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Downsizing of SI Engines by Turbo-Charging

Conference Paper · January 2006

DOI: 10.1115/ESDA2006-95215

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 Proceedings of ESDA2006
8th Biennial ASME Conference on Engineering Systems Design and Analysis
July 4-7, 2006, Torino, Italy

ESDA2006-95215

DOWNSIZING OF SI ENGINES BY TURBO-CHARGING

Giuseppe Police, Salvatore Diana, Veniero Giglio

Biagio Iorio, Natale Rispoli

Istituto Motori, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche

Viale Marconi 8 - 80125 Napoli – ITALY
Tel. +39 0817177111, Fax +39 0812396097
E-mail: v.giglio@im.cnr.it

ABSTRACT partly on the lowering of thermodynamic efficiency and for a large

During most of the operating conditions occurring on a
vehicle driving cycle, a reciprocating IC engine works at low load
and low speed, with poor fuel efficiency. In this regard downsizing
appears as a major way of improving fuel consumption of Spark
Ignition Engines. In fact, downsized engines have smaller friction
surfaces and can work on the same vehicle and on the same
driving cycle with higher mean effective pressure and higher
efficiency.
In this paper the main technical trends and problems related to
SI engine downsizing are reviewed and discussed. Assuming a
stoichiometric boosting, a simulation code is used to outline a
strategy to improve low end torque of a downsized DISI engine. In
the numerical experiments volumetric efficiency is enhanced by an
optimal configuration of the inlet system. For the same objective,
assuming a Variable Valve Timing, a proper selection of maximum
lift and opening duration of the inlet valve allows a reduction of
the reverse flow of fresh mixture. The optimization of the exhaust
system and of the lift diagram of the exhaust valve leads both to
the enhancement of volumetric efficiency and to the reduction of
residual exhaust gas, with beneficial effects on knock
phenomenon. An evaluation of fuel consumption gains resulting
from downsizing is made as well, with reference to a New
European Driving Cycle.
INTRODUCTION
Specific fuel consumption of both diesel and spark ignition
engines significantly decreases at low engine loads. That depends
part on the relative importance of friction losses.
In fact, at very low loads, a significant part of the indicated
work is spent to overcome this kind of loss. In addition, for
vehicles motored by conventional gasoline engines, pumping
losses due to throttling represents another very important source of
loss.
Furthermore, during most of the driving conditions the engine
is run under low load and low speed conditions. All this leads to
poor overall fuel consumption.
Downsizing appears as a major way of improving fuel
consumption of Spark Ignition engines. In fact downsized engines
have smaller displacement and lower friction surfaces. They are
optimized to work on the same vehicle and on the same driving
cycle with higher mean effective pressure.
The reduction of the displacement requires the increase of
Brake Mean Effective Pressure in order to obtain the same engine
torque. The use of air boosting is unavoidable, and turbocharging
seems to be the best solution to adopt.
Knock is the main problem to take into consideration when
supercharging a gasoline engine. This problem is particularly
difficult to solve when compression ratio must be high to avoid the
lowering of thermodynamic efficiency of SI engines.
The lack of steady-state torque at low engine speed is another
particular problem to be solved to optimize the transient response
of turbochargers.
Several technical ways have been proposed to overcome the
knock phenomenon in absence of thermodynamic losses and to
solve the problems of transient response. Each of them is based on
the integration of several technologies, including:

1 Copyright © 2006 by ASME

 • Turbocharging 4. Varying geometric compression ratio
• Direct injection 5. Adoption of Late Intake Valve Closing (LIVC) - Atkinson
• EGR with intercooling Cycle
• Variable Valve Actuation (VVA) 6. Adoption of Early Intake Valve Closing (EIVC) - Miller
• Variable geometric Compression Ratio (VCR) Cycle
7. Reducing the air fuel mixture temperature.
In this paper technical literature has been reviewed in order to
highlight the main problems and to discuss some solutions Generally, all existing combustion systems use a whole of the
proposed in downsizing SI engines. above mentioned approaches.

