Capacitors

Basics &
Applications

Applications - I
Oct 2006

CARTS-Asia 2006
 Capacitor Types, Uses, and Differences

Capacitors &
Applications Ceramic
Tantalum
Alum. Elect.
Film

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2
 Common structure

All capacitors utilize the same basic mechanism in

their structure

Electrode Plates Dielectric

The value of a capacitor is measured in farads. For 1 farad of

capacitance, 1 coulomb of charge is stored on the plates, when 1
volt of force is applied.

1 farad = 1 coulomb / 1 volt

1 coulomb represents ~ 6 x 1019 electrons

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 “Pure” Capacitor

"Pure" Capacitor

1
Z = XC =
2πf ( Hertz )C ( Farads )

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 “Pure” Capacitor’s Performance

Impedance (Ohms)
10000
1000 .47 u
F
100 4.7 u
F
10 47 u
F
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
100 10,000 1,000,000
1,000 100,000 10,000,000
Frequency (Hz)

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 Capacitor with Series Resistance

C ESR
(Capacitance) (Equivalent Series Resistance)

Z = X C + ESR
2 2

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 Vectors

Impedance, Reactance, and Resistance

are Vectors Resistance
(ESR)
is "Real Element"
Impedance
Z is complex,
containing both Reactance
v v
real and ( X L + XC )
(Z) is imaginary
imaginary
coefficients, or
magnitude and
Z = X C + ESR 2
2
angle (direction).

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 Capacitance & Resistance vs. Freq.

Capacitance with ESR vs. Frequency

Impedance (Ohms)
10000

1000 .47
uF 47, 4.7, and .47 uF
4.7 ESR = 1 and 0.1 ohms
100 uF
47
10 uF

1 1.0 Ohm ESR

0.1 0.1 Ohm ESR

0.01
100 10,000 1,000,000 100,000,000
1,000 100,000 10,000,000
Frequency (Hz)

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 Loss Factor vs. Application

High Frequency or Tuned Circuit

Applications
Q

Power Applications
ESR

General Applications

DF

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 Common terms define “loss” element

ESR

Based on Vector relationship Theta

DF = cot(Theta) = ESR / X C XC
Z
PF = cos(Theta) = ESR / Z
Q = tan(Theta) = X C / ESR = 1 / DF

where
DF = Dissipation Factor
PF = Power Factor
Q = "Q" or figure of merit

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 The “RLC” Circuit

C ESR ESL

ESL or Equivalent Series Inductance is created by

restricting current to a defined, physical path

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 Vectors R, XL, XC, Z

ESL - Inductive Reactance (XL) opposes Capacitive Reactance

X L = 2πfL ESR
XL
0
Impedance is a
Z X
factor of vector
X summation.
XC

Z = XC + X L + R
or
Z = ( XC − XL ) + R
2 2

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 Self-Resonance

XC de
creas
Reactance
ing si ng
cr e a
XL i n

Frequency
The frequency at which XC = XL is the self-resonant
self-resonantfrequency.
frequency.
At this frequency, XC=-XL, or zero, and the impedance is equal to the
ESR.
Prior to this frequency, component behaves as capacitor; after this
frequency, component behaves as inductor.
1
f=
2π LC
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 RLC Frequency Response

47 uF Capacitance / 2.5 nH ESL

Impedance versus Frequency versus ESR
Impedance (Ohms)
100

10

0.1 0.25 Ohms ESR

0.10 Ohms ESR
0.05 Ohms ESR
0.01 0.01 Ohms ESR
0.001 Ohms ESR

0.001
100 10,000 1,000,000
1,000 100,000 10,000,000
Frequency (Hz)

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 Actual Freq. Response: Tantalum vs. Ceramic

Ceramic vs. Tantalum (4.7 uF)

1000

100
Impedance/ESR

Tantalum Z Ceramic Z
(Ohms)

10

1
Tantalum ESR
0.1

0.01 Ceramic ESR

0.001
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency
(kHz)

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 Impedance across types

Lowest Impedance is not always highest Capacitance

Impedance (Ohms)
10

100 uF
0.1 Aluminum 10 uF
Tantalum
1 uF
0.01 Ceramic
1 100 10,000
10 1,000
Frequency (kHz)

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 Capacitance change with frequency
% Capacitance Change

Film -2% to -5%

Ceramic 0% to -5%

Aluminum -15% to -90%

~10kHz to 30kHz Tantalum -15% to -60%
~30kHz to 300kHz
FREQUENCY

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 Actual capacitance change - measured

4.7 uF Tantalum vs. Ceramic

T491B475K010 vs. C700 Z5U 50 WVDC
Capacitance vs. Frequency

10
Ceramic
Capacitance (uF)

Tantalum

1
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency (kHz)

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 False Capacitance Peaking

Meter determines capacitance or Apparent

inductance based on dominant Increasing
reactive element, with no Capacitance
consideration for any recessive trait.

