Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cirrosis Diabetes
Cirrosis Diabetes
REVIEW
Abstract
Disorders of glucose metabolism, namely glucose intolerance and diabetes, are frequent in patients with chronic liver
diseases. In patients with cirrhosis, diabetes can be either a classical type 2 diabetes mellitus or the so-called hepatoge-
nous diabetes, i.e. a consequence of liver insufficiency and portal hypertension. This review article provides an overview
of the possible pathophysiological mechanisms explaining diabetes in patients with cirrhosis. Cirrhosis is associated with
portosystemic shunts as well as reduced hepatic mass, which can both impair insulin clearance by the liver, contribut-
ing to peripheral insulin resistance through insulin receptors down-regulation. Moreover, cirrhosis is associated with
increased levels of advanced-glycation-end products and hypoxia-inducible-factors, which may play a role in the devel-
opment of diabetes. This review also focuses on the clinical implications of diabetes in patients with cirrhosis. First, dia-
betes is an independent factor for poor prognosis in patients with cirrhosis. Specifically, diabetes is associated with the
occurrence of major complications of cirrhosis, including ascites and renal dysfunction, hepatic encephalopathy and
bacterial infections. Diabetes is also associated with an increased risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with
chronic liver diseases. Last, the management of patients with concurrent diabetes and liver disease is also addressed.
Recent findings suggest a beneficial impact of metformin in patients with chronic liver diseases. Insulin is often
required in patients with advanced cirrhosis. However, the favourable impact of controlling diabetes in patients with
cirrhosis has not been demonstrated yet.
Keywords
ascites – hepatic encephalopathy – hepatocellular carcinoma – hepatogenous diabetes – metformin
Abbreviations
AGEs, advanced glycation-end products; CTGF, connective tissue growth factor; DPP-4, Dipeptyl peptidase-4; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide-1;
HbA1c, glycated haemoglobin; HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; HIF, hypoxia inducible factor; IGF1, insulin growth factor-1; MELD, model for end-
stage liver disease; NAFLD, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; NASH, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis; PPAR, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor.
Correspondence
Dr Laure Elkrief, Service de Gastroent
erologie et Hepatologie, Avenue Gabrielle-Perret-Gentil 4, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland.
Tel: +41 79 55 33 704; Fax: +41 22 37 29366
e-mail: Laure.elkrief@hcuge.ch
The Institute of Liver and Biliary Sciences has been endorsed by the Inserm as an International Laboratory associated to the INSERM Unit 1149 and
Universit
e Paris-Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cit e, Paris, both in France.
Handling Editor: Isabelle Leclercq
Received 22 June 2015; Accepted 7 March 2016
Additional Supporting Information may be found at onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/liv.13115/suppinfo
vesicles, called apoptotic bodies. Apoptosis is a key a positive correlation between neovascularisation and
player in the progression of liver fibrosis (18). Engulf- insulin resistance as well as with liver fibrosis (29). Thus,
ment of apoptotic bodies by hepatic stellate cells this suggests that insulin resistance and diabetes, as in
stimulates their fibrogenic activity and may be one other tissues, promote liver fibrosis through angiogene-
mechanism by which hepatocyte apoptosis promotes sis. Yet, the impact of diabetes, outside the context of
fibrosis (19). Indirect data suggest that diabetes might NASH, on excessive angiogenesis and subsequent liver
promote fiborsis through aptoptosis. First, the dysreg- fibrosis has not been evaluated.
ulation of the insulin receptor pathway, associated
with insulin resistance, promotes liver cell apoptosis
Hepatic sinusoidal capillarization
(20). In patients with NASH, plasma cytokeratin 18
substrates, a biomarker of liver apoptosis, is associ- Hepatic sinusoidal capillarization refers to the loss of
ated with liver fibrosis (21, 22). However, the associa- endothelial cell fenestration, associated with the depo-
tion between diabetes and apoptosis remains to be sition of collagen and other extracellular matrix pro-
evaluated. teins in the space of Disse. This mechanism is
implicated in the progression of liver fibrosis (30).
The role of insulin signalling and of hyperglycaemia
Angiogenesis
on sinusoidal endothelial cells and their impact on
Angiogenesis consists in the formation of new vascular liver fibrogenesis has not been studied (31). Yet, the
structures from pre-existing blood vessels. Excessive increase in extra-cellular matrix deposition in the
angiogenesis plays a major role in the pathophysiology space of Disse typically observed in liver biopsies from
of diabetic complications including nephropathy, patients with diabetes suggests that hepatic sinusoidal
retinopathy as well as macrovascular diseases (23). capillarization may promote liver fibrosis in the dia-
Interestingly, excessive angiogenesis plays a role in the betes setting (32–34).
pathophysiology of these diseases and promotes fibrosis
through the activation of CTGF (24–26).
Impact of cirrhosis on glucose homeostasis
Pathological angiogenesis has also been described in
chronic liver diseases, including NASH (27). First, it has In a normal individual, the liver plays a key role in
been shown that leptin-mediated neovascularisation, maintaining glucose homeostasis. In patients with
coordinated by vascular endothelial growth factor advanced cirrhosis, alterations in glucose metabolism,
(VEGF), plays an important role in the development of the so-called hepatogenous diabetes, have been
liver fibrosis in a rat model of NASH (28). More described. Fig. 1 summarizes the potential mecha-
recently, the same group showed that CD34 expression, nisms which might participate into the occurrence of
a marker of neovascularisation, was overexpressed in hepatogenous diabetes mellitus in patients with cir-
the liver of patients with NASH. Furthermore, there was rhosis.
