The SCA Water Quality Handbook

A Specialty Coffee Association Handbook
The SCA Water

Quality Handbook
Part One: A Systematic Guide to Water Fundamentals
Edition No. 2
Table of Contents
Introduction................................................................................................4
The Specialty Coffee Association Part I: SCA Water Chart..................................................................... 7

(SCA) is a membership-based
1 Why Water Matters.......................................................................... 7
association built on foundations
of openness, inclusivity, and the 2 How Do We Measure Water Composition?.................................9
power of shared knowledge. From
2.1 How Minerals Get Into Water..............................................10
coffee farmers to baristas and
roasters, our membership spans 2.2 How to Characterize a Water’s Composition...................11
the globe, encompassing every 2.3 Total Hardness and Alkalinity............................................... 12
element of the coffee value chain.
2.4 Other Water Content............................................................. 14
SCA acts as a unifying force within
the specialty coffee industry and 2.5 Measurement Methods.......................................................... 14
works to make coffee better
2.6 Conversion of Hardness and Alkalinity Units.................... 15
by raising standards worldwide
through a collaborative and 2.7 Natural Water Compositions............................................... 17
progressive approach. Dedicated 3 What is the Optimum Water Composition That
to building an industry that is fair, We Need to Aim For?..................................................................... 20
sustainable, and nurturing for all,
SCA draws on years of insights
3.1 Optimal Composition: Technical Perspective....................22
and inspiration from the specialty 3.2 Optimal Water Composition: Sensory Perspective.........23
coffee community.
4 How Do We Treat Water?..............................................................27
4.1 Treatment Methods................................................................27
4.2 Choice of Water Treatment Based
on Starting Composition.......................................................32
4.3 Mixing Different Waters........................................................36
4.4 Combining Different Treatment Methods.........................37
5 Outlook...............................................................................................37
Part II: Water Fundamentals.............................................................39

6 Water Itself.......................................................................................39
6.1 Understanding and Applying pH.......................................... 41
7 Units of Concentration...................................................................44
7.1 Units of Hardness...................................................................46
8 Water, Hardness and Scale............................................................47
9 Water and Carbon Dioxide........................................................... 48
Note: No part of this report may be
reproduced or published in any form 9.1 Carbonate Cycle: Why Scale and Carbon
including but not limited to print,
Dioxide are Relatives............................................................. 50
photocopy, or electronic form without the
written permission of the Specialty Coffee 9.2 Treatment of Hard Water by Decarbonization................52
Association
© Specialty Coffee Association, 2018 10 Electrical Conductivity and TDS...................................................54
Part III: Practical Guide on Handling Water...................................55
11 How to Measure Your Water.........................................................56
11.1 Measuring Total Hardness and Alkalinity...........................56
11.2 Measuring Electrical Conductivity and TDS..................... 58
12 Achieving Your Desired Water Composition............................. 60
12.1 When to Choose Which Treatment................................... 60
The Specialty Coffee Association
12.2 Using Reverse Osmosis to Increase the Mineral
(SCA) is a membership-based
Content of Water.................................................................... 61
association built on foundations
of openness, inclusivity, and the 12.3 Mixing Two Waters: Choosing Total Hardness
power of shared knowledge. From or Alkalinity...............................................................................63
coffee farmers to baristas and 12.4 Mixing Three Waters: Choosing Total Hardness
roasters, our membership spans and Alkalinity............................................................................65
the globe, encompassing every
element of the coffee value chain.
12.5 Conversion of Total Hardness and Alkalinity
SCA acts as a unifying force within
Between Different Concentration Units............................67
the specialty coffee industry and 12.6 Conversion Among Different Hardness Degrees
works to make coffee better for Total Hardness and Alkalinity.........................................69
by raising standards worldwide
12.7 Converting Hardness and Alkalinity to Other Ions......... 70
through a collaborative and
progressive approach. Dedicated 12.8 Creating Individualized Water Composition
to building an industry that is fair, by Adding Salts and Acids..................................................... 71
sustainable, and nurturing for all, 13 Tracking the State of Your Water Treatment
SCA draws on years of insights in Everyday Operation.....................................................................72
and inspiration from the specialty
coffee community.
14 Conclusion and Recommendations..............................................74
Glossary of Terms...................................................................................77
References................................................................................................82
Dr. Marco Wellinger

Research Associate, Coffee Excellence Center, Zurich University of Applied
Sciences
Dr. Samo Smrke

Research Associate, Coffee Excellence Center, Zurich University of Applied
Sciences
Prof. Dr. Chahan Yeretzian

Head of the Coffee Excellence Center, Zurich University of Applied Sciences
Member of the Board of Directors of the SCA and Chair of the SCA Research
Advisory Council
Note: No part of this report may be Member of the Board of the ASIC - Association for the Science and Information
reproduced or published in any form
including but not limited to print,
on Coffee
photocopy, or electronic form without the
written permission of the Specialty Coffee
Association
© Specialty Coffee Association, 2018 Acknowledgements
The research was initiated and funded by the SCA and Coffee Excellence Center,
Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW). Enormous thanks goes to Antony
Watson for improving the structure, copyediting and proofreading of this
handbook.
4
Introduction
We know that specialty coffee depends on a myriad of factors that all
influence overall flavor. A multitude of variables such as variety, terroir,
processing method, roast degree, grind size, temperature, brew method
and extraction time all play a part in the sensory profile of the cup. As the
main constituent of brewed coffee is water, the rest being the mass of
extracted soluble brewed solids, the quality of water and its ability to carry
flavor potential can truly mean the difference between a ‘good’ and ‘great’
coffee. Therefore, the more we understand about the chemical and mineral
composition of the water that we are using, the more we are equipped to
bring out the best flavor potential in our brew.
This revised SCA Water Quality Handbook, featuring the water chart and
practical guide sets out to establish a solid scientific framework for a unified
and transparent consensus on how we measure, aim and treat water for
coffee. The fulcrum of this discussion revolves particularly around the two
core parameters of alkalinity and total hardness. In particular, we will explore
the suitability of different water treatments by deepening our understanding
around total hardness as a crucially important parameter in the proper
extraction of coffee.
Drawing on recent published research and experiments conducted by the

Coffee Excellence Center at Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW),
this handbook serves to promote a spirited exchange of ideas about the
water we use for brewing within the specialty coffee community. An updated
practical guide and Glossary of terms also offers the user a toolbox of
concepts and methods with the aim of making coffee better in the domestic
or commercial environment.
The SCA Water Quality Handbook

5
In summary, we seek to bring clarity to three simple, yet fundamental,

questions:
Measure: What is the chemical composition of my water, and how do

I measure it?
Aim: What am I aiming to change, and what are the existing
recommendations with regard to sensory and technical
considerations?
Treat: Now that I have decided where I want to go, how do I choose
an appropriate water treatment to get me there?
It is important to bear in mind that while the approach to the measurement
and treatment of our water is based on objective considerations, aiming
for the right water type is largely subjective as it is dependent on sensory
preference. To address this, recommendations are proposed as to where to
‘aim’ for the optimum balance in the cup.
Part one of the handbook covers the main concepts underpinning the SCA
Water Chart. By applying these concepts, users will be able to measure
their starting composition of water, determine the target composition,
and choose the appropriate treatment methods. The second part of this
handbook provides an overview of some of the fundamentals in water
science that underpin these key concepts. In this part, we will explore the
fundamentals and why they are aimed at users who have either very high
alkalinity water (i.e. above 300 ppm CaCO3) or very low alkalinity water (i.e.
below 50 ppm CaCO3), or those that want to reduce alkalinity selectively
though methods such as dealkalization. This is essential for ensuring a safe
and economically viable operation of your coffee equipment - espresso
machines in particular. The fundamentals outlined in part two also provide
insights into some of the main concepts in water science, namely the
phenomena of pH, formation of carbonic acid, and the important role of
carbon dioxide under extraction. Part three is a practical guide that covers
the type of quality control maintenance needed to make sure a water’s
total hardness and alkalinity content stays within prescribed parameters. A
Glossary of terms is also provided at the end of this handbook to expand on
key concepts and definitions.

6
Finally, it is important to note that this revised handbook combines some

of the key concepts featured in previous resources with the updated water
chart and practical guide. The expressed intention for this handbook is to
lay the foundation for a clear and transparent consensus around water
treatment for coffee, while at the same time, setting the stage for a
forthcoming water handbook that will include more detailed insights into
sensory impact. It is anticipated that part two of this SCA Water Handbook
will be published in the coming years.
Dr. Marco Wellinger

Research Associate, Coffee Excellence Center, Zurich University of Applied Sciences
Dr. Samo Smrke

Research Associate, Coffee Excellence Center, Zurich University of Applied Sciences
Prof. Dr. Chahan Yeretzian

Head of the Coffee Excellence Center, Zurich University of Applied Sciences
Member of the Board of Directors of the SCA and Chair of the SCA Research Advisory Council
Member of the Board of the ASIC - Association for the Science and Information on Coffee

7
PART I: SCA WATER CHART

1 Why Water Matters
Other than being essential to all life on Earth, if there is one thing that the
specialty coffee community can agree on, it is that good quality water is
essential for brewing great coffee. But how do we transform problematic
water into high quality water that brings out the best our coffee has to offer,
while keeping our equipment in good working order?
In the past, water treatment has focused primarily on keeping our espresso
machines and water boilers in good condition. While this aims to increase
the longevity and safe operation of our equipment, as well as lowering
maintenance costs, it can still be ineffective if the correct treatment is
not employed. Even with the right treatment, many of today’s espresso
machines can still break down due to scale build up leading to blockages, or
in rarer cases, corrosion. Proper water treatment is therefore a necessity for
any economically viable operation.
Aside from equipment maintenance, there is also the important

consideration of flavor and aroma. If the water being used for extraction
is unsuitable, it can mask a coffee’s full flavor potential. For example, in
dilute coffee brewing preparations such as filter coffee, poor water can
overpower a coffee’s acidity, leaving the brew dull and lifeless. Given recent
advancements in coffee processing, storage, roasting, and extraction, there
is now a need to work towards a common consensus on individually crafted
water treatment strategies so that we can bring out the full potential of
each coffee.
In order to achieve this, the SCA Water Chart presented in this handbook
should be regarded as a tool in which ‘dial in’ the correct water using total
hardness and alkalinity as key parameters.

8
In particular, the water chart defines and clarifies the concepts of total
hardness and alkalinity, while creating a foundation for a productive and
transparent communication around the application of water for coffee.
While the chart only depicts two out of almost a dozen relevant parameters
of water composition, it encompasses the most crucial drivers for proper
coffee extraction. Therefore, the chart provides a framework to equip users
with the ability to measure their water composition at a given location,
aim for the chosen composition, and subsequently apply a specific method
to treat the water in order to reach the target composition for optimum
extraction.
The sensory impact of how we correctly ‘aim’ for an appropriate water type
is described here in general terms and it is important to note that this a
highly subjective issue. It is acknowledged that there is currently not enough
data available to describe in greater detail the effects of total hardness
and alkalinity of water on aroma and flavor of coffee, considering the wide
range of different coffee origins and varieties, roasting styles, and extraction
techniques. Hence, rather than being a definitive reference on which exact
composition is most suited for coffee and coffee extraction, the water chart
aims to provide a solid framework that can be used and developed by the
specialty coffee community.
While the general characteristics of water quality apply equally to espresso

and filter coffee, the range of recommendations for total hardness and
alkalinity can differ significantly. This is why it is equally important to take
brew ratio, defined as coffee dose to beverage weight, into account. In an
effort to establish a common ground for coffee brewing preparations, we
anticipate a ratio of 1:2 for espresso and a 1:15 ratio for filter as a starting
point that will affect optimal water characteristics. Please note that
the concept of total hardness oversimplifies the relationship of calcium
and magnesium ions with regard to their impact on flavor, as well as
other potential ions that may be introduced by specific water treatment
techniques such as a softener. Nevertheless, calculating the total hardness
is still useful. By using this calculation, we can predict the general effects of
water on flavor and formulate a direction for choosing an appropriate water
treatment.
It is widely accepted that discussing the complexity and diversity of the

9
properties of water always presents a great challenge. This is because water

has so many different interconnected phenomena happening simultaneously
at once. To the backdrop of the never-ending cascade of facts about water,
this handbook offers a unified framework in which to provide perspective.
It should serve as a useful reference for coffee professionals in putting the
pieces of the puzzle together so that we can, as a community, make sense of
the science - as it relates to total hardness and alkalinity as primary drivers
in coffee extraction.
2 How Do We Measure
Water Composition?
The descriptions that underpin the graphs featured in this handbook focus
on the first type of concentration units, specifically traditional hardness
units such as ppm CaCO3. The reason that traditional hardness units are
used is twofold. Firstly, it helps to simplify the comparison of different water
compositions with respect to their suitability for coffee extraction. Secondly,
it simplifies the understanding of technically relevant processes such as scale
formation and water treatment. In essence, there are two fundamentally
different approaches for characterizing a water type’s composition. These
are:
• Mass Concentrations: The concentration of ions is described

as mass per volume (e.g. mg/L) as this is the standard for the
bottled water method. This approach is only useful for the
comparison of concentrations with stated daily intake limits or
toxicological thresholds. In other words, concentrations of trace
metals that can occur in contaminated groundwater, or old piping
such as lead. Given that calcium, magnesium and hydrogen
carbonate all have different conversion factors from mass
concentrations to the effective number of ions, they can be
troublesome for calculating total hardness or alkalinity.

