INCIDENTAL AND INTENTIONAL LEARNING

AIM

To compare the outcomes of incidental and intentional learning.

INTRODUCTION

Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about by experience

or practice.
The “relatively permanent” part of the definition refers to the fact that when people
learn anything, some part of their brain is physically changed to record what they’ve
learned (Farmer et al., 2013; Loftus & Loftus, 1980). This is actually a process of
memory, for without the ability to remember what happens, people cannot learn
anything. Although there is no conclusive proof as yet, research suggests that once
people learn something, it may be present somewhere in memory in physical form
(Barsalou, 1992; Smolen et al., 2008)

INCIDENTAL LEARNING

Incidental learning has been defined by McGeough and in 1942 as

“learning which apparently takes place without a specific motive or a specified formal
instruction. ”

Incidental learning typically occurs by chance as part of another action. It is

unstructured, unplanned, and learner-evaluated. Some authors describe accidental
learning as learning that occurs without the learner's or the source's intention.

Incidental learning research has yielded a variety of results, depending on how widely
it is defined and the participants examined. Incidental learning is heavily influenced by
past knowledge and is made easier when the information is relevant to a topic of
interest. In the workplace, incidental learning is frequently addressed.

In childhood incidental learning is considered to be a common form of learning

(language and social skills learning). Some research focused on incidental learning
through media and showed how children learned behavior, attitudes, values and
cognitive information through watching television programs and commercials.

Similar research on older adult subjects resulted similarly in incidental learning of

information, but less significant changes in attitudes. Still, incidental learning becomes
more complex to investigate in adult subjects because of the role of prior knowledge or
specific interests of experiment participants.

INTENTIONAL LEARNING

Learning that is motivated by intention and is usually goal-directed is defined as

intentional learning. Intentional learning involves the deliberate choice to learn the
material and to memorise it.
Participants are made aware of the conditions of the study before they are exposed to
the material they are testing on. Participants in an intentional learning task are told in
advance that they will be tested after the learning phase; they will try to store the
word information that is to be learned in a form perceived as transferable to the test
situation. And processing instructions during the learning phase in an incidental
learning setting may or may not be conducive to successful transfer to the test
situation.
In everyday life, learning takes place both incidentally and intentionally, however,
intentional learning instructions result in better recall and recognition of information.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

A process in which an organism learns to associate two stimuli so that one of them can
elicit a response that was previously only elicited by the other.

Classical conditioning is a type of unconscious or automatic learning that was

discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Through associations between an
unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus, this learning process produces a
conditioned response.

A neutral stimulus is presented before a naturally occurring reflex in classical

conditioning. The neutral signal in Pavlov's classic dog experiment was the sound of a
tone, and the naturally occurring reflex was salivation in response to food. The
salivation response could be induced simply by associating the neutral stimulus
(sound) with the unconditioned stimulus (food).

OPERANT CONDITIONING

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by the

consequences that follow it. Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental
conditioning, is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for
behaviour. An association is formed between a behaviour and a consequence (either
positive or negative) for that behaviour through operant conditioning.

When lab rats, for example, press a lever when a green light is turned on, they are
rewarded with a food pellet. They are given a mild electric shock if they press the lever
while the red light is on. As a result, they learn to press the lever when the green light
is on and avoid pressing it when the red light is on. In addition, it plays a powerful role
in everyday learning. As well as in more structured settings, such as classrooms or
therapy sessions, reinforcement and punishment occur in natural settings all the time.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

It describes the process of learning by observing others, retaining the information, and
then later replicating the observed behaviours. Classical conditioning and operant
conditioning are two learning theories that emphasise how direct experience,
reinforcement, or punishment can lead to learning. However, a significant amount of
learning occurs in an indirect manner.

Consider how a child may observe adults waving to one another and then imitate these
actions later on. This process results in a tremendous amount of learning. This is
known as observational learning in psychology.

Observational learning is described using terms such as shaping, modelling, and

vicarious reinforcement. While it can occur at any age, it is most common during
childhood.

It is also important in the socialisation process. Children learn how to behave and
respond to others by watching their parent(s) and/or caregiver interact with others.
MEMORY

Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain, and later retrieve
information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage,
and retrieval.

Human memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover information we have
learned or experienced. As we all know, however, this is not a flawless process.
Sometimes we forget or misremember things. Sometimes things are not properly
encoded in memory in the first place.

Memory problems can range from minor annoyances like forgetting where you left your
car keys to major diseases, like Alzheimer's and other kinds of dementia, that affect the
quality of life and the ability to function.

INFORMATION PROCESSING AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION

When we are selectively attending one activity, we tend to disregard other stimuli,
even if our attention is diverted by something else, such as the phone ringing or
someone using our name.

Psychologists are interested in what causes us to pay attention to one item rather than
another (selective attention); why we sometimes transfer our focus to something that
was previously neglected (e.gCocktail Party Syndrome); and how many things we can
pay attention to at the same time (attentional capacity).

One approach to think about attention is to imagine humans as information processors

who can only handle a certain amount of information at a time without being
overloaded.

