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Computer Fundamentals and Programming

PREFACE

This Learning Packet discussed the different categories of computers, its

history on how it evolves from the first generations to present, and the basic
computer organizations. It aims to meet the needs of engineering students for an
instructional materials in Computer Fundamentals and Programming.

This may serve as reference material for the faculty teaching Computer
Fundamentals in engineering programs of Samar State University, which may be
used as instructional materials for the students.
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Unit 1: Computer Fundamentals

and Organization
1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson packet, the students are

expected to attain the following intended learning outcomes:
1.1 Name at least five people and their contributions in digital
computing.
1.2 Classify different computers according to its categories: Personal
Computer, Mobile Computer, Server, Mainframe, Supercomputer,
Embedded computer, or game console.
1.3 Explain the importance of computers in the engineering profession
and how computer will help them in solving engineering problems. 1.4
Trace the development of computer hardware and software through
several generations by creating a timeline.
1.5 Create a diagram of the basic organization and architecture of
digital computers, which includes all the components and how those
components interconnected to each other.

1.1 Introduction

Why do we need to study Computer Fundamentals

and Programming? How is it used in
everyday life?

Computer Fundamentals and Programming includes the basic

information technology concepts and the fundamentals of algorithm
development and the application of high-level language programing.

Understanding computers and learning basic coding helps students to

develop appreciation of how things work and in order to solve problems
in logical and creative way.

This lesson packet introduce the basic organization and architecture of

digital computing from the different generations in which is essential in
creating computer solutions in the engineering problems.
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1.2 Discussions and Assessments

👉 Warm-up Activity: Please be familiar with the following names and write a
short contribution of each in the digital computing.

Charles Babbage ___________________________________________________ Type

equation here.
_________________________________________________________________

Maurice V. Wilkes _________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

John Presper Eckert ________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Note: This is a computer course, having a laptop, desktop or a smart phone is

needed.

1.2.1 Computer Fundamentals

A computer is an electronic machine that accepts data, stores and

processes data into information. The computer is able to work because
there are instructions in its memory directing it.

The parts of the computer that you can see and touch, such as the
keyboard, monitor and the mouse are called hardware. The instructions
that direct the computer are called software or computer program.

Data which is raw facts that you the user enter into the computer is
called input. This includes: words, numbers, sound and pictures. When the
data is entered into the computer, the computer processes the data to
produce information which is output.
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👉 Activity #1: What do you think will happen in the engineering field or
profession if computer was not invented? How computers help them in
solving engineering problems? Give me at least three scenarios.
___________ _____________________________________________
____________________________________________ ____________
_______________________________________________________ _

_________________________________________________________________

1.2.1.1 Introduction to Computers

Computers are usually categories into the following:

1. Personal Computer is a computer that can perform all of its input,
processing, output and storage activities by itself. Desktop
computer is an example of personal computer which are designed
so that the system unit, input devices, output devices, and any
other devices fir entirely on or under a desk.

2. Mobile computer is a type of computer you can carry from place to

place. The most popular type of mobile computer is the notebook
computer. Tablet PC is a special type of notebook computer that
allows you to write or draw on the screen using a digital pen.

3. Server controls access to hardware, software and other resources

on a network and provides a centralized storage area for
program, data, and information.

4. Mainframes is a large, expensive, powerful computer that can

handle hundreds or thousands of connected users
simultaneously. Most major corporations use mainframes for
business activities. Mainframes remain the computer of choice in
situations where reliability, data security, and centralized control
are necessary.

5. Supercomputers are the fastest most powerful computer and the

most expensive. Applications in medicine, aerospace, automotive
design, online banking, weather forecasting, nuclear energy
research and petroleum exploration use a supercomputer.

6. Embedded computer is a special-purpose computer that functions as

a component in a larger product. The following list identifies a
variety of everyday products:
• Consumer electronics (Digital Camera)
• Automobiles (ECM)
• Process Controller (manufacturer)
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7. Game consoles is a mobile computing device designed for

singleplayer or multiplayer video games.

👉 Activity #2 . Categories the following computers if it is a Personal Computer,

Mobile Computer, Server, Mainframe, Supercomputer,
Embedded computer, or game console. Write your answers on
the space provided.

1. _______________ 2. ______________

3. _______________ 4._______________

1.2.1.2 History and Evolution of Computers

The development of electronic computers can be divided into five

generations depending upon the technologies used. The following are the
five generations of computers.

First Generation of Computers (1942-1955)

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The beginning of commercial computer age is from UNIVAC

(Universal Automatic Computer). It was developed by two scientist
Mauchly and Echert at the Census Department of United States in 1947.
The first generation computers were used during 1942-1955. They were
based on vacuum tubes. Examples of first generation computers are
ENIAC and UNIVAC-1.

Advantages
 Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during
those days.
 Vacuum tube technology made possible to make electronic digital
computers.
 These computers could calculate data in millisecond.