10
• Amount Concentrations: The concentration of ions, or other

elementary entities such as molecules or atoms, is given in units
proportional to the actual number of ions per volume. For example,
this can be expressed as molar units or charge equivalent units (e.g.
ppm CaCO3), sometimes called American degree (°a), in which the ions
enter the water by dissolution, and react in an ion-exchanger or exit
the water by forming scale.
A more detailed explanation on the origin and use of different units of
concentration is outlined in a Glossary of terms (see Appendix).
2.1 How Minerals Get Into Water

Although water comprises of a large variety of different substances as a
result of the Earth’s water cycle, water vapor in the atmosphere is essentially
pure H2O. However, as soon as water starts to condense and form droplets
it starts to take up carbon dioxide, which in conjunction with water forms
carbonic acid (see Equation 1 below). This process makes the water slightly
acidic, so rainwater typically has a pH of 5.7 or below.
Equation 1: CO2(dissolved) + H2O(liquid) ←

→ H2CO3
The acidic rainwater that comes into contact with carbonate rock
(e.g. CaCO3, MgCO3, or a combination of both), dissolves part of it and
acquires magnesium, calcium and hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO3-). In
contrast to this, acidic rainwater will barely dissolve any silicate rock such
as feldspar or quartz, since theses minerals are much more resistant to
dissolution from a process called weathering. The amount of dissolved
minerals present in water is not only dependent on the mineral composition,
but also on the amount of time water has been in contact with the minerals.
Additionally, the particle size of the minerals influences the speed of

dissolution and thereby the resulting amount of dissolved minerals in water.
As smaller particles of bedrock have a larger surface area, they will dissolve
more at a faster rate, thereby increasing the concentration of dissolved
solids. Groundwater is considered ‘harder’ than water found in rivers and
lakes because it has generally been in contact with minerals for a longer
period. The impact of carbon dioxide on water and its effect on pH is
explored in further detail in Chapter 9.

11
2.2 How to Characterize a Water’s Composition

Figure 1 shows one of the most common descriptions used by water
treatment specialists or chemists investigating water compositions. It gives
an overview of the complete composition of water and is divided into three
major sections. On the left-hand side, all ions are separated into the positive
ions (i.e. cations) in the upper part and negative ions (i.e. anions) in the lower
part. In this depiction, the two bars of positive and negative ions are always
of equal size; this is because water always has to meet charge neutrality. In
other words, the amount of positive charges from cations has to be equal
to the amount of negative charges from anions. To be more precise, this
equality in size is due to the choice of unit. For example, any equivalent unit
is based on the number of ions, multiplied by their charge, and not based on
their mass.
The middle part of the graph shows dissolved gases, in this case carbon
dioxide and its aquatic twin - carbonic acid. Finally, the right-hand section
shows uncharged components of water, namely silicates or organic
compounds. In most cases, these make up only a minor part of the total
concentration of dissolved solids in water.
Figure 1: Overall composition of water
The pH of most tap water types is strongly influenced by excess dissolved

CO2 in the range of 5-20 mg/L (Puckorius and Brooke, 1991). Meanwhile,
atmospheric water only contains about 0.4 mg/L of dissolved CO2 –
regardless of pH and alkalinity. This means that most tap water will increase
by approximately one pH unit when left standing in an open container for
a day, less if it is stirred, or if it is heated up.

12
2.3 Total Hardness and Alkalinity

When it comes to analyzing water for espresso machines, the maximum
amount of scale that can form is usually the primary consideration.
Fortunately, the concepts developed with regard to scale formation are also
helpful when applied to coffee extraction. The water chart therefore focuses
on two main parameters:
• Total hardness: This is defined as the sum of calcium and

magnesium in equivalent concentrations, or molar concentrations.
In rare cases, other ions can contribute to total hardness such as
strontium (SMWW, 2012; DIN, 1986; ASTM, 2002; EPA, 1999).
• Alkalinity = Acid buffer capacity: The amount of acid that has to be
added to a water sample to decrease pH to 4.3. Therefore, alkalinity
should be regarded as the attenuating effect of adding acid to
water, also called neutralizing or buffering.
Figure 2 gives a representation of two different water compositions. The left
panel represents the overall composition for the vast majority of tap waters.
The chart shows that these water types have a total hardness that is higher
than its alkalinity. This water composition is also the reason why the term
‘carbonate hardness’ is often misleading when synonymously used in relation
to alkalinity. In other words, carbonate hardness effectively corresponds
to the maximum amount of scale that can form and is therefore equal to
whichever of the two values of total hardness and alkalinity is lower. The
right panel demonstrates this distinction between alkalinity and carbonate
hardness with water compositions that have a higher alkalinity than total
hardness. Here, carbonate hardness does not equal alkalinity but instead
equates to ‘total hardness’. This is simply because total hardness is now the
limiting factor for the maximum amount of scale that can form. This type of
composition can occur, for example, in regions where salt water intrudes into
the ground water or when water that has been treated by a softener (i.e.
exchanging calcium and magnesium ions for sodium or potassium ions).

13
Figure 2: Total hardness, alkalinity and carbonate hardness.
Beside the terms used here, there are also a number of other synonyms used.
These are:
• Total hardness = general hardness.

• Carbonate hardness = temporary hardness.
• Non-carbonate hardness = permanent hardness.
• ‘Not hard’ carbonate is sometimes referred to as ‘apparent
carbonate hardness’.
Please see Chapter 8, which explores the concept of total hardness in depth
and Chapter 12.1, where the measurement methods for total hardness and
alkalinity are described.

14
2.4 Other Water Content

There are regions in the world that have significant amounts of other ions
besides the ones that we have already highlighted. These ions make local
water unsuitable for use in coffee extraction. A couple of examples of this
are iron, which causes very noticeable flavor defects in coffee extraction,
and lead, which is toxic. There are however specialized treatments to remove
these components from water. Of the treatments explored in this booklet,
only reverse osmosis and deionization are capable of completely removing
them from a given water supply. Some regions also have a high content
of gypsum in the bedrock, which can cause scale formation of a different
kind other than the familiar build-up of calcium carbonate. Chlorine or
chloramines used for disinfection also impart a strongly unpleasant flavor in
the resulting brew and should be removed. This is most commonly done by
activated carbon filtration systems (see Chapter 4.2).
2.5 Measurement Methods

Given that clean water is free of particulates and off-flavors, a sample
can be sufficiently characterized for its use in coffee extraction by the
measurement of total hardness and alkalinity. The only exception is water
with a very high alkalinity (i.e. above 300 ppm CaCO3) or extremely soft
(i.e. below 50 ppm CaCO3). In both cases, a pH measurement of the water
is advised to avoid damage to equipment. Outside of chemistry labs, total
hardness and alkalinity are most practically measured by a method called
titration. Total hardness is often measured with complexometric titration
using Ethylenediaminetetraacetic Acid (EDTA). Measuring alkalinity can be
achieved through a neutralization titration method using a strong acid such
as Hydrochloric Acid (HCl). In practice, this means that a solution is added
drop-by-drop to a specified amount of water until a color change occurs
(e.g. from green to red). Titration kits are available from water treatment
suppliers and aquarium stores. A recommended minimum resolution is 20
ppm CaCO3, or if expressed in German hardness degrees, 1°d.

15
Although total hardness and alkalinity are measured by different reactions,

both methods result in a measurement value that is proportional to the
number of ions. This, in practical terms, is in hardness units rather than
mass concentrations. A simple increase of the amount of water used can
improve the resolution, or precision, of the measurement. For example, if
the measurement states that one drop equals 20 ppm CaCO3 at a sample
volume of 10 mL, conducting the same measurement with 20 mL of water
results in one drop equaling 10 ppm CaCO . Please note that alkalinity test
3
kits are often incorrectly marketed as 'carbonate hardness' test kits. (see
Chapter 11.1)
Another very common method of analyzing water composition is to measure

electrical conductivity and then estimate the total dissolved solids (TDS)
in water from this measurement. Using electrical conductivity, or TDS, to
describe water properties is not a meaningful parameter on its own with
regard to coffee extraction. This is because the conversion from electrical
conductivity to TDS depends heavily on the water composition and
temperature, yielding results that can vary significantly. Additionally, even
if the estimated TDS value is accurate, it does not contain any information
on what the actual composition of TDS is. Conductivity meters, or so-called
TDS-meters, are very useful for checking for the stability of the tap water as
well as the treated water (see Chapter 11.2).
2.6 Conversion of Hardness and Alkalinity Units

Table 1 below provides an overview of the conversion factors for the
most common concentration units in water analysis. All values have been
calculated based on the IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements (2013) and
the basic definitions of the different hardness degrees. The values are in
agreement with Hem (1985) and the DIN norm on water hardness (1986).
The charts used in this booklet are all given in units of 'ppm CaCO3' but they
can all be easily converted to any of the other traditional hardness units
such as °d, °f or °e. Please note that in contrast to mass concentration, the
conversion factor for calcium, magnesium, and hydrogen carbonate are
identical from one traditional hardness unit to the other. A more detailed
step-by-step guide on how to conduct the conversion can be found in
Chapters 12.5 and 12.6.

16
Table 1: Conversion factors for units of hardness and alkalinity rounded to four significant digits – the most
common conversion factors are highlighted in grey.
Ca2+ + Mg2+ HCO3- Ca2+ Mg2+ HCO3-

ppm CaCO3 °d °f gpg US °e
(mmol/L) (mmol/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
ppm CaCo3 1 ppm

1 0.05603 0.1 0.05842 0.07016 0.009991 0.01998 0.4004 0.2428 1.219
(=mg CaCo3/L) CaCO3 =
German
1 °dH = 17.85 1 1.785 1.0423 1.252 0.1783 0.3566 7.147 4.334 21.76
degrees (°d)
French degrees
1 °fH = 10.00 0.5603 1 0.5842 0.7016 0.09991 0.1998 4.004 2.428 12.19
(°f)
Grains per US
1 gpg = 17.12 0.9591 1.712 1 1.201 0.1710 0.3421 6.855 4.157 20.87
gallon (gpg)
English degree
1 °e = 14.25 0.7986 1.425 0.8327 1 0.1424 0.2848 5.708 3.461 17.38
(°e)
Ca2+ + 1 mmol/L
100.1 5.608 10.01 5.847 7.022 1 - 40.08 24.30 -
Mg2+ (mmol/L) =
HCO3- 1 mmol/L
50.04 2.804 5.004 2.923 3.511 - 1 - - 61.02
(mmol/L) =
Ca2+ (mg/L) 1 mg/L = 2.497 0.1399 0.2497 0.1459 0.1752 0.02495 - 1 - -
Mg2+ (mg/L) 1 mg/L = 4.118 0.2307 0.4118 0.2406 0.2889 0.04114 - - 1 -
Please note that English degrees are just another name for the unit
described as degrees Clark and grains per imperial gallon (see Glossary).
For quick mental arithmetic, the following conversion between the two most
common hardness units can be useful and very accurate (i.e. < 2% error). To
convert a value in ppm CaCO3 to °d, divide by 20 and then add ten percent.
Conversely, to convert a value in °d to ppm CaCO3, multiply by 20 and then
subtract ten percent.