NOMENCLATURE Air/fuel mixture leaning

BDC Bottom Dead Center As it is well known, knock tendency is at its maximum when
BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure the excess air factor is about 0.9 and decreases with mixture
CR Compression Ratio enrichment or leaning. In particular mixture leaning can reduce
DI Direct Injection full-load octane requirement, allowing compression ratios higher
EGR Exhaust Gas Recycle than the ones of a conventional direct injection turbocharged
EIVC Early Inlet Valve Closing engine. Generally compression ratios higher than 11.5-12 with fuel
EVC Exhaust Valve Closing having 95 RON become feasible.
EVO Exhaust Valve Opening
IVC Inlet Valve Closing Cooled EGR
LB Lean Boosting
LIVC Late Inlet Valve Closing Cooled EGR [1] is a very effective knock suppressor. The use
NEDC New European Driving Cycle of EGR is very attractive because it makes possible to reduce
NOx Nitric Oxides knock tendency maintaining stoichiometric conditions. This is a
RON Research Octane Number very important advantage to be considered because three-way
SB Stoichiometric Boosting catalyst can be still used. The drawback is the difficulty to control
TDC Top Dead Center cooled EGR in transient conditions. At the moment no practical
VCR Variable Compression Ratio implementation of EGR-boost concept is known.
VNT Variable Nozzle Turbine
VVA Variable Valve Actuation Direct injection
VVT Variable Valve Timing
Direct injection can be considered a key technology for
WG Waste Gate
pressure charged engines [2] [3] [4]. Octane Requirement of
combustion chamber is lowered because of the cooling effect of
METHODS TO REDUCE KNOCK TENDENCY the latent heat of vaporization and of shorter residence times.
Direct injection allows an increase in compression ratio of 1 - 1.5
In downsizing the gasoline engine, a key challenge is
compared with an equivalent port-injected engine [5] [6], that is
controlling octane requirement without sacrificing fuel economy. 10 to 10.5 CR with 95 RON fuel for a boosted DI engine. The
As well known, knock depends on the auto ignition of a
ability of direct injection to have multiple injection events in one
portion of air-fuel mixture ahead of the flame. When it happens
cycle allows better fuel stratification and shorter residence times
end gas burns very rapidly. The sudden release of energy causes
of the air/fuel mixture inside the combustion chamber. In addition,
pressure oscillations inside the cylinder producing a characteristic
during cold start multiple injections can increase exhaust
sharp metallic noise. temperature helping to improve the turbocharger behavior.
For most of the fuels, including gasoline, a two-stage ignition
(cool flame followed by a hot flame) occurs. Therefore, the main
Variation of geometric Compression Ratio
factors that influence knock tendency are: octane number, air/fuel
ratio, mixture temperature and composition, turbulence,
The variation of the Compression Ratio on gasoline engines
combustion chamber shape, and ignition timing.
depends on the behavior occurring at full-load, which is limited by
As a general rule, for a given fuel, everything that can limit
the phenomenon of knock during combustion. At part load, since
the end gas temperature and can enhance the flame propagation,
the tendency to knock is lower, the potential offered by higher
improve the octane requirement. Most of the strategies to reduce
compression is not completely reached. Supercharging makes it
knock tendency can be grouped in the following way:
possible to increases this potential correspondingly to the
necessary CR decrease [7]. Therefore, the basic idea is to perform
1. Working with lean air/fuel mixture
partial load with high compression ratio and full load with lower
2. Using cooled EGR
compression ratio.
3. Using direct injection

