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Batteries for Aerospace: a Brief Review

Conference Paper · October 2018

DOI: 10.23919/AEIT.2018.8577355

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 Equation Chapter 1 Section 1
Batteries for Aerospace: a Brief Review
Alfonso Damiano, Mario Porru,
Andrea Salimbeni, Alessandro Serpi
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
University of Cagliari
Cagliari, Italy
alfio@diee.unica.it
Abstract—This paper presents a brief overview on batteries
for aerospace application. In particular, More Electric Aircraft
(MEA) and All Electric Aircraft (AEA) concepts are introduced
at first, together with their main advantages and drawbacks.
Subsequently, opportunities and issues related to the employment
of batteries on aircrafts are presented and briefly discussed.
Reference is then made to aircraft power system architectures
and battery technologies, as well as on the state-of-the-art of
battery management systems, state-of-charge and state-of-health
estimations, and thermal management.
Keywords—aerospace, all electric aircraft, batteries, battery
management system, more electric aircraft, state-of-charge
estimation, state-of-health estimation.
I. INTRODUCTION
Aviation traffic is increasing through the decades due to the
growing passenger and cargo demands, thus leading to
increased energy consumption and emissions. [1] In order to
make air transport more sustainable, the Advisory Council for
Aviation Research and innovation in Europe (ACARE)
adopted resolutions and roadmaps to promote the development
of cleaner and quieter aircraft. [2] The goals to be achieved by
2020 include cutting of CO2 and NOx emissions by 50% and
80% respectively, reducing noise by 50%, and achieving a
greener life cycle. [3]
One of the most promising solution to tackle these
challenges is surely represented by the transition to More
Electric Aircraft (MEA) and All Electric Aircraft (AEA)
concepts. The MEA concept consists in replacing pneumatic
and hydraulic systems by electric actuators in order to have
only one kind of generation system for supplying all loads on
board [4]–[6]; this results in a simpler aircraft structure that
still relies on traditional propulsion systems. The most
important benefits of MEA are increased efficiency and
reliability, as well as decreased operating and maintenance
costs. Electric-powered systems have been used on aircrafts
since a long time, but their power share is growing constantly
over the last decades. [7] For instance, passenger aircrafts are
already equipped with communication systems, cockpit
display, weather radar, in-flight entertainment and lighting
systems. Furthermore, military aircrafts need powerful radars,
sensors, cockpit and weapon systems. With the purpose of
supplying as many loads as possible by electric energy, electric
actuators, de-icing and taxiing systems are good candidates for
a further step towards the MEA concept. [3] In this regard,
relevant examples of large employment of electric auxiliary
systems are A-380 and B-787 in civil aviation, and F-22 Raptor
and F-35 in military aviation. [7] Regarding AEA, several
projects of full-electric aircrafts have been conducted
Vincenzo Castiglia, Antonino Oscar Di Tommaso,
Rosario Miceli, Giuseppe Schettino
Dept. of Energy, Information Engineering and Mathematical Models
University of Palermo
Palermo, Italy
rosario.miceli@unipa.it
successfully, in which the electric propulsion system is fed by
fuel cells or solar panels [8], [9]. Among these, the Airbus E-
Fan X project is one of the most promising, whose flight tests
will begin in 2020 [10]. These AEA projects demonstrated the
feasibility of AEA concept, but many issues still prevent the
application of such concept to larger, heavier, and powerful
aircrafts, such as maximum take-off weight and flight range.
As a consequence, the MEA concept will be surely more
successfully in the medium-short term, until all technological
barriers to AEA will be broken down.
In this scenario, electric power generation and energy
storage systems on board is the central topic of the researcher.