Furthermore, discrimination between type 2 diabetes complications (71, 72). Studies on small-sized series of
and hepatogenous diabetes is frequently not possible. patients indicate that HbA1c measurement is not accu-
Still, hepatogenous diabetes may have different clinical rate in patients with cirrhosis (73–75). Indeed, 40% of
characteristics from type 2 diabetes. Among 50 patients the non-diabetic patients with cirrhosis had HbA1c val-
with hepatogenous diabetes, only 16% of patients had a ues below the normal range in a non-diabetic reference
family history of diabetes. Only 8% had retinopathy. population (75, 76). Furthermore, patients with cirrho-
After a mean follow-up of 5 years, no cardiovascular sis and concurrent diabetes also had HbA1c values in
deaths was reported, whereas 52% of the patients had the non-diabetic reference, namely between 4 and 6%
died, mainly from complications of cirrhosis (56). This (76). Only a small proportion of patients with cirrhosis
may be either related to the shorter duration of diabetes and diabetes had high HbA1c (76). Furthermore,
in patients with hepatogenous diabetes than in patients patients with cirrhosis showed similar values of HbA1c
with type 2 diabetes or to the fact that mortality is compared to control patients, although fasting plasma
mostly related to cirrhosis-related complications in glucose was higher in patients with cirrhosis (74). The
these patients (63). reason why HbA1c measurement is not accurately
In patients with isolated hepatogenous diabetes, liver reflecting glycaemic control in patients with cirrhosis
transplantation by itself can normalize glucose tolerance remains unclear. Shortened erythrocyte life span, which
and insulin sensitivity (64), supporting the idea that dia- is common in patients with cirrhosis and is known to
betes was related to cirrhosis. However, post-transplan- cause low HbA1c values, could play a role independent
tation diabetes remains a very common condition, as it of glycaemia. Fructosamine measurement reflects gly-
is estimated that about 30% of liver transplant recipients caemic status over a period of 2–4 weeks. Fructosamine
have diabetes (65). Interestingly, in patients receiving a level appears to be a more accurate tool than HbA1c for
liver graft, pretransplantation diabetes, as well as monitoring glycaemic control in patients with cirrhosis
advanced age, family history of diabetes, and maximum (75, 76) .
body mass index over 25 kg/m2 (which are risk factors
for type 2 diabetes), is associated with the development
of post-transplantation diabetes (66). These data suggest Prognostic impact of diabetes in patients with
that diabetes mellitus present at the time of liver trans- cirrhosis
plantation was not only exclusively related to advanced
Survival
liver disease but also to pre-existing metabolic abnor-
malities. The causes of liver disease also appear to be an The prognostic value of diabetes in cirrhosis has previ-
important risk factor for the development of diabetes in ously been investigated only in a limited number of
patients with cirrhosis. Indeed, diabetes is more fre- studies on selected patients. Some studies included
quent in patients with hepatitis C-related cirrhosis (67, patients with advanced cirrhosis, whereas others
68) or alcohol-related cirrhosis than in patients with bil- included patients with well-compensated cirrhosis; most
iary cirrhosis (69). However, cirrhosis remains indepen- of these studies found that diabetes was associated with
dently associated with cirrhosis. Indeed, among patients a lower survival (57–59, 63, 77–79) (Table 1). Recently,
with hepatitis C infection, diabetes is more frequently a French cohort study of 348 patients with hepatitis C-
observed in patients with cirrhosis (24%) than in those related cirrhosis admitted to hospital found that dia-
without (6%) (70). betes was associated with a shorter transplantation-free
Measurement of glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) does survival, independent of model for end-stage liver dis-
not accurately reflect glycaemic status in patients with ease (MELD) score (Odds ratio 1.3). Diabetes markedly
cirrhosis. In patients without liver diseases, HbA1c is influenced the prognosis in patients with baseline
used for routine evaluation and the management of MELD score <10. By contrast, diabetes had no impact
patients with diabetes. HbA1c concentration reflects the on survival in patients with a baseline MELD score ≥10
previous 2–3 months of glycaemic status and is well (63). These findings suggest that the severity of liver dis-
correlated with the development of diabetes-related ease masks the deleterious effect of diabetes and/or that
Table 1. Studies evaluating the prognostic impact of diabetes in patients with cirrhosis
Author (ref) Year Patients Type of study Characteristics of the patients Follow-up Survival (diabetics vs. non diabetic)
Bianchi (77) 1984 382 Retrospective Hospitalized 37 months 64 vs. 82% (P = 0.005)
Moreau (78) 2004 100 Prospective Refractory ascites 2 years 18 vs. 58% (P = 0.0004)
Nishida (76) 2006 56 Prospective Various aetiologies 5 years 56 vs. 95% (P < 0.05)
Sangiovanni (98) 2006 214 Retrospective HCV compensated cirrhosis 17 years No difference
Berman (96) 2011 447 Retrospective Hospitalized 90 days No difference
Quintana (97) 2011 110 Prospective Compensated cirrhosis 2.5 years 69 vs. 48% (P < 0.05)
Elkrief (82) 2014 348 Retrospective Hospitalized HCV cirrhosis 4.5 years 24 vs. 34% (P = 0.03)
in patients with high MELD score, diabetes related to models without cirrhosis, diabetes is associated with
cirrhosis, and thus has no independent effect on sur- specific changes in the hepatic microcirculation, called
vival. ‘hepatic microangiopathy’ (or diabetic hepatosclerosis),
characterized by non-zonal perisinusoidal deposition of
collagen and basement membrane (33, 34, 85, 86)
Hepatocellular carcinoma
(Fig. 2). In patients with cirrhosis and concurrent dia-
It is now well established that the risk of cancer is betes, such lesions might participate into the formation
increased in patients with type 2 diabetes, including of ascites. It is thus tempting to speculate that diabetes-
hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) (80). In a meta-analy- associated microcirculatory changes in the liver and the
sis of 28 prospective studies, pre-existing diabetes was kidneys could promote ascites and renal dysfunction
significantly associated with an increased incidence of (33). Supplemental Fig. S1 summarizes the mechanisms
HCC (relative risk 1.87) and HCC-specific mortality promoting ascites in patients with cirrhosis and
(relative risk 1.88) (81). Yet, no practical recommenda- diabetes.
