Predecessors of lot ee rte After reading this chapter, the reader will be able to: ® Interpret the foundation of loT * List the basic terminologies and technologies associated with wireless sensee networks (WSN) List the basic terminologies and technologies associated with Machine-to-machine communications (M2M) . List the basic terminologies and technologies associated with cyber- physics! systems (CPS) . Differentiate between WSN, M2M, and CPS Relate new concepts with concepts learned before to make a smooth ‘transition to loT 3.1 Introduction Before delving into the details of the Internet of Things (IoT), a discussion ca the base technologies, which make up the crux of oT, is required. A majority & these technologies, before the IoT era, were used separately for sensing, devs making, and automation tasks. The range of application domains of these vechnoloh extended from regular domains like healthcare, agriculture, home monitoring? others to specialized domains such as military and mining. Some of these technologies still being used and often re-engineered for loT are wires sic networks (WSN), machine-to-machine (M2M) communications, and yee systems (CPS). All of these precursor paradigms have their distinct sig™ 5 icati ies is covered! application scopes. A basic overview of these precursor technologies is Subsequent sections in this chapter. precast ns Scanned with CamScannerpredecessors of 1oT 49 3,2 Wireless Sensor Networks Wireless sensor networks (WSN), as the name suggests, i Ware skes use of spailly istibuted sensors for gathering infonpalion werceon the immediate environment of the sensors and collecting the information centrally Here, the sensors are not standalone devices but a cambinator rt con, rocessors, and radio units—referred to as sensor nodes—sensing, the environment ped communicating the sensed data wirelessly to a remote location, cohleh may ae ay not be connected to a backbone network. Figure 3.1 shows the block diagron of the various standard components of a typical WSN node [4], The exact speteatons acl he ckesivi epending ° i ir nd the Sabai reer ind depending on the implementation requirements and the Power Control Battery 1 Memory | | || comm. | volta; ee , | converter mcuU | Radio | ADC | 2 £ | 5 3 Sensor | Sensor | Figure 3.1 The typical constituents of a WSN node Figure 3.2 shows a typical WSN implementation, where the master node aggregates data from multiple slave nodes, forwards it to a remote server utilizing access to the Internet through cellular connectivity. The stored data on the server can be visualized by a user or a subscriber to the system from anywhere in the world over the Internet. WSNs mainly follow a system of communication known as master-slave architecture. In a master-slave architecture, a single aggregator node, the master, is responsible for collecting data from various sensor nodes under its dominion oF range master node are referred to of operations. The sensor nodes under the range of the 4s slave nodes. Multiple slave nodes communicate to the master node using low- Power short-range wireless radios such as Zigbee, Bluetooth, and WiFi for transferring Scanned with CamScannerver, Often, in popular WSN architectures, y, wi , the eband acts as the gateway for the Wsy the master node pushes the ,. a remote cential Sl , f ter nee connects the WSN Te the | master node ¢ . wn Aled data fron the Internet. The master node al server using, the Internet T Ode thay }y cellular connections, another gateway, or Sirectty WSNs must have the following, distin: shiny their sensed data 10 Upon collsting, myth data to a remotely located ¢ be linked to the haternet throug a backbone infrastructure, throny features: WSN deployment area INTERNE Master node! Cellphone tower Same Wireless — Wired > Bait) connection connection network Figure 3.2 A typical WSN deployment (i) Fault Tolerance: The occurrence of faults in WSN nodes should not take down the whole WSN implementation, or hamper the transmission of data from non- faulty nodes to the central location. Gi) Scalability: WSN implementations must have the feature of scalability associated with their architectures and deployments. In the event of a futur increase or decrease of sensor node units, the WSN must support the scaling of the infrastructure without changing the whole implementation. (ii) Long lifetime: The lifetime or the energy replenishment cycle of WSNs must be long enough to make large-scale applications feasible. WSNs have beet used for monitoring remote, harsh, and hard to access environments in thes? Wen enments, itis not feasible to regularly replenish the energy source of th WSN nodes, which necessitates the need for long node lifetimes. (iv) Security: The securit a ic System, right back to the central server. As WSNS a ai ‘ty is one a applications, some of which are crucial, security is one ty of WSNs, if not considered, can easily compromise ¢ spect Scanned with CamScannerst sessorsOfloT cessors Of TO alec pws that must be properly addressed to prevent intrusion and maintain the integrity of the data , } programmability: The programmability of WSN is important as it ensures fabastness of these systems, WSNs deployed in Mieed tor other applications just as easily with a change an sensors and the programs associated with il, Programmability also helps in providing, adjusting the parameters of the system in the event of a scale-up or he application area can be backend a means of gcaledown operation. s WSNs generally require multiple units, typically in the range of WSN nodes, the cost of the nodes and its affordability is -sponsible for the acceptability of the system. Except for some spe ized domail ach as the military and the industry, where the sensing requirements: are quite high and that too in harsh and challenging conditions, the