Particularly, batteries are one the most important enabling
component for both MEA and AEA concepts. Another
interesting example is the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) that
have been sent to Mars [11]–[13]. The MER has several
instruments on board for different tools, which are supplied by
three different batteries: primary, rechargeable, and thermal
battery, each of which has a specific function. A large variety
of batteries for different applications are already available on
world markets (powering electric vehicles, supporting
photovoltaic power plants, supplying electronic portable
devices, robotics, etc.). The lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are
considered the best solution among all battery types due to
their high energy density, negligible memory effect and low
self-discharge rate. In particular, rechargeable Li-ion batteries
are especially attractive for most aerospace applications. Thus,
Li-ion batteries have a nice potential world market compared to
other batteries [14]–[16].
In this scenario, the aim of this paper is to provide a brief
review on the use, applications and technical aspects of
batteries for aerospace. Power system configurations, load
power profiles, and operating conditions are of paramount
importance to outline the main features and requirements of
on-board battery systems. Therefore, motivation and context
are illustrated in Section II, by discussing the opportunities and
the challenges associated to MEA and AEA concepts. Section
III is instead devoted to the state-of-the-art of power system
architecture, battery technology, state-of-charge and state-of-
health-estimation, and thermal management. Concluding
remarks are reported in Section IV.
II. MOTIVATION AND CONTEXT
A. Opportunities and applications
In traditional aircrafts, pneumatic, hydraulic and electric
powers are produced by pumps and generators directly driven
by the propulsion jet engine, as shown in Fig. 1. The pneumatic
power is required for pressure and temperature control of the
cabin, wing de-icing systems and starting of the main engine.
Hydraulic loads are represented mainly by the actuators for
flight control. From an historical point of view, the first step
towards MEA consisted in replacing the pneumatic and
hydraulic supplies by electric systems. Subsequently, also the
pneumatic and hydraulic actuators and drives have been
replaced by equivalent electrical counterparts, resulting in the
final configuration represented in Fig. 2 [8]. It is worth noting
that propulsion thrust is still produced by jet engines, which are
properly coupled to an electrical generator that is used for both
power generation and starting the engine. On the other hand,
oil and fuel pumps are driven by electric motors, which are
supplied by the electrical generator, as occurs for most of the
loads [3]. The advantages of MEA are increased system
simplicity and efficiency, improved reliability, and reduced
maintenance needs [8]. In addition, some advantages, which
were not even considered at earlier MEA stages, consist of
reduced empty weight of the aircraft [17] and specific fuel
consumption [18].
The increased number of electric loads in MEAs leads to
corresponding increase of the electric power on board [19]–
[25], but the optimization grade of the system increases too,
mainly due to better energy management and higher integration
of components [26]. Several main areas can be identified:
internal Engine Starter Generator (ESG), flight control
actuation, Power Management And Distribution (PMAD),
motor drive system and Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) [2]. In
particular, although the engines should be optimized based on
propulsion thrust requirements and overall electric energy
demand, an APU is generally included, namely a generator
driven by a small jet engine, together with batteries and/or
supercapacitors, that has to supply additional power demand
[3]. For example, Boeing 787 was launched in 2011 with a
main power generation capacity of about 1 MVA and an APU
of about 0.45 MVA, which lead to an overall electric power of
about 1.5 MVA [27], [28].
Batteries on MEA have to cope with functions related to all
these areas, such as delivering the power required by loads
over dynamic and steady-state operation, assisting the ESG
Fig. 1. Configuration of electric, hydraulic and pneumatic systems of
traditional aicrafts [3].
system, maintaining the DC voltage within its allowed
operating range [3]. One of the most important tasks is surely
assuring the emergency power in accordance with safety
requirements. For example, the Federal Aviation
Administration requires that battery guarantees a minimum
autonomy of 30 minutes. However, adequate battery reliability
and performances have to be guaranteed too [29].
B. Limits and issues
As one of the most important elements of the on-board
power system, batteries must satisfy strict requirements that
depend mainly on system architecture and configuration,
operating conditions and load profiles. Particularly, aerospace
batteries have to be light and small, deliver high power in a
reliable and safe manner over any operating condition, and last
for a long time. However, in spite of recent improvements in
energy storage technologies, some of these requirements are far
from being fully satisfied.