17
2.7 Natural Water Compositions

Now that we have introduced the concepts of total hardness and alkalinity,
we can use the SCA Water Chart to easily compare and depict different
water compositions. For example, we can do this for any of the traditional
hardness units using equally scaled axes starting from zero. Figure 3 shows
more than 2000 waters from domestic wells in the US, and examples of
bottled water compositions. Most waters group along the diagonal dotted
black line where total hardness equals alkalinity. A closer look reveals that
most values are not exactly clustered on the diagonal line but are slightly
higher in total hardness than alkalinity. The diagonal line in both graphs
represent the dissolution of pure calcium (CaCO3) or magnesium carbonate
(MgCO3). The small vertical offset is caused by small amounts of chloride or
sulfate, which will increase the total hardness without affecting alkalinity.
In contrast, a larger offset is almost exclusively due to high sulfate content
from gypsum (CaSO4). An example of this is shown in the right-hand graph,
depicting the composition of a number of bottled waters. In the example of
Cristallo Still, we can see that the water has a very high total hardness of
820 ppm CaCO3 as compared to a medium alkalinity content of 210 ppm
CaCO3.
This large difference is due to significant content of gypsum water resulting

in a high hardness and a high sulfate content of 6.24 mmol/L - or 600
mg/L - as stated on the bottle label. The waters that are located below the
diagonal have a significant content of sodium that explains the difference
between total hardness and alkalinity. This is caused by the intrusion of salt
water that contains high concentrations of sodium and hydrogen carbonate,
formerly called bicarbonate. Adding sodium and hydrogen carbonate to
water increases its alkalinity but total hardness is unaffected, thereby
pushing a water composition to the right and away from the diagonal that
depicts parity between total hardness and alkalinity. Even though only
hardness and alkalinity are depicted in the water chart, almost all certain
water characteristics such as significant concentrations of sulfate or sodium
can be recognized and even estimated quite accurately. For example,
Chapter 12.7 shows a conversion table for water treatment involving the
introduction and exchange of other ions into water. For water that contains
significant amounts of salts other than calcium or magnesium carbonate,
conductivity also has to be taken into account to reduce the risk of corrosion
(see Chapter 3.1).

18
Figure 3: Sample water compositions: Left panel; 2300 water compositions from domestic wells in the US (De
Simone, 2009). Right panel; compositions of bottled water.
Meanwhile, Figure 4 summarizes the effect of mineral dissolution in a

water’s composition and thereby its location within the water chart. The
arrow pointing diagonally up and to the right represents the dissolution of
pure carbonate rock (e.g. limestone, dolomite). The vertically oriented arrow
represents the dissolution of minerals containing chlorides or sulfates, and
magnesium or calcium (CaSO4, MgSO4, CaCl2, and MgCl2), thereby increasing
total hardness only and resulting in an offset upwards from the diagonal.
Finally, the horizontally oriented arrow represents the introduction of sodium
and hydrogen carbonate, which most commonly occurs with salt-water
intrusion, increasing alkalinity only that results in an offset to the right of the
diagonal.

19
Figure 4: Interpreting a water composition based on its location on the water chart.

20
3 What is the Optimum Water

Composition That We Need
To Aim For?
After clarifying how to characterize a water’s composition and thereby
determining the initial position on the SCA Water Chart for a given
water, this Chapter summarizes recommendations for optimal water
composition. Please note that the heritage SCAE Core Zone is given as the
recommendation for the optimal water composition for coffee, combining
both technical and sensory considerations.
There are two main perspectives to define an optimal water composition:
• Technical: This aims to minimize maintenance and thereby reduce

repair or replacement costs, as well as downtime due to a defect or
break down of espresso machines and/or brew boilers.
• Sensory: This perspective aims to bring out the best flavor and
aroma of a coffee by modifying the content of total hardness and
alkalinity.
From a hygiene standpoint, water should also be free of off-flavors due to
iron, dissolved chlorine compounds such as chlorine (Cl2), hypochlorite
(OCl-), chloramines, and organic matter in order to avoid unpleasant odors
and taste. In the case of chlorine compounds and organic matter, these can
be easily addressed by active carbon filtration, which efficiently reduces
both. Low levels of iron can be removed by an ion-exchanger (e.g. softeners
or decarbonizers), but for higher levels, a more elaborate treatment involving
aeration (i.e. bubbling air through the water) and subsequent removal by
filtering away the iron particles that form through oxidation.

21
The most important aspects that define the optimum water composition
from a technical perspective are:
• Corrosion: Caused by low levels of alkalinity below 40 ppm CaCO3

(also indicated by low electrical conductivity), pH < 6 or pH > 8, and
high concentrations of chlorides, sulfates or nitrates (i.e. more than
80% of the alkalinity in equivalent concentrations).
• Scale formation: Caused by high levels of hardness and alkalinity
that lead to the scaling of boilers and machines, which in turn
lead to:
• Decrease in efficiency of heat transfer, and;
• Clogging of valves and jets especially in the hot water sections.
Figure 5 illustrates the maximum amount of scale that can form at 95 °C and
130 °C at 1.7 bar steam pressure. The calculations are based on a modified
version of the Langelier scaling index (see Glossary) in combination with the
use of an equilibrium pH based on alkalinity, and typical dissolved carbon
dioxide concentrations (Puckorius and Brooke, 1991; Schulman, 2002).
Figure 5: Maximum amount of scale formation at 95 °C (left) and 130 °C (right).

22
The areas that indicate 30, 100 and 200 mg/L of scale can be transformed
to absolute amounts by estimating the water throughput by the number of
beverages prepared. For example, at 100 beverages per day and 0.1 L per
beverage including flushing, the lines correspond to 110 g, 365 g and 730 g of
scale that can form per year. In high throughput situations, the water does
not stay heated long enough for the all of the scale to form. In contrast,
when letting the machine stand for hours in a heated condition, the indicated
amounts are accurate.
3.1 Optimal Composition: Technical Perspective

Figure 6 illustrates the risk zones where corrosion is likely to occur. The
horizontally striped zone marks too high concentrations of chloride or
sulfates, which correspond to a Larson-Skold-Index above 0.8 (see Glossary).
Although the index is estimated from total hardness and alkalinity alone,
it yields a useful result unless high concentrations of sodium are present or
introduced with sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Other than measuring concentrations of calcium or magnesium carbonate,

a more general rule that also encompasses water types with a significant
amount of salt has been established. This is based on findings from
Lockhart’s (1955) research and data from 23 waters close to Barcelona
– representative of salt water influenced tap waters. To keep the risk of
corrosion low, the electrical conductivity (i.e. in units of µS/cm) should be
no more than three times the alkalinity in ppm CaCO3. Furthermore, if
we consider the ratio of electrical conductivity to alkalinity, a ratio of 1:3
corresponds to a value of approximately 0.8 of the S1 corrosion index (DIN
12502). The S1 corrosion index (see Glossary) is almost identical to the
Larson-Skold index but also takes into account the concentration of nitrates
in addition to chloride and sulfate. The small diagonally striped zone marks a
range where alkalinity is too low (i.e. < 40 ppm CaCO3) to act as an efficient
buffer. Overall, the two zones highlighted in Figures 5 and 6 combined
represent ‘risk’ zones, from a technical perspective.

23
Figure 6: Corrosion risk zones.
3.2 Optimal Water Composition: Sensory Perspective

When aiming for an optimum water composition from a sensory perspective,
the most important aspects to consider are:
• Influence of total hardness on extraction efficiency: Higher total

hardness is assumed to increase extraction efficiency (Hendon et al.,
2014). In laboratory tests, this effect could not be verified by means
of a coffee refractometer, although a clear impact on flavor balance
and aroma was detected.
• Influence of alkalinity on perceived acidity: The higher the alkalinity,
the lower the perceived acidity. Moreover, for high alkalinity (i.e. >
100 ppm CaCO3) the neutralization of acids extracted from coffee
by hydrogen carbonate, forms large amounts of carbon dioxide. This
can increase extraction time and thereby lead to over extraction
(Gardner, 1958; Fond 1995; Navarini and Rivetti 2010).

24
This effect is also more pronounced if increased concentrations of

sodium are present (Gardner, 1958).
Figure 7 summarizes existing recommendations (Leeb and Rogalla, 2006;
Rao, 2008; Colonna-D. and Hendon 2015; SCAA, 2009) for optimal water
composition for extraction from a sensory perspective. It is important to
note that the recommended range for optimum hardness varies widely:
• Lowest suggested optimum is 51 ppm CaCO3 (2016 World

Brewers Cup).
• Highest suggested optimum is 175 ppm CaCO3.
(Colonna-Dashwood and Hendon’s Water for Coffee).
In contrast to this, the recommended range for alkalinity is much smaller:
• Lowest suggested optimum is 40 ppm CaCO3.

• Highest suggested optimum is 75 ppm CaCO3 (this applies only
for total hardness values in the range of 150 - 175 ppm CaCO3).
While most of these recommendations are aimed at espresso extraction,
they can also be applied to brewed coffee. As a general rule, brewed coffee
needs less alkalinity for an optimum extraction because much more water
is used in comparison to espresso - or in other words, the brew ratio is much
higher. Total hardness has less of an impact than alkalinity and also water
with high total hardness can yield a high-quality filter brew. For cupping,
some professionals prefer to use even softer water in the range of 5-10 ppm
CaCO3 of total hardness and alkalinity. While this practice reportedly did not
cause corrosion in water kettles, it is strongly advised against using a water
with such a low alkalinity for espresso machines since even small amounts of
dissolved carbon dioxide could make this water acidic (i.e. pH < 6) and cause
corrosion (see Chapter 9.2).

25
Figure 7: Existing recommendations on water compositions.
The recommended heritage SCAE Core Zone for espresso machines and
brew boilers is illustrated in Figure 8. This graph combines technical aspects
to enable a safe operation while taking into account sensory considerations
that result in a high-quality brew. The lower left and upper border area of the
core zone is shaped by the technical thresholds for corrosion prevention, and
to the right, by the maximum scale formation of 30 mg/L in a steam boiler
at 130 °C, or 12 mg/L in a brew boiler of an espresso machine. The lower
border of the core zone recommendation is based on Colonna-Dashwood
and Hendon’s line of minimal recommended total hardness and alkalinity.

26
Figure 8: SCA ‘core zone’ as recommendation for espresso machines and hot water boilers.

27
4 How Do We Treat Water?

This Chapter explores how different water treatment methods impact on
total hardness and alkalinity. Considerations about pH are also mentioned,
although this is restricted to very hard water and the decarbonization
method. Since most tap waters in central Europe and the US have total
hardness and alkalinity levels that are too high for proper coffee extraction,
this of huge for the specialty coffee community as a whole.
4.1 Treatment Methods

The most common treatment methods for these waters are aimed at
reducing the total hardness or alkalinity, or both. Figure 9 shows the impact
of the four main treatment methods that can be used to reduce either total
hardness or alkalinity.

28
Figure 9: Impact of treatment methods that reduce total hardness or alkalinity, or both.
Softener: The upper left graph shows the impact of a softener (S), one of the
most common treatment methods. A softener is essentially an ion-exchange
method where calcium and magnesium ions are exchanged for either sodium
or potassium ions. This treatment reduces total hardness without affecting
alkalinity and is therefore directing downward on the water chart.

29
Decarbonizer: The upper right graph shows the impact of a decarbonizer

(DC), probably the second most common treatment method for coffee
applications. As with the softener, decarbonization is also an ion-exchange
method. Although in contrast to the former, the calcium and magnesium
ions are exchanged for protons (H+). The released protons in turn neutralize
hydrogen carbonate by the formation of carbonic acid. When using this type
of treatment, it is essential to maintain some alkalinity because the water
can turn acidic and become corrosive. Decarbonization leads to a decrease
in total hardness and alkalinity of equal amounts and is therefore directed
diagonally down, and to the left. Additionally, the buffered decarbonizer is
also depicted (DC*), which is a combination of mostly decarbonizer resin
combined with a small quantity of softener resin. The small amount of
softener resin prevents the ion exchanger from removing all of the alkalinity,
and typically leaves a residual alkalinity of approximately 50 ppm CaCO3.
Demineralizer: The lower left graph shows the impact of a demineralizing

(DM) treatment, which can be either reverse osmosis (RO) or a deionizer.
Reverse osmosis is also among the most commonly used treatment
methods. In contrast to the other methods shown, reverse osmosis is based
on the use of a semi permeable membrane that allows water molecules to
pass through but blocks almost all of its dissolved components. This water,
which is essentially pure, is then often mixed with some tap water to increase
the mineral contents to suitable levels. By mixing the pure water from the
RO system with tap water, any composition between the initial composition
and zero total hardness and zero alkalinity – sometimes called 'origin' -
can be produced. The RO treatment method is therefore directed towards
the origin and its direction varies depending on the initial composition, in
contrast to the ion-exchange methods. Meanwhile, the deionizer is another
method to produce pure water. Unlike reverse osmosis, the deionizer works
by exchanging all ions (i.e. with the combination of a cation exchanger and an
anion exchanger) rather than employing a semipermeable membrane. Due to
the fact that deionizer cartridges have a relatively low capacity compared to
softeners of decarbonizers, they are not suitable for high volume commercial
environments.