majority of pplications are regular. To some extent, the cost of WSN deployments in regular domains decide the acceptability of a WSN-based solution for that Affordabil wi ‘ of tens or hundred vastly domain. ivi) Heterogeneity: The WSNs must support a wide number and various Pes of sensors and solutions, thus enabling heterogeneity. In the absence of heterogeneity, the WSN will tend to become very application-specific, which in turn would require major customizations even in the event of minor changes to the network or architecture. (viii) Mobility: WSNs must support nodes may be easily relocatable or mobile. deployability of WSN-based solutions in all environments types. the notion of mobility of nodes such that the Mobility would ensure the rapid WSNs have found numerous applications in domains such as agriculture, healthcare, military, industries, mining, and others. The main reason for the popularity of WSNs is attributed to the advantages they provide in the form ot enhanced monitoring times, easy installation, and multiple implementations. Implementations on a large scale are possible due to high affordability, ease of replacement or upgradation, ease of modifying system parameters, ease of additional sensor integration with the sensor nodes, and other such factors. 3.2.1 Architectural components of WSN WSNs that are similar to regular computer network pi in terms of a protocol stack, which is very similar to the z Interconnection developed by the International Standards Organization) stack. However, instead of seven layers similar to the OS! model, the WSN stack is made UP of five layers (Figure 3.3): 1) Physical, 2) data link, 3) network, 4) transport, a 5) application layer. In addition to these five layers, the WSN stack further comprises five cross planes concerned with management tasks such as 1) power management aradigms may be explained ISO/OSI (Open Systems and Scanned with CamScanner——— Tiny, ck management plane, 4) Q05 manapen, © This section is divided into three ayer Management planes, and 3) en Parts, Wsy 2m 0, Ata an i gement plane, | 2.2) mobility managener ee m = ‘ vase management rare plane, and ee eran fof the WSN stack, 2) cross ™ m7 Cross layer planes . Procol ea WSN stack < examples . Application SMP, TADAP, SQDD? ayer copa, PSFQ.ARC, | Transport STCP, ESRT Nv Directed diffusion, Teach, pegasis, teen Network layer Task management ‘S-mac, L-mac, Q-mc, O-mac IEEE 802.154 ‘ | Figure 33 The various functional layers for a WSN communication and networking architecu Components of the WSN Stack We start with the physical layer, which is at the bottom of the stack and responsible {or enabling transmission of signals over a physical medium between multiple WSN nodes/units. In regular computer networks, the medium can be both wired as well as wireless; however, in WSN, the medium is strictly wireless. In WSNS, this laveris responsible for carrier frequency generation, carrier frequency selection, modulaton/ demodulation, encryption/decryption, and signal detection. Typically, WSNs make tise of the IEEE 802.15. standard for this layer because of its low cost, low eneny budget, low data rate, and small form factor. The data link layer resides above access control (MAC) functions sucl messages from the help in ensuring 1 network layer lie this layer is the r. the physical layer. It is responsible for medium h as multiplexing/ demultiplexing, framing of upper layer, frame detection, and error control, ‘These functions he reliability of communication between the WSN nodes. Th on top of the data link layer. The pri mary function associated wilh Duting of packets. As routing is a demanding task and depends e ting the network elements (nodes, gateways, routers, switches, Scanned with CamScannerpockets arriving and leaving tom each WSN nove, 0 Totocol- based mee isms Joss revognition and loss reeavery ate inherent to this layer Typicall ‘t ents mal loss ere layer. Typically, the protocols this laver are either packet driven or eventdriven Hinally, the Avail a a ty i ' ‘h the appheation whie js responsible tor traffic management and software intert es, it paviots four layers. The software intertaces are responsible fer tl on lapis from various application domains of WSN into an ‘ layer underneath this laye eee i La Routing: It is the selection of a path for the transport of a packet from a source to its designated destination across the same network or various networks, The networks over which routing takes place may or may not be of the same type. For example, an e-mail sent from a personal computer (PC) travels across various networks—wired, wireless, circuit-switched, and others—before reaching its destination. I these onversion of data acceptable format for transfer to the Cross-layer Management Planes The use of OSI-like stacks for outlining the functionalities of WSNs faces limitations due to specialized operations of the stacks in areas requiring prolonged deployments with constrained energy and communication infrastructure, and mobility. Unlike regular computer networks, the OSI-like WSN stack does not fully describe the functionalities of WSN-based systems. This is because its specialized nature results in astrong correlation between the five WSN stack layers. Typically, solutions addressing WSN applications and functionalities make joint use of all the five layers. It is mainly because of this reason that the cross-layer management plane structure is more popularly accepted as a means of abstraction of WSN-based systems and solutions. Table 3.1 shows the relative positioning of the WSN crosslayer management planes, in terms of the functionalities they provide. Target Tracking: Also known as object tracking, target tracking is one of the most significant areas of research in WSNs. It summarily deals with tracking, of the motion