Disadvantages
 The computers were very large in size.
 They consumed a large amount of energy.
 They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes.
 They were not very reliable.
 Air conditioning was required.
 Constant maintenance was required.
 Non-portable.
 Costly commercial production.
 Limited commercial use.
 Very slow speed.
 Limited programming capabilities.
 Used machine language only.
 Used magnetic drums which provide very less data storage.
 Used punch cards for input.
 Not versatile and very faulty.
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Second Generation Computers (1955-1964)

The second generation computers used transistors. The scientists at

Bell laboratories developed transistor in 1947. These scientists include John
Barden, William Brattain and William Shockley. The size of the computers
was decreased by replacing vacuum tubes with transistors. The examples
of second generation computers are IBM 7094 series, IBM 1400 series and
CDC 164 etc.

Advantages
 Smaller in size as compared to the first generation computers.  The
2nd generation Computers were more reliable  Used less energy
and were not heated.
 Wider commercial use
 Better portability as compared to the first generation computers.
 Better speed and could calculate data in microseconds
 Used faster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic disks, printer etc.
 Used Assembly language instead of Machine language.  Accuracy
improved.

Disadvantages
 Cooling system was required
 Constant maintenance was required
 Commercial production was difficult
 Only used for specific purposes  Costly and not versatile
 Puch cards were used for input.
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Third Generation Computers (1964-1975)

The Third generation computers used the integrated circuits (IC).

Jack Kilby developed the concept of integrated circuit in 1958. It was an
important invention in the computer field. The first IC was invented and
used in 1961. The size of an IC is about ¼ square inch. A single IC chip
may contain thousands of transistors. The computer became smaller in
size, faster, more reliable and less expensive. The examples of third
generation computers are IBM 370, IBM System/360, UNIVAC 1108 and
UNIVAC AC
9000 etc.

Advantages
 Smaller in size as compared to previous generations.
 More reliable.
 Used less energy

 Produced less heat as compared to the previous two generations of

computers.
 Better speed and could calculate data in nanoseconds.
 Used fan for heat discharge to prevent damage.
 Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure is reare.
 Totally general purpose
 Could be used for high-level languages.  Good storage
 Versatile to an extent
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 Less expensive
 Better accuracy
 Commercial production increased.
 Used mouse and keyboard for input.

Disadvantages
 Air conditioning was required.
 Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of
IC chips.

Fourth Generation Computers (1975-Present)

The fourth generation computers started with the invention of

Microprocessor. The Microprocessor contains thousands of ICs. Ted Hoff
produced the first microprocessor in 1971 for Intel.

It was known as Intel 4004. The technology of integrated circuits

improved rapidly. The LSI (Large Scale Integration) circuit and VLSI (Very
Large Scale Integration) circuit was designed. It greatly reduced the size of
computer. The size of modern Microprocessors is usually one square inch.
It can contain millions of electronic circuits. The examples of fourth
generation computers are Apple Macintosh & IBM PC.

Advantages
 More powerful and reliable than previous generations.
 Small in size
 Fast processing power with less power consumption  Fan for heat
discharging and thus to keep cold.
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 No air conditioning required.
 Totally general purpose  Commercial production  Less need of
repair.
 Cheapest among all generations
 All types of High level languages can be used in this type of
computers

Disadvantages
 The latest technology is required for manufacturing of
Microprocessors.

Fifth Generation Computers (Present & Beyond)

Scientists are working hard on the 5 th generation computers with

quite a few breakthroughs. It is based on the technique of Artificial
Intelligence (AI). Computers can understand spoken words & imitate
human reasoning. Can respond to its surroundings using different types
of sensors. Scientists are constantly working to increase the processing
power of computers.

They are trying to create a computer with real IQ with the help of
advanced programming and technologies. IBM Watson computers one
example that outsmarts Harvard University Students. The advancement in
modern technologies will revolutionize the computer in future.

👉 Activity #3. Create a timeline which includes all the major improvements from the
prior generations. Use a separate sheet (short bond paper) to show your answers.

1.2.2 Computer Organizations

The computer receives input, process it and delivers output. To

perform this task it has different units and each unit is responsible for a
specific task. The basic structure of computer consist of the following
units:
• Input. It is used for transferring data from the users’ end to the
computer. The data representation to the computer system is in the
form of binary language after that the processor process the converted
data. Some example of input devices are keyboard, microphone,
mouse, joystick, touchpad, graphic tablet, scanner, touch screen,
digital camera and webcam.
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• Memory. It stores instruction and data and provides them to the
various other units as and when required. It is basically the working
memory of the computer system. This memory unit is volatile, i.e. it is
temporary memory and nothing can be stored in the main memory as
long the computer is switched on or as long as it is required by the
computer.

