DCA1104

Understanding PC and Troubleshooting Unit 1
Unit 1 The CPU

Structure:
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 CPU Essentials
The BUSes
Processor Modes
1.3 Modern CPU concepts
CISC vs. RISC CPUs
Circuit Size and Die Size
Processor Speed
Processor Cooling
System Clocks
Architectural Performance Features
1.4 Processors
Intel 8088/8086
Intel 80386
Intel Pentium P5
Intel Pentium with MMX technology
Intel Pentium Pro (P6 Machine)
Intel Pentium II
Intel Core 2
Intel Atom
AMD CPU
1.5 CPU Overclocking
Overclocking Requirements
Potential Pitfalls
Overclocking the System
Overclocking the Intel Processors
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Terminal Questions
1.9 Answers
Manipal University Jaipur B1416 Page No.: 1

1.1 Introduction
In order to know the meaning of CPU or the way to troubleshoot it. You must
know the physical and mechanical concepts of PC. PC or personal
computer is a small digital device made out of Microprocessor chip and
designed especially for the use of individual person. PC is not a single
device. It is the combination of different components and devices. Before we
start troubleshooting a PC we must understand these different devices.
In this unit you will study one of those devices in detail and learn how to
troubleshoot. You may feel amused to read the word troubleshooting without
knowing the meaning of it. Troubleshooting is way of detecting the problem
in the PC or the cause of the problem and fixing the problem so that the PC
can function according to needs of the user. This problem may be from any
of the components of the PC. Since all these components are interrelated
the failure in one device may cause the whole system stop working or work
haphazard. Troubleshooting is a technique to solve this problem and make
the system work appropriate. The different components of PC are CPU,
motherboard, memory, hard drives, monitor, ports, adapter USB, etc. which
you will be studying one by one in later units. In this unit you will learn how
to trouble shoot the CPU which is an essential part of a computer. In fact, it
functions as a brain to the system. We often consider CPU to be a synonym
for cabinet. However, you should keep in mind that there is a vast
difference between the two. The CPU is the controller while the cabinet is a
component that holds CPU and memory along with BUSes for data flow.
Integrated circuit technology has realized the importance of Central
Processing Unit (Processor) as it is expected to perform three major
functions. They are mathematical calculations, logical comparisons, and
data manipulation. Though the concept of central processing is not new, it
was only after the integration of central processing functions on to a single
silicon chip, that it became well known as CPU. In the mid-1970s, this single
silicon chip referred to as microprocessor chip, was instrumental in
enhancing the speed and performance of the computer greatly.
In order to become an effective tekkie (techie) you should know the
essential components of CPU. You should also know the important
specifications of CPU and its features. This unit will not only give you an
insight into the evolution of CPU and its capabilities but also help you to
learn how to solve the problems that reside in microprocessor operations.
Objectives:
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Identify the essentials of CPU
 Find out the different concepts of modern CPU
 Categorize and describe in detail the Intel CPUs
 Explain CPU overclocking
 Perform overclocking of the different Processors
1.2 CPU Essentials

The basic requirements for any CPU are BUSes and Processor modes. A
typical diagram of a processor is shown in Figure 1.1
Figure 1.1: Block Diagram of CPU
1.2.1 The BUSes:

Usually the BUS is the common means for sharing data and this data
transfer is done between all the devices connected to it. The BUSes are
also called processor signals. The several sets of these signals are divided
into three main sets, mainly:
 The Data BUS: This BUS is responsible for the to and fro movement of
information in the CPU. It acts as a measure of CPU performance. It is
also used to carry data in and out of the CPU at any given time. As
shown in figure 1.1 the data BUS is used to carry the information from
CPU to RAM, ROM and I/O units as well as among Timing and control,
BUS interface and ALU. The data lines are usually represented by “D”
prefix (D0, D1, D2, and D3 … Dn).

 The Address BUS: This BUS is used to define address in the CPU. It is
also called as memory BUS. The Address BUS does not carry the actual
data but carries the specific address of that particular data. The address
BUS measures the data in terms of address lines. For example, the CPU
with address lines= 10 may have address 210 = 1024 bytes. The “A” prefix
(A0, A1, A2, A3 … An). is generally used to represent address lines.
 The Control BUS: This BUS is also called as timing and control BUS. It
is used to control and coordinate the CPU operations. The various
signals are read, write, interrupt, and acknowledge; parity checking,
cache operation and power control and management.
Table 1.1: Difference between the three BUSes
Data BUS Address BUS Control BUS

Transmits Transmits address to Transmits number of
instructions to memory before any individual signals that is
the CPU from instructions or data can used to control and
memory for be written. coordinate the
execution. operations
Carries data or Carries addresses or Carries individual
operands locations signals
1.2.2 Processor Modes

Before we proceed to the CPU concepts and its architecture, it would help
you to have a brief introduction to some of the concepts of processor
modes. In generic term, mode is a way that creates a system for itself for its
processor creation and operations. Processor mode is responsible for
managing and controlling the system memory and its use. Processor modes
are classified into three types as:
 Real Mode: This mode operates CPU in a limited environment. The real
mode has the advantage of accessing speed. It is compatible with Intel
8088 chip. All processors can support real mode. Computers normally
boot up in real mode or DOS mode.
 Protected Mode: This mode used in modern multitasking operating

systems was first implemented in 80826. Protected Mode has several
advantages.
o It offers faster access to memory

o It supports multitasking facility that manages the operating

o System in the execution of many programs at a time.
o There is no limit for accessing the memory.
o It allows the computer to use additional memory whenever
o Needed along with the support of virtual memory.
 Virtual Real Mode: This mode of operation is the enhancement of
protected mode. Protected mode is used to run graphical multitasking
OS like windows. If you want to run DOS program in the windows
system then you would have to use the virtual real mode. This is
because the necessity of running DOS program on real mode and not in
protected mode has given rise to the virtual real mode. This mode will
simulate the real mode to start in the protected mode and help in
running DOS programs in windows. The virtual machine will have
separate address space dedicated to it, which helps in invoking this
feature of operating virtual real mode machines.
Self Assessment Questions

1. ______________ BUS is used to control and coordinate the CPU
Operations.
2. _____________ Mode is used in multi-tasking machines.
3. Control BUS is also called as _____________ BUS.
1.3 Modern CPU concepts

In order to understand the full concept of the CPU you would have to draw
up a very big outline, which is beyond the scope of this book. However,
there are certain concepts, which are basic and essential to understanding
the PC growing world.
1.3.1 CISC vs RISC CPUs:
CISC (pronounced ‘sisk’) is the acronym for Complex Instruction Set
Computer. Most computers use CISC because hardware is always faster
than software and an instruction set is made that is powerful and helps the
programmers to use assembly level instructions with less coding. RISC on
the other hand is based on the philosophy that almost no one uses complex
assembly language instructions, and people mostly use compilers, which
never use complex instructions. RISC (pronounced ‘risk’) is the acronym for
Reduced Instructions Set Computer. RISCs are mostly used in high-end
workstations.
Table 1.2: comparisons of CISC and RISC CPUs
CISC RISC
CISC chips are relatively slow RISC chips are comparably faster
Use less instructions Comparatively use more instructions
Use large and complex instructions Use fewer, simpler and faster instructions
Comparatively costlier Cheaper
Use many new transistors Use fewer transistors
Versatile processing Less versatile
Low performance due to the use of Faster CPU performance
more number of transistors
1.3.2 Circuit size and Die size: Circuit size is like scaling the processor
model or drawing the miniature of the processor. In order to make powerful
processors more transistors, which are smaller, are required. Therefore,
circuit size is made smaller with the help of integrated circuit fabrications.
The maximum shrinking can be done up to 1 micron but the recent
processors can use even as less as 0.18 micron circuit size.
The Die size is the physical surface area, which means the area of the chip
and measure in square millimeters (mm2). It is the term used for wafer made
out of silicon. Smaller the size of the wafer the closer the component
arranges which increases performance. Smaller die size will also help in
getting more chips on single wafer and reduce the manufacturing cost and
also relatively reduce power consumption.
1.3.3 Processor Speed:
The processor speed depends upon different factors like, circuit size, die
size, processor type, type of chip used, instructions set, etc. On observation
you will find that all these factors are interlinked to one another.
 Essentially the processor design has its effective role in which it has to
specify the internal time requirements that the maximum limit does not
exceed the speed, which the chip can handle.
 You will find that the manufacturing factors like circuit size and die size
as mentioned above will have its influence on the speed.
 Smaller the chips faster will be the processing speed due to shorter
signals flow and less power consumption.