30
Dealkalizer: Finally, the lower right graph shows the impact of dealkalization
which can be accomplished by an ion-exchanger or by adding a strong acid.
As with decarbonization, it is essential to maintain some alkalinity because
the water can turn acidic and become corrosive.
In the case of low mineral content, treatment methods to increase total

hardness and alkalinity can also be used. Figure 10 shows the impact of four
different treatment options:
Figure 10: Impact of treatment methods that raise total hardness or alkalinity, or both.

31
Hardener: The top left graph depicts the impact of a hardener that
introduces calcium or magnesium as chloride or sulfate salts (CaSO4, MgSO4,
CaCl2, and MgCl2). Like the name suggests, it is essentially the opposite of
a softener and is directed upwards. Hardening can be done by the use of
mineralization cartridges or by adding calcium or magnesium salts.
Carbonizer: The top right graph shows a carbonizer representing the

dissolution of magnesium or calcium carbonate. It is directed diagonally, up
and to the right, increasing total hardness and alkalinity by equal amounts.
Since calcium carbonate is not soluble enough in neutral water only
magnesium carbonate can be used efficiently for this purpose.
Reverse Osmosis: As shown in the lower left panel, some RO systems are
capable of using the leftover concentrate rather than the pure water that
permeates through the membrane. With this system, total hardness and
alkalinity of the source water can be increased. The treatment is directed
away from the origin and preserves the ratio of total hardness to alkalinity
found in the source water. The extent of increase depends on the efficiency
of the RO systems but can reach an increase of more than twofold in modern
systems (see Chapter 12.2).
Alkalizer: Finally, the lower right graph shows the effect of an alkalizer
that increases alkalinity only, and therefore is directed to the right. This is
accomplished by dissolution of sodium hydrogen carbonate or potassium
hydrogen carbonate.
A relatively new treatment that is now on the market is the exchange of

calcium ions for magnesium ions. This form of ion exchange does not change
either total hardness or alkalinity, so both values remain constant. Since
calcium and magnesium can affect extraction differently, research into this
area has received increased attention recently (Hendon et al., 2014).

32
4.2 Choice of Water Treatment Based on

Starting Composition
Now that we have identified a range of different water treatment methods,
let us look at how they can be applied. In essence, all of the water treatment
methods fall into one of the following two categories:
• Continuous or in-line systems: The inlet of the water treatment

system is directly connected to the tap water and its outlet to an
espresso machine or brew boiler. This system allows for a continuous
operation without user assistance. Regular control of the output
water is advised to ensure it is stable.
• Batch or off-line systems: The water is treated as a batch in a
tank or other container. Using this system for espresso machines
may require the use of an additional pump and accumulator as
some pumps need positive pressure at their inlet. While all different
types of ion-exchanger and RO can be operated in either of the two
modes, the addition of an acid such as a dealkalizer or an alkalizing
agent such as sodium hydrogen carbonate are currently not sold as
continuous systems in the form of a cartridge or dispenser.

33
Heritage SCAA Standard Heritage SCAA Standard

Heritage SCAE "Core Zone" Heritage SCAE "Core Zone"
for water boilers for water boilers

Figure 11: Range of use for treatment methods that reduce total hardness or alkalinity.

34
Figure 11 shows the potential range of use for different treatment methods
that reduce total hardness or alkalinity in order to arrive at the desired water
composition. As mentioned, when using decarbonization or dealkalization,
it is essential to retain some alkalinity of at least 40 ppm CaCO3 in order to
avoid corrosive conditions that can break down boilers.
Additionally, a decarbonizer is used to treat water with high alkalinity

(i.e. > 200 ppm CaCO3) where the formation of carbonic acid can lead to
a significant decrease in pH and result in corrosive conditions. These are
marked with black and yellow striping in the upper right graph. This can
be avoided if the treated water is left to degas its carbonic acid in form of
carbon dioxide to the air.
Conversely, Figure 12 summarizes the potential range for treatment methods

that can be used to increase total hardness or alkalinity. Note that the
lower left graph illustrates RO systems, which are capable of using the
concentrated water that is usually treated as waste (see Chapter 12.2).

35


Figure 12: Range of use for treatment methods that raise total hardness or alkalinity.

36
4.3 Mixing Different Waters

By mixing water types of different compositions together, virtually any water
composition can be produced. The mixture of two waters allows the user
to reach any composition on the connecting line illustrated in the left and
middle graphs in Figure 13. The mixture of two waters allows the user to
reach any composition on the connecting line illustrated in two upper graphs
in Figure 13. When mixing three waters, any composition can be achieved
within the area of the triangle illustrated in the bottom graph below (see
Chapter 12.4):
Figure 13: Examples of mixing water with different compositions.

37
4.4 Combining Different Treatment Methods

In some cases, no single water treatment is capable of changing the initial
composition to a desired target. For instance, if the aim is to decrease
total hardness and alkalinity but actually increase the difference between
the two (i.e. alkalinity is reduced to a larger extent than total hardness),
none of the water treatments mentioned can achieve both requirements.
In these particular cases, a hybrid treatment using either a decarbonizer
combined with a hardener, or a complete demineralization with subsequent
remineralization can lead to the target composition. In addition, a
combination of complete demineralization and subsequent remineralization
can solve problems that arise due to the presence of undesirable ions such as
iron (Fe2+) or lead (Pb2+).
5 Outlook
Given that a chosen water source - either from a tap or bottle - can provide
hygienic water free of off-flavors such as chlorine, iron or earthy and
moldy flavors, this handbook introduces a systematic three-step method
for modulating water for optimum coffee extraction. In other words,
aiming for a target composition can be determined from measuring the
initial composition of a water type before deciding the most crucial step -
which is to choose a suitable treatment. The majority of users will find all
of the necessary information to decide for a specific water treatment or
combination of multiple treatment methods in the preceding Chapters.
However, some users will have to dive further into the science of water in
order to reach a recommended water composition. Specifically, this concerns
the treatment of very high alkalinity water (i.e. above 300 ppm CaCO3), very
low alkalinity water (i.e. below 50 ppm CaCO3) or the selective reduction of
alkalinity (e.g. dealkalization). These scenarios are discussed in part two on
the fundamentals of water.

38
Depending on the green beans, roasting style, storage, grinding and

extraction method, the actual target composition that leads to the desired
outcome will vary significantly. In order to shed light on this, research should
include experiments to propose correction factors or alternate optimal zones
to account for a number of variables whose influences have not yet been
elucidated in detail. Namely, these are:
• Influence of brew ratio on the optimal composition of water: Recent

literature and simple chemical considerations suggest that low brew
ratios used for espresso as compared to drip coffee shift the
optimum of total hardness and alkalinity to higher values.
• Influence of temperature and pressure on the optimal values of
total hardness and alkalinity: Since temperature and pressure both
affect extraction efficiency, this is in turn coupled to the water
composition used.
• Influence of roasting style on the sensory properties of the final
beverage: Anecdotal evidence suggests that the use of water with
higher concentrations of total hardness and alkalinity can
compensate to some extent for a roast that has not been fully
developed.
• Influence of calcium versus magnesium on the extraction and the
sensory properties of the final beverage: Theoretical considerations
from a recent publication (Hendon et. al, 2014), as well as
preliminary experiments, indicate that magnesium has a slightly
higher extraction efficiency compared to calcium. The difference
between calcium and magnesium with regard to their impact on the
sensory properties however remains unclear and is subject to future
research.
Beside these purely scientific considerations, regional, cultural or individual
preferences can also play a significant role in the choice of the optimum
water composition. For example, in areas where tap water is very soft
(i.e. total hardness and alkalinity are below 40 ppm CaCO3) this might have
influenced the development of specific taste preferences and roasting styles.

39
PART II: WATER

FUNDAMENTALS
Water chemistry is a complex subject. At its foundation, it is essentially an
‘unequal marriage’ of one strongly electron-attracting oxygen atom and
two weakly electron-attracting hydrogen atoms. Analogous to a tug-of-
war between unequal partners, the electrons end up being located closer to
the oxygen than to the hydrogen atom. This characteristic is called polarity,
which refers to the uneven distribution of charge within the water molecule.
6 Water Itself
One of the most important consequences of the polar nature of water is
that water molecules have a strong tendency to align against each other in a
systematic pattern where the oxygen atom of one molecule is located closest
to the hydrogen atom of another water molecule. This weak bond is called a
hydrogen-bond, which is about one twentieth the strength of the chemical
bond between the hydrogen and oxygen at 25 °C (CRC, Suresh) illustrated in
Figure 14:
Figure 14: Hydrogen bond between two water molecules.

40
Due to its polar nature, water is a very good solvent for polar compounds
such as ionic compounds and polar molecules (e.g. during extraction).
Conversely, water hardly dissolves non-polar compounds such as oils and
fats, which make up approximately 10 % of the weight of roasted coffee.
However, for extraction under high pressure and temperatures for espresso
and moka pot, or long contact times like French press, the solubility of non-
polar compounds is significantly increased (Gloess, 2013). Among the many
special, anomalous characteristics of water are a number of mostly well-
known phenomena, namely:
• Water shows two anomalies with regard to its density:

• Its highest density is reached at 4 °C.
• The density of water as a solid (e.g. ice) is lower than in its
liquid form (i.e. water expands during freezing and shrinks
when melting).
• Water has a boiling point that is unusually high and a freezing point
that is very low compared to substances made up of similarly small
molecules.
• Water has a very high heat capacity; meaning it takes a lot of
energy to heat or cool water.
• Water is almost incompressible; at a pressure of 1000 bar
(i.e. present in the deepest parts of the ocean at 10,000 m below
the surface) it is only 5 % more dense than at atmospheric pressure.
What is practically more relevant to everyday extraction is that water has a
density of almost exactly 1000 kg/m3 or 1 g/mL. This means that 1 g equals 1
mL; 1 kg equals 1 L; and one ton equals 1 m3. The boiling point of pure water
is not just determined by its temperature but in fact by the pressure of the
surrounding gas phase. For example, the reduced boiling point temperature
at high altitudes is a well known phenomena. Figure 15 shows the vapor
pressure of water in absolute values, meaning that to calculate overpressure
with respect to the atmosphere, such as in a steam boiler, the absolute
pressure has to be subtracted by the atmospheric pressure (e.g. approx. 1 bar
at sea level).

41
Figure 15: Vapor pressure of water as absolute pressure: Equivalent values of atmospheric pressure at different
altitudes is indicated on the chart (p < 1 bar), along with static pressure under water (p > 1 bar).
6.1 Understanding and Applying pH

By definition, pH is a ratio and therefore dimensionless, or strictly speaking,
has a dimension of ‘one’. For nearly pure water (i.e. >99.9% equivalent to
a TDS < 1000ppm) such as most drinking waters, the pH value can be
expressed in a very tangible and precise way:
• pH 7 denotes that for every half a billion water molecules there

is one proton (H+). It can be stated this way because the proton
originates from an ionization reaction in pure water when a water
molecule deprotonates to become a hydroxide ion (OH-) for the
same number of water molecules.

42
Research shows that when water molecules split off a proton, the free
proton is immediately adopted by another water molecule. This phenomenon
is called the autodissociation of water and is illustrated in Figure 16:
Figure 16: Autodissociation of water: Top; illustrated by the molecular formulas; Bottom; illustrated as ball-and-
stick model.
For the sake of simplicity, this handbook refers to protons (H+) instead of
hydronium ions (H3O+) and pH as a measure for the concentration of ‘free’
protons (H+) in water. In practical terms, for every increase of the pH by one
unit (+1) the concentration of protons decreases by a factor of ten; and for
every decrease of the pH value (-1) the concentration of protons increases
by a factor of ten. The opposite, however, holds true for hydroxide ions. The
higher the temperature, the more protons - and hydroxide ions - are present
in neutral water. Only at 25 °C does a neutral pH corresponds to a value of
exactly 7 (see Figure 17).
Figure 17: Dependence of neutral pH value on temperature.

43
Please remember that the acid buffering potential - even as low as 25 ppm
CaCO3 - is 50 times more than the difference in pure acid concentrations
between pH5 and pH7. In other words, a water with 25 ppm CaCO3 less
alkalinity has 50 times more impact on the beverage acidity than having a
starting pH of 5, instead of pH7.
It is also important to note that the strength of an acid is measured by its

power to transfer its proton to water, thereby using water as a base. Strong
acids donate virtually all of their protons when pH levels are below two –
meaning even if there are already a lot of protons present in the water (i.e.
low pH), the acid will still dissociate and donate its proton to the solution.
Figure 18 gives examples of everyday liquids across the pH range from highly
acidic stomach acid to highly alkaline caustic soda:
Skin surface of humans
Orange and apple juice
Stomach acid (empty
ammonia (4% w/w)
Sodium hydroxide
(caustic soda)
Human saliva
Lemon juice
Pure water
Substance
Household
stomach)
Concrete
Soap
Coke
9,0– 13,5–
pH-Value 1,0–1,5 2,4 2,0–3,0 3,5 5,5 6,5–7,4 7,0 11,5 12,6
10,0 14
Type acidic neutral alkaline
Figure 18: pH values of everyday products or chemicals.