tions can be suggested for patients with cirrhosis and
diabetes. In patients with cirrhosis, compared to
Hepatic encephalopathy
patients undergoing ultrasound surveillance every
6 months, three-month ultrasonographical examination The association between diabetes and hepatic
did not improve either the rate of detection of small encephalopathy has been shown in several studies. In
HCCs eligible for curative treatment or the overall sur- the first study, among 65 patients with hepatitis C-
vival rate compared to patients undergoing surveillance related cirrhosis, severe hepatic encephalopathy was
every 6 months (82). more common, contrasting with a preserved liver
function (87). In the second study, in 128 patients
with cirrhosis, diabetes was associated with minimal
Ascites and renal dysfunction
hepatic encephalopathy (88). Furthermore, in a recent
We recently reported that diabetes is associated with the French cohort of 348 patients with hepatitis C-related
development of ascites, independent of MELD score in cirrhosis, diabetes was associated with the presence of
patients with hepatitis C-related cirrhosis (63). Diabetes hepatic encephalopathy, independent of MELD score
also seems to be associated with refractory ascites. (63). The latter study included hospitalized patients,
Indeed, in a French prospective study of 100 patients and only overt hepatic encephalopathy was taken into
with cirrhosis and refractory ascites, diabetes was more account.
frequently observed in patients with Child Pugh class B Several mechanisms by which diabetes could theoret-
than Child Pugh class C cirrhosis suggesting a role of ically promote hepatic encephalopathy have been inves-
diabetes independent from impaired liver function (59). tigated. First, diabetes could increase ammonia
These observations suggest a specific role of diabetes in production by enhancing small intestine glutaminase
the development of ascites. However, the involved type K. Indeed, metformin which reduces glutaminase
mechanisms remain elusive. In patients with cirrhosis, activity in vitro has been shown to decrease the inci-
ascites formation has been related to circulatory distur- dence of hepatic encephalopathy in patients with cirrho-
bances, renal dysfunction and sodium retention (83). sis (89). Moreover, in a randomized control trial
Moreover, in patients with cirrhosis on the waiting list including more than 100 patients, the administration of
for liver transplantation, diabetic nephropathy is fre- an oral antidiabetic agent, acarbose, in patients with cir-
quently observed when kidney biopsy is performed, and rhosis and concurrent diabetes significantly reduced
is predictive of the development of renal dysfunction ammonia blood levels, and improved psychometric tests
after liver transplantation (84). In humans or animal for minimal hepatic encephalopathy (90). Second, the
Fig. 2. Pathological lesions found in the liver of patients with diabetes. Haematoxylin–eosin staining: (A) Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis fea-
tures include macrovesicular steatosis (star), hepatocyte ballooning (black arrow) and lobular inflammation (cross), (B) Metabolic cirrhosis: at
the stage of cirrhosis, typical features of NAFLD may be lacking; Picrosirius coloration: (C) perisinusoidal fibrosis (star).
inflammatory state associated with insulin resistance diabetic patients than in non-diabetic (85 vs. 48%,
and type 2 diabetes (91) could act synergistically with P < 0.0001) (101). In our cohort of 348 hospitalized
cirrhosis and endotoxemia associated with encephalopa- patients with HCV-related cirrhosis, diabetes was inde-
thy (92). Third, intestine motility impairment has been pendently associated with bacterial infections develop-
described in diabetic patients as a part of autonomic ment (63). Finally, in patients undergoing liver
neuropathy (93). It could promote small intestine bacte- transplantation, those with diabetes are at higher risk
rial overgrowth raising bacterial translocation, known to for bacterial infections (102).
favour hepatic encephalopathy (94).
Management of diabetes in patients with cirrhosis
Bacterial infections
In patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes, the Diabetes
Diabetes mellitus and cirrhosis are two conditions that Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) and the Uni-
predispose to bacterial infections. Diabetes has been ted Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS)
associated with increased rates of bacterial infections studies have demonstrated that poor glycaemic control
(95). This feature may be partially explained by a (based on an HbA1c level above 7% for type 1 diabetes
decreased T-cell-mediated immune response (96). and 6.5% for type 2 diabetes) was directly associated
Impaired neutrophil function has also been documented with the development of diabetic micro- and macro-
in diabetic patients (97). Bacterial infections are also angiopathy (71, 72). In patients with cirrhosis and dia-
more common in patients with cirrhosis than in the betes, the risk of cirrhosis complications seems to be
general population (98). They are also more severe since higher than the risk of diabetes complications. The
mortality is four-fold higher in infected patients with impact of early diagnosis and treatment of diabetes on
cirrhosis than in those without (99). The mechanisms of the clinical course of patients with cirrhosis and diabetes
increased susceptibility to infections in cirrhosis are is unknown. However, it is tempting to speculate that it
unclear. Functional alterations of monocytes and neu- could be beneficial. As detailed below, recent data sug-
trophils have been observed. A role for deficiencies in gesting that metformin decreases the risk of HCC as well
C3 and C4 has also been suggested (100). The synergy of as the risk of hepatic encephalopathy are in favour of
diabetes and cirrhosis to promote infections is sup- screening and treating diabetes in patients with cirrho-
ported by clinical evidence. In one cohort of 178 cir- sis.