 Heat is also an important factor that affects speed. As the chips get over
heated, it locks itself, thus slowing down the processor.
 Due to some manufacturing differences, the quality of the process varies
even after the product is manufactured in the same process.
1.3.4 Processor Cooling:
Each of the millions of transistors liberates small amount of heat every time
they are switched on or off. The heat thus generated will give rise to many
serious problems in the processor like system crash, unexpected rebooting,
lockups etc. This sometimes results in memory errors, application errors,
disk errors etc. Although repeated overheating of processor may rarely
result in permanent damage, it is difficult to identify these kinds of problems.
These days processor cooling has become a major concern for computer
hardware manufacturers. Unlike earlier processors, nowadays processors
use more numbers of transistors which liberate tremendous amount of heat.
Therefore to cool the processors special cooling methods have to be
adopted the processors are usually cooled by active heat sinks. An active
heat sink is made up of fans which are mounted on a metal sink with the
help of fins. However, the problem with an active sink is that when the fans
stop working then the heat generated by processor will be very high.
Therefore tachometers are integrated into it to raise an alarm in case of
accident due to heat damage. This warning will help in addressing fan
failure issue immediately.
1.3.5 System Clocks:
A system clock is used to drive the circuits in the PC. The smallest unit of
time in which the processing takes place is known as one cycle. The unit to
measure it in terms of frequency is MHz. In older PCs there used to be only
one system clock to drive the processing. However, modern PCs use many
such clocks (may be four or five) for processing; each of them running at
different speeds. System clock is referred to the speed of the memory BUS
running on the motherboard.
In order to generate the system clock, a single clock generator circuit is
used to create different clocks and then various clock multiplier or divider
circuits will create the clock signals for these clocks.
Table 1.3 gives you the detailed arrangement in clocks in 266 MHz Pentium
II PC and the relationship that exists between them.

Table 1.3
Device/BUS clock Speed (MHz) Generated as
Processor 266 System Clock * 4
Level 2 Cache 133 System Clock * 2
(or Processor / 2)
System (Memory) BUS 66 1 system clock
PCI BUS 33 System Clock / 2
ISA BUS 8.3 PCI BUS / 4
The entire system speed relates to the speed of the clock system. This is
Hence, for faster system
why it is very important to increase the speed of the system clock rather speed, both (system
clock as well as
than the speed of the processor. This is because whatever the speed of the processor speed) must
processor it has to sit idle until the completion of the other slower part of the be fast.
system.
1.3.6 Architectural Performance Features: Each time you boot the system
you assume that the system performance improves. Hence, research on this
feature continues with the designer trying to find ways to enhance
performance. The different features of performance enhancement are as
follows:
 Superscalar Architecture: This architecture implements a base for
parallel computing. This is the measure of the number of operations
executed in a computer simultaneously. This is called Instruction level
parallelism. The main capability of CPU is to allow multiple executions.
This helps CPU to process many instructions simultaneously with every
clock cycle. This is super scalar architecture. For example, the Pentium
pre-processor uses two execution pipelines at the same time; this is
multiprocessing within the CPU itself.
 Pipelining: Pipelining a technique to construct faster CPUs. Using
pipelining you can execute more than one operation at a time. When
one instruction is already in execution state, the pipelining allows
another instruction to start execution while the first instruction is still
being executed. This helps in working out many instructions in the same
clock cycle. In this way, CPU uses its resources in a better way rather
than sitting idle. Some instructions may take 2-3 clock cycles to
complete the execution and while some complex instructions may take

6-7 clock cycles to complete its execution. Therefore pipelining helps in

using the resources, though the CPU can only finish one instruction
/clock cycle.
 Super Pipelining: Super Pipelining is similar to normal pipelining but
with series of operations are unblocked so that as many instructions
execute at a single clock time. This is an enhancement over the earlier
simple pipelining. As you are aware a CPU works on pipelining
concepts. If we make the pipelines longer which is nothing but
increasing the number of stages, then each step will perform less work
so that the processor can be scaled to high frequency. This is super
pipelining.
 Speculative Execution and Branch Prediction: Speculative execution
and branch prediction is used to give the probable prediction on
branching the instruction in the CPU. The basic difficulty in pipelining of
CPU lies in branches. For example, when we use branches in the
conditions, the sequence of the program execution also changes or
jumps form one level to another at any given time. This challenges the
pipelining as it is not linear. Though the CPUs have the ability to execute
multiple instructions at a time however, due to this branching it cannot
be maintained always. CPU must be able to jump speculatively to the
next instruction when the branches come in the instruction. This can be
achieved by predicting the branches. Examples of branches may be
“if/then” statements.
 Dynamic Execution: Dynamic Execution is a collection of different
techniques for predicting the nested or multiple branches. The
performance of the CPU also depends on the kind of program written for
the instructions. Sometimes system software assembly and the linking
process may disturb the best program code. Therefore, the dynamic
execution helps the CPU to order the levels of the instruction execution
according to the branches and helps in improving the performance.
 Register Renaming and Write Buffers: When the multiple executions
take place there should not be any kind of confusion in program
execution. This is taken care of by register renaming by differentiating
the registers. This helps in avoiding the pipeline overloading or jam.
When the instruction is executed, the result needs to be stored

someplace until they can be stored in the memory locations. Write

buffers do this. Several buffers help in the execution of various
instructions and avoid the jam or stalling of pipeline.
 Multiprocessing: This is the technique of running more than one
processor in a system. Increasing the number of processors will double
the system performance. The increasing of system performance is
directly proportionate to the increase in the number of processors. The
following are the basic requirements for multiprocessing :
1. The host computer must have the motherboard support to Handle
the multiple processors.
2. The host computer should use the processor that suits the
Multiprocessing
3. The host computer should use the operating system that Suits
multiprocessing like windows, NT/2000 or LINUX.
 Multimedia Extensions: The multimedia extension is an add-on to CPU
performance. For technocrats, knowledge alone is not sufficient for
success in their work. They also depend on making effective
presentations by taking the help of graphics, animations etc. It was in
late 90s that Intel added 57 new instructions that support graphics with
the MMX extensions using the technique called Single instruction
Multiple Data (SIMD). Later AMD and SSE added a few more
instructions to introduce 3DNow. SSE-II used streaming SIMD
extensions, which supported audio and video graphics, and speech
recognition.

4. RISC chips have faster CPU performance than CISC. (True or False)
5. __________ is a technique of running more than one process in a
system.
6. MMX is an extension that supports ____________ applications.
1.4 Processors
If you observe the evolution of the CPUs, you will realize that the change
from one generation to the other is not one of just average development but
rather a tremendous change in technology with more emphasis on greater
performance, execution, efficiency, raw speed, and data through input and

design enhancements. This section will help you understand the panorama
of the Intel microprocessors’ evolution and also aid you in comparing their
current characteristics.
1.4.1 Intel 8088/8086
This was introduced during 1978-1979. The microprocessors 8088 and
8086 are similar except that 8088 uses 8 bit BUS and 8086 uses 16-bit BUS
for data transfers. Though 8086 was the first processor, it did not become
popular because by the time it was launched, 80286 was introduced.
Table 1.4: Categories of processors
Table 1.4 (a) General Information
Manufacturer Intel
Family Name 8086
Processor Generation First
Motherboard Generation First
Introduced in June 1978
Versions 8086 / 8086-8 / 8086-10
Table 1.4 (b) Speed Specifications
Memory BUS speed (MHz) 4.77 / 8 / 10

Processor clock multiplier 1.0
Processor speed (MHz) Same as memory BUS speed
Table 1.4 (c) Benchmarks

Norton SI 1? /1? /1?
Table 1.4 (d) Physical Characteristics CMOS: Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor

NMOS: Negative channel Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor
Process Technology NMOS, CMOS
Circuit size (microns) 3.0
Die Size (mm^2) 33
Transistors (millions) 0.029
Table 1.4 (e) Voltage Power and Cooling
External or I/O Voltage (V) 5

Internal or Core Voltage (V) 5
Power Management None
Cooling Requirements None

Table 1.4 (f) Packaging
Packaging style 40-Pin DIP DIP: Dual In-line Package

Motherboard Interface DIP socket.
Table 1.4 (g) External Architecture
Data BUS width (bits) 16

Maximum Data BUS Bandwidth 9.1/15.3/19.1
(Mbytes/sec)
Address BUS Width (bits) 20
Maximum Addressable Memory 1 MB
Level 2 Cache Type None
Multiprocessing No
Table 1.4 (h) Internal Architecture
Instruction set 8088

MMX support No
Processor Modes Real
X86 execution method
Table 1.4 (i) Internal Components
Register size (bits) 16

Pipeline depth(stages) 1
Level 1 cache size None
Integer units 1
Floating point unit/ math processor Optional 8087 co-processor
Instruction decoders 1
Branch prediction buffer size/accuracy None
Write buffers None
Performance enhancing features None
1.4.2 Intel 80386

This chip gives the processor capability of GUI-based operating system
such as Microsoft windows. It used pipelining process and high clock
frequencies to increase performance. The processor used standard x86
instruction set from the time it was introduced.