44
7 Units of Concentration
In contrast to everyday life where mass and volume are standard units to
quantify absolute (e.g. g/L) and relative substance contents (e.g. % w/w,
% v/v), chemistry quantifies substances or entities in moles which is a
value proportional to the actual number of atoms, ions, or molecules. While
using units of mass is common to everyone, they do not reflect the true
proportions of the chemical compounds involved in terms of their number of
molecules, ions, or atoms. Using units to express the amount of substance
concentrations instead of mass concentration is paramount to chemistry. It
is important because only the proportions relative to the actual number of
entities reflects the ratios needed to understand and explain any chemical
process. Amount concentrations, also called molar concentrations, are
given as mole per volume or weight, and this is most commonly expressed
in water analysis as mmol/L. Derived directly from amount concentrations
is the definition of equivalent mass units and hardness degrees, which
will be explored further. In contrast to amount concentrations, equivalent
concentrations can only be applied to charged ions and are calculated by
multiplication of the amount concentration (e.g. mmol/L) by the charge
number of the ion (e.g. ‘z’) – these are termed as equivalents (e.g. ‘eq’ where
miliequivalents per liter, for example, is abbreviated to meq/L). Figure 19
illustrates the typical composition of a tap water shown in different units.

45
Figure 19: Water composition of Zurich tap water (average 2014), illustrating major cations and anion content
in drinking water. Left: Mass concentrations (mg/L); Center: Amount concentrations (mmol/L); Right: Charge
equivalent concentrations (meq/L = mmol·z/L).
Since ions constitute typically over 95% of the chemical components (i.e. less
than 1% of solutes are uncharged) in fresh water, this limitation is negligible
for the purposes of this Chapter. By multiplying the molar concentrations
of all ions with their charge, we can calculate the fundamental balance
that has to be fulfilled for every water sample to achieve charge neutrality.
Measurements and calculations in equivalent units allow for a ‘double
entry bookkeeping’ of water composition, since it allows for an assessment
of potential gaps in the analysis. In addition, it is evidently the most
transparent and clearest representation when assessing scale formation
or water treatment methods. For known water composition, conductivity
measurements can be transformed into a value for total dissolved solids
(TDS).

46
7.1 Units of Hardness

It is common in most developed countries to use equivalent units to report
hardness. This means that the contents of ionic species (e.g. Mg2+, Ca2+,
HCO3-) are represented by the equivalent mass of the corresponding solid
they could form when precipitating. Furthermore, most hardness equivalent
units are defined with respect to the mass of calcium carbonate (e.g.
ppm CaCO3 –USA; °fH – FR; °e - UK), except German hardness degrees
(°dH) which are defined with respect to calcium oxide. What this means in
practice is that the lower of the two such as hardness and HCO3- equivalents
determine the theoretical maximum mass that can precipitate and form
scale, for example in boilers.
The maximum amount of scale that can form when water is heated is
referred to as carbonate hardness, otherwise known as temporary hardness.
In order to determine carbonate hardness, compare total hardness and
alkalinity, whichever of the two is lowest determines this. The reason being
that both total hardness and alkalinity are needed to form scale. In other
words, only one of the two cannot form scale without the other being
present.
As remarked earlier, these units are not the same as the concentrations
featured on bottled water labels that state mass concentrations in mg/L of
the respective ions, or neutral molecules such as silicates. Specifically, this
means that when one mole of calcium carbonate is removed from water
(e.g. scale formation) the concentration of calcium decreases by one mole.
Whereas, due to the fundamental rule that a water molecule always stays
charge neutral for all processes under consideration in this handbook, the
concentration of hydrogen carbonate will decrease by two moles.

47
8 Water, Hardness and Scale

To understand the different expressions that are used in the industry, it is
worth exploring the rationale behind the concept of hardness. The term
‘water hardness’ originates from the capacity of water to precipitate soaps
during washing. The predominant reason for the precipitation of soaps is a
high content of calcium and magnesium (SMWW, 2012; DIN, 1986; ASTM,
2002). While other polyvalent cations such as iron, barium and strontium
may also precipitate soap, their presence in fresh water is seldom above
trace amounts and can therefore be discounted in most circumstances.
Additionally, water used in boilers at home or in industrial equipment can

become encrusted with scale residues that are being formed mostly from
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and also at high pH (>10) by magnesium
hydroxide (Mg(OH)2). Since the scale formation by precipitation of calcium
carbonate is equally dependent on the concentration of carbonates as
calcium, the concept of carbonate hardness has been introduced and is
still very common in the water industry. Most fresh water sources contain
an equivalent concentration of hydrogen carbonate (HCO3-) that is lower
than total hardness. This imposes a limit on the maximum amount of total
hardness that can precipitate. Some calcium and magnesium will also
remain in the water.
In this case, only a fraction of total hardness (i.e. calcium and magnesium)
corresponding to the hydrogen carbonate content is called carbonate
hardness - or temporary hardness. The remaining calcium and magnesium
content is called non-carbonate hardness or permanent hardness. It is
the part of the total hardness that remains, after all HCO3− and CO32-
has been used up. Non-carbonate hardness is most commonly introduced
into the water by sulfate or chloride-minerals that do not form scale (i.e.
do not precipitate). In the opposite case that the equivalent hydrogen
carbonate concentration is higher than total hardness, the carbonate
hardness corresponds to the total hardness as all calcium and magnesium
can be precipitated and no permanent hardness remaining. In this case, the
fraction of HCO3− that is higher than total hardness would have to be called,
following the ‘hardness logic’, as non-hard carbonate (see Figure 2 in Chapter
2.3).

48
9 Water and Carbon Dioxide

The story of water and coffee is closely linked to the limestone that is
dissolved in the ground and the scale it can form in coffee equipment.
However, there is also another substance that plays a key role in the water
cycle, and therefore coffee extraction - which is carbon dioxide. As outlined
earlier, water dissolves carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which in turn forms
carbonic acid and becomes acidic (see Chapter 2.1). Moreover, the plants and
microorganisms in the soil release carbon dioxide, which in turn is dissolved
in the ground water. This acidic water then goes on to dissolve limestone in
the ground to pickup total hardness and alkalinity. For reasons of simplicity,
it is customary in water chemistry to combine dissolved carbon dioxide and
carbonic acid. For example, the strength of carbonic acid is expressed in
relation to the sum of dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid present.
Therefore, we will include carbonic acid when talking about the concentration
of dissolved carbon dioxide in this handbook.
Most tap waters have a value of between pH 6 – 7 and are therefore close
to neutral. It is important to note that this is not because it is pure water,
but because the alkalinity picked up by dissolving limestone is balanced by
dissolved CO2. The only practical way to dissolve scale in water in a short
timeframe is with carbonized water, containing high concentrations of
dissolved carbon dioxide. In order to understand this better, let us first have a
look at the solubility of CO2 along with that of oxygen (O2).
Figure 20 shows the solubility of the two gasses depending on temperature;

the hotter the water is, the less soluble the two gases become. In addition,
the amount of gas that dissolves in water also depends, on how much of
the respective gas is present in the air. For example, CO2 is present in air at
only 400 ppm in contrast to oxygen, which is present at 21% (i.e. 210’000
ppm). When describing the solubility of gases in water it is expressed as an
equilibrium concentration that is reached if you wait long enough or stir the
water vigorously for a couple of minutes.

49
Since there is much more oxygen present in the atmosphere, its equilibrium
concentration is much higher than that of CO2. In contrast, when both gases
are present at the same concentration in the air the concentration of carbon
dioxide is much higher. In fact, inside an espresso basket at 9 bars pressure
and 90 °C, approximately 4 g of carbon dioxide can dissolve per liter.
Figure 20: Solubility of oxygen and carbon dioxide at atmospheric concentrations and at 1 bar. Source: Geng
(2010) and CRC handbook (2014).
If we take a different perspective on how plants and microorganisms in the

soil release carbon dioxide, which in turn is dissolved in the ground water,
we can see how this effect leads to a decrease in pH of one unit or more
depending on the dissolved carbon dioxide of the water out of the tap.
The opposite reaction is degassing of carbon dioxide from water by either

letting it stand in an open container, stirring, or heating. Figure 21 shows the
evolution of the pH from a tap water containing 180 ppm CaCO3. Out of the
tap, the water measures pH 7.5, which corresponds to 11 mg/L of dissolved
carbon dioxide. By stirring it in an open container over the course of a day,
it can rise by more than one pH unit. After 24 hours it can measure a value
of pH 8.7 which then corresponds to 0.7 mg/L carbon dioxide. This is almost
down to the equilibrium level with the atmosphere, which is at 0.4 mg/L at
20°C independent of pH.

50
Figure 21: Evolution of pH of a tap water.
9.1 Carbonate Cycle: Why Scale and Carbon Dioxide

are Relatives
As we explained at the beginning of this Chapter, water droplets in the
atmosphere dissolve carbon dioxide, which in turn forms carbonic acid. See
the following equation:
Equation 2: CO2(dissolved) + H2O ←

→ H2CO3
The carbonic acid (H2CO3), which is formed as a consequence of the

dissolution of CO2 in water is a weak acid and hence donates one of its
two protons to water, forming a single-charged hydrogen carbonate, which
according to the following equation, leads to an acidification of the water:
Equation 3: H2CO3 + ← -
→ HCO3 + H
+
Hydrogen carbonate is an acid as well, as it may in principle further donate

its one proton to water, forming a double-charged carbonate ion (CO32-). This
is expressed in the following equation:
Equation 4: HCO3- + ← -
→ CO32 + H
+

51
Yet under normal circumstances, this is very unlikely to happen, as the proton
donating power of hydrogen carbonate is small at pH values that prevail
in drinking water. Only in very basic conditions above pH 9 does carbonate
form. For example, since carbonic acid (H2CO3) is a much weaker acid than
sulfuric or nitric acid, the average pH of rainwater in Switzerland has risen
from approximately pH 4.5 in 1985 to pH 5.5 in 2013, equaling a decrease of
a factor 10 in proton concentration of rainwater. At the current atmospheric
concentration levels of CO2, pure water in equilibrium with the atmosphere
has a pH value of approx. 5.7 due to the acidification from carbonic acid
(H2CO3). Figure 22 shows the different substances that are involved in
the carbonate cycle and how they are linked to each other. Whereas the
left and center part are occurring naturally, the right part including the
decarbonization, is added by water treatment.
Figure 22: The carbonate cycle in coffee applications.

52
9.2 Treatment of Hard Water by Decarbonization

A special case that involves carbon dioxide formation is the treatment of
hard water by decarbonization. The working principle of the decarbonizer
that reduces total hardness and alkalinity is based on the exchange of
magnesium or calcium ions by protons. This means that although the
hydrogen carbonate is protonated and therefore not an acid buffer anymore,
it is still present in the form of carbonic acid, which in turn is in a constant
exchange with dissolved carbon dioxide. If the treatment is done by an in-
line system where the carbonic acid cannot escape as carbon dioxide, it
leads to two effects. Firstly, the pH of the treated water will decrease and in
case of a water with a high starting level of total hardness (i.e. > 300 ppm
CaCO3), this can effectively make the treated water so acidic that the risk
of corrosion increases significantly. Secondly, a large amount of carbonic
acid will also lead to excessive crema production during the extraction of
espresso.
For example, a barista may have an issue with the espresso being very foamy
resulting in large bubbles that collapse quickly in the crema. This is because
a decarbonizer is being used to treat a very hard water (i.e. above 300
ppm CaCO3). The reduction of approximately 250 ppm CaCO3 in alkalinity
increased the dissolved carbon dioxide by 220 mg/L in the form of carbonic
acid. For a standard double espresso recipe with a 1:2 brew ratio, this means
that even for a very fresh coffee one hour after roast and two minutes after
grinding, the water can add another 50 % to the carbon dioxide already
contained in the coffee grounds. Figure 23 illustrates this decrease of pH
depending on the alkalinity reduction by decarbonization.

53
Figure 23: Decrease in pH due to dissolved carbon dioxide from decarbonization.
It is also worth noting that when using a decarbonizer, every reduction of 10

ppm CaCO3 decreases the electrical conductivity by 17 µS/cm (or 30 µS/cm
for reduction by 1 °d).