There are two types of memory:

1. Primary or also known as main memory. One of the very important parts
of computer. Without this computer will not run as all the programmes
to start your computer are installed in the primary memory. It is
volatile in nature it will store information till it is on, then after
switching off, it forgets everything. There are two types of main
memories: Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memories
(ROM).

RAM stores data temporarily, it is volatile in nature and stores

initial, intermediate and final data of the process. There are two types
of RAM. The Static RAM (SRAM), which refreshes on the command of
user. It contains the command until it is commanded to refresh itself, it
do not cause any type of delay in the process by refreshing itself. The
other type of RAM is the dynamic RAM (DRAM) it refreshes itself in
every few milliseconds, to arrange all the data and to make the full use
of the processor and process the data as fast as possible and also to
utilize all the memory of the computer. It is comparatively cheaper in
price. It is used in common Personal Computers (PC).

The other type of primary memory is ROM which stores data

permanently. It is non-volatile in nature and stores the code to run the
computer, BIOS code (Basic Input Output System). There are three
types of ROM: Programmable ROM (PROM), Erasable PROM (EPROM)
and Electronically EPROM (EEPROM).

PROM it is a use and throw ROM chip. If the programme written in

the chip is in use, it’s will work but soon as there need a change in the
programme, a new programme will have to be written on other chip
which creates a lot of pollution as it cannot be recycled. To avoid all the
scrap produced by PROM, EPROM was invented. The programme
written in it can be erased by the action of ultra violet rays on the chip.
The problem with it was that, by the action of UV rays on it, the chip
was damaged, and could not be used after 2-3 times of erases. And
also, if you want erase a little part of the programme, it will remove all
the data and you will have to start from the starting point. To resolve
the problem of EPROM, EEPROM was invented, which can erase the
data electronically, then rewriting the programme in it. If there has to
be a little change in chip, the whole data is not to be erased, only the
effective part can erased and rewritten on it.
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2. Secondary memory. Since, primary memory has a limited storage

capacity and it is not permanent, secondary storage devices are used to
store large amounts of data permanently. It is not non-volatile in
nature thus it stores all the data permanently in it after the computer is
off.

There are various type of secondary memory devices available

nowadays. Random memory consists of two types: magnetic
form/magnetic storage (or magnetic recording) is the storage of data on a
magnetized medium. Magnetic storage uses different patterns of
magnetization in a magnetizable material to store data and is a form of
non-volatile memory. The information is accessed using one or more
read/write heads e.g. hard disk, recording studios etc. Another type of
random memory is in optical form, compact disks or CDs are optical
way of storing the information. The CDs are relatively very cheap and
handle up to huge sum of input. i.e. 700 mb up to100gb (blue ray).
There are three types of CDs: CD-ROM (compact disk read only memory),
CD-R (recordable) and CD-RW (rewritable).

Memory

Primary Secondary

RAM ROM Sequential Random

PROM, EPROM and magnetic and
SRAM and DRAM e.g. magnetic, tape
EEPRO optical

Figure 1: Types of Memories

• Control Unit (CU). It controls the various operations within a

computer. It basically manages all other units and devices of
the computer system. It does so by transmitting timing and
control signals to the various devices and units. When the CU
receives an instructions set or information, it converts the
instruction set to control signals then; these signals are sent to
the central processor for further processing. The control unit
understands which operation to execute, accurately, and in
which order.
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU). It performs the various
arithmetic and logical operations on the data stored in
memory, as dictated by the instruction. The outputs of ALU
will change asynchronously in response to the input.
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• Output. It is used to transfer processed information from the
computer to the user in a way required by the user. Output
devices convert the data into a human-readable form from
binary code. The primary examples of output devices are
monitor, GPS (Global Positioning System), printer, sound card,
headphones, video card, computer speakers, braille reader,
projector and speech generating device.

The ALU and CU together are called Central Processing Unit (CPU).
The computer is nothing without the CPU so, it is also known as the brain
of computer. There are set of connecting wires used for setting
interconnection between the various devices in the system called bus.
Each set of bus has a specific function to perform like carrying data,
carrying control signals and addresses. Another important component of
a computer is the secondary storage, it stores various data, information and
programs permanently for future retrieval. The information is organised
in such a way to retrieve it in minimum time whenever required. The
stored information remains as long as the user wants it.

👉Activity #4 . Create a block diagram showing the different components of computer

and how those components interconnect to each other. Use a separate
sheet(short bond paper) sheet to show your answers.

1.3References
Byte-Notes, N. (2019, October 2).
Five Generations of Computers - Byte-
Notes. https://byt-notes.com/fiv
e e-generations-computers/.

JMU libraries. (2020). Introduction to Basic Computer. JMU Libraries.

https://bit.ly/2XKXzGv

Note: Should you have questions about the topics discussed in this module, please
feel free to text or call me thru this cellphone number, 09364127359. I will
appreciate if you’ll ask questions for clarifications to have sufficient learning.