The tables below give details of the processor.
Table 1.5
Table 1.5 (a) General Information
Manufacturer Intel/ Intel, AMD, Cyrix/ AMD, Cyrix

Family Name 80386DX
Processor Generation Third
Motherboard Generation Third
Versions 80386DX-16/80386DX-20/ 80386DX-25/ 80386DX-
33/ 80386DX-40
Introduced in Oct. 1985/Feb. 1987/April 1988/April 1989/1?
Table 1.5 (b) Speed Specifications
Memory BUS speed (MHz) 16/20/25/33/40

Processor clock multiplier 1.0
Processor speed (MHz) Same as memory BUS speed
Table 1.5 (c) Benchmarks
Norton SI ~15/~20/~25/35/~43
Table 1.5 (d) Physical Characteristics
Process Technology CMOS CMOS: Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor

Circuit size (microns) originally 1.5, now 1.0
Die Size (mm^2) 1? 104
Transistors (millions) 0.275
Table 1.5 (e) Voltage Power and Cooling
External or I/O Voltage (V) 5

Internal or Core Voltage (V) 5
Power Management None
Cooling Requirements None

Table 1.5 (f) Packaging
Packaging style 132-Pin PGA Pin Grid Array

Motherboard Interface 132-Pin Socket
Table 1.5 (g) External Architecture
Data BUS width (bits) 32

Maximum Data BUS Bandwidth (Mbytes/sec) 63.6/76.3/95.4/127.2/152.6
Address BUS Width (bits) 32
Maximum Addressable Memory 4 GB
Level 2 Cache Type None
Multiprocessing No
Table 1.5 (h) Internal Architecture
Instruction set x86

MMX support No
Processor Modes Real, Protected, virtual real
X86 execution method Native
Table 1.5 (i) Internal Components
Register size (bits) 32

Pipeline depth(stages) 4
Level 1 cache size None
Integer units 1
Floating point unit/ math processor Optional 80387 co-processor
Instruction decoders 1
Branch prediction buffer size/accuracy None
Write buffers None
Performance enhancing features None
1.4.3 Intel Pentium P5

With the generation of 586 processors, Intel intended to establish its
trademark in the market due to the development of AMD and Cyrix
machines. The Pentium is available in a number of speeds. Pentiums come
in two versions such as regular and overdrive. Pentiums use three different

sockets. The original Pentium 60 and 66 use Socket 4 while Pentiums from
75 to 133 fit in either socket 5 or socket 7. Pentium 150s, 166s and 200s
require Socket 7. Intel makes Pentium Overdrives that allow the use of
faster Pentiums in older Pentium sockets (in addition to Overdrives that go
in 486 motherboards). Pentium has the following features
 It is the first superscalar processor. It uses two parallel execution units
and helps in pairing with 80486 series on the single chip so that it can
make the processor more accurate. This is partial super scalar since the
second instruction cannot complete its execution before the first one. It
is sometimes referred as the Pentium optimization.
 Most of the Pentiums run on faster memory BUS. This greatly improves
performance. Pentium motherboards also incorporate other
performance- enhancing features, such as pipelined burst cache.
 Pentium provides Wider Data BUS by doubling the data BUS to 64 bits
and doubling the bandwidth that manages the to and fro movement of
data from the memory.
 The Pentium uses a split-level 1 cache, 8KB each for data and
instructions. The cache is split so that the data and instruction caches
can be individually tuned for their specific use.
 When branches are encountered the Pentium uses branch prediction to
prevent pipeline stalls.
SMM: System Management Mode
 All Pentiums have built in SMM power management.
 The floating-point unit of the Pentium is improved so that it is faster than
that of the 80486.
Overdrive processors have settings and features that make it useful in older
machines. They are:
 Integrated voltage regulators are added whenever there is need so that
they can work in the voltage of the socket they are intended to work
with.
 They have the right pin configuration for the socket.
 They are hard-wired to a specific clock multiplier; they do not set their
multiplier based on motherboard jumpers as regular Pentiums do. This
saves the user from worrying about what jumpers to change when
replacing the processor.

1.4.4 Intel Pentium with MMX Technology

MMX sometimes stands for Multimedia Extensions or Matrix Math
Extensions. The main purpose of this extension is to provide hardware
support for the Multimedia applications. The following are the important
features of MMX extensions:
 It has got twice the primary cache comparative to earlier processor. It
has got 16 KB each for level 1 data and instruction caches.
 Cache mapping is improved here with the 4-way set associative.
 The pipeline features increases the executions levels to 6 stages.
 It helps in optimal use of pipelines by running the instructions in a two
executing pipes.
 Due to the branch prediction device the accuracy is improved.
 Efficient in the instruction decoder.
This too has overdrive technology that has the above specified changes.
1.4.5 Intel Pentium Pro (P6 machine)
This is the successor of Pentium processor. The performance achievement
is approximately 50% higher than a Pentium of the same clock speed. The
following are the technical enhancements along with the other features
mentioned in the earlier generation processors:
 Super Pipelining: The Pentium Pro dramatically increases the number
of execution steps to 14, from the Pentium's 5.
 This introduces Integrated Level 2 Cache compared to all earlier
processors; achieves more performance instead of motherboard based
cache.
 The Pentium Pro is optimized for running 32-bit code and so gives a
greater performance improvement over the Pentium when using the
latest software.
 The address BUS on the Pentium Pro is widened to 36 bits, giving it a
maximum addressability of 64 GB of memory.
 Quad processor configurations are supported with the Pentium Pro
compared to only dual with the Pentium.
 Instructions flowing down the execution pipelines can complete out of
order.

 Superior Branch Prediction Unit helps in the branch target buffer to

double the size of the Pentium's and its accuracy is increased.
 Register Renaming: This feature improves parallel performance of the
pipelines.
 Speculative Execution: The Pro uses speculative execution to reduce
pipeline stall time in its RISC core.
1.4.6 Intel Pentium II

PC community has confirmed to adopt Pro processors and MMX
technology. Later Intel tried combining both the features and the result is
found in 1997 which they named it Pentium II. Therefore Pentium II consists
of 32 bit operating system and software. It also has new instructions which
are necessary to handle media with the help of MMX technology. Pentium II
is capable of performing 2 times better than 200 MHz Pentium processor.
This has the evolutionary effect in performance over Pro with the following
features abiding in it.
 Doubled Level 1 Cache: level 1 cache is increased in size, from 16 KB
to 32 KB total (16 KB + 16 KB).
 Segment Register Caches: These special caches are used to help the
Pentium II process 16-bit code somewhat more efficiently. The Pentium
Pro was optimized for 32-bit processing, meaning that it did not deal with
16-bit code quite as well.
 Deeper Write Buffers: The write buffers were increased in size,
producing a small performance improvement.
1.4.7 Intel Core 2
This has the ability to handle the 64 bit data transfer in a multicore
processor. The following are the features of Core 2 processors.
 The processors speed ranges from 1 GHz to 3 GHz.
 They have Level 2 cache of 2 MB or 4MB.
Intel Core 2 has three versions of itself. They are Core 2 solo, Core 2 Duo,
Core 2 Quad.Core 2 Solo could handle the single core processor. Core 2
Duo can handle dual core processors on a single chip, and Core 2 quad can
handle two chips and each chip consists of 2 Core. Therefore in a package
of 4 Core was arranged in a multi-chip module.

1.4.8 Intel Atom

As we grow in technology the size kept on decreasing with increase in
power and performance. Therefore in order to serve the netbooks purposes
Intel created Atom. Netbook is a smaller than laptop computers and
generally used for accessing internet and outside use. Since they are very
small the processors used need to be inevitably small so that it can fit inside
the available place. The following are the features of Intel Atom. They are:
 The speed ranges from 1 GHz to 2GHz.
 Level 1 cache is increased in size to 32KB and Level 2 cache is 512KB.
Atom has been classified into two versions as Single core and Dual core.
1.4.9 AMD CPUs

Advanced Micro devices are the non-Intel chips which have become the real
competitors for Intel CPUs. The industry considers them to be compatible
and perfectly designed. There is a strong competition among the
processors as each one is gives a better performance than the other. If
AMD is better than Intel CPUs with their improved processor performance
and operating speeds, Intel CPUs are better in their 3D and network
parameters. Therefore, the selection of the processor hugely depends on
the requirement of the application, which is being used. The AMD series
incorporated write-back cache and enhanced power management features
including 3-volt operations, system management mode (SMM) and clock
control. The higher versions of AMD are very much compatible with all x86
operating systems and software. They also have heat sinks and fans, which
are securely mounted and help in reducing the vast amount of heat
generated by the processors.
Activity 1:
Consult the network administrator of your organization and find out the
different processors used in it. Also, find the features and analyze the
differences between them.

7. 8088 use ______________ bit BUS while the 8086 uses ________ bit
BUS for data transfer.

8. The speed specification of clock multiplier of the 8088/86 processor is

__________.
9. The motherboard interface of 8088/86 packaging is __________.
10. The two types of Intel 386 are ___________ & ________.
11. State whether the following statements are true or false.
a. Pentium is the first superscalar processor.
b. The use of speculative executive will not reduce pipeline stall time
in the RISC core in sixth generation processor
1.5 CPU Overclocking

Though the CPU and microprocessor are used synonymously, in reality
CPU is a part of microprocessor. Microprocessor differs from CPU in a few
characteristics like instruction set, bandwidth, and clock speed. Clock
speed is the measure of number of instruction sets that the microprocessor
executes in one second. Speed margining is another name for overclocking.
By overclocking you can make the CPU run faster than the actual speed.
This increases the performance of the CPU. Therefore, overclocking is often
a means to maximize the processor performance. The main reason for
overclocking is to sum up the additional performance in less or no cost. For
example, by increasing the BUS speed on the motherboard you can
increase the speed of the computer with an Intel Pentium III processor
running at 933MHz to run at speeds equivalent to a Pentium III 1050MHz
processor.
In spite of having the advantage of increasing performance, overclocking, is
not followed regularly.
1.5.1 Overclocking Requirements
The important elements that effect overclocking are: the CPU, the
motherboard, system memory, and CPU cooling. These are some of the
issues with respect to overclocking success/failure.
1 CPU: Intel CPUs are found to be successful in overclocking. Because
AMD and Cyrix CPUs run at the closer rated limits they are very
reachable to compete with Intel processors. In addition, we must be very
careful with remarked and resold CPUs, which already run at high
speed. They are all fake CPUs. In some of the CPUs, there are locked
clock multipliers.