54
10 Electrical Conductivity
and TDS
As mentioned in part one of this handbook, the conversion of electrical
conductivity (EC) to total dissolved solids (TDS) gives only a rough estimate
of the amount of dissolved solids in a water sample, but it does not contain
any information on the type of substances. In the actual estimation of TDS,
the measurements have a typical error range of +/-30%, and in extreme
cases more than a 50% error margin. For this reason, they should not be
used as a standalone quality parameter. The reason for this uncertainty,
or error, is that the actual conversion factor depends strongly on the exact
composition. Moreover, water temperature strongly influences the conversion
and most of the cheaper devices on the market do not measure or correct for
this. For every 1 °C, the conductivity (or TDS) measurement changes by about
2%. This means that a sample at 10°C or at 30°, instead of the standard of
20 °C, gives a reading that is 20% too high or too low, respectively.
Table 2 shows the conversion factors from EC in µS/cm to TDS in mg/L

(or equally in ppm) at 20°C for common scale or limestone (i.e. calcium
carbonate (CaCO3), magnesium carbonate (MgCO3), table salt (sodium
chloride (NaCl)), rock salt (potassium chloride (KCl)), gypsum (calcium
sulfate (CaSO4)), epsom salt (magnesium sulfate (MgSO4)), calcium chloride
(CaCl2) and magnesium chloride (MgCl2)). Whereas for pure scale, EC is
almost equal to TDS; for table salt and rock salt, TDS is less than half of EC.
Table 2: Conversion factor from EC to TDS for the most commonly found dissolved solids in water.
CaCO3 MgCO3 NaCl KCl CaSO4 MgSO4 CaCl2 MgCl2 NaHCO3 KHCO3
TDS
(mg/L) /
EC (µS/ 0.99 0.94 0.42 0.45 0.88 0.82 0.47 0.42 0.80 0.77
cm)
at 20 °C

55
Table 3 gives examples for conversion factors from EC (in µS/cm) to TDS
(in mg/L) for major US cities. Data on mineral composition was taken from
Lockhart (1955) and Pawlowicz (2008). Compared to the commonly used
standard of 0.7 in mg/L of TDS per 1 µS/cm of electrical conductivity, most
tap waters are close to the standard while some read up to 27% higher (e.g.
Chicago at 0.89) or 25% lower (e.g. Galveston at 0.52).
Table 3: Examples for conversion factor from EC to TDS for the major US cities (Lockhart, 1955).
San Francisco
Indianapolis
Kansas City
Los Angeles
Pittsburgh
Galveston
Cleveland
New York
Sarasota
St. Louis
Chicago
Boston
TDS (mg/L) /
EC (µS/cm) 0.71 0.82 0.70 0.72 0.81 0.80 0.89 0.78 0.65 0.89 0.80 0.52
at 20 °C
PART III: PRACTICAL GUIDE

ON HANDLING WATER
This practical guide should be used as an aid to go through the three-
step process of how to measure, aim and treat, as described in part one.
A prerequisite to using this handbook is to start with a clean and hygienic
water that is safe for consumption. The first step gives you instructions
on what, and how, to measure. The second step provides solutions on how
to get a specific composition by using either water treatment, mixing of
different waters or by adding specific salts or acids to achieve the targeted
composition. Finally, the third step gives examples to achieve a chosen water
composition in the everyday operation of your café, roastery, laboratory or
business – or at home.

56
11 How to Measure Your Water

Unfortunately, water is far too complex to write a short guide that works
for every water type used. However, based on data from central Europe and
the USA the vast majority of tap waters can be sufficiently characterized by
measuring three parameters:
• Total hardness
• Alkalinity
• Conductivity
The following Chapter gives descriptions on how to use test kits and
measurement instruments so that the user can achieve a reliable result. Let
us start with measuring the most important and useful characteristic of
your water - total hardness and alkalinity.
11.1 Measuring Total Hardness and Alkalinity

Outside of a well-equipped analytical laboratory, total hardness and
alkalinity can be measured by a method called titration. It is important to
note that most manufacturers of water titration kits available from water
treatment suppliers or aquarium stores still use incorrect labelling. Therefore,
a test measuring ‘carbonate hardness’ is in fact measuring alkalinity. See
Chapter 2.3 for more details on the distinction between alkalinity and
carbonate hardness. Titration is done by adding a test solution to a water
sample, counting the number of drops needed to get a specified change in
color. Total hardness and alkalinity each have a different test solution and
the tests are conducted separately.
The first step is to fill the test tube with a specified amount of water, most
commonly this is 5 mL. Next, the respective solution is added drop-by-drop,
making sure to mix the sample well by shaking after the addition of each
drop. The first drop results in the clear water sample taking on a color.

57
For total hardness, this is most often green and for alkalinity, this is most
often blue. If the color is barely visible, meaning the water sample stays
almost transparent, then this indicates that the concentration of the
respective parameter is very low.
If this is the case, try holding the test tube over a piece of white paper to
make sure the color is more easily determined. The color intensity is also
more visible if you look down through the tube over the white paper. In
order to determine the correct measurement value, keep on adding drops
until the color starts to change. Once the color has changed completely
your measurement is finished and the number of drops can be converted
to a reading of total hardness or alkalinity. For instance, a first slight color
change might occur in hardness test kits when the color starts to change
from ‘red’ to ‘red with a hue of green’. This means that your final value has
not been reached yet. Keep on adding and counting the drops until the
water is completely green and any red color has disappeared. The minimum
recommended resolution is 20 ppm CaCO3 (or 1°d). Most tests also include
the conversion formulas to different hardness units (see Chapter 12.5). IIn
Figure 24, the different steps in a titration for total hardness are shown.
Figure 24: Different stages of using a total hardness titration kit. Left: Water sample is ready for the titration
test; Center: First drops have been added and the solution has turned green; Right: Final stage of the
measurement has been reached since the solution has turned completely to red.

58
When measuring treated water with values of total hardness and alkalinity
below 100 ppm CaCO3, titration measurement can be imprecise. This is
because the accuracy is +/- 1 drop, equaling 20 ppm CaCO3. To avoid this,
simply double the water volume in the test tube (e.g. 10 mL instead of 5
mL). This now means that one drop equals half the previous indication of
10 ppm CaCO3. For even more precision you can triple the water amount,
which increases the sensitivity by a factor of three, meaning one step
equals 6.7 ppm CaCO3. The downside of using more water is that you are
going to use more of your test solution and mixing the sample will become
more difficult as the amount is increased. If the test vial does not feature
additional volume indications, the simplest way of doing this is to weigh the
amount with a scale using the conversion of 1 g = 1 mL which introduces only
a negligible error (i.e. <0.5% at temperatures below 30 °C).
If your solution does not take on the specified color listed in your test manual
or description outlined here and turns yellow-brown instead of green, your
test kit might be faulty because it is too old, was exposed to light or exposed
to too high temperatures.
11.2 Measuring Electrical Conductivity and TDS

Measuring electrical conductivity is nothing more than holding a
measurement device in a sample of water. It is crucial that the sample should
have a temperature close to 20°C. This is because EC is strongly dependent
on temperature - the lower the temperature the higher the EC. The same
goes for TDS-Meters which are essentially an EC meter but with a built-in
conversion. The heritage SCAA standard refers to a TDS meter that uses a
factor of 0.7, meaning that 1 µS/cm is assumed equal to 1 mg/L or 1 ppm.
One of the caveats when using a TDS meter is that there is a significant
share of meters that use a factor of 0.5 or use a variable conversion factor.
Therefore, it is best to make sure what conversion factor a specific meter
uses by consulting the user manual or device specifications.

59
Figure 25: A conductivity meter that also measures temperature.

60
12 Achieving Your Desired

Water Composition
In this Chapter, four different approaches are presented so that you can get
a water with exactly the composition you are aiming for. An understanding of
the basic concepts described in the water chart in part one is important to
fully understanding the following three main recommendations for treating
your water:
• Adopting standard methods available by water

treatment companies.
• Mixing different waters to get the desired composition.
• Creating a specific water composition by taking pure water
and add salts.
12.1 When to Choose Which Treatment

The water composition you wish to target heavily depends on the type of
extraction method. When preparing filter coffee, a lot more water is used
than in espresso (e.g. 1:15 for filter compared to 1:2 for espresso). This is why
the potential to reduce acidity is much higher in filter coffee, as there is much
more water per coffee dose than for espresso. Consequently, one can leave
the alkalinity at much higher values for espresso (up to 150 ppm CaCO3),
before a significant buffering effect on the acidity will become apparent. Of
course, leaving the alkalinity at a higher value also increases the amount of
scale formation. Although the actual amount of scale formation is also pH
dependent, it is worth bearing in mind that the lower the pH the less scale
forms. In terms of risk management, this means that espresso machines
are not suitable for risky experiments due to their high commercial value. In
contrast, water kettles for filter coffee are low cost and can be used with
water having a higher risk of scale formation or corrosion risk.

61
In the case of limestone dominated water with an alkalinity concentration

equal to, or almost 70 ppm CaCO3 lower than the concentration of total
hardness, a decarbonizer is the best option for most applications. However,
for espresso machines and water boilers the following recommendations
should be followed:
• Up to 250 ppm CaCO3 alkalinity: Set the bypass valve on your

decarbonizer cartridge so that the output water has an alkalinity of
40 -70 ppm CaCO3.
• For water with more than 250 ppm CaCO3 alkalinity: Set the
bypass valve on your decarbonizer cartridge so the output water the
alkalinity will reduce by no more than 200 ppm CaCO3 (see Chapter 9).
For example, when starting with 350 ppm CaCO3 alkalinity the output water
should not be set below 150 ppm CaCO3 alkalinity. Otherwise an excessive
amount of carbonic acid will be formed resulting in a pH drop (e.g. below
pH 6) and significantly increase the chance of corrosion. For the use of
water in open kettles, decarbonization can be applied without restrictions,
since any carbonic acid that is formed during the process will escape to the
surrounding air when the water is heated.
Reverse osmosis is currently the only reliable treatment method for salt
water (e.g. treated sea water) and water where alkalinity is more than 70
ppm CaCO3 with lower total hardness (e.g. gypsum water), and contains
traces of iron, manganese or high sodium content. For home use or small
volumes for tests an almost pure water (i.e. water with very low mineral
content) can be used to dilute the tap water (e.g. RO water or water with
total hardness and alkalinity below 20 ppm CaCO3).
12.2 Using Reverse Osmosis to Increase

the Mineral Content of Water
When using reverse osmosis, the maximum degree of concentration that can
be achieved is directly correlated with the efficiency (i.e. waste ratio) of the
system.

62
In other words, the less water is used to produce one liter of permeate, which
can be described as almost pure water, the higher the concentration of the
leftover. Usually, this leftover concentrate is treated as waste. Although
there are several reverse osmosis systems on the market that are capable
of using this concentrate as the actual output in order to increase the
mineral content of water. This can also be used to increase total hardness
and alkalinity if the source water is of low mineral content but otherwise
high quality, specifically in the absence of other undesirable or harmful
compounds such as metals or chlorine. Table 4 lists the conversion factor to
calculate the maximum increase in mineral content of water as a function of
the efficiency of a reverse osmosis system.
Table 4: Waste ratio and concentration factors for reverse osmosis.
Ratio of diluted permeate Concentration Increase in

Waste / %
to concentrated leftover factor mineral content / %
80 1 : 4.0 1.3 25.0
75 1 : 3.0 1.3 33.3
70 1: 2.3 1.4 42.9
65 1 : 1.9 1.5 53.8
60 1 : 1.5 1.7 66.7
55 1 : 1.2 1.8 81.8
50 1:1 2.0 100
45 1.2 : 1 2.2 122
40 1.5 : 1 2.5 150
35 1.9 : 1 2.9 186
30 2.3 : 1 3.3 233
25 3.0 : 1 4.0 300
20 4.0 : 1 5.0 400

63
12.3 Mixing Two Waters: Choosing Total Hardness

or Alkalinity
As mentioned earlier in Chapter 4, virtually any water composition can be
produced by mixing water types of different compositions together. The
following recommendations are designed to prepare waters containing
different concentrations of alkalinity and total hardness. Figure 26 shows an
example of mixing two waters, where:
• Water 1 is an almost pure water from reverse osmosis water or

bottled water that is very low in total hardness and alkalinity
(e.g. 5 ppm CaCO3 alkalinity / 10 ppm CaCO3 total hardness
(5|10)).
• Water 2 is a medium hard water containing 150 ppm CaCO3
alkalinity and 200 ppm CaCO3 total hardness (150|200).
Figure 26: Illustration of the mixture of two waters.