Specific energy and power, as well as power and energy
density, are some of the main critical parameters of aerospace
batteries because they determine their size and weight. In
particular, since high currents are required during engine
starting, the battery pack have to deliver such a high power.
However, battery power rate and capacity are also affected by
operating temperature, which varies in a wide range because of
the high and different altitudes of flights. Generally speaking,
battery performances degrade as the altitude increases and the
temperature decreases. Hence, a proper battery design must
take into account the worst operating conditions [2], which are
generally represented by low operating temperature and high
power rates [30]. One of the most critical aspects is related to
the increase of the internal resistance when temperature
decreases, which causes a lower efficiency due to higher
losses. As a consequence, advanced thermal management and
complex battery management systems are required in order to
comply with safety and reliability standards. In this regard,
battery over-temperature must be avoided in order to prevent
the risk of fire and explosion; batteries are thus enclosed in
robust cases that prevent the fire ignition and/or extinguish the
fire if it occurs [2].
Fig. 2. Configuration of electric, hydraulic and pneumatic systems of MEAs
[3].

III. STATE-OF-THE-ART
A. Power distribution architectures
A graphic representation of the chronology of electric
power systems on aircraft is depicted in Fig. 3. The first
electric power system used on aircraft was the 28 V DC
system, which was derived from twin engines by means of two
generators. One or more batteries could be also employed
jointly with an inverter to supply an additional 115 V AC
system for flight instruments [31]. Reliability was assured by
installing parallel-connected generators, which also increased
control and protection requirements [31].
Subsequently, 115 V AC power system at 400 Hz were
introduced, which resort to Constant Speed Drives (CSDs) and
complex hydro-mechanical systems to convert the engine
speed to constant electric frequency (CF). The high
unreliability of these kind of systems were solved by the
adoption of power electronic converters within Variable
Speed–Constant Frequency systems (VSCF): the variable
speed of the generator is converted into constant frequency by
means of an inverter-rectifier system in a reliable and safe way.
This solution has been adopted by different companies with
different results: F-18 fighters are still using it, while Boeing
tried it in some 737-500 without particular success. Boeing
777 has this system installed on board, but only as backup unit
[31].
Increasing attention is also focused on 270 V DC system,
which have been employed on military aircrafts, such as F-22
and F-35. The 270 V DC can be derived by rectifying the 115
V AC; then the high DC voltage can be converted into 115 V
AC 400 Hz and 28 V DC based on load requirements [2], [32]–
[34]. This system presents higher efficiency and lower weight
due to the lower number of energy conversions and
components. In addition, connecting batteries to high voltage
DC systems rather than low voltage DC systems results in
reduced costs and higher efficiency of the overall power
conversion system [2].
However, practical limits in the development of high DC
current contactors limits the amount of power delivered by DC
systems too. For example, considering 400 A as maximum DC
current, 28 V DC and 270 V DC systems can deliver 12 kW
and 100 kW maximum power per channel respectively. This
moves the attention on higher AC voltage, since MEAs of the
future will require power levels ranging from 250 kW to 500
kW per channel, much higher compared to 20-90 kW of
modern MEAs. Some of these problems have been already
overcome by Airbus A380 (150 kVA per channel) and Boeing
787 (500 kVA per channel) [31].
B. Batteries technologies
Regardless of power system configuration, batteries main
task is decoupling the load supply from primary generation
over dynamic operation, by smoothing transient DC-link
voltage oscillation. In addition, batteries have to assist system
startup and assuring emergency backup [31]. The main battery
technologies considered for aerospace are Valve Regulated
Lead Acid (VRLA), Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) and Lithium-
ion (Li-ion). The VRLA batteries have been developed to
address the issues of traditional lead-acid batteries, but still
suffer from low energy density and specific energy. On the
other hand, they can handle high currents and have the lowest
cost [17], [35]. Ni-Cd batteries were the most used in the late
‘80s due to high capacity, high charging rates and long life
cycles compared to other available technologies. However,
their main disadvantages, such as memory effect, high self-
discharge, and toxicity of cadmium, limit their usage [36].