2 Motherboard: The overclocking may also fail due to the fault in

motherboard. Due to the weak signals and lack of electrical signals with
its BUS signals cause the system crash. The weak signals will not
support the overclocked CPUs. Motherboard should also support a wide
range of voltage variations in the CPU. If there is any problem in finding
the voltage jumper CPU will not overclock..
3 System Memory: RAMs can work well with overclocking systems till the
BUS speed exceeds 66MHz. You may require higher end RAMs like
EDO RAM: Extended Data Output
SD RAM: Synchrnous Dynamic EDO RAM and SD RAM to handle the BUS speed above 66 MHz as the
higher end of the Ram increases the performance of the overclocking
supports faster.
4 CPU Cooling: Standard heat sinks and fans cannot cool the large
amount of heat released by overclocking. . Extra cooling facility is
needed to cool that amount of heat. While fitting a good sink we must
take care that it fits into the CPU tightly so that there is no air gap and
we must also ensure that thermal grease is applied between the CPU
and heat sink.
1.5.2 Potential Pitfalls
The major pitfalls of CPU overclocking are intermittent operations,
shortened life span, and outright failure.
Intermittent Operations: The heat produced by the CPU will cause noise in
the signal errors, which causes system crash. This will force us to shut down
the system until the CPU cools down.
Shortened life span: The excess heat produced by the CPU may
sometimes also cause the shorter life span of the CPU than shutting down
suddenly. Due to this, the CPU which was supposed to work for 10 years
will work only for 2-5 years
Outright failure: The CPU which is designed to work from -25 to 80
degrees centigrade, if it is not cooled properly then the die time of the CPU
maximizes its exceed temperature limit and causes failure. Though there
are millions of transistors working, it only takes two or more failed transistors
to destroy the CPU performance.

1.5.3 Overclocking the System:

You can overclock the CPU in three ways. They are overclocking the
processor, overclocking the system BUS and overclocking both.
The three major steps in overclocking are change in BUS speed, change of
the multiplier, and change in the voltage supply.
1. Change the BUS speed: The BUS speed is the speed in which the
CPU communicates with the other parts of the computer. It is measured
in terms of clocks. To change the BUS speed you need to do the
following:
1 Check in your motherboard manual for term like “clock speed”,
“CPU External Frequency Selection”, or Front Side BUS which are
called the jumpers which you may need to change.
2 You may have to change many other jumpers so that you can
create a new BUS speed.
3 You can change the BUS speed if you have “soft menu” technology
motherboard.
4 Change the BUS speed settings in the CMOS setup menu.
5 Increase the BUS speed step by step. You can increase only one-
step at a time.
6 Now your system is successfully over clocked.
2. Change the Multiplier: A multiplier is used to measure the ratio of
internal clock rate and external supplied clock.
For example, a computer which has an external clock 156 MHz and clock
multiplier of 10x will have an internal CPU clock rate of 1.56 GHz.
To change the multiplier you need to do the following:
1 Check a set of jumpers marked with the name “Clock Multiplier” in your
motherboard manual.
2 There may be many jumpers, which may be needed to change the
settings. You can use CMOS setup menu to change these settings if you
have soft menu motherboard.
3. Change the voltage supply: In some situations you may need to
increase the voltage supply to the CPU to increase the CPU performance
reliably in high speed. It is always good to increase the voltage supply

when CPU is not able to run reliably in one clock speed. However, the heat
produced should be taken care of by using cooling agents.
1.5.4 Overclocking the Intel Processors

Intel processors are usually considered as the easiest CPUs to overclock.
Processors are usually boosted to increase the performance of the quality
demands. Intel processors are feasible for increasing the performance of the
CPUs. You need to overclock the Intel Pentium processors by changing
BUS speed, or multiplier, or voltage supply.
Overclocking the Intel Celeron: This is one of the overclocking friendly
Intel Pentium processor. The major features of Intel Celeron are that it is
the Pentium Core, the price is lower and produces high quality which helps
in increasing performance through overclocking. However, it has a limitation
in the use of overclocking with respect to locked multiplier and a locked BUS
speed of 66 MHz
Locked Multiplier lessens the processor speed setting capability for the
overclocking. Overclocking depends on the motherboard characteristics in
order to achieve more speed. Motherboard also support by providing
additional front side BUS and capability to set voltage supply. Modern
motherboards use software to set the clock multipliers, BUS speed and
voltage supply unlike the older versions of motherboards which used
jumpers. This helps us to change the settings without opening the case and
without disconnecting the settings. The success of overclocking of Celeron
also depends on the availability of voltage supply. With high voltage, it can
reach faster signal speed. The motherboard remains stable at any point of
time. Therefore, additional setting is given to change the Front Side BUS
(FSB). FSB MHz speed can refer to either the CPU, or the memory. They
are NOT always the same. A system can have a CPU FSB speed of 133,
and the memory at 100. Therefore FSB needs to be increased to set the
overclocking setting. In case after increasing the FSB if your system doesn’t
boot then you must increase the voltage. In doing this the heat may
tremendously increase which requires cooling.
Pentium: The most common factor while overclocking the Pentium
processors is to increase the clock multipliers. When you try doing this
mostly it may not boot or system may perform in the 1/3rd of the actual

speed. Therefore, first it will try to increase the FSB. This increases the
speed of PCI and AGP. These cards are built with greater tolerances.
To overclock you need to do the following
1 You need to have rights to adjust the clock multiplier, FSB, and core
voltage, which depend upon the model of the processor.
2 You need to check the cooling capability of the processor if necessary
you need to improve the cooling feature.
You will notice that Pentium II/III machines are not tolerant for overclocking
when compared to Celeron, though you can carry out experiments by
making small increments. You need to note that in order to increase the
FSB speed you require to reduce the clock multiplier on your systems.
In general overclocking immediately voids any processor warranty.
Adequate preparation and precautions are an absolute requirement before
attempting to overclock any processor. You should have a dependable
method of monitoring processor temperature, along with additional cooling
resources installed on the system.
Activity 2:
Try to collect an old CPU and increase its performance through
overclocking.

12. Which are the three major steps in overclocking?
13. Overclocking the Intel Celeron depends on _____.
14. FSB Stands for _____.
1.6 Summary
In this unit, you have studied about the different essentials of CPU. We
discussed about the BUSes and processor modes. You have also identified
the different concepts of modern CPU like CISC vs. RISC comparison of
circuit size and die size; importance of cooling the processor, system clocks;
packing the processor; and features of architectural performance. This unit
has also explained the evolution of Intel CPU and different Intel processors
like Intel 8088/8086, Pentium Pro processor, MMX technology, Pentium II,
core 2 processor and AMD processors. Apart from this we have discussed

the description of system memory; the meaning of CPU overclocking,

overclocking requirements and its potential pitfalls; how to overclock the
Intel processors. With this knowledge you must be able to overclock your
CPU.
1.7 Glossary
Term Description
CISC Stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. CISC is used to
handle many instructions in the CPU.
RISC Stands for reduced instruction set computer. Which handle fewer
instructions in the CPU?
Intel It is the world’s largest processor manufacturing corporation,
which has made trademark in processor market.
MMX Stands for multimedia extension, which is used to support
multimedia application in the CPU.
Circuit size It is the miniaturization of the processor. In order to make
processor more powerful large number of transistors are used.
Die size It is the physical surface area size on the wafer. This is measured
in square millimeters.
Overclocking It is the unusual method of running CPU @ the speed more than
the actual rated to increase the performance.

1. What are the different essentials of the CPU?
2. Compare CISC with RISC CPUs.
3. List out the different features of Architectural Performance.
4. Differentiate between the various Intel Micro Processors.
5. List out the important features of MMX Technology.
6. Explain in brief the different issues in overclocking - success and failure.
7. Describe the three major steps in overclocking.
8. How will you overclock Intel Processors?