2 Copyright © 2006 by ASME

 A number of patents have been filed and designs presented
which modify the compression ratio, obtained by the variation of:
combustion chamber volume (Ford, Volvo), Piston Deck Height
(Ford, Daimler-Benz), connecting rod geometry (Nissan Peugeot,
Fev, Prodrive et al.) [8].
However, literature generally does not give many details on
the real advantages obtained by the adoption of VCR systems.
Late Intake Valve Closing (LIVC) - Atkinson cycle
The ideal Atkinson Cycle is characterized by an actual
volumetric expansion ratio greater than the actual volumetric
compression ratio (that are both less than the nominal compression
ratio) [9]. By Late Inlet Valve Closing the practical Atkinson
Cycle can be obtained.
Mazda used the Atkinson cycle approach in production in the
1980s. The Mazda engine featured fixed late inlet valve closure,
and was supercharged using a volumetric compressor with
intercooler.
More recently, the Atkinson Cycle approach has been
proposed in combination with VVA as a solution for downsized
engines. The principle is to use high geometric compression ratio
typically around 14:1, giving good part-load economy, and to
control knock by reducing the effective in-cylinder compression
ratio by late inlet valve closing. The in-cylinder charge
temperature at ignition will be lower than the one of a
conventional boosted engine, even with the same trapped mass.
Early Intake Valve Closing (EIVC) - Miller Cycle
Early Intake Valve Closing has been suggested for a long time
as a mean to limit knock tendency in large pressure charged SI gas
engines [10]. In fact, when the intake valve is closed before BDC,
the charge will be expanded to BDC. That results in a lower
charge compression temperature. The so-called “internal cooling”
is very favorable to avoid the knock of a turbocharged engine. No
quantitative analysis of Octane Requirement improvement
obtainable with this approach was found in technical literature.
Reduction of the air-fuel mixture temperature
Temperature has a strong influence on the evolution of
mechanisms that are responsible of knock. Direct Injection,
Variable Compression Ratio, Atkinson and Miller Cycle, as just
seen, can be used successfully in reducing temperature directly in
the cylinder.
The reduction of the amount of residual burned gas is another
very important mean to decrease the temperature of the charge
during the constant mass phase.
TECHNOLOGICAL WAYS FOR DOWNSIZING
The main technological ways for downsizing SI engines by
turbocharging are:
• Lean Boosting DI (LB)
• Stoichiometric Boosting DI (SB).
3 Copyright © 2006 by ASME
Both ways combine direct injection and pressure charging.
The LB system [11] is based on the fundamental precept of the
reduction in octane requirement due to the direct fuel injection and
the role of excess air as a knock- suppressant.
Generally this system can work with compression ratios
higher than 11.5 and boosting pressure higher than 1.7. The
operating mode map is usually divided at least into three parts:
stratified with EGR at low speed-low load, homogeneous lean
(λ=1.5) with some throttling at intermediate loads, homogeneous
with high boosting at high loads.
In principle the LB system presents the potential of very low
fuel consumption because of lean operations and reduced amount
of throttling (no throttling in the stratified charge zone).
The combination of lean mixtures and high intake pressures
presents a good challenge to maintain combustion stability.
Moreover, the low peak exhaust temperature allows the use of a
variable nozzle turbine (VNT), currently not suitable for
conventional gasoline engines due to their limited temperature
capability. This gives advantages in low-speed torque and
reduction of turbocharger lag.
However, whereas future pollution standards become more
restricting, it makes after-treatment of NOx emissions more
difficult, especially because NOx traps require very low sulfur
level in fuel. Thus, engines working with this type of combustion
are expensive to be after-treated and actual consumption benefits
on the urban cycles are significantly lower than theoretical
expectations without any pollution constraint.
The SB approach [12] is very interesting because it combines
several well-known technologies. The fundamental advantage of
this system is due to effectiveness and reduced costs of after-
treatment systems.
In principle Diluted Boosting System with cooled EGR
appears as a very promising approach because it has a good
potential for knock inhibition and allows the use of three way
catalysts. However EGR amount during transients cannot be
simply controlled.
THE PROPOSED ENGINE CONCEPT AND
OPTIMIZATION STRATEGY
In the present work the stoichiometric homogeneous way was
preferred with the aim of reducing emissions as much as possible
using the three-way catalyst technology.
Technologies involved were Direct Injection, Turbo charging,
and Variable valve timing (VVT) for inlet and exhaust.
The main objective of present work was to evaluate by
simulation the ability of some engine configurations to:
• Increase the low-end torque
• Obtain high BMEP levels with high compression ratio
• Reduce the knock tendency.
The general optimization strategy was to improve at very low
engine speed the inlet efficiency, assuming that the engine operates
as naturally aspirated and, simultaneously, to reduce internal EGR
as much as possible.
 To increase the low end torque the adopted approach was:
• To optimize the inlet geometry (primary pipes, secondary
pipes and plenum) at very low engine speed (under 2000
rpm)
• To reduce as much as possible the reverse flow into the
intake.
Since generally at low engine speed turbo charging is not
really effective, inlet system optimization was carried out on an
aspirated engine.
In particular, maximum lift and opening duration of inlet
valve were reduced, and Early Inlet Valve Closing was
experimented. EIVC allowed reducing reversal flow and therefore
to improve inlet efficiency at low engine speed.
To obtain high BMEP levels the choice was:
• To optimize the exhaust geometry and the exhaust valve
lift diagram in order to enhance pressure pulses
• To obtain an optimal matching of turbocharger in order to
work with an high pressure ratio (about 1.8).
To reduce simultaneously the knock tendency it is very
important to reduce the engine cycle temperature. To this end the
general strategy was:
• To work with early Inlet Valve Closing (IVC)
• To reduce as much as possible the internal EGR by a
proper selection of exhaust geometry and valve overlap
• To select a proper Waste Gate (WG) strategy.
improved by this approach, there is no evidence about the
possibility to predict knocking conditions on supercharged
engines.
Two zone model (IRIS module)
The Blizard - Keck - Tabacziynski model refers to a fully
premixed SI engine, while actually the experimental dataset refers
to a direct injection SI engine. Although fuel injection is early, the
air/fuel mixture is not perfectly homogeneous, and some residual
stratification is likely.
This could be the reason why it was impossible to find a
single set of constants, for the Blizard - Keck - Tabacziynski
model, able to reproduce in a reasonable way the ensemble of
experimental combustion cycles.
A regression model was set up to link the model constants to
measured values of temperature, engine speed, load, total EGR
and fuel air ratio (see Annex A), based on the ensemble of
experimental data obtained on the naturally aspirated engine. This
kind of approach took count somehow the influence of slight
inhomogeneities of air/fuel mixture, and allowed to obtain very
good simulations of indicated cycles obtained on the naturally
aspirated engine. For example the Fig. 1 and 2 show the
simulation of combustion pressure at 3500 rpm, respectively at
low and high load. However, there is no experimental evidence of
the possibility to correct predict the combustion process on a
turbocharged engine.