Actual Capacitance
Actual
Frequency
Inductive
Reactance

Determined
Capacitive
Reactance

Actual
Capacitive
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Reactance 19
 Measuring with pure sinusoidal signal

Phase
Measurement

Capacitor
Source Under
Amplitude
Test
Measurement

Most equipment measures phase and amplitude

resultants from sinusoidal source.

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 Dynamic – Current Pulse Injection

Constant
Current
Level

0 Current Level

Transition Time

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 Voltage Response (from current pulse)

Pure Capacitor
Pure Resistor 0 Current Level Constant Current
0 Current Level Constant Current

Voltage
Increasing
Voltage
Constant Voltage Level Exponentially
Transition Voltage Increasing
0 Voltage Level Constant Rate

0 Voltage

Transition Time Transition Time

Pure Inductor
0 Current Level Constant Current

Voltage Decays to 0
"Rings out"
Transition Voltage

0 Voltage

Transition Time

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 Actual Cumulative Pulse Response

Pulse response is complex, combining capacitive,

inductive, and resistive voltages.

v2

v1
I Constant × ( t2 − t1 )
C=
Volts

( v2 − v1 )

0
t1 t2
tr Time
Trans

I Const tr
VC ( tr ) = × 23
C 2 23
 Decaying Slope of Electrolytics

Slope is
decaying

Typical
Electrolytic

Typical
Volts

Ceramic

Time

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 Derived capacitance from dv/dt Slope

Capacitance vs. Time

Al Electrolytic
18
Low Profile
16
Capacitance (μF)

14 Ceramic 15 μF
12 X7R 10 μF
10
Ceramic
8
6 X7R 4.7 μF
4 Wet Ta
Solid Ta
2
"Low ESR“ 10 μF
0 5.6 μF
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
Time (nSec.)

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 Decaying Voltage on Decoupling Caps

Initial Level

Typical
Volts
Ceramic

Typical
Electrolytic

Time

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 Capacitance & ESR

1µF-1,000µF
Comm. T49
1/T494 MnO
2

4.7µF- 1,0000
µ F Low-ESR T
495 MnO
Increasing ESR

15µF- 1,000µF T
520 Ta-Poly

8.2µF- 470µF A70 330µF-1,500

0 Al-Poly µF T510 MA

1µF- 47µF Ceramic

220µF-1,500µF
T530 MP

1 10 100 1000
Capacitance (µF)

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 Applications: "grandfather" controlled.

• Power Applications • Aluminum

• Small Signal Processing • Film, Ceramic
ƒ (Decoupling, Bypass,
Coupling)
• Large Capacitance • Tantalum
ƒ (Power Entry, low Current
Hold-Up, low Frequency
Bypass)
• Small Capacitance • Film
ƒ High Freq., High Current
(Oscillator, High
Frequency Bypass)

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 Main Areas of Application

•Decoupling
•Filtering
• Coupling
• Timing / Wave Shaping
• Oscillating

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 Coupling

One of the first characteristics of capacitors:

The capacitor allows an AC signal to pass, but stops DC.

+5.0
C

+1.5
RB XC << R B
• Requirements
ƒ May have to handle wide frequency range
ƒ Must not cause large, unexpected phase shifts
ƒ May have to handle large currents
ƒ Capacitance stability not critical
ƒ Noise from capacitor critical

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 Timing / Wave-shaping

By utilizing an exaggerated RC charge scheme, the

subsequent functioning of a succeeding circuit can be
manipulated to a controlled delay function of the RC
constant.

Common experience can be found with:

• Vertical Sweep circuits in TV and computer
monitors
• Delay wipers in automobiles
• Here the resistor is varied to allow the cap to
charge quickly or at a slow rate
Timing circuits require fairly stable components. Many
timing circuits are being replaced with digital counters.

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 Decoupling – Water analogy

Trying to satisfy all needs from a central-sourcing location

Monday - back from

vacation - don’t want to Central Water
get up. Supply / Source
In shower water perfect
temperature.
Ahhhh! I need 5
minutes!