rhotic hospitalized patients (25% had diabetes), the There is no clinical trial that specifically targeted
prevalence of bacterial infections was more frequent in patients with coexistent diabetes and cirrhosis. The ther-
Table 2. Therapeutics options for treatment of diabetes mellitus in patients with cirrhosis
Useful in Useful in patients
Therapy Mechanism of action type 2 DM with cirrhosis and DM Side-effects/risks
Lifestyle interventions Decrease liver and adipose fat Very useful Potentially useful Malnutrition frequent in patients
Low fat diet Increase insulin sensitivity with cirrhosis
Physical exercise Physical exercise may not be
feasible in patients with
advanced cirrhosis
(edema, ascites)
Metformin Increase insulin sensitivity Very useful Very useful Contraindicated in patients with
renal dysfunction
Theoretical risk of lactic acidosis
Thiazolidinediones Increase insulin sensitivity Useful No available data Reported hepatotoxicity
Usefulness in patients with
NASH has not been
demonstrated
Secretagogues Increase endogenous Useful Not useful Contraindicated in patients
Sulphonyureas production of insulin with advanced cirrhosis
Glinides because of the risk of
hypoglycaemia
Incretins Increase insulin sensitiviy Very useful No available data
GLP-1 receptor analogues Obese patients
DPP-4 inhibitors (weight loss)
Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors Decrease carbohydrate Useful May be useful in Benign digestive side-effects
absorption in the bowel patients with HE
Insulin Substitutive treatment Often necessary Often necessary Risk of hypoglycaemia
DM, diabetes mellitus; NASH, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide-1; DPP-4, dipeptyl peptidase-4; HE, hepatic encephalopathy.
apeutic options for diabetes, and their potential benefit lactic acidosis (105). Yet, despite the widespread use of
in patients with cirrhosis, are summarized in Table 2. metformin, only rare patients with cirrhosis developed
An algorithm for the management of diabetes in lactic acidosis, suggesting that metformin is safe in
patients with cirrhosis is proposed in Fig. 3. patients with cirrhosis without renal dysfunction (106–
109) (Supplemental Table S1).
A growing number of observational studies suggest
Lifestyle interventions
that metformin (relative to other glucose-lowering ther-
The first-line therapy for type 2 diabetes consists of life- apies) could be associated with a reduced risk of cancer
style changes, which includes hypocaloric diet and physical or cancer mortality, including hepatocellular carcinoma
exercise. The goal of physical exercise is to increase periph- (110, 111). Furthermore, Zhang et al. recently reported
eral insulin sensitivity. Unfortunately, in patients with cir- that continuation of metformin in patients with newly
rhosis, such therapies may be inappropriate or unfeasible. diagnosed cirrhosis is associated with a longer survival
Indeed, up to 50 percent of cirrhotic patients have malnu- (112). In a recent cohort of 82 patients with cirrhosis
trition (103), a contraindication to hypocaloric diet. Fur- and diabetes, the occurrence of hepatic encephalopathy
thermore, ascites and edema hamper physical exercise. was significantly lower in patients receiving metformin
(5 vs. 41%) (89). An indication bias may limit the inter-
Pharmacologic therapies pretation of observational studies, as metformin is most
typically prescribed to patients with short duration of
Pharmacologic options for the control of diabetes in diabetes and without contraindicating factors (advanced
patients with liver diseases are, for the most part, similar age, liver or kidney disease) that also might impact the
to patients without liver disease. Only patients with sev- prognosis (113). However, these data suggest that
ere impaired liver function have altered drug metabo- metformin is the first-choice therapy for patients with
lism. Regarding the risk of hepatotoxicity, while patients cirrhosis and diabetes.
with liver disease are not predisposed to hepatotoxicity,
the underlying liver disease may increase the severity of
drug-induced liver injury (104). Thiazolidindiones
Thiazolidinediones are insulin-sensitizing peroxisome
Metformin proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) gamma ago-
nists that do not increase insulin secretion directly or
First-line therapy with metformin is theoretically appro- cause hypoglycaemia when used alone. Thus, thiazo-
priate in patients with cirrhosis because it decreases lidinediones may be particularly useful in patients
insulin resistance. Metformin has long been considered with diabetes and chronic liver diseases. However,
to be contraindicated in patients with advanced liver troglitazone and rosiglitazone have been withdrawn
disease because of a theoretical increase in the risk of from the market because of their potential hepato-
Universal screening
Fasting plasma glucose No diabetes
If normal: oral glucose tolerance test
Metformin
Insulin
Poor glucose control
after 3 months * Control weight, increase physical activity
** Filtration glomerular rate <50 ml/min
Fig. 3. Proposed algorithm for the management of diabetes mellitus in patients with cirrhosis.
toxic effect and the risk of congestive heart failure the usefulness of incretins in patients with cirrhosis need
respectively. Pioglitazone is still currently available. In further investigations.
patients with NASH, the usefulness of thiazolidine-
diones is debated (114). A meta-analysis of four ran-
Insulin
domized controlled trials found that
thiazolidinediones significantly improve steatosis and Despite the potential interest of oral antidiabetic agents,
liver inflammation, but not fibrosis (115). Patients insulin therapy is frequently prescribed in patients with
with cirrhosis were excluded from these trials. cirrhosis, especially in those with advanced cirrhosis.