SIMULATION MODEL VALIDATION

The 1-D WAVE code by Ricardo has been selected to

optimize the design of engine components. The simulation of
combustion in this code can be performed using a single-zone
model (Wiebe) and/or a two-zone model (Blizard - Keck -
Tabacziynski).
In principle, two-zone models can give a better evaluation of
knock occurrence, of heat transfer and of mechanical losses, while
single-zone models are much faster and are generally preferred for
transient simulations.
To set up the combustion models of WAVE (Wiebe and Iris Fig. 1 - Comparison of simulated and experimental
module), experiments were carried out on a DI naturally aspirated combustion pressure at 3500 rpm and low load using a
engine (Alfa Romeo JTS) varying: engine speed, load, air/fuel regression to set up the Blizard and Keck model.
ratio, spark timing and external EGR.
To evaluate heat release patterns a number of test conditions
without and with knock were processed with the aid of a two-zone
model.
Knock conditions were evaluated using a Douaud - Eyzat
model, improved by using a correlation model for its constants, as
detailed in Annex B. Although the predictability of the model was

4 Copyright © 2006 by ASME

 Fig. 2 - Comparison of simulated and experimental
Fig. 5 - Comparison of computed and measured IMEP
combustion pressure at 3500 rpm and high load using a
(R2=99.77).
regression to set up the Blizard and Keck model.

ENGINE OPTIMIZATION

Since turbocharger generally does not work at low engine

speed, the first phase of work regarded the design of inlet
manifolds and the selection of valve lift diagrams and valve
timings of the naturally aspirated engine. The design parameter
considered were:

• Length of primary pipes (range: 180mm – 450mm)

Fig. 3 - Comparison of computed and measured peak of • Diameter of primary pipes (range: 34mm – 42mm)
pressure (R2=99.86). • Length of secondary pipe (range: 730mm –1450mm)
• Diameter of secondary pipe (range: 38mm –85mm)
• Plenum volume (range: 0.6 dm3 –2.9 dm3 )
• Inlet valve lift and opening duration
• Inlet valve timing.
The maximum lift and opening duration of inlet valve were
reduced (Fig. 6) and the effect of EIVC was tested. EIVC was
selected to reduce reverse flow and therefore to improve inlet
efficiency at low engine speed. Fig. 7 shows the IVO strategy used
throughout the speed range. Figures 8 to 11 show the main results
of this phase of optimization.
Fig. 4 - Comparison of computed and measured crank
angle position of peak of pressure.

5 Copyright © 2006 by ASME

 Fig. 9 – Effect of the diameter of the inlet primary pipes
on inlet volumetric efficiency.

Fig. 6 - Comparison of the original and the modified

inlet valve lift diagram.

Fig. 7 - Inlet Valve Opening (IVO) strategy for low engine Fig. 10 – Effect of the diameter of the inlet secondary
speed. pipes on inlet volumetric efficiency.

Fig. 8 – Effect of plenum volume on inlet volumetric Fig. 11 – Effect of inlet valve timing on volumetric
efficiency. efficiency.