Shower Toilet Sink Clothes Dish

Washer Washer

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 Suddenly a disturbance!

Someone (devilish), sleepy eyed flushes the toilet!

Central Water
Yaugh!! Supply / Source
Suddenly TOO HOT!!
or TOO COLD!!

Shower Toilet Sink Clothes Dish

Washer Washer
Starts!! Starts!!
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 Decoupling – Distributed supplies

Secondary supplies act

as intermediaries back Central Water
to central source. Supply / Source

Shower Toilet Sink Clothes Dish

Washer Washer

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Water decoupling in Taipei

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 Decoupling Ideal

Related to digital logic circuits

Windows of
acceptable levels

Binary logic allows for a high-low state, true-false, +V-0,

that relate to voltage levels. One level is tested for – the
absence assumes the alternative.

Within the windows of acceptable levels, interpretation is

100% correct.
Outside these windows, and the error rate increases -
hardware induced errors.

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 Decoupling RF Noise

Related to digital logic circuits

Windows of
acceptable levels

High frequency noise on the bus voltage may cause an error in

the read state as it bounces in and out of the 100% "window of
acceptable" limits.
Noise is generated by inductive elements within the traces
as well as the IC and the capacitor.
Multi-plane boards have greatly reduced external
inductance, but have not eliminated it.

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 Decoupling RC Delay

Related to digital logic circuits

Windows of
acceptable levels
500 MHz Clock - OK
1 GHz Clock – Problems!
2 GHz – Oh! My head hurts!

Resistive elements also contribute to a delay in

transmission. These elements could be in the power
source to the board and contribute to a general lowering
of the bus levels.

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 Decoupling with "Droop"

Related to digital logic circuits

Windows of
acceptable levels

"Droop" occurs when the bus can not be held at the

desired level when a multitude of devices are being
switch on simultaneously. Overall capacitance needs to
be increased.

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Decoupling IC and SMT Capacitor

Next to each and every IC,

a capacitor is mounted.

The capacitor acts as an

energy reservoir, that can
replenish the IC thirst for
a quick burst of joules.
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 No decoupling creates delay

IC
I need some Charge coming up!
charge!
Charge coming up!
I need some
charge!
Charge coming up!
I need some
charge!
Charge coming up!
I need some
charge!
Charge coming up!
I need some
charge! Power Supply

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 Decoupling eliminates delay

IC
I need some charge! Charge coming up!

Decoupling Capacitor

Power Supply

Decoupling capacitor should be able to pass

multiple energy bursts to IC without appreciable
loss of voltage.
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 Decoupling Big Picture

Decoupling is a hand-me-down system

The small capacitor next to the IC needs replenishments.

The larger capacitor located at interspersed locations on

the board, feed the smaller.

Larger power entry capacitors located near the bus feed

supply the previous group.

The filter capacitors feed the power entry capacitors.

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 Filtering

Filtering can have two distinctive functions that

both remove unwanted signal or line variations:
¾Frequency Selective Filtering
¾ A low pass, high pass, or band pass
configuration
¾ Most often used application is high frequency
by-pass
¾Rectified AC Smoothing
¾ Eliminates the pulsing from low to peak by
alternately absorbing energy during the peaks,
and releasing it during the valleys.
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 Frequency Selective Filter

Alternative path
offered by
capacitor Load

As frequency increases, more of the signal chooses the

alternative path, less goes to the load.
A variation of this circuit will allow only the higher
frequencies to go to the load as the lower frequencies are
channeled around it.

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 Power Filtering - Smoothing

Voltage
Voltage

Time Time
Voltage is pulsing with time Voltage is steady with time
Capacitor charges as voltage attempts to go high, and discharges
as voltage attempts to go low.
Capacitance value is high as it must stabilize this voltage and
feed current to circuit during discharge
High ripple currents!!
ESR is of critical importance (ripple voltage & heat - efficiency)
Capacitance stabilization acceptable for ±20% variations.
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 Switch Mode Power Supply - Kluge

Capacitor Usage
Snubber Resonator
Coupling

Snubber

Small Signal
Input Filter
Power Decoupling Control Output Filter
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 SMPS – On/Charge

Switch Closed

Load
Current Current
Supplied Charge
Capacitor
Supply
Load
Requirements

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 SMPS – Off/Discharge

Switch Open

Load
Current Current
Supplied Discharge
Stopped Capacitor
Supply
Load
Requirements

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 SMPS Timing Diagram - Full Power

Input Current
Switch On / Current High

Switch Off / Current Off

Capacitor Current
Switch Off / Discharging
0 Current
Switch On / Charging

Capacitor Voltage / Load Voltage / "RIPPLE"

Nominal DC Maximum Swing
Average or DC Output
Minimum Swing

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 CR Ripple - Capacitance Effects

The magnitude of the ripple is inversely proportional to the

magnitude of the capacitance or the RC time constant.