1.9 Answers
1. Control
2. Protected
3. Timing and control
4. True
5. Multiprocessing
6. Multimedia
7. 8,16
8. 1.0
9. DIP socket
10. DX, SX
11. a. True
b. False
12. Change in BUS speed, Change the multiplier, Change the voltage
supply.
13. Motherboard Characteristics
14. Front Side BUS
Terminal Questions
1. Refer Section 1.2: CPU essentials
2. Refer Section 1.3.1: CISC Vs RISC CPUs
3. Refer Section 1.3.6: Architectural Performance features
4. Refer Section 1.4: Intel CPUs
5. Refer Section 1.4.4: Fifth Generations Processors
6. Refer Section 1.5.1: Overclocking requirements
7. Refer Section 1.5.3:Overclocking the system
8. Refer Section 1.5.4: Overclocking the Intel Processors
References:
 PC Upgrade & Repair Black Book (W/Cd) by Ron Glister
E-References:
o www.pcguide.com
o http://www.hitequest.com/Kiss/risc_cisc.htm
o http://www.cs.virginia.edu

o www.amd.com
o www.ami.com
o www.overclockers.com/home.asp
o www.viatech.com
o www.intel.com
o www.CPU-central.com

Unit 2 The Memory

Structure:
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Essential memory concepts
Memory organization
Memory package
Modules
2.3 Memory considerations
Memory speed
Memory types
Memory techniques
2.4 Selection and installation of memory
Getting the right amount
Filling banks
2.5 Troubleshooting
Memory test equipment
Repairing SIMM/DIMM/RIMM sockets
Contact corrosion
2.6 Summary
2.7 Glossary
2.9 Answers
2.1 Introduction
In the previous unit we discussed about the central processing unit and its
essentials. As you are aware a computer cabinet is made up of three major
components namely, arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), the Central processing
Unit (CPU) and the memory; all these components playing a vital role in the
performance of the computer system. Therefore, it is important for these
components to work without error. The close relationship between memory
and the CPU provides the basis for the processor’s performance. In order to
increase the processing power, larger and larger software modules were
introduced. This led to sharp demands in the improvement of memory
performance. Thus, these demands gave rise to various types of memory
like video memory (VRAM), pipeline burst cache, traditional DRAM,

synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), etc. These new types of memory have

drawn the attention of PC technicians because of their advantages.
However, at the same time there are some new problems which have
become apparent.
In this unit you will get to know the basic and essential concepts of memory
which includes the organization of memory and the memory package
modules. You will also study the different considerations of memory like
speed and memory state, its types and techniques to store the data.
Besides these, you will learn selecting and installing the memory by getting
the right amount and filling banks. This unit also provides information on
how to prevent the memory from facing various problems and also provides
different troubleshooting solutions.
Objectives:
After studying this unit you will be able to:
 Describe the organization of the memory
 List and explain various considerations of memory.
 Perform the selection and installation of the memory
 Resolve the problems through troubleshooting
2.2 Essential memory Concepts

Before tackling the problems in the memory you must first know how it
works and how it is organized inside the PC. Memory is used to store and
retrieve information and experiences. It involves various processes. The
major processes of the memory are encoding, storage and retrieval.
Encoding is a process which converts information into usable form. The
encoded form is stored in the storage space, i.e. the place where the free
space is available in the memory. Whenever the information is stored in the
free available space, retrieval process is done to make this information
available to our notice whenever there is need. The memory must be
available to access and retrieve the information whenever required. But
since we cannot understand specifically how the memory is arranged. The
organization structure given below will provide you a brief or generalpicture
about the basics of memory which helps us to know the memory to carry out
certain operations.

2.2.1 Memory organizations

Memory is in the form of arrays of individual storage elements which are
arranged into rows and columns. A typical figure 2.1 shown below gives you
an idea of the different concepts of memory.
Figure 2.1: Diagrammatic representation of a Memory array
Memory is made up of a collection of rows and columns where each row

represents an address on a single memory chip. The column represents
data bits. There are 8 columns starting from D0, D1… D7 and each column
represents a single bit data. The intersection of an individual row and
column forms the cell which has a major impact on memory performance
because the effectiveness depends on the number of components that
make a cell and the way it is arranged. For example some RAM can have a
single transistor, while some can have a combination of several transistors
and other components on the chip. You should always keep in mind that
although you don’t have to bean expert in memory designing, you should
have ample knowledge about the internal fabrication of the memory
because it is directly related to its performance.
 Logical Memory organizations
The logical memory organization is the management of the modules of
different programs that can be used and retrieved whenever required. Some
of the programs are read only data and some are editable instructions. This

can be different from physical address space. The data can be organized in
different ways with different classification of computer memory. In the
course of upgradation of the CPU and chipsets, there has also been an
improvement in the capabilities of the memory. Recent chips are capable of
addressing 4GB of system memory. This improvement has proved
microprocessors to be better unlike earlier PCs with 8088 processors which
could address not more than 1GB of memory. This has made
microprocessors stronger than any typical software applications.
Whenever there is upgradation of new memory there must be a proficient
compatibility with the old memory. This has to co-relate with the limitations
and the needs of the computer users. The old system may have a lot of
limitations and drawbacks. The new system comes with a facility to
overcome the inherent limitations of the old memory by different ways of its
use and hardware and software selection.
The use of computer memory is classified under the following types:
 Conventional
 Extended
 Expanded memory
 Conventional memory: Conventional memory is that part of the
memory which is used to perform standard DOS programs. The first
640KB memory is considered to be conventional memory. The name
indicates that it has been used in DOS to run DOS programs. Although
there is 1MB of address space in the DOS memory which is called real-
mode memory or base memory, only 640 KB is available for
conventional memory because the initial 384 KB is reserved for system
use which is called upper memory. Previously the original PC provided
only 512KB for DOS program, but in recent evolution another 128KB
has been added.
 Upper memory area: This is one of the key factors to enable free
place for conventional memory. This is one of busiest places in the
memory and often creates confusion in its organization. This
memory is also called High DOS Memory Range. DOS command
(MEM /C /P) is used to see the amount of memory used in
conventional memory and what is free. The conventional memory is
separated from the other usable memory of the PC and is called

extended memory. Though we have 640KB memory as conventional

we can use a maximum of only 620KB of the memory by utilizing the
combination of high memory area and upper memory area. The
advantage of high DOS memory is that more of the 640KB DOS
range remains available for your application program.
 Extended Memory: The memory above first megabyte is called
extended memory. This memory is an add-on as an extension to the
available 1MB memory. Extended memory is not available to the PC
in normal DOS programs. To have access to this memory you
should use the protected mode. Extended memory can be used in
two ways. One in full protected mode where windows accesses the
extended memory directly and second, sometimes it must be used
by the real mode to operate the PC by the use of some extended
memory manager. Generally, extended memory is also known as
XMS (extended memory specification) and in particular it is a
standard which is used for utilization of the extended memory in
DOS program.
 Expanded memory: This is an older style of using memory beyond
conventional memory. This memory uses a standard called EMS
(expanded memory specification). This was earlier created to
overcome the limitation of 1MB of memory use. You should keep in
mind that an extended memory is not the same as expanded
memory. So expanded memory card cannot be used to use
extended memory and vice-versa.
2.2.2 Memory package
Memory package consist of two circuit boards. In one board multiple socket
elements are arranged and in the other board, it consists of controller chip.
Both the circuits are coupled to each other. This coupled circuit is placed on
single base with two sides. An handle is connected to the base which has a
lever system and latch which slides with lever system. Memory package is
used to easily connect the controller to store the data and readily available
for retrieval, so that the controller can transmit data to the required location
during the time of data loss. Due to the tray and single base memory
package is safe even when it is not used. Like processors, memory is also
arranged in the semiconductor chip. Therefore you should always take care

that the organization is very delicate and compact so that it can be

integrated with the rest of the system. There are different types of memory
packages and you have to decide which type will best suit your system
design. Here the figure 2.2 will show you the typical diagram of a basic
memory chip. The figure explains as to how the different signals flow and
perform their respective activities.
Figure 2.2: Diagram of a Basic memory chip
The communication between the outside world and memory is through

signals. Basically there are three sets of signals like address lines, data
lines and control lines. Address lines are used to define the row which
needs to be active. It converts the binary number into row signals. Data lines
are responsible for moving data bits back and forth to the storage cells at
the address defined. Control lines are needed to operate the memory chip.
For example, a read/-write (R/-W) signal helps the memory to know whether
the data is being read or is to be written on it. A –chipset (-CS) signal will
make memory active or inactive. Row address-select (RAS) column
address-select (CAS) refreshes the memory.
Memory die is mounted in a package as any other chip. The complete
package is welded on the motherboard. There are different types of
package styles as follows:
1. Dual Inline Package: It is packaged into a plastic or ceramic package
known as Dual Inline Package (DIP). This is mostly used in older PCs
and older video boards and is still used to hold memory cache or BIOS
chips. This is compatible with sockets and allows the pin to be inserted
and removed as and when required. But there is a chance of breakage

of pin in the socket if it is incorrectly put. This package requires more
space in the PC.
2. Single Inline Package: This package does not have enough pins.
Although it is not in use today, sometimes it is used when there is a
need for expansion in the proprietary memory by the use of memory
modules. The disadvantage of this package is that it is very difficult to
find its replacement; and if found it is very costly.
3. Small-Outline “J” lead: This package is the enhancement of DIP for
surface-amount circuits, with a bend around the package in the form of
“j”. Sockets which are SOJ packages can be replaced by BIOS ROM
and SOJ devices are welded into the motherboard.
4. Thin, Small-Outline Package: This package is similar to SOJ which is
mounted on surface-amount circuits. This is a small, thin body which
makes TSOP memory made of slim spaces. Such packages are used in
serving the net books or notebooks.
5. Chip Scale Package: this package does not have pins and is mounted
on the surface circuits with the help of pads fitted to the bottom of the
chip.
2.2.3 Modules: Memory module in a general term is a circuit board
consisting of memory chips. Specifically it is dynamic random access
memory inside the circuit board is known as memory module. You are well
aware that the memory chips are welded into the motherboard, which gives
the PC a fixed amount of RAM and also does not give any option to extend
the memory. Therefore, in order to increase the performance of the memory
expansion memory modules are added to extend the memory space.
Generally, there are three types of memory modules. They are:
1. SIMMs: SIMM is a memory module which supports the proprietary
memory expansions. These single Inline memory modules can support
between 1MB to 16MB of RAM according to the module’s life. At present
the SIMM can hold up to 32MB of RAM and 72 pins. SIMM is usually
measured in terms of bytes.