6 Copyright © 2006 by ASME

 To select the geometry of the exhaust system test parameters
of numerical experiments were:

• Exhaust pipe configuration: symmetrical 4-1;

asymmetrical 4-1; symmetrical 4-2-1
• Pipe diameter: 27 mm; 34 mm; 41 mm
• Pipe length: 340 mm; 400 mm, 460 mm, 520 mm
In all tests a lift diagram with a reduced maximum lift and
opening duration of the valve was adopted (Fig. 12).
A comparison of the best results obtained for internal EGR
and volumetric efficiency for each configuration (4-1 symmetrical;
4-1 asymmetrical and 4-2-1 symmetrical) is shown in Fig 13 and
14. Fig 14 - Comparison of volumetric efficiency for
different exhaust systems (4-1 symmetrical; 4-1
asymmetrical and 4-2-1 symmetrical).

Internal EGR is strongly influenced by the geometry of the

exhaust system because of the reciprocal interference of the gas
flows coming out of the cylinders during the exhaust phases. In
our numerical experiments the 4-2-1 configuration seemed the
most promising to obtain low internal EGR and acceptable
volumetric efficiency at low and medium engine speed.
The effect of Exhaust Valve Opening (EVO) on internal EGR
and on volumetric efficiency was also evaluated. Internal EGR and
volumetric efficiency are shown versus engine speed in Fig. 15
and 16 respectively. EVO values are conventionally given with
respect to the TDC in combustion. Since valve lift duration is
225°, the Exhaust Valve Closing (EVC) varies between 340° and
410° after the combustion TDC.

Fig. 12 - Comparison of the original and the modified

exhaust valve lift diagram.

Fig 13 - Comparison of internal EGR for different Fig. 15 - Influence of EVO on internal EGR.
exhaust systems (4-1 symmetrical; 4-1 asymmetrical
and 4-2-1 symmetrical).

7 Copyright © 2006 by ASME

 Fig. 16 Influence of EVO on volumetric efficiency.
In practice, numerical tests showed that up to 2200 rpm a
moderate valve overlap gives good results for internal EGR and
volumetric efficiency. On the contrary, at speed higher than 2200
rpm a zero overlap is preferable. Therefore a simple two values
strategy can be proposed for the exhaust VVT.
The matching of the selected turbocharger in steady
conditions appears quite good. In fact the steady points, for the
compressor (working with the waste gate), lie near the optimum
efficiency area and is far from the surge line (Fig. 17).
Figure 18 shows the volumetric efficiency of the turbocharged
engine before and after the optimization of the intake and exhaust
system. As expected, a significant improvement is obtained in the
low speed range; unfortunately a worsening occurs at higher
speed, in the range between 4000 and 5500 rpm, but this result
could be certainly avoided if a VVA system would be available.
Fig. 17 - Full load working conditions of compressor.
8 Copyright © 2006 by ASME
Fig. 18 – Volumetric efficiency of TC engine with and
without optimization of the inlet and exhaust system.
ESTIMATION OF FUEL CONSUMPTION ON A
DRIVING CYCLE
To evaluate the potential of the proposed solution, the torque
of the simulated 2 liter turbocharged engine (with VVT on inlet
and exhaust) was compared with the one of an existing naturally
aspirated 3 liter engine (Fig. 19).
It is possible to observe that at low loads (up to 4200 rpm) the
torque of the downsized turbocharged engine appears better than
the one of the reference engine. On the contrary the naturally
aspirated engine shows better performances at higher speed. That
depends on the particular choice operated for the inlet valve
diagram. Probably, full advantages can be expected by the
adoption of a VVA on the inlet of the downsized engine.
In order to assess the fuel consumption gains resulting from
this downsizing, a comparison was made assuming as reference
the vehicle equipped with the 3 liter normally aspirated engine
(with some general specification listed in Table 1), and simulating
its behavior on a New European Driving Cycle with the downsized
engine.
The simulation was carried out assuming the driving cycle as
a sequence of stationary points. Based on the vehicle speed profile
and the assigned gear ratio, it is possible to calculate engine speed
and torque required at each operating point of the cycle. Then, by
means of the engine simulation code the corresponding specific
fuel consumptions are evaluated, and the integration throughout
the whole cycle gives the total fuel consumption.
Two simulations were made with the downsized engine: the
first one assumed the original gear ratios, and the second one
assumed a modified axle gear ratio, equal to 3:1.
The results of this calculation are shown in Fig. 20 and 21 as
absolute values and as percent difference, considering the overall
cycle and dividing the contributions of the urban cycle and of the
extra-urban cycle respectively.
 1.0