In the 1950s, Broadbent and others proposed a model of the brain as a limited capacity
information processing system through which external input is transferred.

Models of information processing are made up of a sequence of phases, or boxes, that

represent different levels of processing. The flow of information from one step to the
next is represented by arrows.

1. Input processes are concerned with the analysis of the stimuli.

 2. Storage processes encompass everything that happens to stimuli within the
brain, including coding and manipulation of the stimuli.
3. Output processes are in charge of preparing a suitable response to a stimulus.

Learning and memory are concepts that are closely intertwined. Learning is the
acquisition of a skill or knowledge, whereas memory is the expression of that skill or
information. Another distinction is the rate at which the two events occur. Learning
occurs when you gradually and laboriously gain a new skill or knowledge. Making a
memory occurs when acquisition occurs instantly.

Previous studies on Incidental learning and intentional learning

1. Vocabulary Acquisition Through Reading--Incidental Learning and Intentional

Learning.
● Source: Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics (Foreign Language Teaching &
Research Press) . Feb2010, Vol. 33 Issue 1, p74-93. 20p. 9 Charts.
● Author(s): Guo Yali
● Abstract: Basically, in L2 teaching and learning vocabulary through reading,
there are two instructional techniques: incidental learning and intentional
learning. This case study explores the role of reading in L2 vocabulary
acquisition, and the effect of different vocabulary instructional techniques on the
vocabulary learning of ESL students of different levels in Chinese universities.
The results of the study yield following findings: 1) Both instructional
treatments result in significant gains in learners' receptive vocabulary
knowledge, but the combination of the incidental and intentional learning
instruction leads to greater vocabulary gains and better retention. 2) Students'
vocabulary size plays a decisive role in acquiring the productive aspect of the
vocabulary knowledge.
2. Recall and recognition in intentional and incidental learning.

● Source : APA PsycArticles

● Authors: Eagle, Morris Leiter, Eli
 ● Abstract : Recall and recognition of a list of 36 words were studied in 3
groups: an intentional group (Group 1) instructed to remember the words;
an incidental group (Group 2) instructed to respond to each stimulus
word by indicating whether it was a noun, verb, or adjective; a 3rd group
(Group 3) instructed to both remember the words and perform the
orienting task. Group 1 showed superior recall, but Groups 2 and 3
recognized significantly more words than Group 1. The superior recall of
Group 1 was attributable mainly to performance of those Ss reporting
use of a memorizing strategy (e.g., grouping, rehearsing). These results
support the view that intention to learn is crucial for learning only to the
extent that it generates adequate learning operations. Furthermore,
different learning responses (e.g., recall and recognition) require
somewhat different operations.

HYPOTHESIS

The extent of learning will be higher in intentional learning as compared to incidental

learning.

PARTICIPANT SELECTION
For selecting the participant convenience sampling was undertaken. Convenience
Sampling, is a type of sampling that involves the sample being drawn from that part of
the population that is close to hand. Convenience sampling was introduced by Heiman
(1995).
During the pandemic we were unable to go out and conduct this experiment, thus I
asked my sister to be my subject - her name is Gauri , she is 10 years old and a student
studying in class 5.

VARIABLES

1. Independent variable: two list of words

2. Dependent variables: Response time, errors, number of words remembered
3. Controlled variables: Mode of presentation, order of presentation, subject being
new to experiment
(if the subject already knows about the experiment it could affect the results)
4. Control of confounding variables: Length of lists were same, Same size and font
used for both condition, Subject will read the list vertically, Subjects are required
to respond by writing for both conditions

MATERIALS REQUIRED

1. 2 Lists of words
2. 2 sheets of paper for the subject to write the words
3. A computer with slide-show presentation
4. Two pens,
5. Blank sheets for recording introspective report & behavioral report,
6. Screen
7. Stopwatch
8. Table and chair for subject to sit

DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

1. Name: Gauri Gupta

2. Age: 10
3. Sex: Female
4. Educational background: Currently studying in class 5
5. Occupation: Student
 PROCEDURE

Arrangement of Material

The laptop (with word lists) was turned on and placed on the table before calling in
the participant in the experimental condition. It was checked to see if it had enough
battery power and was working properly. The participant was given a chair, a pen, and
a piece of paper. The windows on the laptop screen that contained the list of words
were minimised so that the participant could not see the lists prior to beginning the
experiment.

Rules for choosing the words

1. Both list should contain 20 words

2. Consecutive words should not start with same letter
3. There should be no rhyme in consecutive words
4. The words must contain not less than 7 or 8 letters
5. Words should be placed in random order
6. All the words should be from different categories

Conduction

The subject was called inside the experimental setting and seated in a comfortable
position. The rapport was established, and the instructions were read to the participant
once she was comfortable and ready. The instructions for both sets of word list-
incidental and intentional learning, were read slowly, and the conduction began when
the participant was knowledgeable with the instructions. At the same time, a
behavioural report was prepared and time was recorded using a stopwatch. As soon
as the conduction was over, the subject was asked to write the introspective report and
thanked for cooperating. It was also assured that the results would remain confidential.
This was then followed by matching the answers of the participant with the list of
correct answers. Then the tabulating of the accurate responses, errors, and total time
taken was done.
Instructions

In this experiment, you will be shown slides with two different lists of words. Each of
the lists will have 20 words. You shall do as per the instruction provided to you before
any tasks. Do not hesitate to ask if you need to seek clarification regarding any of the
tasks or set of instructions.