64
By mixing water 1 and water 2, any point on the line connecting the two
compositions can be achieved. A combined impression of varying water
composition can be carried out by simply mixing two waters in different
ratios with each other. To calculate the percentages of water 1 and 2 in a
mixture, a simple equation can be used for any chosen value of alkalinity or
total hardness:
• Choosing a target alkalinity:
Share of water 1 = 100*

(Alkalinity of water 2 - Target alkalinity) /
(Alkalinity of water 2 - Alkalinity of water 1)
Share of water 2 = 100 – Percentage of water 1

• Choosing a target total hardness:
Share of water 1 = 100*

(Total hardness of water 2 - Target total hardness) /
(Total hardness of water 2 - Total hardness of water 1)
Share of water 2 = 100 – Percentage of water 1

For example, if you choose to target an alkalinity of 60 ppm CaCO3, the
equation is as follows:
• % water 1= 100*(150-60)/(150-5) = 64.1 % - which then brings

the share of water 2 to 35.9 %.
Or if you target a total hardness of 120 ppm CaCO3 the equation becomes:
• % water 1 = 100*(200-120)/(200-10) = 42.1 % - which then brings

the share of water 2 to 57.9 %.

65
12.4 Mixing Three Waters: Choosing Total Hardness

and Alkalinity
If the three waters chosen are different enough, alkalinity and total hardness
can be changed independently from each other by mixing these three waters.
The downside of this approach is that it complicates the calculation in an
equation with 16 mentions of eight different variables. This means that we
will achieve total hardness and alkalinity values from all three of the different
water used for mixing, as well as the target total hardness and alkalinity.
Table 5: Example of three waters used for mixing.
Alkalinity / Total hardness /

Three waters for mixing
PPM CaCO3 ppm CaCO3
Water 1 RO / distilled-like water 10.0 10.0
Water 2 Typical mineral water 300.0 320.0
Water 3 Epsom (MgSO4) concentrate 10.0 450.0
In the example provided, an almost pure water (e.g. Water 1) is used. Water
2 is a typical hard water that contains mostly limestone or scale resulting in
high total hardness and alkalinity. Meanwhile, Water 3 is made using Epsom
salt, and contains a high total hardness but almost no alkalinity.

66
Figure 27 shows the three different waters highlighted in green circles are
mapped onto the water chart, which covers the range of compositions that
can be achieved.
Figure 27: Illustration of the mixing process including the starting waters (Water 1-3) as well as the target water
4 illustrated in Table 6 below.

67
For example, Table 6 shows the calculated values for four chosen targets. A
guideline on to how to convert total hardness and alkalinity values between
different units is detailed in the next Chapter.
Table 6: Examples for target waters and the share of the three input waters used to mix them.
Chosen Share of Share of Share of

Alkalinity / Total hardness /
target water water 1 water 2 water 3
ppm CaCO3 ppm CaCO3
compositions / g*L-1 / g*L-1 / g*L-1
Target 1 40 55 867.2 103.4 29.4
Target 2 40 80 810.3 103.4 86.2
Target 3 60 80 790.0 172.4 37.6
Target 4 60 110 721.8 172.4 105.8
12.5 Conversion of Total Hardness and Alkalinity

Between Different Concentration Units
Table 7 presents the conversion factors to ppm CaCO3 from mass
concentration units, otherwise known as straight mg/L and for molar units,
otherwise known as milimoles per liter (mmol/L). For the conversion from
hardness units to mass concentration there is a different factor for all three
substances (e.g. calcium, magnesium and hydrogen carbonate) because they
all have a different weight. For milimoles per liter, the conversion factor from
hardness degrees is identical for calcium and magnesium. In contrast, the
conversion factor for hydrogen carbonate is half that due to their different
charge.

68
Table 7: Conversion factors to ppm CaCO3.
Unit name Conversion factor to ppm CaCO3
Calcium (mg/L) 2.497
Magnesium (mg/L) 4.118
Hydrogen carbonate (mg/L) 0.8202
Calcium and Magnesium (mmol/L) 100.1
Hydrogen carbonate (mmol/L) 50.04
For example, how do we calculate the total hardness (e.g. sum of calcium
and magnesium) and alkalinity of a water with 50 mg/L of calcium, 10 mg/L
of magnesium and 100 mg/L of hydrogen carbonate?
Total hardness:
• 50 x 2.497 = 125 ppm CaCO3

• 10 x 4.118 = 41 ppm CaCO3 => total hardness is 166 ppm CaCO3
Alkalinity:
• 100 x 0.8202 = 82 ppm CaCO3 => alkalinity is 82 ppm CaCO3

69
12.6 Conversion Among Different Hardness Degrees

for Total Hardness and Alkalinity
Table 8 lists the conversion factors from other hardness degrees to ppm
CaCO3. The conversion factor from one unit to the other (e.g. ppm CaCO3
to °d) is always the same for total hardness and alkalinity. To convert any
other unit to ppm CaCO3, simply multiply the value with the corresponding
conversion factor.
For example, how do convert a value of 2 °d total hardness to ppm CaCO3?
• 2 x 17.85 = 35.7 ppm CaCO3

To calculate the reverse (i.e. to convert a value in ppm CaCO3 to any other
unit, simply divide it by the conversion factor). How do we convert a value of
50 ppm CaCO3 alkalinity to °e?
• 50 / 17.12 = 2.92 °e
Table 8: Conversion factors from different hardness degrees to ppm CaCO3.
Unit name Conversion factor to ppm CaCO3
German degrees (°d) 17.85
French degrees (°f) 10
Grains per US gallon (gpg) 17.12
English degree (°e) 14.25

70
12.7 Converting Hardness and Alkalinity to Other Ions

The different treatment methods outlined earlier exchange calcium,
magnesium, or hydrogen carbonate ions with other ions. Other treatments
introduce calcium, magnesium, or hydrogen carbonate ions along with others
such as sulfates, chlorides, or sodium ions. In order to calculate how much of
these other ions are introduced into the water by a specific treatment, Table
9 below lists the conversion factors.
Table 9: Conversion factors of total hardness and alkalinity to other ions.
Dissolved Dissolved
Na2 K+ SO42- CL- Na+ K+ SO42- CL-
CO2 CO2
(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mmol/L) (mmol/L) (mmol/L) (mmol/L)
(mg/L) (mmol/L)
1 ppm
ppm CaCo3
CaCO3 0.4594 0.7813 0.8794 0.9597 0.7084 0.01998 0.01998 0.01998 0.009991 0.01998
(=mg CaCo3/L)
=
German
1 °dH = 8.199 13.94 15.70 17.13 12.64 0.3566 0.3566 0.3567 0.1783 0.3566
degrees (°d)
French degrees
1 °fH = 4.594 7.813 8.794 9.597 7.084 0.1998 0.1998 0.1998 0.09991 0.1998
(°f)
Grains per US
1 gpg = 7.864 13.37 15.05 16.43 12.13 0.3421 0.3421 0.3421 0.171 0.3421
gallon (gpg)
English degree
1 °e = 6.548 11.14 12.52 13.68 10.1 0.2848 0.2848 0.2848 0.1424 0.2848
(°e)
1
Ca2+ +
mmol/L 45.98 78.20 88.02 96.06 70.91 2 2 2.000 1 2
Mg2+ (mmol/L)
=
1
HCO3-
mmol/L 22.99 39.10 44.01 48.03 35.45 1 1 1.000 0.5 1
(mmol/L)
=
Ca2+ (mg/L) 1 mg/L = 1.147 1.951 2.196 1.198 0.8846 0.0499 0.0499 0.0499 0.02495 0.0499
Mg2+ (mg/L) 1 mg/L = 1.892 3.217 3.621 1.976 1.459 0.08229 0.08229 0.08229 0.04114 0.08229
HCO3- (mg/L) 1 mg/L = 0.3768 0.6408 0.7213 0.7871 0.581 0.01639 0.01639 0.01639 0.008195 0.01639
Please note that a special case is the production of carbonic acid that forms
from dissolved carbon dioxide by the decarbonizer (see Chapter 9).

71
12.8 Creating Individualized Water Composition

by Adding Salts and Acids
Below are step-by-step instructions to help you create a target water
composition by adding salts and acids:
Alkalizing solution: Prepare the alkalizing solution by dissolving 3 g of baking

soda (i.e. pure sodium hydrogen carbonate – also called sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO3)) in 1 L of RO water. This solution will now contain 100 °d of
alkalinity. Adding a further 10 g of this solution to 1 L of water will add an
additional 1 °d of alkalinity. Baking soda can be bought in most supermarkets
but make sure that it is pure NaHCO3 baking powder as many products
contain additional ingredients such as cornstarch and other carbonate salts.
Hardening solution: Prepare the hardening solution by dissolving a salt

containing either calcium or magnesium but no carbonate. In this example,
a solution of CaCl2 combined with MgCl2 x 6 H2O is given. This means that
there are six water molecules bound within the crystal structure of the
magnesium chloride. Either calcium or magnesium sulfate is advised for
espresso machines since chlorides increase the chance of corrosion. Often,
espresso machine manufacturers strongly advise against using a water that
has significant amounts of chloride (i.e. more than 5 mg/L).
Magnesium hardening solution: To prepare, dissolve 7.3 g of the magnesium

salt in 1 L of RO water. This solution will now contain 200 °d of total
hardness. Adding a further 10 g of this solution to 1 L of water will result in
an additional 2 °d of total hardness.
Calcium hardening solution: To prepare, dissolve 4.0 g of CaCl2 in 1 L of RO

water, resulting in a solution containing 200 °d of total hardness in the form
of calcium.

72
Dealkalizing solution: Finally, it is also possible to decrease alkalinity by

adding a strong acid. However, since this involves handling a hazardous
substance it is not recommended for the chemically untrained user. As
this preparation involves potentially dangerous substances, it is absolutely
necessary to wear eye protection, gloves and a lab coat when handling
concentrated acids. To prepare a solution with an alkalinity of – 100 °d, add
3 g of concentrated hydrochloric acid (37% m/m) to 1 L of RO water. It is
important to pour the concentrated acid into the water and not the other
way around. To decrease the alkalinity of 1 L of water by 1 °d, add 10 g of the
-100 °d solution. Please note that the unit of measurement is negative since
it decreases the alkalinity of a water when added.
13 Tracking the State of

Your Water Treatment
in Everyday Operation
Depending on available data on the stability of a given water supply, a
smaller or larger initial measurement series should be conducted. For
water that is from a single groundwater source, a high stability in water
composition can be expected over the short and long term. On the other
hand, if multiple sources feed into the tap water network, daily and seasonal
variations may occur. Therefore, an initial measurement series should be
conducted to test both the incoming water composition throughout the day,
as well as measuring the changes from one day to the next. In addition, if
the tap water source is from shallow groundwater, river or lake, it is worth to
looking for seasonal changes in the water composition.
Analysis of water can be as simple as using a conductivity meter. However,

whether or not this is sufficient depends on the type of treatment chosen
and the type of potential fluctuations in tap water composition. For
example, a softener will slightly increase the conductivity of the water but, in
practice, is not enough to use as a reliable indicator.

73
When using a decarbonizer, conductivity is reduced significantly by removing

calcium and magnesium and buffering away the alkalinity to form dissolved
carbon dioxide. As a gas, CO2 does not contribute to TDS and almost
nothing to conductivity. Figure 28 shows an example for three medium
hard tap waters from Switzerland and values for electrical conductivity
versus alkalinity. The tap waters located to the upper right are connected
by a dotted line with the decarbonized water in the lower left. For pure
decarbonization, the electrical conductivity decreases by 1.64 µS/cm for every
1 ppm CaCO3 decrease in alkalinity. The ratio of decrease in EC per decrease
in alkalinity measured is between 1.74 – 1.85. This is slightly higher but still
close to the value 1.64 for decarbonization. The higher steepness is due to
a small amount of softening also occurring in treatment cartridges using
buffered decarbonization (see Chaoter 4.1).
Figure 28: Electrical conductivity (EC) versus alkalinity of three different waters before and after treatment.

74
Although the change in conductivity is dependent on the starting

composition, EC can be tested on an RO system with a bypass or
remineralization, as well as a decarbonizer. Lastly, manufacturers of
water treatment product often provide tables to calculate the capacity of
their solutions depending on the starting composition and water volume.
Therefore, using a rough estimation of the monthly or yearly water use can
serve to estimate when the next change in your water treatment system
needs to be scheduled.
14 Conclusion and
Recommendations
This SCA Water Quality Handbook featuring the water chart and practical
guide is built on an internationally recognized water standard which will
enhance the sensory aspects of coffee brewing, as well as minimizing the
risk of damaging to equipment. The findings and recommendations are
therefore a forward-looking effort to bring clarity to the debate around
water by offering a clear and practical framework for optimizing the
treatment of water for coffee extraction. The key points can be summarized
as follows:
• Total hardness, alkalinity, and pH are the three central measures to

characterize water*.
• The most common ions found in water are calcium, magnesium and
hydrogen carbonate.
• Total hardness corresponds to the sum of calcium and magnesium in
equivalent units (e.g. °d, ppm CaCO3 etc.).
• The higher the alkalinity, the lower the acidity of the extracted
coffee – especially in filter coffee.
• The lower the values for total hardness and alkalinity are, the less
scale can form.