Figure 2.3: SIMM
The SIMM is so placed inside the motherboard that the sockets ensure
that it holds tightly when once inserted in the motherboard. This is done
by inserting the socket at an angle of about 60 degree from the
motherboard and then moving upwards so that it represents L shape or
is perpendicular to the motherboard. This can be fitted with the help of
metal clips. It should be kept in mind that SIMM once inserted cannot
be installed backwards.
The advantage of SIMM is standardization. That is, with the help of
standard pin architecture it can be transported from one PC to another
PC very easily.
2. DIMMs: Dual Inline Memory module is very much similar to SIMM

except that it is larger in size. It can accommodate up to 64-bit data bus
width. Unlike SIMM, a DIMM works by keeping all the electrical signals
separate. DIMM uses circuit board to connect a series of RAM chips
mounted on it. They together form a memory module. DIMM
communicates with the data bus through teeth like connectors that are
fixed into the socket. In DIMM the socket is inserted vertically and locked
in avertical position using special plastic clips. DIMM is fixed with a
series of notches depending on the type and operating voltage and
therefore once installed it cannot be reinstalled. Three factors are
considered in the standardization of the installation of DIMMs. They are
voltage, buffering and module technology. Voltage level always tends to
decrease to moderate the temperature and to improve the performance.
Buffers stand external to memory module and they improve its

performance by reinitiating the signals that are produced in the memory

chip. Composite and non-composite module helps in identifying the
difference between different modules of the same capacity and the
number of chips that are used.
In actual practice, the term buffer is used with all types of RAM, though
this is technically incorrect. For example, you will see “un-buffered
SDRAM,” even though it should technically be “unregistered SDRAM”.1
3. RIMMs: RIMM is similar to DIMM but uses different pin settings which
are much bigger than that. RIMM is the acronym for Rambus Inline
Memory Module because it uses Rambus technology. It is responsible
for reducing the high heat energy generated by RDRAM chips with the
help of long heat sink. Rambus DRAM
4. Thus with the help of memory modules it is possible to increase the size
and performance of the memory.

1. What do row and column represent?
2. The communication between the outside world and memory is through
__________.
3. Which of the three set of signals are needed to operate the memory
chip?
4. What are the different types of memory modules?
5. State whether the following statements are true or false:
a. RIMM is responsible for reducing the high heat energy generated
by RDRAM chips with the help of long heat sink.
b. SIMM works by keeping all the electric signals separate.
6. ______________ is one of the key factors to enable free space for
conventional memory.
7. The memory above first megabyte is called ______________.
1BOOK: Troubleshooting, maintaining & repairing PCs, fifth edition by StephenJ.Bigelow, Tata McGraw
Hill Education private limited.

2.3 Memory considerations

In the previous section, we discussed the essential concepts of memory
such as its organization and packages. This section introduces you to the
memory types with the current memory architecture and the important
issues related to them.
The importance of memory has grown to such an extent that it is no more
just a storage place for data bits. It has become specialized to such a level
that it has become very difficult to track the memory options and understand
the architecture. Therefore many considerations have to be taken into
account like memory speed, its layout and so on.
2.3.1 Memory speed: There is always a conflict with respect to price and
performance. When you need high performance memory you have to pay
high price. But generally people are attracted by low cost memory. As you
know, CPU performance also depends on the memory, and when you use
low cost memory devices then CPU has to wait for the memory to catch up
with the speed. Memory speed is defined as the time taken to access one
bit of data form the storage space. The speed of the memory is always
measured in access time which is measured in nanoseconds (ns).Access
time is the time delay that takes place from the beginning of the access till
you get the valid data ready for your use. Cycle time is the minimum amount
of time needed between the accesses. Though these times are measured in
nanoseconds today’s memory with high performance is rated in terms of
system time rather than cycle time or access time since system speed in
measured in terms of megabyte. The system can always extend its memory
with faster memory to increase its performance. But the main problem with
this task is that care should be taken that the system continues to operate
normally. Therefore, some mechanism should be altered between the
memory and its architecture for a particular performance. But the cost
incurred in tailoring the architecture and memory is too high when compared
to the rate of performance. Therefore, it is better that the system be altered
only when the system gets obsolete.
Wait State: Wait state is defined as the state of a program which is waiting
for the processor so that an event should complete its processing. It is a
state when processor is not available for an operation in the computer
because it is waiting for another operation to complete its execution. When

memory process needs to tell the memory to wait then it needs to insert a
clock cycle. This gives additional time to memory to operate. Generally one
wait state is used in today’s PC. The older PCs may use two-three wait
states. Therefore we observe that as wait state increases the performance
of the system decreases. The systems with zero wait state are considered
to allow optimum performance which is ideal in nature. The use of wait
states help in supporting the old systems to process. There are three ways
of selecting wait states:
 The number of wait states may be fixed
 The wait states may be selected by keeping one or two jumpers in the
motherboard.
 Keeping the wait state control in the SMOS setup routines.
2.3.2 Memory types: Memory types are broadly divided into ROM and
RAM.
ROM: As the name indicates Read Only Memory is a integrated circuit chip
that allow the user only to read and not to edit or modify the data inside it. It
is also called as firmware. This gives us the nonvolatile memory in which
data security is guaranteed, i.e. once the power cut off any failure occurs
data is not lost. Due to the embedding of programmes data is not erased or
neither be changed. But the disadvantage with ROM chip is once the data is
stored by the manufacture it cannot be erased. While creating the
programes to embed if any mistake occurs then correcting that mistake is a
heavy risk and costly. There were different types of ROM available in a
course of time to overcome this difficulty which allowed to an extent to
rewrite the content in the memory or reuse the memory.
They are
PROM: In Programmable Read-Only Memory, you can write the data only
once into it. We cannot erase or modify the data once entered into PROM.
EPROM: In erasable read-only memory, you can erase the data and
overwrite the data into it. But you cannot keep or delete the part of old
content and add new. Entire data is deleted and new content is added into
the EPROM.
EEPROM: In electrically erasable programmable read-only memory, you
can edit/modify or delete a part of data and use it for storing the data. These
PROMs are also called as flash memory.

Please note in all the types of ROMs the data is electrically burnt into the
circuit. This will be very difficult to use when we need to do large amount of
addition deletion operation to a single stored data with increase in the
development of processor and its upgradation.Due to the advance in the
speed of the processors, the CPU is becoming more and more specialized
with specific functions of the PC.
RAM Due to this advancement withina short timethe CPU will encounter many of
the types like EDO, BEDO, DDR SDRAM, DRAM, EDORAM (extended data
output), EDRAM (enhanced DRAM), SRAM (static Radom Access Memory),
Cache memory, etc which is explained in detail below.
 EDO RAM: Extended Data Out RAM extends the validity time of the
output. So the meaning of extended implies the data bus can keep the data
bit in it for a longer period. This needs modification in the output buffer which
can create time for the validity of the data bit. That means the data should
be alive until it is read by the recipient. Although EDO accesses the memory
faster than earlier conventional memory actually there is only a slight
difference. Some of the older systems will work very slowly with EDO and
others might not at all support EDO. The problem with EDO is that it
requires the system chipset support for its slower performance.
 BEDO RAM: Burst Extended Data Output RAM is the extended versions
of EDO RAM which was developed to read large blocks of data bits than
EDO RAM. This reads the data in one burst. That means that the CPU can
read the BEDO data in five consecutive memory locations in five clock
cycles i.e. 5:1:1:1 pattern which means five cycles for memory address and
1 cycle each for the addresses. However these days BEDO is not used
much due to the difficulty in supporting motherboards above 66MHz.
 DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory is mostly used by the PCs for
their system’s Main memory. It is called dynamic because it is continuously
refreshed using the refresh circuitry and holds the data. It uses single
capacitor and transistor to hold the data bit. DRAM is simpler and cheaper
because it is made up of only one capacitor and transistor. However, the
problem with DRAM is that the capacitor holds the data for a very short time
and needs to refresh with the help of refresh circuitry before the content
fades away. Otherwise there is a loss of content.

