ee . es The Geology of North America Volume H MONOGRAFIAS The Caribbean Region Edited by ‘THE CARIBBEAN REGION Gabriel Dengo . Centro de Estudios Geolégicos de América Central Apartado 468s Guatemala City, Guatemala space. ‘557.29 ea 10994 J.B. Case US. Geological Survey 345 Middlefield Road Menlo Park, California 94025 ree G‘The Gelogy of North America VoL HT Caress Region ‘The Gelogial Society of Amer, 1950 ‘Chapter 6 The Caribbean mountain system, northern South America; A summary eee Consejo Consulivo de Directores de Servicios Geol6gicos de Latinoamérica, Apartado 3672, Caracas 1010-A, Venezuela Gabriel Dengo Ceniro de Estudios Geoldgicos de América Centra, Apartado 468, Guatemala, Guatemala INTRODUCTION ‘The major tectonic features of northern South America (Fig 1) are depicted in dealin the tectonic map compiled by Martin (1978), a regional synthesis presented by Bellzzia and others (1981), and a classification of tectonic provinces by Case and ‘others (1984), One of the most prominent features is the Precam- brian Guyana shield, a large cratonic block around part of which the Phanerozoic basins and mountain systems are developed. The shield consists mainly of metamorphic and igneous rocks but also includes substantial areas of unmetamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks Isotopic ages for rocks ofthe Guyana shield in cate that major geologic evens took place between 3.4 and about 1.0 Ma ‘The region that extends from the exposed shield tothe west- ern Andes, including the Llanos and the Amazonas, was part of the South American craton, at least since the beginning of Pa- leozoic time (Restrepo and Toussaint, 1988). Proterozoic rocks ‘now form the cores ofthe major mountain ranges of the Andes, the Sierra de Perjé and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta In the Garzén massif, Colombia, these rocks date from 1,800 to 1,180 Ma (Restrepo and Toussaint, 1988) Paleozoic sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks are exposed in the Andes, Periji, and Santa Marta regions, and small pants of the Caribbean mountain ranges and are known at the subsurface in the basins that separate these mountains from the shield. The Paleozoic sedimentary sequence varies, even in places ‘as close as the Venezuelan Andes, the Cordillera Oriental (Co- lombia), and Sierra de Perijé. The Cambrian is not yet well "understood, but itis certainly represented by metamorphic rocks. ‘Ordovician and Silurian rocks exist in the Venezuelan Andes, in the El Bail massif (Venezuela), and in the Cordillera Central (Colombia), whereas Devonian rocks, which are unknown to ‘these areas, are well developed inthe Cordillera Oriental and the ‘Sierra de Perij. Carboniferous and Permian rocks are more wide- spread and ate present in all the major mountain ranges, includ- ing the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Rocks ofthese systems are parily metamorphosed in pars ofthe Veneruelan and Colombian ‘Andes. The Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks are separated by an ex- tensive regional unconformity. Thick continental and shallow- ‘water red beds with some intercalated volcanic rocks, probably of Late Jurassic ag, form the base ofthe Mesozoic sequence, which isalso very extensive. Marine equivalents of these rocks are found in the Goajira Peninsula, and metamorphosed marine rocks of this age are exposed in the Paraguand Peninsula and inthe Carib- ‘bean mountain system. ‘The Cretaceous i represented by a transpressive sequence of, geosynctnal dimensions covering an extensive area from Colom- bia, across Venezuela, to Trindad that reaches thicknesses as ‘much as 10 km. In general, itis formed by coarse clastic rocks at the base, followed by massive and thin-bedded limestones and shales. Regressive characteristics appeared at the end of Creta- ‘eous time and extend into the Paleocene “Mesozoic rocks of different character and tectonic environ ‘ment occur in other places along the edge of the continent, such ‘a the Caribbean mountain system, which is formed by metamor- hosed Late Jurassic and Cretaceous sedimentary and volcanic ocks that must have been north of their present allochthonous position. The same situation is probably true for part of the Goajra Peninsula and the Netherlands Antilles, In the later, however, mafic igneous oceanic rocks are also present. Tertiary rocks are also widespread in the northem South America region, but the sedimentary basins were restricted and separated from cach other as a result of Late Cretaceous-Eocene ‘orogeny. Tertiary basins with thick sedimentary sequences, ‘mainly clastic but with some limestones, particularly inthe late Eocene, ate found inthe structural depressions that separate the different branches ofthe Andes. The Atrato, Cauca, Magdalena, ‘and César depressions connect with the Sind Basin