Much better performances are guaranteed by Li-ion batteries,
which are characterized by high energy density and specific
energy, no memory effect, low self-discharge and low
maintenance. Although Li-ion batteries are safer than other
Lithium technologies, they still require complex and costly
protection circuit [36]. Li-ion batteries have been recently
installed on both B-787 and A-350, although some accidents
occurred on B-787 suggested Airbus to use Ni-Cd temporarily
on A-350 [37]. A brief comparison of the main features of
different battery technologies is reported in Table I.
C. Battery management system
The Battery Management System (BMS) is the system that
takes care of the safe and efficient operation of the battery. In
aerospace applications, where size and weights are of primary
importance, BMS have to be light and small. The BMS main
functions are:
1) Battery pack monitoring: measurement of voltage,
current and temperature;
2) State-of-Charge estimation;

TABLE I MAIN FEATURES OF BATTERIES (BASED ON [2])

Feature Unit VLRA Ni-Cd Li-ion

Specific energy Wh/kg 40 65 135
Energy density Wh/L 70 105 200
Specific power W/kg 450 1000 2000
Life cycle n. 250 1500 3000
Self discharge %/month 15-20 4-6 2-3
Fig. 3. Evolution of electric power system on aircraft [31]. Memory effect - No Yes No
 3) State-of-Health estimation;
4) Protection and safety of the battery to prevent
overcurrent, overvoltage and overtemperature;
5) Management of the battery charging/discharging and
cell balancing;
6) Transmission of the acquired data;
7) Thermal management.
Some of these BMS main functions are illustrated in the next
paragraph.
D. State-of-Charge estimation
One of the most important parameter for a battery is the
State-of-Charge (SOC) [4]. The SOC is used to determine the
remaining capacity of the battery. The SOC can be defined as
the ratio between actual and nominal capacity. The nominal
capacity Qn is the maximum charge that can be stored in the
battery, and it is given by the manufacturer. In order to
calculate the state of charge it is therefore necessary to measure
the current capacity Q(t):
Q t 
 SOC  t   .  
Qn
A good estimation of SOC allows using better control
strategies and improving the performance of the system [5].
Because of the chemical nature of the energy stored in the
battery, it is difficult to estimate the SOC accurately [6]. The
SOC estimation methods can be classified in three categories,
as detailed below.
1) Direct Methods
With direct methods, the SOC is estimated by measuring
directly some physical quantities of the battery, such as voltage
or impedance. The main direct estimation methods are:
a) Open Circuit Voltage Method
The SOC and the Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) always
present a relationship for all battery technologies.
For a lead-acid battery, the OCV and the SOC have a linear
relationship, making SOC estimation easy [13]. The main
disadvantage of this method is that the battery need to be
disconnected for a long time before the real OCV can be
measured [38].
For the Li-ion battery, the relationship between SOC and
OCV is not linear and can be different from cell to cell. The
OCV-SOC curve needs to be experimentally determined,
applying a pulse load current and measuring the voltage when
the battery reaches the equilibrium [39]–[41].
b) Terminal Voltage Method
The battery terminal voltage can be used to estimate the
SOC, if the internal impedance of the battery is known. The
main advantage of this method is that the battery does not need
to be disconnected. The main disadvantage is that, at the end of
discharge, the estimation error is large [42].
c) Impedance Method
The impedance method provides impedance measurements
at different charge/discharge currents, temperatures and
frequencies. The SOC is estimated by correlating the modelled
impedance with the actual battery impedance [43], [44].