75
• Alkalinity should be at least 40 ppm CaCO3 (2.2 °d) to ensure that

the water is sufficiently buffered to minimize the risk of corrosion.
• Traditional hardness units (e.g. ppm CaCO3, °d, °f) provide an easy
and accurate way to assess a water’s suitability for use in coffee
extraction.
• With regard to sensory aspects, the acid buffer capacity should be
referred to as alkalinity. Note that ‘carbonate hardness’ is not
necessarily the same as alkalinity.
• Water for coffee extraction should:
• Be odor free and hygienic.
• Have a total hardness of between 50–110 ppm CaCO3
(2.9–6.2 °d).
• Have an alkalinity of between 40–75 ppm CaCO3 (2.2–4.2 °d).
• Have a pH of between 6–8.
• Current recommendations for optimal water composition allow for
a large variation of optimum total hardness but call for a much
smaller variation of alkalinity. Moreover, all current
recommendations share the characteristic that total hardness
should exceed alkalinity.
• The majority of water types have an alkalinity that runs slightly
lower than its total hardness. As most waters are far too high in
alkalinity and also too high in total hardness, water treatment is
required.
• For the majority of waters dominated by calcium or magnesium
carbonate, the risk of corrosion can be kept low if alkalinity is at
least 40 CaCO3 between pH 6–8. For other waters containing a
significant amount of gypsum (CaSO4) the risk of corrosion can be
kept low if total hardness is less than 80% higher than alkalinity.
Water with significant amounts of salt as a result of seawater
intrusion or salt in the bedrock, electrical conductivity (i.e. in µS/cm)
should be no more than three times the alkalinity (i.e. in ppm
CaCO3) to reduce the risk of corrosion.

76
• Carbon dioxide and other related compounds found in water

(e.g.carbonic acid, hydrogen carbonate and carbonate ion, and
scale) play a central role in water chemistry. These compounds have
an impact in the safety and longevity of brewing equipment, as well
as aiding coffee extraction.
• All water treatment techniques can be discussed and compared
using the SCA Water Chart.
* Except for water containing iron, lead or other unsuitable or toxic
compounds in significant amounts.

77
Glossary of Terms
The following are basic descriptions of the attributes of water in relation to
brewing:
Acid buffering capacity: The amount of acid that must be added to a water
sample to decrease pH to 4.3. Therefore, it is attenuating the effect of
adding acid to water, also called neutralizing or buffering.
Alkalinity: The ability of the water to neutralize acids. Also describes the
concentration of carbonate and bicarbonate compounds in the water.
Atom: An electrically neutral, defining structure of a chemical element (e.g.

Calcium (Ca)), that cannot be divided into smaller particles by any chemical
process.
Anion: Negatively charged ion (e.g. Chloride bicarbonate (Cl-)).
Brew ratio: Ratio between the weight of a beverage and the weight of coffee
used to prepare it.
Carbonate hardness: Carbonate hardness effectively corresponds to the

maximum amount of scale that can form and is therefore equal to whichever
of the two values of total hardness and alkalinity is lower. Synonymous with
‘temporary hardness’.
Cation: Positively charged ion (e.g. Calcium (Ca²+)).
Chemical Bonds: The atoms in molecules and compounds are held together
by chemical bonds. In the context of water, the bonds are typically covalent
or ionic. H2O is held together by a covalent bond, whereas NaCl or CaCO3 are
held together by ionic bonds that will split more easily.

78
Chlorine (Cl): Tap water is chlorinated with hypochlorite (Cl2) to kill bacteria
and microbes. Not to be confused with chlorides such as sodium chloride
(NaCl), calcium chloride (CaCl2), or magnesium chloride (MgCl2).
Compound: An electrically neutral group of two or more atoms of the same

or different elements, held together by chemical bonds (e.g. Oxygen (O2);
Water - two hydrogen atoms bonded to an oxygen atom (H2O); or Salt
(NaCl).
Decarbonizer: Decarbonization is also an ion-exchange method, though in

contrast to the former, the calcium and magnesium ions are exchanged for
protons (H+). The released protons in turn neutralize hydrogen carbonate
by formation of carbonic acid. Decarbonization leads to a decrease in total
hardness and alkalinity by equal amounts.
Deionizer: A deionizer produces pure water, by exchanging all ions with a

combination of a cation exchanger and an anion exchanger. Because the
deionizer cartridges have a relatively low capacity (i.e. the amount of water
that can be processed) compared to softeners of decarbonizers, they are not
suitable for large volumes. Synonymous with 'demineralizer'.
Degrees Clark: A measure for total hardness and alkalinity of water. It is

defined as one grain (64.8 g) of calcium carbonate (e.g. scale) per Imperial
gallon (4.55 L) of water.
Electrical conductivity: Electrical conductivity (EC) measures the ability

of a substance to transmit or conduct electricity. Since pure water is a
pure conductor, EC in drinking water originates mainly from dissolved ions.
Electrical conductivity has often been used to estimate the total dissolved
solids content (TDS) of water samples but conversion factors can be up to
+/-50%.
Grains per imperial gallon: A unit of water hardness defined as 1 grain (64.8
milligrams) of calcium carbonate dissolved in 1 US gallon of water (3.78 L). It
translates into 1 part in about 58,000 parts of water or 17.1 parts per million
(ppm). Also called Degrees Clark.

79
Hardness: Now referred to as 'Total Hardness', this is the concentration

of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) in the water. More calcium and
magnesium = harder water. Less calcium and magnesium = softer water.
mg/L: Milligrams per liter. It is the equivalent to ppm when testing water at
<45ºC.
Non-carbonate hardness: The concentration of calcium and magnesium

occurring as compounds other than carbonates in the water.
Not hard carbonates: The concentration of minerals, other than calcium and
magnesium, which occur as carbonate compounds.
Permanent hardness: The calcium and magnesium that cannot precipitate

from water when boiled.
ppm: Parts per million.It is equivalent to mg/L when testing water at <45ºC.
pH: This describes whether the water is more acid, more alkaline, or neutral.
Molecule: An electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together

by chemical bonds. For example, Oxygen (O2.) or Water (H2O).
Ion: Atoms or molecules that have a net positive or negative charge.
Langelier scaling index: An approximate indicator of the degree of saturation

of calcium carbonate in water. It is calculated using the pH, alkalinity, calcium
concentration, total dissolved solids, and water temperature of a water
sample collected at the tap.
Larson-Skold-Index: A measure for the corrosivity of water towards steel. It

is calculated by dividing the sum of chloride and sulfate by alkalinity.

80
Mass concentration: The concentration of ions is given as mass per

volume, such as mg/L, is standard for bottled water. This method is only
useful for comparison of concentrations with stated daily intake limits or
toxicological thresholds (e.g. for trace metals that can occur in contaminated
groundwater or old piping such as lead). Since calcium, magnesium and
hydrogen carbonate all have different conversion factors from mass
concentrations to number of ions, they are unnecessarily troublesome for
calculating total hardness or alkalinity.
Non-carbonate hardness: Difference between total hardness and alkalinity,

only present for water with a total hardness higher than alkalinity.
Synonymous with 'permanent hardness'.
Reverse Osmosis (RO): Reverse osmosis is based on the use of a

semipermeable membrane that allows water molecules to pass through
but blocks almost all of its dissolved components resulting in water which is
essentially pure. Often, some tap water is mixed back into the almost pure
RO water to increase the mineral contents to suitable levels. By mixing the
pure water from the RO system with tap water, any composition between
the initial composition and pure water, at zero total hardness and zero
alkalinity, can be produced.
S1 corrosion index: A measure for the corrosivity of water towards steel.

In comparison to the Larson-Skold-Index, it also takes into account the
concentration of nitrates.
Sodium (Na): Alkali metal that can occur as a chloride compound (e.g. Salt
(NaCl)), or as a carbonate compound in water.
Softener: A softener is an ion-exchange method where calcium and

magnesium ions are exchanged for either sodium or potassium ions.
This treatment reduces total hardness without affecting alkalinity.
Temporary hardness: The calcium and/or magnesium can precipitate from

the water when boiled, and form scale deposits.

81
Total hardness: Defined as the sum of calcium and magnesium in equivalent

concentrations (or molar concentrations). In rare cases, other ions can
contribute to total hardness, for example strontium.
TDS: Total dissolved solids simply means the sum of all solid substances
present in the water. For water, this parameter is often estimated by
electrical conductivity by assuming a fixed composition. A conversion factor
of 0.7 in mg/L of TDS per 1 µS/cm of electrical conductivity is used by the
heritage SCAA Water Standard. In laboratory tests, it is measured by
evaporation and weighing of the solid residue – also including uncharged
dissolved solids such as silicates that do not contribute to electrical
conductivity.

82
References
ASTM D 1067: Standard test methods for acidity or alkalinity of water; 2002.
Colonna-Dashwood M, Hendon C.; Water for Coffee; self-publication; Bath, UK; 2015.
CRC handbook of chemistry and physics, Haynes, W.M.; Lide, D.,R.; Bruno, T.J.; 94th edition,
2014. Solubility of Selected Gases in Water and Solubility of Carbon Dioxide in Water at
Various Temperatures and Pressures.
DeSimone, L.A., 2009, Quality of water from domestic wells in principal aquifers of the
United States, 1991–2004: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2008–
5227, 139 p., available online at http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2008/5227.
DIN 38409-6; German standard methods for the examination of water, waste water and
sludge, Summary indices of actions and substances (Group H), Water hardness (H 6); 1986.
DIN 12502; Protection of metallic materials against corrosion - Guidance on the

assessment of corrosion likelihood in water distribution and storage systems; 2005.
EPA, United States Environmental Protection Agency; EPA Method 130.2; Hardness, Total
(mg/L as CaCO3) (Titrimetric, EDTA); 1999.
Fond O.; Effect of water and coffee acidity on extraction: Dynamics of coffee bed
compaction in espresso type extraction; ASIC, Proceedings of the 16th Colloquium, Kyoto;
1995.
Gardner, D.G., Effect of certain ion combinations commonly found in potable water on rate
of filtration through roasted and ground coffee, Journal of Food Science, 23, pp. 76–84,
1958.
Prediction of oxygen solubility in pure water and brines up to high temperatures and
pressures GENG, M., DUAN, Z.;Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta; 74;2010.
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC); Periodic Table of the Elements;
iupac.org/reports/periodic_table; 2013.

83
Hem John D.; Study and Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics of Natural Water,
3rd edition; U.S. geological survey water-supply paper 2254; 1985.
Hendon C, Colonna-Dashwood L. and Colonna-Dashwood M., The Role of Dissolved

Cations in Coffee Extraction, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry; 62 (21), 4947-
4950; 2014.
Leeb, T., Rogalla, I.; Kaffee, Espresso & Barista; TomTom Verlag; 4th edition; 2006.
Navarini L., Rivetti D.; Water quality for Espresso coffee; Journal of Food Chemistry; 122,
424–428; 2010.
Pawlowicz, R.; Calculating the conductivity of natural waters; Journal of Limnology and
Oceanography; 6; pp. 489–501; 2008.
Puckorious, P.R.; Brooke, J.M.; A new practical index for calcium carbonate scale prediction
in cooling tower systems; Corrosion, the Journal of Science and Engineering; 47 (4); pp.
280-284; 1991.
Rao, S: The professional barista’s handbook; self-publication; USA; 2008.
Schulman, J.; Insanely long water FAQ; 2002; http://www.users.rcn.com/erics/Water%20

Quality/Water%20FAQ.pdf.
SMWW: American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association,

Water Environment Federation; Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater, 22nd edition; 2012.
Specialty Coffee Association of America (SCAA); SCAA Standard: Water for Brewing
Specialty Coffee; November 21, 2009.

Oak Lodge Farm, Leighams Road,
Bicknacre, Chelmsford,
Essex, CM3 4HF
United Kingdom
117 West 4th St., Suite 300

Santa Ana, California, 92701
United States
ISBN
sca.coffee 978-0-9995807-3-8

The SCA Water Quality Handbook

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

The SCA Water Quality Handbook

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Specialty Coffee Association Handbook

The SCA Water

The Specialty Coffee Association Part I: SCA Water Chart..................................................................... 7

Part II: Water Fundamentals.............................................................39

Dr. Marco Wellinger

Dr. Samo Smrke

Prof. Dr. Chahan Yeretzian

Drawing on recent published research and experiments conducted by the