in northwest. fmm Colombia, The characteristics of sedimentation ae different for each one. Large Tertiary basins overlying Cretaceous deposits Bena, A. and Deno, G, 190, The Caribbean moun sytem, other South Ameri, in Deng, Gand Case, Fe, The Caritas Reo: Boule, Color, Gesopal Soy of Americ, The Geigy of Noth Amery H. 167168 ‘A. Bellizia and 6. Dengo FALCON BASIN om ° Venezueion Antilles @ SI 2 coucogua Er Tinoco noppe Figure 1. Map of northern South America showing main geographic geologic features and major faults. such asthe Barinas-Guarico and Oriental Basins, occur between the Guyana shield and the Andes and Caribbean mountain sy5- tem. In general, uppermost Tertiary and Quaternary rocks are of ‘continental origin. ‘With the exception ofthe Guyana shield (Fig. 1), which has remained practically stable since late Precambrian time, the tec- tonic history of the region has been a complex one, and several ‘metamorphic, igneous, and other deformational episodes have ‘been clearly defined. The inital tectonic events are better known in the Andes, Inthe Venezuelan Andes, Sierra de Perijé, Cordi- lera Oriental and Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, metamorphic ‘events of late Precambrian age are evident. Events that affected the Venezuelan Andes probably occurred during early Paleozoic (595 to 425 Ma) and late Paleozoic (275 to 175 Ma) times, both ‘accompanied by intrusive activity. Mid-Paleozoic intrusions in {this area (400 to 350 Ma) are not related to metamorphism but 0 ‘milder Devonian-Carboniferous deformation, Ordovician to Sil ‘ian intrusives accompanied by metamorphism are found in the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, in which metamorphic events also occurred duimg Missssippian-Permian time. On the other han, in the Sierra de Perij, Devonian intrusions (350 Ma) were not accompanied by metamorphism. Paleozoic volcanism was only local; it is represented by Early Ordovician basalts and by late Paleozoic rhyolites to basalts in the Venezuelan Andes. Permian to Early Triassic deformation was widespread and, in some cases, eg, Sierra de Perit and Cordillera Oriental, wasCaribbean mountain system, northern South America 169 Be ew oe CARIBBEAN SEA 3 ORIENTAL BASIN e ws tee. PARA GULF a accompanied by intrusive activity (180 Ma). This deformation was followed by a long time span characterized by extensive erosion and deposition of widespread continental deposits in Early Jurassic time, accompanied in some areas by silicic and locally mafic voleanic activity ‘The tectonic style developed during the Paleozoic reveals ‘mostly the action of compressional forces, whereas the subse ‘quent Late Cretaceous-Paleocene tectonic deformation produced ‘mainly tiled blocks and broad folding. The Mesozoic-early Terti- ary deformation in the Andes area was accompanied by granitoid intrusions mostly in the Cordillera Central (Colombia) In this ‘mountain range, deformation was accompanied by widespread volcanism toward the end ofthe Tertiary and continuing into the Quaternary. ‘The southwestern part ofthe Caribbean region, along the coast of South Americ, differs considerably in crustal characier- istics and complexity of tectonism from the Venezuelan and Co- lombian basins tothe north, Due to these diferences, the area to the south of the northernmost limits ofthe Aruba-Curagao ridge, ‘and roughly following the trace of the continental slope farther to the east, has been named the Venezuelan Borderlands. It extends from the Guajira Peninsula in the west to the Orinoco River Dela in the east. ‘In the continental section of the margin, from Trinidad in the east toward Guajira Peninsula and the Santa Marta massif in the west the Caribbean mountain system i formed by a complex section of tectoncally superposed units that have been regionally Cverthruted repeatedly t0 the south. This contrast: with the170 northward fault deformation observed from seismic profiles inthe continental margin to the north. In the Caribbean mountain system, which includes the Goa- Jira Peninsula and Netherlands Antilles, the Mesozoic deforms- tion was entirely different from that ofthe Andes, and resulted in ‘an Alpine-type mountain range characterized by strong metamor- phism, lage allochthonous blocks and nappes with a complex Structure, and a mixture of rocks of voleanic and sedimentary origin, including slices of oceanic erust. Undoubtedly, it resulted from long-term interactions of oceanic and continental crusts after the primeval Caribbean had formed, probably during Late ‘Triassic-Early Jurassic time. ‘This chapter deals only with the broad characteristics ofthe Caribbean mountain system. For geological and geophysical pa- pers on nearby areas, the reader is refered to Bonini and others (1984). ‘THE CARIBBEAN MOUNTAIN SYSTEM The Caribbean mountain system, an orographic