Among 348 patients with hepatitis C-related cirrhosis,
62% were on insulin therapy 63).
Insulin secretagogues
Importantly, caution must be made regarding the
Insulin secretagogues include sulphonylureas and glin- dosage of insulin therapy. Indeed, insulin requirements
ides. They trigger insulin release by the pancreatic beta in patients with cirrhosis may vary depending on the
cells. Thus, in patients with cirrhosis, they may not be severity of cirrhosis. In patients with compensated cir-
the first-choice option, as they do not modify insulin rhosis, insulin requirement may be important because
sensitivity. Moreover, patients with cirrhosis, especially insulin resistance predominates. In patients with decom-
those with alcohol-related cirrhosis, may have pancre- pensated cirrhosis, the hepatic metabolism of insulin is
atic beta-islets cell damage. Most importantly, there is reduced, which decreases the needs for insulin. There-
an increased risk of hypoglycaemia with these therapies. fore, hospitalization might be safe for the initiation of
Thus, secretagogues are not recommended in patients insulin therapy, by allowing for close monitoring of
with high risk of hypoglycaemia (105). blood glucose levels, to reduce the risk of hypoglycaemia.
Non selective beta-blockers are widely used in
patients with cirrhosis for prophylaxis of variceal bleed-
Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors
ing (119). With regard to diabetic patients under insulin
Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors (acarbose) could be useful treatment, beta-blockers may make hypoglycaemic epi-
in patients with cirrhosis, since they reduce carbohy- sodes less symptomatic, leading to more profound alter-
drate absorption in the bowel, which would decrease the ation in mental state to develop without warning
risk of postprandial hyperglycaemia. Indeed, patients symptoms. Moreover, hypoglycaemia can be precipi-
with cirrhosis and diabetes frequently have normal tated by beta-adrenergic response because b2-adreno-
plasma fasting glucose and abnormal oral glucose toler- ceptors normally stimulate glycogenolysis and
ance test (56, 57). In a randomized, double-blind study pancreatic release of glucagon. However, a study com-
including 100 patients with compensated cirrhosis and paring subjects with diabetes receiving or not beta-
insulin-treated diabetes, the control of postprandial and blockers found that beta-blockers did not increase the
fasting blood glucose levels improved significantly with number or the severity of hypoglycaemic episodes
the use of acarbose (116). In another crossover placebo- (120). Thus, beta-blockers are not contraindicated in
controlled study involving patients with hepatic patients with cirrhosis treated with insulin.
encephalopathy, there was a significant improvement in
postprandial blood glucose level in patients treated with Conclusion
acarbose (90).
Diabetes mellitus is observed in up to 30% of patients
with cirrhosis. Diabetes can be either an underlying
Dipeptyl peptidase-4 inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide- type 2 diabetes mellitus or the consequence of alter-
1 receptor agonists ations directly related to an impaired liver function.
Glucagon-like peptide-1 is a gut-derived incretin hor- Diabetes mellitus is associated with a poor prognosis
mone that stimulates insulin and suppresses glucagon in patients with cirrhosis, mainly because of an
secretion, inhibits gastric emptying and reduces appetite increased risk of cirrhosis complications. Thus, screen-
and food intake. Therapeutic approaches for enhancing ing for diabetes mellitus should be proposed to all
incretin action include DDP-4 inhibitors and GLP-1 patients with cirrhosis. Although it is tempting to
analogues. These classes of therapeutic agents for type 2 speculate that controlling diabetes may have a benefi-
diabetes were developed in the past 10 years and have cial effect, further controlled studies are needed to
proven to be effective glucose lowering agents. In addi- evaluate the effect of diabetes control on the develop-
tion, GLP-1 analogues promote (moderate) weight loss ment of complications of cirrhosis.
(117). So far, preclinical studies have found that incre-
tins can improve hepatic steatosis (118). Although some Acknowledgements
effects could be because of an overall improvement in
metabolic parameters, there are data to support Financial disclosures: None.
improvements independent from weight loss, as well as Conflict of interest: The authors do not have any
direct effect on the hepatocyte. However, the safety and disclosures to report.
37. Bosch J, Gomis R, Kravetz D, et al. Role of spontaneous 56. Holstein A, Hinze S, Thiessen E, Plaschke A, Egberts E-H.
portal-systemic shunting in hyperinsulinism of cirrhosis. Clinical implications of hepatogenous diabetes in liver
Am J Physiol 1984; 247: G206–12. cirrhosis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2002; 17: 677–81.