If the load is kept constant and the ESR is ignored, then the
amount of voltage the capacitor discharges to, is inversely
proportional to the capacitance.
Higher ripple
Lower capacitance - lower RC
time constant, or the more
discharge in given time period.
Lower ripple
Higher capacitance - longer RC
time constant, or the lower
discharge in given time period.
Nominal DC

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 ESR Inhibits Capacitor Charge

Switch Closed
Load
Current
Current
Charge
ON
Capacitor Supply
Load
Requirements
VC = VL(Closed) - VESR ESR

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 ESR Robs Capacitor Discharge

VL(Open) = VC - VESR
Switch Open
Load
Current
Current
Discharge
Stopped
Capacitor Supply
Load
Requirements
ESR

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 CR & ESR Ripple

The magnitude (peak-to-peak) of the ripple is proportional to the

magnitude of the ESR above a critical level.

If the capacitance and load are kept constant and the ESR is
increased, then the amount of voltage the capacitor charges to
is a step less than the peak voltage noted during the "on cycle".
Nominal DC

CR

ripple
ESR

High ESR ripple Low ESR ripple

High ESR - capacitor not charged,
to continue voltage drops to
lower level then discharges.
Low ESR - capacitor charges to
input voltage, and then
discharges from that level.
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 Equal Tantalum & MLC Ripple - 1

at Room Temperature (~20°C)

Based on ‘measured’ values
If the capacitance and load are kept constant and the ESR step voltage
adds to the overall ripple effect at room temperature, and the DC bias on
the ceramic capacitor is low in relation to its rating : CR ripple slopes
are equal & difference is ESR step voltage.
If this is tantalum, then this could be ceramic.
Nominal DC

CR

ESR Ripple

Higher ripple Lower ripple

High ESR - capacitor not charged
to continue voltage, drops to
lower level then discharges.
Low ESR - capacitor charges to
input voltage, and then
discharges from that level.
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 Equal Tantalum & MLC Ripple - 2

at DC Power & Temperature (~60°C)

(Application Response)
The ESR step voltage for the tantalum decreases as ESR decreases with
increasing temperature. The capacitance of the ceramic decreases with
increasing temperature causing the CR - ripple to increase. If the bias is
increased to 33% of rated from 10% of rated, the ceramic capacitor loses and
additional 40% of capacitance.
Nominal DC

CR

Ripple
ESR

Lower ripple (Tantalum) Higher ripple (MLC)

ESR step voltage decreases with
Lower ESR offers no advantage,
increasing temperature, while CR
lower capacitance because of
ripple remains the same.
bias and temperature causes
increase in CR ripple. 56
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 Required Series Resistance

For commercial tantalum chips, required series resistance

appears as additional ESR.

Switch Open VL(Open) = VL(Closed) – 2%I%ESR – 2%I%RS

Load
Current Discharge Current
Stopped Capacitor
Supply
Load
ESR Requirements

0.1 ohms/v
Series R

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 CR & ESR with Rs Ripple

The magnitude (peak-to-peak) of the ripple is

proportional to the Summary ESR and Rs.

T495, T5xx, A7xx

CR
Ripple

Recommended Series
RS= 0
ESR

CR T491/T494
Recommended Series
ESR RS = 0.1 ohms/volt
Ripple

VL (Close)
VL(Open)
Rs

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 ESL Inductive Spikes

ESR

ripple
Nominal DC

Magnitude of inductive pulse is proportional to

magnitude of ESL, and to the magnitude of the
current and proportional to the switching speed.
V = L x di/dt

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 Capacitance decay with Frequency

Expected ripple

Actual ripple
Nominal DC
Constant C
dv/dt slope

Changing C
dv/dt slope

If capacitance (C) decreases with frequency (shorter periods),

then CR ripple has high slope at beginning and slope decays
until it achieves stability in lower frequencies (longer periods).
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 Resonant Switchers

Nominal DC
ripple

Capacitor Charging

Capacitor Discharging
Slope determined
by current/load
ripple

As load increases capacitor

discharges, quicker, frequency
increases to maintain desired
ripple.

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