of a target within a designated area of WSN coverage. This is typically achieved by the clustering of tracking nodes in the vicinity of the target. As the target moves, the clusters change, which signifies the dire of motion of the target. ction and timer ‘Table 3.1 A comparivon of the WSN C10" + management planes Zw Features Energy iy Tish nent O05 7 Security management management jement management Fonctioality Maimizingthe Ensuring Datrbution of Ensuringthe Ensuring SRMIWSN—connectivityeven—tasksamong WSN. quality ofthe UncomPrEMS se toverall wwhenthe WSN nods for ensuring service being secunty and wntegrity eekenerynodesaremoving. network ifetime, offered by the of the sensed and ‘management WSNs. transmitted data. Environment Vehicular Environment Vehicular Military sensor rmoritoring, monitoring, monitoring, ‘monitoring, _networks, Industrial Home monitoring, Unmanned aerial Agricultural ‘Multimedia monitoring Multimedia vehicle networks monitoring, sensors sensors Underground and underwater sensor networks Tasks, Deciding network Topology Sensor scheduling, Bandwidth size management, Processing allocation, ‘and deployment Sensing coverage, scheduling, Data Resource density Communication forwarding, allocation, Error coverage management density, Sleep Workforce selection optimization, protocols scheduling, fo Maximizing node avoidinne lifetime Scanned with CamScanner- predecessors of lo _ asses of Wireless Sensor Networks ‘The portability and robustness of WSN solutions, in addition to the significantly enhanced operational lifetimes, made WSNs quite a popular choice for applications jn various diverse areas, Some of the applications of WSNs include the following: Military Applications: WSNs are used for the detection of enemy soldiers, @ sion, Weapon systems, and armaments. ions: WSNs in healthcare are being used to monitor patients in hospitals, ambulances, and homes. Nowadays, a new class of healthcare devices—wearable appliances—enable a user to have a miniature health sensor on them without additional discomfort. (ii) Environmental Applications: WSNs are used for environmental monitoring of pollution, tracking of wildlife, forests, and others. (iv) Home Applications: WSNs in the home have given rise to home automation systems and smart home connectivity systems. (v) Commercial Applications: WSNs are used for tracking of vehicles, packages in transport, logistics, and others. (vi) Industrial Monitoring: WSNs in industries keep track of various industrial processes, monitor factory floors, ensure worker safety, and perform stock management. WSNs can be organized broadly into the following domains of implementation (Figure 34): 1) Wireless multimedia sensor networks, 2) underwater sensor networks, 3) wireless underground sensor networks, and 4) wireless mobile sensor networks. “Typically, these networks have specific challenges that need to be addressed in each of these implementation areas. (i) Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks (WMSN}: This class of WSNs boasts of the ability to retrieve videos, audios, images, or all three in addition to regular scalar sensor readings. The sensing range and coverage area of a camera- bazed WMSN are defined by the field of view (FOV) of the constituent cameras. Because of their superlative capabilities, WMSNs are popularly sought after in critical domains such as surveillance and road traffic monitoring, However, due to the use of multimedia sensors, the power and processing, requirements of this class of WSNs are very high as compared to the other clas of WSNS. Additionally, WMSNs typically demand high network bandwidths for convenient operation. Cell A in Figure 3.4 shows WMSNs. (i) Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSN): This class of WSN is designed specifically to work in underwater environments. Compared to terrestrial or aerial environments, wireless underwater communications are severely range, and bandwidth due to the high restricted in terms of data rate, I underwater attenuation of electromagnetic signals. The reliable use of light- based underwater communication is also limited in terms of range and noise. Scanned with CamScannerUnderwater wireless sensor network /\ Wireless muita sensor | _. J ms © Wireless Undenground sensor networks On * wh Figure 3.4 The various domains of implementation of WSN signifying its types: A) Msn, B) UWSN, C) WUSN, and D) MSN The most accepted global means of underwater communication is by acoustic waves. However, the long propagation delays and uneven data rate makes it necessary to develop newer topologies and architectures, which can work under the conditions of severe limitations of the physical layer, Cell B in Figure 34 shows the deployment of UWSN. (iii) Wireless Underground Sensor Networks (WUSN): This class of WSNs is designed to be deployed entirely underground. The underground environment poses challenges of attenuation due to the rocks and minerals in the soil. Another significant problem associated with this class is the need for digging up of the nodes to replenish their energy sources. Typical usage scenarios of this css of WSNs are underground mines and monitoring of underground plumbing systems. WUSNs need denser deployment architectures owing to the limited range of wireless communication in underground environments. Cell Cin Figut 3.4 shows the deployment of WUSN. (iv) Wireless Mobile Sensor Networks (MSN): This class of WSNs is characteris! by its mobility and low power requirements. The sensor nodes are mobile, whit requires them to rapidly connect to networks, disconnect from them, and Ihe again connect to new networks until the nodes are mobile. Typical extmPls” MSNS include smartphone networks, wearables, vehicular networks, andoe® Cell D in Figure 3.4 illustrates an MSN. Scanned with CamScanner