38. Desch^enes M, Somberg KA. Effect of transjugular intra- 57. Nishida T, Tsuji S, Tsujii M, et al. Oral glucose tolerance
hepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) on glycemic control test predicts prognosis of patients with liver cirrhosis. Am
in cirrhotic patients with diabetes mellitus. Am J Gas- J Gastroenterol 2006; 101: 70–5.
troenterol 1998; 93: 483. 58. Bianchi G, Marchesini G, Zoli M, et al. Prognostic signif-
39. Shanik MH, Xu Y, Skrha J, et al. Insulin resistance and icance of diabetes in patients with cirrhosis. Hepatology
hyperinsulinemia: is hyperinsulinemia the cart or the (Baltimore, MD) 1994; 20: 119–25.
horse? Diabetes Care 2008; 31(Suppl 2): S262–8. 59. Moreau R, Delegue P, Pessione F, et al. Clinical charac-
40. Vlassara H, Uribarri J. Advanced glycation end products teristics and outcome of patients with cirrhosis and
(AGE) and diabetes: cause, effect, or both? Curr Diab Rep refractory ascites. Liver Int 2004; 24: 457–64.
2014; 14: 453. 60. Dunstan DW, Zimmet PZ, Welborn TA, et al. The rising
41. Yang Z, Makita Z, Horii Y, et al. Two novel rat liver prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance the
membrane proteins that bind advanced glycosylation Australian diabetes. Obesity and lifestyle study. Diabetes
endproducts: relationship to macrophage receptor for Care 2002; 25: 829–34.
glucose-modified proteins. J Exp Med 1991; 174: 515–24. 61. Harris MI, Flegal KM, Cowie CC, et al. Prevalence of dia-
42. Sebekova K, Kupcova V, Schinzel R, Heidland A. Mark- betes, impaired fasting glucose, and impaired glucose tol-
edly elevated levels of plasma advanced glycation end erance in U.S. adults: the Third National Health and
products in patients with liver cirrhosis - amelioration by Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994. Diabetes Care
liver transplantation. J Hepatol 2002; 36: 66–71. 1998; 21: 518–24.
43. Yagmur E, Tacke F, Weiss C, et al. Elevation of Ne-(car- 62. WHO. Definition and diagnosis of diabetes_new.pdf
boxymethyl)lysine-modified advanced glycation end [Internet]. 2006. Available at: http://www.who.int/dia-
products in chronic liver disease is an indicator of liver betes/publications/Definition%20and%20diagnosis%20of
cirrhosis. Clin Biochem 2006; 39: 39–45. %20diabetes_new.pdf.
44. Moreau R, Lee SS, Soupison T, Roche-Sicot J, Sicot C. 63. Elkrief L, Chouinard P, Bendersky N, et al. Diabetes mel-
Abnormal tissue oxygenation in patients with cirrhosis litus is an independent prognostic factor for major liver-
and liver failure. J Hepatol 1988; 7: 98–105. related outcomes in patients with cirrhosis and chronic
45. Corpechot C, Barbu V, Wendum D, et al. Hypoxia- hepatitis C. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD) 2014; 60: 823–
induced VEGF and collagen I expressions are associated 31.
with angiogenesis and fibrogenesis in experimental cir- 64. Merli M, Leonetti F, Riggio O, et al. Glucose intolerance
rhosis. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD) 2002; 35: 1010–21. and insulin resistance in cirrhosis are normalized after
46. Nath B, Szabo G. Hypoxia and hypoxia inducible factors: liver transplantation. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD) 1999;
diverse roles in liver diseases. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD) 30: 649–54.
2012; 55: 622–33. 65. Heisel O, Heisel R, Balshaw R, Keown P. New onset dia-
47. Semenza GL. Hypoxia-inducible factors in physiology betes mellitus in patients receiving calcineurin inhibitors:
and medicine. Cell 2012; 148: 399–408. a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Transplant
48. Cheng K, Ho K, Stokes R, et al. Hypoxia-inducible fac- 2004; 4: 583–95.
tor-1a regulates b cell function in mouse and human 66. Pageaux G-P, Faure S, Bouyabrine H, Bismuth M, Asse-
islets. J Clin Invest 2010; 120: 2171–83. nat E. Long-term outcomes of liver transplantation: dia-
49. Petrides AS, Vogt C, Schulze-Berge D, Matthews D, betes mellitus. Liver Transplant 2009; 15(Suppl 2): S79–
Strohmeyer G. Pathogenesis of glucose intolerance and 82.
diabetes mellitus in cirrhosis. Hepatology (Baltimore, 67. Mehta SH, Brancati FL, Sulkowski MS, et al. Prevalence
MD) 1994; 19: 616–27. of type 2 diabetes mellitus among persons with hepatitis
50. Yi P, Park J-S, Melton DA. Betatrophin: a hormone that C virus infection in the United States. Ann Intern Med
controls pancreatic b cell proliferation. Cell 2013; 153: 2000; 133: 592–9.
747–58. 68. Younossi ZM, Stepanova M, Nader F, Younossi Z,
51. Espes D, Martinell M, Carlsson P-O. Increased circulating Elsheikh E. Associations of chronic hepatitis C with meta-
betatrophin concentrations in patients with type 2 dia- bolic and cardiac outcomes. Aliment Pharmacol Ther
betes. Int J Endocrinol 2014; 2014: 323407. 2013; 37: 647–52.