1. Incidental Learning:
Instruction A: "You will be shown a list of words. The list will be only shown once. You
have to read aloud every word shown on the screen, count the number of vowels in
every word and say the number aloud. For example, If the word shown is “replace",
You have to read the word aloud, and say the number of vowels in the word, which is
3.
Instruction B: "Now you are required to do a free recall of words.
Hence take your time, and write the words you remember on this sheet of paper. You
can write the words in any order."

2. Intentional Learning:
Instruction A: "You will be shown a list of words. The list will only be shown once. You
have to read aloud each word shown on the screen and try to remember as many
words as possible. At the end of the task, you need to do a free recall of as many
words as possible. You will be given a sheet of paper, and you will be required to write
all the words you remember, in any order.

RAPPORT FORMATION

The participant was asked whether or not he or she wanted to participate in the
experiment before it began. Then, in order to make her feel at ease, a rapport was
formed. I told her to relax and not worry about the experiment and that it was going to
be very simple. I asked for her permission to record her while conducting the
experiment on her to wish she gave me her consent.
I asked her a few questions like "How are you?"
"How was your day?"
“Are you at ease with your surroundings?”
“Do you have a question for me?”
DATA SHEET
INCIDENTAL LEARNING INTENTIONAL LEARNING

WORDS - LIST A RECALLED WORDS - LIST B RECALLED

LAPTOP ✔ SMELLY ✔

MEDICINE X ELEGANCE X

KILLING X ISLAND X

BLUETOOTH X WISDOM X

CLASS ✔ STRONG ✔

SWEATER ✔ GENETIC X

QUALITY X UTILITY X

FLOWERS X BLANKET ✔

PATTERN X GREEDINESS ✔

DIAMOND X WARMTH X

ORANGE ✔ PENGUIN ✔

MENTION X JUICER X

DEFEAT X TEACHING X

TELEVISION X BEAUTY X

PAPER X EVIDENCE ✔

COMFORT X BEDROOM ✔

BOTTLE X MESSAGE ✔

EARPHONES ✔ OFFICER X

RAINBOW ✔ REALISTIC X

FREEDOM X SILICON X
 RESULT

Number of words recalled Number of words recalled Difference in the number

in Incidental learning in Intentional learning of words recalled in both
situations

6 8 2

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

INTROSPECTIVE REPORT

"I was excited to learn new things and try something new when I discovered that I
would be the subject of the experiment. I was excited and overjoyed with anticipation
when the instructions were delivered, and as the test began, I tried my hardest to
remain calm so that I wouldn't make any mistakes. I enjoyed administering the test,
and even before it began, I was looking forward to the next section! This experiment
was fascinating, and if given the opportunity again, I would conduct something
similar." Gauri gupta
 BEHAVIOURAL OBSERVATIONAL REPORT

The subject was a little nervous and skittish as this was a very new experience for her ,
she stumbled on words a few times and took a little extra time to count the number of
vowels in the words. She also made one or two mistakes while telling the number of
vowels and even read a few words wrong.

DISCUSSION

The present study aimed to compare the outcomes of incidental and intentional
learning. Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about by
experience or practice. There are two types of learning - Incidental and Intentional
learning.Incidental learning typically occurs by chance as part of another action. It is
unstructured, unplanned, and learner-evaluated. Some authors describe accidental
learning as learning that occurs without the learner's or the source's intention. On the
contrary, intentional learning is motivated by intention and is usually goal-directed is
defined as intentional learning. Intentional learning involves the deliberate choice to
learn the material and to memorise it. Memory refers to the processes that are used to
acquire, store, retain, and later retrieve information. Learning and memory are closely
related topics and have a fairly simple relationship to each other. Where learning is the
acquisition of skill or knowledge, memory is the expression of what you've acquired.

The hypothesis of this study is: The extent of learning will be higher in intentional
learning as compared to incidental learning. On the first condition, incidental learning,
subjects were instructed to say the words out loud presented on the screen and then
count the vowels in each word, before being asked to write down the words they could
recall. In the second condition in intentional learning the subject was asked to read
aloud the words present on screen and try to remember them, then they were asked to
write the words they were able to recall on a piece of paper. As per the results
obtained it can be said that the hypothesis is supported. The subject recalled 8 words
in intentional learning and 6 words in incidental learning. Hence, the subject was able
to recall more words in the setting of intentional learning as compared to incidental
learning.
 CONCLUSION

The aim of this study is to compare the outcomes of incidental and intentional learning.
And the hypothesis of this study is: The extent of learning will be higher in intentional
learning as compared to incidental learning. The results obtained support the
hypothesis . The subject was able to recall 8 words in intentional learning and 6 words
in incidental learning which is a difference of 2 words or a difference of 10% in the
extent of learning.