complex on the northern coastal region of South America, forms an elongated cast-west-trending belt of high topography that extends from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and Guajira Peninsula in Colom- bia, eastward to the island of Tobago and the Northern Range of. ‘Trinidad. Its submerged portion forms a series of islands in the southern Caribbean Sea. Its land portion is best exposed in nocth- central Venezuela, in the ranges known as the Cordillera de la Costa and Serrania del Interior. These ranges are separated om the ‘west from the Venezuelan Andes by the Barquisimeto depression or structural trough. Their continuation to the east is interrupted by Barcelona Bay, which separates them from the ranges ofthe ‘Araya and Paria Peninsulas, which in turn, are separated from the [Northern Range of Trinidad by the Paria Gulf Fig. 1) ‘The Caribbean mountain system represents a polyphase se- ries of tectonic units formed by the superposition of several nappes, some of which crop out discontinuously, a fact that has complicated the regional tectonic interpretation. Part ofthe prob- Jem is due tothe presence of large and younger transcurrent faults that have caused the lateral displacement of pars ofthe nappes. ‘A synthesis of the tectonics ofthe western part ofthe moun- tain system was presented by Menéndez (1967), based mostly on detailed work by Princeton University students under the direc- tion of the Inte H. H. Hess. Since then, the quantity of geological studies has been overwhelming and the literature is voluminous. ‘Another short synthesis was presented later by Buttrli (1977), land a recent detailed description, tectonic interpretation, and ‘complete list of references has been writen by Belizia (1989). ‘The summary that follows is based on those publications and therefore does not make specific reference tothe detailed stuies. ‘The recognized nappes are, from north to south: (1) Margar- ita coastal ophiolte nappe, (2) Cordillera de la Costa nappe, (3) Caucagua-El Tinaco nappe, (4) Loma de Hierro-Paracotos ‘nappe, (5) Villa de Cura nappe, and (6) Piemontina nappe. Al- though their ages vary considerably, they are described here in this same geographic order (Fig. 2). A. Bellizia and G. Dengo ‘Margarita coastal ophiolte nappe ‘This unit, named after Margarita Island, i represented by a ‘narrow belt along the Caribbean coasts of Colombia and Vene~ zuela. It crops out inthe Guajira Peninsula to the eat, the north- ‘em part ofthe Cordillera dela Costa, the Araya-Paria Peninsula, ‘and Margarita Island. The predominant rock types are metavel- ‘anics, whose grade of metamorphism varies from one area 10 another, associated with minor sedimentary rocks. In the Goajra and Paraguané Peninsula there are suites of ultramafic rock that ‘may also belong tothe same episode of tectonic emplacement. In the Cordillera de la Costa, this nappe canbe identified in discontinuous but extensive outcrops from the Yaracuy River ‘eastward to Cabo Codera (Fig. 2). The rock types vary from low-grade greenschists to amphibolies, garnet amphibolite, and ‘eclogite. Associated with them are olistliths of ultramafic rocks, Farther tothe east, rocks of this nappe along the north coast of the Araya-Paria Peninsulas include mainly greenschists with ‘ccasional amphibolites and tectonically emplaced serpentinite bods. (On Margarita Island the sequence includes a variety of rocks, some of which represent a higher-grade metamorphism, ‘These include amphiboitc gneisses, metabasalis, metagabbros, Peridotites, serpentinites, and eclogite, associated with minor certs and metamorphosed limestones. Cordillera de la Costa nappe ‘This nappe, together with the Caucagua-El Tinaco nappe, represents materials that originated when the South American paleomargin was sliced. The Cordillera de la Costa nappe const- {utes approximately 75 percent of the Caribbean mountain sys- tem. Its western and central parts extend from the Caribbean ‘coast south to La Victoria fault. To the east, it forms the Araya: Paria Peninsulas, part of Margarita Island, and the Norther Range of Trinidad. The eastern portion is bounded on the south by E Pilar fault The major geologic units in this belt are a pre-Mesoroic basement (Sebastopol complex) unconformably covered by & thick sequence of Jurassic of Lower Cretaceous metasedimentary rocks (Caracas Group) with some intercalations of metamor- hosed mafic igneous rock, and some large granitic intrusions. ‘The Sebastopol complex, which consists mainly of meta- _ranite, forms the nucleus of the tectonic belt, and its outcrops are ‘confined to a small area west of Caracas. However, gneisic- ‘ranitc rocks between Lake Valencia and Puerto Cabello could also belong to this complex. Inthe east-central part of the Cordillera de la. Costa, the basal sequence of the Caracas Group consists of