 SRAM: Static Random Access Memory is used to hold data that can stay
for a longer time without the need of refresh circuit. It holds data bit as long
as current supply exists in the circuit. This type of memory is used whenever
there is need of fast memory especially in case of cache memory. SRAMs
are known for their simplicity and speed. But at the same time SRAMs are
comparatively very expensive and small. Therefore they are used wherever
there is need for faster memory. They are also used in level 1 and level 2
cache memory. Cache memory is extensively faster and not very large.
 SDRAM: Synchronous DRAM is the rapidly growing memory type as a
new standard. This is very much different from other types since it is
connected to the system clock and able to read and write in burst mode at
the rate of 1 clock cycle per data bit. The pattern followed is 5:1:1:1 which
you have discussed in the BEDO type but it can support up to 100 MHz. It
is specially designed for higher operating speeds. This type is relatively
unique in its technology and rated in Nano seconds. This is because
SDRAM offers the second burst before the current burst completes. This
continuous access will speed up the system processor and increase the
performance.
 DDR SDRAM: Double Data Rate SDRAM is an improvement over
SDRAM. Its functions are similar to SDRAM but it supports more bandwidth
by transferring twice data bit per cycle i.e. it transit from 0 to 1 and again
back to 0. Therefore the data bit read is twice per cycle. Thus there exist two
end points called rising edge and falling edge. In the other types of memory
any one of these edges are triggered. Only in DDRSDRAM both the edge
signals are used.
 EDRAM: Enhanced Dynamic Random Access Memory is a DRAM in
which small amount of SRAM is embedded inside the large amount of
DRAM so that the memory access can be made faster by embedding two
memory into one. This avoids using the external cache memory. This can be
used as Level 1 and Level 2 cache and also known as cached DRAM or
CDRAM. EDRAM acts like a page mode memory i.e. if the read requests
are available in the cache then the data can be accessed in 15
nanoseconds otherwise if it is not available then the data is read by the
DRAM portion and it takes 35-40 nanoseconds to access the data from the

memory. That means if the data has to be accessed very fast then the data
request must have been repeatedly made.
2.3.3 Memory techniques: For all the above reasons when you choose the
architecture of the memory you should select it in such a way that its
performance is not affected by the expense. It is wiser for youto use the
inexpensive and existing memory types in the architectures which is well
defined with the help of memory technologies. The most commonly found
architectures in all the systems are:
 Paged memory: It is technique in which the data is transferred from
secondary memory to main memory. In this the data is retrieved from the
secondary storage in the form of pages. Pages are the blocks of same size.
Paging allows the CPU to use the free address space which are randomly
available in the memory. This memory makes partition of the RAM into
smaller groups or pages of size 512 KB or a bit more. If the access takes
place in the current page it can accomplish the access within zero wait
state. If simultaneously accesses occur outside the current page then one or
two wait state can be allowed until that particular page is found. If you
observe carefully, you will find that this architecture works very similar to
fast-page mode DRAM which you discussed in the earlier section. This type
of architecture is used on high end i286, PS/2 models and i386 systems.
 Interleaved memory: Unlike paged memory, interleaved memory is the
combination of two bank memory. That means when the first memory is
performing some process the second is reading the data of another process.
For example, if you need to install two memory modules then you will find
that while one module is accessing, the other module is being read.
Performance is better in interleaved memory because of the combination.
 Memory cache: These are the very fast memory that is used by the
CPU to run programs that are used very frequently or repeatedly in
software. This involves faster execution of the programs and less time
taking in reading the instruction set. This is as mall memory which is very
fast and acts between the CPU and RAM. RAM generally operates in 5ns-
15ns which is fast enough to process CPU in zero wait states. The content
which is read on the motherboard is copied on to the cache. When the
memory is read it first reads from cache to cache if there is any content
present in it. If the content is not present in the cache memory it is called

cache miss. Then it can search in the DRAM for the content with one or
more wait states. Cache memory can be classified into two levels as internal
cache and external cache.
 Shadow memory: Shadow memory is a technique in which data is
transferred from ROM to RAM creating a copy of the data. ROM devices are
comparatively very slow and the access time takes several nanoseconds.
Therefore in turn it increases number of wait states used in access. This
automatically decreases the potential performance of the system. In shadow
memory the content is loaded form ROM to RAM. So when ever content in
the ROM need to be accessed, it can be accessed from the faster RAM
memory or shadow memory rather than accessing from the real ROM.
Activity 1:
Collect some old processors and try to find out the different types of
modules adopted by them and list out the advantages and disadvantages
in their performance.

8. ____________ is the minimum amount of time needed between the
accesses.
9. What are the different types of Memory?
a. The system that uses more than one wait state for accessing will
have very high performance.
b. The use of wait states will help in supporting the old systems to
perform its processes.
11. What are the different architectures of the memory that are found in the
system?
2.4 Selection and installation of memory

You have discussed about the various considerations of memory and its
types. This section will help you in selecting the memory and enable you to
install successfully. When you decide to use the memory, it is very important
to decide whether to buy new memory; how to use the existing memory and
if required to buy new ones, then how much to buy. Here you can learn how
to choose and use the memory.

2.4.1 Getting the right amount: The question often asked is, what is the
amount of memory required. The answer is that more memory is required to
increase the CPU performance at any given time. Getting memory and
installing would never be a problem if its cost is less. Here the problem with
cost is related to the SDRAMs; memory hard drive as well as memory is too
high compared to all the rest. Also, too much of memory installation results
in dead investment on the resource that remains idle. Also we cannot install
very little memory and take the result of low performance in accessing which
results in swapping the file from here and there to make memory location
free for the current task.
We must have enough memory in hand for the system. But it is difficult to
define how much is enough Due to the transformation in the PC industry the
defining of memory amount varied from one generation to other generation
systems. In today’s system, you need a minimum of 64MB of memory for
processing and it could vary from 64MB -128MB for general purpose home
and office PCs. The industry is now using up to 1GB of RAM in the systems.
2.4.2 Filling Banks: The amount of memory that is enough to fit the bit
width of the data bus is called memory bank. The size of the memory in MB
does not matter until the entire bank is filled. The major requirement of the
bank mainly depends on three components. It is not sufficient to just have it
installed. The three components are memory amount, memory matching,
and bank order. The entire bank must be filled by the sufficient amount of
memory. For example if the Pentium system has bank 0 filled with 8MB
then, you must store another 8MB in bank 1 for the sake of processing. The
modules must have the same size and speed in the bank. This is called
memory matching. Bank is added with memory modules; each memory
module has the same speed and shares the same memory configuration.
Some memory modules are so configured that module based system have
their own requirements. If it does not have correct speed, type, size and
RAM technology, the system fails to recognize the module. Note the
following points regarding DIMMs for the installation:
 If the system has two identical DIMMs, then you can install them in
either bank 0 or bank 1
 If the system has two DIMMs with different sizes, install the larger DIMM
in bank 0 and smaller in bank 1.

 If the system has identical size and one single sided and one is double
sided, then you install single-sided DIMMs in bank 0 and double-sided
DIMMs in bank 1.
There is one more important component called bank order. You can fill the
data bits in bank 0 and when it is filled then you can start filling bank 1, bank
2 and so on. If you don’t fill bank 0 but fill bank 1, then your PC will not
identify the RAM chip which has been additionally installed.
Activity 2:
Suppose you are a network administrator and need to take decision on
memory upgradation. Write a brief note on how you will take a decision on
buying a new system or adding more memory.

12. In buying the memory the cost is related to __________, ________
and _____________.
13. The amount of memory that is enough to fit the bit width of the data bus
is called ___________.
2.5 Troubleshooting
By now you must be familiar with different considerations of memory. You
must have understood how to select and install the memory. In spite of the
best devises used they are prone to failures sometimes. The reasons may
be accidental static discharge during installation, incorrect installation, a
poor system configuration, operating system problems, and even outright
failures due to old age or poor manufacturer leading to memory problems.
This section shows you how to deal with such problems.
Troubleshooting a memory is a form of solving the problems incurred in the
memory and correcting the faults and failures.
2.5.1 Memory test equipment: there are mechanisms to use a testing
device so that it can identify the memory failure. As memory modules is
used to accelerate the performance, modular-based system memory tester
is used to conduct a deep check on the various memory modules and inform
you if there is any failure in the specific chip. An adapter is installed in the

memory module which allows configuring. Intelligent testers automatically

perform their failure checking with large configuration and display their result
on an LCD. In this type of memory testing guesswork is completely
eliminated.
2.5.2 Repairing SIMM/DIMM/RIMM sockets: it is the function of the
socket to fit in tightly in the motherboard. You need to apply force to make
the module fit into the socket firmly. Ideally it has to gently pierce inside the
socket without the application of much force. With more pressure there is a
chance of it breaking. It is risky to remove it once it is fitted and if at all it has
to be done it should be done very carefully. Rather than repairing the
damaged socket it is best to remove it and use a new one. This tooinvolves
then following steps which is cumbersome.
 To remove the old socket, you need to remove the motherboard.
 Detach the socket that is damaged.
 Solder the new socket.
Fortunately there are a few tricks through which you can overcome these
problems. The following can be done in case of problems.
 When the clip is bent you can use a medium-weight rubber band
around the module and socket and the rubber band will serve as holder
for socket and module just like a clip.
 Epoxy can be used if the socket breaks or cracks. But you need to be a
little careful with respect to ventilation. Though it will not serve the
purpose of fixing the damage completely but it will help in allowing the
motherboard to work for considerable long life.
2.5.3 Contact corrosion: Contact corrosion is defined as area of contact
with the similar metals when there is no protective layer between then and
the metals are in the liquid creates an electrolytic cell. Contact corrosion can
occur when the memory module contacts the metal and socket does not
contact. This causes problem in contacts. This can be taken care of
temporarily by cleaning the metals with the cotton swap and good quality
contact cleaner. Meanwhile, the memory and sockets contact must be made
to contact at the same time.