0.9 Original engine-vehicle conf.

Downsizing original axle ratio
0.8
Downsizing modified axle ratio

Fuel consumption (Kg)

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
TOTAL NEDC URBAN EXTRA-URBAN

Fig. 20 – Fuel consumption estimation for the NA 3 liter

Fig. 19 - Torque of the simulated 2 liter TC engine
engine and for the 2 liter TC engine over a simulated
compared with the one of an existing normally aspirated
NEDC.
3 liter engine.
100

80
Downsizing original axle ratio
PERCENT DIFFERENCE

Downsizing modified axle ratio

60

Considering the original overall gear ratio, an average 12.4%

gain in fuel consumption is obtained on the whole cycle, with 40
11.7% on the urban part and 12.9% on the extra-urban part. When
the modified axle gear ratio is assumed, allowing to operate in a
more favorable speed-load range of the specific fuel consumption, 20
these gains reach the values 20.9%, 19.7% and 21.8%
respectively. That confirms the importance of the driveline
0
optimization to take full advantage from engine downsizing. TOTAL NEDC URBAN EXTRA-URBAN

Weight (Kg) 1415 Fig. 21 – Percent gains on fuel consumption over a

Axle gear ratio 3.545:1 simulated NEDC for the 2 liter TC engine with respect to
1st gear ratio 3.500:1 the NA 3 liter engine.
2nd gear ratio 2.235:1
3rd gear ratio 1.520:1
4th gear ratio 1.156:1 CONCLUSION
5th gear ratio 0.971:1
6th gear ratio 0.816:1 The coupling of downsizing and turbocharging shows an
Table 1 – General specification of the reference vehicle interesting potential for a significant improvement of consumption
on SI engines, but requires the solution of the related problems of
reduced low end torque, knock and transient response. The
technologies that can be involved in this field are turbocharging,
direct injection, cooled EGR, Variable Valve Actuation and
Variable Compression Ratio.
In this paper the attention was focused on the downsizing
approach with stoichiometric boosting, since it allows the
utilization of the well consolidated Three Way Catalyst
technology. The possibility of a VVT was considered as well.

9 Copyright © 2006 by ASME

 Simulation was carried out using the WAVE code by Ricardo,
considering a 2 liter DISI normally aspirated engine as reference.
Combustion was modeled with the Blizard - Keck – Tabacziynski
model, whose constant were evaluated by three correlations based
on an experimental database. The objective of the simulation was
to assess the feasibility of an improvement of low end torque and
of an increase of BMEP with high CR, reducing at the same time
knock tendency. Basically, this was pursued acting on the increase
of volumetric efficiency and the decrease of internal EGR.
Through the simulation the volumetric efficiency was
improved by the optimization of plenum volume and the
length/diameter of the inlet manifold and pipes. Furthermore the
lowering of maximum lift and opening duration of inlet valve and
the adoption of EIVC resulted particularly effective to reduce the
reverse flow.
A similar investigation was carried out on the effects of the
design of the exhaust system, and of the lift diagram of the exhaust
valves, with reduced lift and opening duration. It was possible to
find out that, at engine speed up to 2200 rpm, a moderate overlap
of inlet and exhaust valve opening is useful for the reduction of
internal EGR. This results in a beneficial effect on volumetric
efficiency, and on the temperature of mixture which is lower and
less favorable for knock arising. At higher engine speed this
effects are lost, and a zero overlap is advisable.
The overall effects of the explored parameters were evaluated
by comparison of the full load performances of the simulated 2
liter SI engine with turbocharging with the ones of a 3 liter
normally aspirated SI engine. The comparison showed a
noticeable enhancement of the low end torque up to 3000 rpm, but
with a progressive reduction with engine speed. That depend on
the limited effectiveness of the inlet valve diagram, which is based
on a VVT operation and is optimized at low speed. Probably, a
full exploitation of the advantages offered by such an approach
could be obtainable by a Variable Valve Actuation operation,
allowing the optimal choice of the lift diagram throughout the
engine speed range.
Eventually, the improvement on fuel consumption resulting
from the selected downsizing solution was estimated by the
simulation of its behavior throughout a New European Driving
Cycle on the same vehicle the 3 liter NA engine is equipped with.
A potential of about 20% was shown, provided a proper selection
of the overall gear ratio allowing engine operation in the load-
speed range of lower specific fuel consumption.
[2] Tim Lake, John Stokes, Richard Murphy and Richard
Osborne, Andreas Schamel Turbocharging Concepts for
Downsized DI Gasoline Engine, SAE paper, 2004-01-0036.
[3] Alain Ranini and Gaëtan Monnier, Turbocharging A Gasoline
Direct Injection Engine, SAE paper, 2001-01-0736.
[4] M. Wirth, U. Mayerhofer, W. F. Piock and G. K. Fraidl,
Turbocharging the DI Gasoline Engine, SAE paper 2000-01-
0251.
[5] Lake T., Sapsford S., Stokes J., Jackson N., Simulation and
Development Experience of a Stratified Charge Gasoline
Direct Injection Engine, SAE paper 962014.
[6] Yang J., Anderson R., Fuel Injection Strategies to Increase
Full-Load Torque Output of Direct-Injection SI Engine, SAE
paper 980495.
[7] Markus Schwaderlapp, Knut Habermann and Kurt I. Yapici,
Variable Compression Ratio - A Design Solution for Fuel
Economy Concepts, SAE paper 2002-01-1103.
[8] Martyn Roberts, Benefits and Challenges of Variable
Compression Ratio (VCR), SAE paper 2003-01-0398.
[9] J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentas, Mc
Graw Hill Book Company, 1989.
[10]Yashi Ke, Helmut Pucher, Technical, Controlling the Load
and the Boost Pressure of a Turbocharged SI Engine by
Means of Early Intake-Valve Closing, SAE paper 960588.
[11]J. Stokes, T. H. Lake and R. J. Osborne, A Gasoline Engine
Concept for Improved Fuel Economy –The Lean Boost
System, SAE paper 2000-01-2902.
[12]Bertrand Lecointe and Gaëtan Monnier, Downsizing a
Gasoline Engine Using Turbocharging with Direct Injection,
SAE paper 2003-01-0542.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by the European Commission