52. Fu Z, Berhane F, Fite A, et al. Elevated circulating lipasin/ 69. Zein NN, Abdulkarim AS, Wiesner RH, Egan KS, Persing
betatrophin in human type 2 diabetes and obesity. Sci DH. Prevalence of diabetes mellitus in patients with end-
Rep 2014; 4: 5013. stage liver cirrhosis due to hepatitis C, alcohol, or chole-
53. Hu H, Sun W, Yu S, et al. Increased circulating levels of static disease. J Hepatol 2000; 32: 209–17.
betatrophin in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetic patients. 70. Moucari R, Asselah T, Cazals-Hatem D, et al. Insulin
Diabetes Care 2014; 37: 2718–22. resistance in chronic hepatitis C: association with geno-
54. Abu-Farha M, Abubaker J, Al-Khairi I, et al. Higher types 1 and 4, serum HCV RNA level, and liver fibrosis.
plasma betatrophin/ANGPTL8 level in type 2 diabetes Gastroenterology 2008; 134: 416–23.
subjects does not correlate with blood glucose or insulin 71. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research
resistance. Sci Rep 2015; 5: 10949. Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on
55. Arias-Loste MT, Garcıa-Unzueta MT, Llerena S, et al. the development and progression of long-term complica-
Plasma betatrophin levels in patients with liver cirrhosis. tions in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J
World J Gastroenterol 2015; 21: 10662–8. Med 1993; 329: 977–86.
72. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. 89. Ampuero J, Ranchal I, Nu~ nez D, et al. Metformin inhi-
Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or bits glutaminase activity and protects against hepatic
insulin compared with conventional treatment and encephalopathy. PLoS ONE 2012; 7: e49279.
risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes 90. Gentile S, Guarino G, Romano M, et al. A randomized
(UKPDS 33). Lancet 1998; 352: 837–53. controlled trial of acarbose in hepatic encephalopathy.
73. Cacciatore L, Cozzolino G, Giardina MG, et al. Abnor- Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005; 3: 184–91.
malities of glucose metabolism induced by liver cirrhosis 91. Basu S, Zethelius B, Helmersson J, et al. Cytokine-
and glycosylated hemoglobin levels in chronic liver dis- mediated inflammation is independently associated with
ease. Diabetes Res 1988; 7: 185–8. insulin sensitivity measured by the euglycemic insulin
74. Nomura Y, Nanjo K, Miyano M, et al. Hemoglobin clamp in a community-based cohort of elderly men. Int J
A1 in cirrhosis of the liver. Diabetes Res 1989; 11: Clin Exp Med 2011; 4: 164–8.
177–80. 92. Romero-G omez M, Montagnese S, Jalan R. Hepatic
75. Lahousen T, Hegenbarth K, Ille R, et al. Determination encephalopathy in patients with acute decompensation of
of glycated hemoglobin in patients with advanced liver cirrhosis and acute-on-chronic liver failure. J Hepatol
disease. World J Gastroenterol 2004; 10: 2284–6. 2015; 62: 437–47.
76. Trenti T, Cristani A, Cioni G, et al. Fructosamine and 93. Feldman M, Schiller LR. Disorders of gastrointestinal
glycated hemoglobin as indices of glycemic control in motility associated with diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern
patients with liver cirrhosis. Int J Clin Lab Res 1990; 20: Med 1983; 98: 378–84.
261–7. 94. Bauer TM, Schwacha H, Steinbr€ uckner B, et al. Small
77. Berman K, Tandra S, Forssell K, et al. Incidence and pre- intestinal bacterial overgrowth in human cirrhosis is asso-
dictors of 30-day readmission among patients hospital- ciated with systemic endotoxemia. Am J Gastroenterol
ized for advanced liver disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2002; 97: 2364–70.
2011; 9: 254–9. 95. Muller LMAJ, Gorter KJ, Hak E, et al. Increased risk of
78. Quintana JOJ, Garcıa-Compean D, Gonzalez JAG, et al. common infections in patients with type 1 and type 2
The impact of diabetes mellitus in mortality of patients diabetes mellitus. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 281–8.
with compensated liver cirrhosis-a prospective study. 96. Pozzilli P, Leslie RD. Infections and diabetes: mechanisms
Ann Hepatol 2011; 10: 56–62. and prospects for prevention. Diabet Med 1994; 11: 935–
79. Sangiovanni A, Prati GM, Fasani P, et al. The natural his- 41.
tory of compensated cirrhosis due to hepatitis C virus: a 97. Delamaire M, Maugendre D, Moreno M, et al. Impaired
17-year cohort study of 214 patients. Hepatology (Balti- leucocyte functions in diabetic patients. Diabet Med 1997;
more, MD) 2006; 43: 1303–10. 14: 29–34.
80. Seshasai SRK, Kaptoge S, Thompson A, et al. Diabetes 98. Fernandez J, Navasa M, G omez J, et al. Bacterial infec-
mellitus, fasting glucose, and risk of cause-specific death. tions in cirrhosis: epidemiological changes with invasive
N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 829–41. procedures and norfloxacin prophylaxis. Hepatology (Bal-
81. Yang W-S, Va P, Bray F, et al. The role of pre-existing timore, MD) 2002; 35: 140–8.
diabetes mellitus on hepatocellular carcinoma occurrence 99. Arvaniti V, D’Amico G, Fede G, et al. Infections in
and prognosis: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort patients with cirrhosis increase mortality four-fold and
studies. PLoS ONE 2011; 6: e27326. should be used in determining prognosis. Gastroenterol-
82. Trinchet J-C, Chaffaut C, Bourcier V, et al. Ultrasono- ogy 2010; 139: 1246.e5–56.e5.
graphic surveillance of hepatocellular carcinoma in cir- 100. Gustot T, Durand F, Lebrec D, Vincent J-L, Moreau R.
rhosis: a randomized trial comparing 3- and 6-month Severe sepsis in cirrhosis. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD)
periodicities. Hepatology 2011; 54: 1987–97. 2009; 50: 2022–33.