2) Indirect Methods
With indirect methods, the SOC is estimated by measuring
the charging or discharging current and integrating it to obtain
the removed/supplied charge. The most popular indirect
methods are described below.
a) Coulomb Counting Method
The classical Coulomb-counting method measures and
integrates the current over time. This method is simple to
implement, but several parameters can affect the accuracy of
the method, such as discharging current, temperature and
battery life [45].
b) Modified Coulomb Counting Method
The modified Coulomb-counting method applies some
correction factors to the measured current in order to improve
the accuracy of the method. The modified current is then
integrated over time, as in the classical method.
3) Adaptive systems Methods
With adaptive systems methods, the SOC is estimated with
complex algorithms that automatically adjust it when the
system parameters vary. Some of the main estimation
approaches are resumed below.
a) Kalman filter
Kalman Filter (KF) algorithm is used to lessen the
measurement noise effect and to estimate some quantities that
cannot be directly measured, such as the SOC. The algorithm
uses a measurement set that is compared to the estimated value.
If an error occurs, the KF corrects the estimation to minimize
the error [46], [47].
b) Artificial Neural Network
The Artificial Neural Network (ANN) consists of
computing systems that simulate a brain. ANNs are composed
by the so called “artificial neurons” that try to find a
relationship between the ANN input and output. First, the
Neural Network need to be “trained”. The training consists in
submitting different sets of data to the neural network. Once
the neural network is trained, it can predict the SOC using
recent measured data of voltage, current and temperature [48].
c) Fuzzy Logic
Fuzzy-Logic (FL) can be used to identify unknown
systems. To estimate the battery SOC, FL fits the nonlinear
system by calculating the optimized coefficient [49].
E. State-of-Health estimation
Another important battery parameter is the State-of-Health
(SOH). The SOH is an index used to determine the ageing of a
battery. The SOH is very useful to predict when the battery
should be replaced. As for the SOC, SOH cannot be directly
measured. The SOH estimation methods can be classified in
two categories [50], as described in the following.
 1) Experimental techniques
These techniques are based on storing the lifetime data and
using the previous knowledge of the operation performance of
the cell/battery. The main advantages are low computational
effort and the possibility to implement them in a BMS. The
main drawback is the low accuracy.
2) Adaptive methods
These methods are based on the calculation of the
parameters that are sensitive to degradation in a battery cell,
using the same approach of the SOC estimation with adaptive
algorithm, such as Kalman Filter, Neural Network and Fuzzy
Logic. The main advantage of this method is the high accuracy,
the drawbacks are high computational effort and the difficult
implementation in BMS.
F. Thermal management
The goal of thermal management is to maintain the cell
temperature in a range of 5-40°C under all environmental and
operating conditions [51]. There are different methods for
battery thermal management:
1) Air-based cooling: the air is driven by several fans and
directly cools the cells.
2) Liquid-based cooling: it can be direct or indirect
cooling. In the direct cooling, the cells are immersed in
a liquid that can cool the surface of the cell entirely. In
the indirect cooling, the working fluid is segregated in
tubes, plates or jackets and indirectly cools the cells.
3) Phase-Change cooling: during the battery discharging,
the Phase-Change Material (PCM) serves as heat sink.
In reverse mode (charging), the PCM can release
energy to heat the cells during standby operations.
IV. CONCLUSION
A brief overview of batteries for aerospace application has
been presented in this paper, with particular reference to both
More Electric Aircraft (MEA) and All Electric Aircraft (AEA)
concepts. In this context, Li-ion batteries reveal to be the most
suitable and promising technology, although main issues
regarding the employment of batteries on board still need to be
addressed. These consist of safety and severe operating
conditions, especially in terms of fire and explosion risks, low
operating temperature and high power rates. In this regard, the
use of advanced battery management systems is required,
which must rely on accurate state-of-charge and state-of-health
estimations for ensuring a suitable thermal management.
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