter 567 15.25 Applications of Digital Filters 568 Review Questions 512 Practice Problems 573 Further Reading 574 Measurement Set-up 578 16.1 Introduction 575 16.2. Measurements of Microwave Frequencies 575 16.3 Resonant Co-Axial Lines 576 16.4 Cavity Wavemeters 577 16,5 RE/UHF Field Strength Meter (Methods for measuring the Strength of Radio Waves) 577 16,6 Measurement of Sensitivity 579 16.7 Measurement of Selectivity 579 16.8 intermodulation Method of Measuring 580pt 19. 16.9 Measuring Frequency Response in 585 Audio Amplifiers 16.10 Modulation 5865 16.11 Measuring Frequency Modulation 589 16.12 Measuring Frequency Deviation 589 with a Radio Receiver 589 16.13 Measuring Amplitude Modulation Using CRO 590 Review Questions 594 Further Reading 595 Data Acquisition and Conversion 596 17.5 Multi-Channel DAS 602 17.6 Computer Based DAS 606 17.7 Digital to Analog (D/A) and Analog to Digital (A/D) Conveners 607 17.8 Data Loggers 623 17.10 Electromechanical A/D Converter 643 17.11 Digital Transducer 645 Review Questions 647 Practice Problems 648 Further Reading 649 Data Transmission 650 18.1 Introduction 650 18.2 Data Transmission Systems 652 18.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Transmission. overAnalog 653 18.4 Time Division Multiplexing(TDM) 654 18.5 Pulse Modulation 656 18.6 Digital Modulation 666 18,7 Pulse Code Format 675 18.8 Modems 677 Review Questions 681 Further Reading 681 Frequency Standards 682 19.1 Introduction 682 19.2 Primary Standards 682 19.3 Secondary Standards of Frequency 683 19.4 Practical Frequency Standards Atxviaew Contents: 19.5 Radio Signals as Frequency Standards 68¢ 19.6 Precision Frequency Standards 684 19.7 The Atomic Clock 685 Review Questions 686 Further Reading 686 20.8 Unbalanced Bolometer Bridge 69) 20.9 Self Balancing Bolometer Bridge 692 20.10 Measurement of Large Amount of RF Power (Calorimetric Method) 693 20.1] Measurement of Power on a Transmission Line 695 20.12 Standing Wave Ratio Measurements 696 20,13 Measurement of Standing Wave Ratio using Directional ‘Couplers 698 Review Questions 701 Further Reading 701 -21,_Control Systems 702 201 BasicConmolActinn 702 21.2 Definition(Terminology) 703 21.3 ON-OFF Control Action 705 21.6 Basic Controller Configuration 708 21L7_Classification of Controllers 709 218 Electronic Comrotiers (EC) 709 219 Analog Electronic Process Controllers 7/0 21.10 Temperature Control using an Analog Electronic Controller 7/4 21.11 Choice of Electronic Transmission Signal 7/6 21.12 Digital Controllers 7/7 21.13 Digital Process Controller 7/9 21,14 Cascade Process Controller with Digital Controllers 72/ 21.15 Programmable Logic Controller 723 21.16 Distributed Control Systems 767° MinePreface to the Second Edition The tremendous response to the first edition of this book has inspired me to bring out this second edition, which has been revised and updated, based on the suggestions received from the students and teachers using the book, As iin the first edition, the book is written in a simple and lucid manner with the chapters arranged systematically to enable the reader to get thorough knowledge of all types of measuring instraments aod measurement techaiques. With the advancement of technology in integrated circuits, instruments are becoming increasingly compact and accurate. In view of this, sophisticated types of instruments covering digital and microprocessor-based instruments are dealt in detail, in a simple and systematic manner for easy understanding. The basic concepts, working operation, capabilities and limitations of the instruments discussed in the book will also guide the users in selecting the right iostrument for certain application. Chapter | covers the basic characteristics and the errors associated with an instrument. Different types of indicating and display devices are dealt in Chapter 2, This chapter discusses different types of printers and printer heads used with the computers. ‘The basic analog-type ammeters for both DC and RF frequencies and different types of voltmeters, ohmmeters to multimeters are discussed in ‘Chapters 3 and 4, Digital instruments ranging from a simple digital veluneter ta a microprocessor-based instrument and their measurement techniques are presented in a comprehensible style for casy understanding. Chapter 7 on ‘oscilloscopes has been dealt in depth to familianze the students with the working of all types of Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes (CROs) and their Measurement techniques, Chapter § pertains to signal generation, Chapter 9 analyses the frequency component of a generated wave, and its distortion. Every instrument consists of an input sensing element or transducer, signal conditioner, and a recording or display unit. Chapters 12, 13 and 14 cover the essential components of industrial instruments used for measurements and their usage. Different types of analog and digital filters are given in Chapter 15. A mathematical approach to explaining digital filters has been adopted to provide the students a clear insight into their working. Chapter 16 is on the measurement of microwave frequencies. A detailed discussion on the data