83. Gines P, Schrier RW. Renal failure in cirrhosis. N Engl J 101. Diaz J, Monge E, Roman R, Ulloa V. Diabetes as a risk
Med 2009; 361: 1279–90. factor for infections in cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol 2008;
84. Calmus Y, Conti F, Cluzel P, et al. Prospective assess- 103: 248.
ment of renal histopathological lesions in patients with 102. Trail KC, Stratta RJ, Larsen JL, et al. Results of liver
end-stage liver disease: effects on long-term renal transplantation in diabetic recipients. Surgery 1993; 114:
function after liver transplantation. J Hepatol 2012; 57: 650–6; discussion 656–658.
572–6. 103. Tandon P, Ney M, Irwin I, et al. Severe muscle depletion
85. Chen G, Brunt EM. Diabetic hepatosclerosis: a 10-year in patients on the liver transplant wait list: its prevalence
autopsy series. Liver Int 2009; 29: 1044–50. and independent prognostic value. Liver Transpl 2012;
86. Balakrishnan M, Garcia-Tsao G, Deng Y, Ciarleglio M, 18: 1209–16.
Jain D. Hepatic arteriolosclerosis: a small-vessel compli- 104. Schenker S, Martin RR, Hoyumpa AM. Antecedent liver
cation of diabetes and hypertension. Am J Surg Pathol disease and drug toxicity. J Hepatol 1999; 31: 1098–105.
2015; 39: 1000–9. 105. Tolman KG, Fonseca V, Dalpiaz A, Tan MH. Spectrum
87. Sigal SH, Stanca CM, Kontorinis N, Bodian C, Ryan E. of liver disease in type 2 diabetes and management of
Diabetes mellitus is associated with hepatic encephalopa- patients with diabetes and liver disease. Diabetes Care
thy in patients with HCV cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol 2007; 30: 734–43.
2006; 101: 1490–6. 106. Edwards CMB, Barton MA, Snook J, et al. Metformin-
88. Kalaitzakis E, Olsson R, Henfridsson P, et al. Malnutri- associated lactic acidosis in a patient with liver disease.
tion and diabetes mellitus are related to hepatic QJM Mon J Assoc Physicians 2003; 96: 315–6.
encephalopathy in patients with liver cirrhosis. Liver Int 107. Renda F, Mura P, Finco G, et al. Metformin-associated
2007; 27: 1194–201. lactic acidosis requiring hospitalization. A national
10 year survey and a systematic literature review. Eur Rev fibrosis in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis.
Med Pharmacol Sci 2013; 17(Suppl 1): 45–9. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2012; 35: 66–75.
108. Misbin RI, Green L, Stadel BV, et al. Lactic acidosis in 116. Gentile S, Turco S, Guarino G, et al. Effect of treatment
patients with diabetes treated with metformin. N Engl J with acarbose and insulin in patients with non-insulin-
Med 1998; 338: 265–6. dependent diabetes mellitus associated with non-alco-
109. Seidowsky A, Nseir S, Houdret N, Fourrier F. Met- holic liver cirrhosis. Diabetes Obes Metab 2001; 3: 33–40.
formin-associated lactic acidosis: a prognostic and thera- 117. Drucker DJ, Nauck MA. The incretin system: glucagon-
peutic study. Crit Care Med 2009; 37: 2191–6. like peptide-1 receptor agonists and dipeptidyl peptidase-
110. Chen H-P, Shieh J-J, Chang C-C, et al. Metformin 4 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes. Lancet 2006; 368: 1696–
decreases hepatocellular carcinoma risk in a dose-depen- 705.
dent manner: population-based and in vitro studies. Gut 118. Ding X, Saxena NK, Lin S, et al. Exendin-4, a glucagon-
2013; 62: 606–15. like protein-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist, reverses hepatic
111. Donadon V, Balbi M, Mas MD, Casarin P, Zanette G. steatosis in ob/ob mice. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD)
Metformin and reduced risk of hepatocellular carcinoma 2006; 43: 173–81.
in diabetic patients with chronic liver disease. Liver Int 119. de Franchis R, Baveno VI Faculty. Expanding consensus
2010; 30: 750–8. in portal hypertension: Report of the Baveno VI Consen-
112. Zhang X, Harmsen WS, Mettler TA, et al. Continuation sus Workshop: stratifying risk and individualizing care
of metformin use after a diagnosis of cirrhosis signifi- for portal hypertension. J Hepatol 2015; 63: 743–52.
cantly improves survival of patients with diabetes. Hepa- 120. Barnett AH, Leslie D, Watkins PJ. Can insulin-treated
tology (Baltimore, MD) 2014; 60: 2008–16. diabetics be given beta-adrenergic blocking drugs? Br
113. Giovannucci E, Harlan DM, Archer MC, et al. Diabetes Med J 1980; 280: 976–8.
and cancer: a consensus report. Diabetes Care 2010; 33:
1674–85.
114. Ratziu V. Pharmacological agents for NASH. Nat Rev Supporting information
Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013; 10: 676–85.
Additional Supporting Information may be found at
115. Boettcher E, Csako G, Pucino F, Wesley R, Loomba R.
Meta-analysis: pioglitazone improves liver histology and onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/liv.13115/suppinfo