quartzo- feldspathic mica schists that in places grade laterally into augen ‘gneisses. Another sequence of calcareous and graphitic low-grade schists with intercalations of crystalline limestones lies conforma: bly over this. In the easter portion, along the Araya-Paria Peninslas theCaribbean mountain system, northern South America stratographic sequence is different, although some rocks are sin- ilar to the Caracas Group. At the base are mainly quartz-mica schists and graphitic phyllites, with some quartite and marble intercalations, These are overlain by calcareous-graphitic mica Schists and limestones. The sequence is quite variable, and differ- ent stratographic nomenclatures have been used in various parts of the region. Rocks similar to the lower part of the Caracas Group crop out in the Araya Peninsula and Margarita Island (Guan Griego Group). In the Northern Range of Trinidad, the rock sequence i essentially the same as in the Paria Peninsula, with the exception of voleaic and volcaniclastc ocks at Sans Souci Granite bodies of variable size are found throughout the length of this tectonic belt, and there are considerable discrepan- ies in age determinations; some of the main granites are intrusive-magmati; their emplacement ages range from Late Cre- taceous to early Tertiary. ‘The Caucagua-El Tinaco nappe ‘The Caucagua-Fl Tinaco nappe, or tectonic belt, i located to the south of the Cordillera de la Costa and is separated from it by La Victoria fault. It extends almost continuously from the Barguisimeto trough eastward to Barlovento. Its southern boun- dary is defined by the Santa Rosa fault (Fig. 2). It was originally defined in the Caucagua-El Tinaco area, but taking into consid- cation the geologic characteristics of its westernmost part, Blla- ia and Rodriguez (1976) designated it the Caucagua-El Tinaco-Yumare-Siquisique nappe. ‘The most complete section of this feature is found in the ‘Tinaco-Tinaquillo-El Pao area, It includes: (1) a Paleozoic or colder basement (El Tinaco complex), (2) a mafic-ultramafic complex (Tifiaquillo peridotites), and (3) a discordant volcanic ‘sedimentary sequence on tp of Albian-Cenomanian sedimentary formations. Near the village of Siquisque it includes a dismem- ‘ered ophiolitc unit. ‘The E1 Tinaco complex covers 800 km? in the north-central part of the state of Cojedes in Venezuela. Two metasedimentary ‘units ate recognized: a gneiss intruded by trondhjemite plutons surrounded by a wide belt of injection gneisses (migmattes) and 2 sequence of pelitic schists. The presence of small bodies of hhornblendites is common, hornblendic diortes, and homnblendic ‘basalt dikes intrude the complex. The gneiss represents a sedimen- tary sequence with minor amounts of volcanic material metamor- pphosed to the almandine-amphibolite faces. Its supracortical ‘origin is shown clearly by the presence of concordant thin layers ‘of marble and metaconglomerates. ‘The sequence of greenschst-facis schists and schistose con- slomerates that transtionally overlies the gneiss is confined tothe ‘northern part of the area. These were derived from arkosic sedi- ‘ments and tuflaceous pelites or mafic tufs ‘Ages of 112 + 3 Ma and 117 3 Ma (K/Ar) were deter- ined in the biotite and hornblende of the El Tinaco complex, m respectively. These Early Cretaceous isotopic ages could repre- sent a thermal event and not the age ofthe early metamorphism 100 these rocks. ‘The oldest rocks that lie unconformably on the El Tinaco ‘complex belong tothe Albian; therefor, a pre-Albian age, prob- ably Paleozoic, is usually assigned on the basis of regional correlations. The voleanicsedimentary sequence over the El Tinaco complex varies considerably in stratigraphy and degree of defor- ‘mation from one area to another, and it is dificult to establish proper age and lthologic correlations. Inthe area north of El Pao, the sequence includes detrital sedimentary rock covered by vol. canic breccias, pillow basalts, and diabases,intrlayered with certs and limestone, indicating a submarine origin. In some localities the limestones have been dated as Albian, Toward the feast the sequence becomes metamorphosed to greenschist faces. ‘The previous description allows us to postulate the existence ‘of two megacyctes inthe volcanic sedimentary cover (1) A detti- tal sequence, deposited in a neritic envionment, is formed by arkosic sandstones, coarse quartz or calcareous conglomerates With abundant fragments of the El Tinaco complex, bioclastic limestones with some benthonic foraminifera, and fine calcareous horizons and cher. The benthonic fauna corresponds to the upper Albian to middle Albian interval. (2) An upper pelagic sequence representing deeper-water environments concordantly overlies ‘the Albian rocks ‘An ultramafic complex located north of the town of Tina- nv nit SocETY AUGUST, 1989