through project NICE “New Integrated Combustion System for
Future Passenger Car Engines” (contr. TIP3-CT-2004-506201).

REFERENCES

[1] Yorick Duchaussoy, Alain Lefebvre and Robert Bonetto,

Dilution Interest on Turbocharged SI Engine Combustion,
SAE paper 2003-01-0629.

10 Copyright © 2006 by ASME

 ANNEX A

PROPOSED CORRELATIONS FOR THE CONSTANTS OF THE BLIZARD - KECK - TABACZIYNSKI MODEL

The flame development is modeled as a turbulent entrainment of proportionality CS between turbulence intensity and turbulent
process, followed by burn up in a region behind the flame front.
flame speed, included in the equation:
The entrained mass rate of unburned mixture depends on the flame
front area and on an entrainment velocity as sum of the turbulent 1 1 1
and laminar flame speeds. This is expressed by the equation:
ST  u′  3  ρ  9  u ′L  3
= C S    u    (A4)
dM e  S  SL  S L   ρ ui   ν 
= ρ u Ae 1 + T  S L (A1)
dt  SL  where:

where: ρ ui = density of unburned charge at the time of spark ignition

M e = trapped mass u ′ = C 2 u p = turbulence intensity
ρ u = density of unburned charge L = mean height of combustion chamber
ν = kinematic viscosity
Ae = flame front area C 2 = 0.93
S T = turbulent flame speed u p = mean piston velocity
S L = laminar flame speed
The second one is the constant Cl relating the Taylor
The burned mass rate is:
microscale to the turbulent length scale:

1
−
dM b M e − M b λ  u′L  2
= (A2) = Cl   (A5)
dt τ L  ν 
where:
The third one is the constant C K relating to ignition delay,
M b = burned mass
included in the equation:
τ = time constant
1 2
Assuming that burn up occurs at the laminar flame speed and td u p  ν 3  u p 3
with a length scale of the microscale of turbulence, the time = CK     (A6)
L  L ⋅u  S
constant is:  p   L 

where:
λ
τ= (A3)
SL t d = time required to burn 1% of the fresh charge.

where: Using an experimental database of about 120 pressure cycles,

λ = Taylor turbulent microscale
The integration of eq. A1 and A2 provides the rate of heat
release and the instantaneous volume of burned mixture. It is
necessary to specify three constants. The first one is the constant
the values of the constants CS , Cl , and C K allowing the best fit
between experimental and simulated pressure cycles (including
heat release) were found. This set of constants was put together
with the main steady operating parameters of the engine, in order
to set up three correlation allowing an estimate of the mentioned
constants throughout the range of operating conditions.
The proposed correlations are:

11 Copyright © 2006 by ASME

 0.073
Ck = − 0.0162 ⋅ ϑ − 0.073 ⋅ C S − 0.119 ⋅ Cl (A9)
α
C S = 0.016 ⋅ EGR + 4.60 ⋅ α + 421 ⋅ m& − 0.00595 ⋅ ϑ (A7)

1.8 ⋅106 where:

Cl = 65.66 ⋅ α + − 0.085 ⋅ EGR −
n2 α = air to fuel ratio
(A8)
0.39 18.8 ϑ = spark ignition angle BTDC
− +
Pman ϑ m& = single cycle air mass flow
n = engine revolution per minute
Pman = inlet manifold pressure

ANNEX B

PROPOSED CORRELATION FOR THE CONSTANT AT OF THE DOUAUD - EYZAT MODEL

Within the WAVE simulation code it is assumed that In addition, to set up the model, about 10 knocking test cases
autoignition occurs when were selected at different engine speed, air fuel ratio and spark
timing.
tk 1
∫
t =0 τ
dt = 1 (B1) For the measurement of knock intensity a band pass digital
filter in time domain was implemented. The amount of the heat
released after the angle of knock occurrence was considered for
where t is the elapsed time from the start t = 0 of the process of the evaluation of knocking intensity in computed test cycles. A
end-gas compression, t k is the time of auto ignition and τ is the single set of coefficients did not allow the evaluation of the start
induction time. For this last one, the extensively tested correlation angle and of the amount of heat released during the knocking
proposed by Douaud and Eyzat is used: process.

A correlation model was set up to relate the constant At of

3.402
1  ON   3800 At  Douaud – Eyzat formula with manifold pressure and temperature,
τ = 0.01869   ⋅ p −1.7 exp  (B2) engine speed, total EGR, exhaust pressure, relative air fuel ratio,
AP  100   T  using experimental data referring to knocking and no knocking
conditions:
where:

ON = octane number At = - 0.00400614 ⋅ X EGR + 0.0446544 ⋅ α +

P = cylinder pressure [atm]
T = temperature of unburned gases [K]
AP , At are model constants to be set by comparison with + 0.0000841937 ⋅ N - 4877.42 ⋅ M a + (B3)

experiments. Pi Pe
- 0.00539737 ⋅ + 0.0218207 ⋅
Ti Te
Engine parameters in absence of knock were varied in the
following ranges: where:

• Engine speed : 1500-4500 rpm X EGR = total EGR (internal + external) [%]
• External EGR: 0 –15% α = relative air/fuel ratio
• IMEP: 2-12 bar N = engine speed [rpm]
• Start of Injection: 90°-120° ATDC
• Injection pressure: 40-80 bar M a = trapped air mass per cycle
• Peak of combustion pressure: 14°-16° ATDC Pi = intake pressure [bar]
• Relative air/fuel ratio: 1-1.21

12 Copyright © 2006 by ASME

Ti = intake temperature [K]
Pe = exhaust pressure [bar]
Te = exhaust temperature [K]

A
Simulated and measured values of t are compared in Fig.
22, while Fig. 23 shows the corresponding error distribution.
The Douaud - Eyzat model was evaluated with reference to
knock intensity using the proposed correlation model. The
observed versus predicted results are shown in Fig. 24, while Fig.
25 shows the error distribution.
A similar analysis was performed with reference to crank
angle start of knock, using the proposed correlation model for the Fig. 24 – Observed versus predicted values for knock
exponential of the Douaud - Eyzat formula. Fig. 26 and 27 show intensity resulting from the Douaud – Eyzat model.
the corresponding results

Fig. 25 – Error distribution of the observed vs predicted

values for knock intensity resulting from the Douaud –
Fig. 22 – Observed versus predicted values for the Eyzat model.
constant At as resulting from the proposed correlation.
2
R =0.99397.

Fig. 23 – Error distribution of the observed vs predicted

values for the constant At as resulting from the Fig. 26 – Observed versus predicted values for crank
proposed correlation. angle start of knock resulting from the Douaud – Eyzat
model.

13 Copyright © 2006 by ASME

Fig. 27 – Error distribution of the observed vs predicted
values for crank angle start of knock resulting from the
Douaud – Eyzat model.

14 Copyright © 2006 by ASME

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