Activity 3:
Find an old system and find out the problems in it and try to trouble shoot
them.

14. _________________is a form of solving the problems incurred in the
memory and correcting the faults and failures.
15. What are the three difficult processes in installing a new socket when it
is unsuccessful?
16. ____________ can be used if the socket breaks or cracks.
17. ___________ can occur when the memory module contacts the metal
and socket does not contact.
2.6 Summary
The Memory is the brain of any system. Memory is in the form of arrays of
individual storage elements which are arranged into rows and columns. The
organization structure is the important aspect before starting to learn
memory. Memory is mounted on a package which are of many types like
Dual Inline Package, Single Inline Package, Small-Outline “J” lead, Thin,
Small-Outline Package, and Chip Scale Package.
Modular approach is the best way of organizing a system. In memory
youfind three types of modules. Using these memory modules you can
enhance or add the different extended slots. These memory modules are
SIMM, DIMM, and RIMM.
Whenever there is upgradation of new memory there must be a proficient
compatibility with the old memory. The new system comes with facility to
overcome the inherent limitations of the old memory by different ways of its
use and hardware and software selection. The use of computer memory is
classified as following types: Conventional, Extended, and Expanded
memory.
The importance of memory has become specialized to that level that it has
become very difficult to track the memory options and understand the
architecture. Therefore many things are taken care of which include memory

speed, wait states etc. Advancement in the memory lead to specific memory
types such as EDO RAM, BEDO, DRAM, SRAM, SDRAM, etc.
You might face a lot of problem when you select and install a memory.
These can be solved by trouble shooting it. Troubleshooting a memory is a
form of solving the problems incurred in the memory and correcting the
faults and failures.
2.7 Glossary
Term Description
Composite The module using old technology and additional chips
Non-composite The module using latest technology and fewer chips
Internal cache It is also called as level 1cache which has to be
enabledalways. Turning off this cache will lead to severe
performance hit.
External cache It is also called as level 2 cache. Disabling this memory will
slow down your system dramatically.
ROM Read Only Memory is an integrated circuit memory chip that
contains configuration data. It is also called as firmware as its
programming is fully embedded on its ROM chip
DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory needs to have its storage
cells refreshed or given a new electronic charge every few
milliseconds.
Epoxy Epoxies are copolymers and are also referred to as resins or
hardeners which are known for their excellent adhesion,
chemical and heat resistance, good-to-excellent mechanical
properties and very good electrical insulating properties.
Rising edge When the clock cycle shows 1 or the signal is high it is called
rising edge
Falling edge When the clock cycle shows 0 or the signal is low it is called
falling edge.

1. Explain the organization of memory.
2. Describe the different types of memory modules.
3. What are the different considerations to be kept in mind while
upgrading/installing memory?
4. How do you select a memory?
5. How will you troubleshoot memory?

2.9 Answers
1. Address and data bits
2. Signals
3. Control lines
4. SIMM, DIMM and RIMM
5.
o True
o False
6. Upper memory area
7. Extended memory
8. Cycle time
9. EDO RAM, BEDO, SRAM, SDRAM, DRAM, DDRSDRAM, EDRAM
10.
o False
o True
11. Paged memory, interleaved memory, memory cache, shadow memory
12. SDRAMs, memory hard drive and memory
13. memory bank
14. Troubleshooting a memory
15. First remove the motherboard, detach the damage socket and fix the
new socket
16. Epoxy
17. Contact corrosion’
Terminal Questions
1. Refer section 2.2.1. Memory organization
2. Refer section 2.2.3 Modules
3. Refer section 2.3 Memory considerations
4. Refer section 2.4 selection and installing a memory
5. Refer section 2.5 Troubleshooting
References:
 Trouble shooting, maintaining and repairing PCs, the 1st author in PC
hardware, 5th edition by StephenJ.Bigelow, Tata McGraw Hill
Publications, 2001

 Upgrading and repairing PCs, 15th anniversary edition by ScottMueller,

Que publishing, 2003
E-References:
o http://www.tech-faq.com
o http://www.computermemoryupgrade.net
o http://metals.about.com/library/bldef-Contact-Corrosion.htm
o http://www.corrosion-doctors.org
o http://searchstorage.techtarget.com
o http://www.pcguide.com
o www.autotime.com
o www.simmtester.com
o www.kingston.com
o www.pny.com

Unit 3 The Motherboard

Structure:
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Components of Motherboards
Sockets and slots
Expansion slots
Memory slots
The power of chipsets
Form factor
3.3 Motherboard Upgradation
Considerations
Performing the upgrade
3.4 Troubleshooting
3.5 Summary
3.6 Glossary
3.8 Answers
3.1 Introduction
In Unit 2 we have discussed about memory and its types and the method on
how to troubleshoot it. In this unit, you will study motherboard concepts and
different considerations to be taken care of while upgrading it. You will be
able to perform the upgradation and identify the different functions and
components of the modern motherboard.
Before troubleshooting, knowledge of how to identify the different
components of motherboard is essential. The motherboard is considered to
be the ‘heart’ of any PC. It provides you the system resources, supports the
core components and handles the systems memory. The whole
performance of the PC is judged by the motherboard. This unit will provide
you the overall information about motherboards and help you in
troubleshooting the problems which arise in the motherboard.
The motherboard is referred to as an active backplane because the board
consists of chips which runfor various tasks. A lot of effort was made to
grant upgradation and provide service to the motherboards. When this was

done, the one approach which came into picture was the modular approach.
The modular motherboards have the facility to place CPU, math
coprocessor and key support chips on a card that can be held inside the
motherboard. Replacing this card is cheaper than installing the new
motherboard. Expansion slots can be used when there is need for
upgradation and jumper can be set. These expansion slots can be detached
from the motherboard and parts can be connected to it
Objectives:
 Describe the concepts in motherboards
 Identify the various components and considerations in motherboards
 Perform the motherboard upgradation
 Resolve the problems through troubleshooting
3.2 Components of Motherboards

Before getting into the problems in the motherboard first you must know how
it works and what the components of the motherboards are. This section will
help you in understanding the various components.
3.2.1 Socket and slots
Socket is a place where we can fit electric devices and Slot is an opening in
the computer motherboard which will allow plugging in the circuit boards.
Through this we can insert or connect the external devices into the
motherboard.
The different classifications of the motherboards are based on sockets and
slots. This is because a particular socket is used to refer to that particular
CPU as each of them will have specific type of socket. There they are
designated as Socket 7, Socket 8, Slot 1, Slot 2, socket 360, slot A, socket
A, socket 432. Each of them is explained in brief as below.
 Socket 7: these motherboards serve Pentium MMX CPUs, AMD series,
and Cyrix processors. They are available with AGP slot which are
designated as Super 7.AGP or Accelerated Graphic Port is a port which
is exclusively used for connecting video card to computer
 Socket 8: these motherboards serve Pentium Pro CPUs. These
processors if available now are mostly used in older network servers and
workstations.
 Slot 1: these motherboards serve Pentium II and III CPUs. They use
Single Edge Cartridge (SEC) processors.
 Slot 2: these motherboards also use SEC processors for advanced
PentiumII or III Xeon processors. These kinds of motherboards are used
in high end network servers and workstations.
 Socket 360: these motherboards serve for Pentium III and above and
also Celeron processors. These motherboards are easier to remove and
have fewer problems in installation.
 Slot A: these motherboards serve AMD processors. They are mainly
used to serve Athlon-based systems.
 Socket A: these motherboards serve later AMD Athlon and Duron
processors.
 Socket 432: these motherboards are built to serve Pentium 4
processors.
Socket 432 is not compatible with other types of sockets and each of them
has specific reason for each type of processors. You must always
remember that each type of socket is designed to serve specific types of
CPUs not only because of their types but when you use different sockets for
different processors it even limits the speed. For example If you use slot 1
motherboard for 440 BX chipset based systems (Pentium II) it can support
up to 233 MHz to 500 MHz. But if you use slot 1 with Pentium III processors
it can support from 450 MHz to 730 MHz. Therefore even the same type of
processor connector has different speeds for different range of processors.
Therefore you must be very careful in using the slots for different
processors.
3.2.2 Expansion slots
Small Computer
Whenever additional device is required for the system to perform at its full System Interface
potential you would have to connect devices such as, video controller, SCSI
host controller, network card etc. These devices are connected to the
motherboard with the help of external connectivity called expansion slots.
Expansion slots are slots that allow the system to communicate with the
outside world with the help of additional boards. These expansion slots are
present at the back of the computer and allow the ports in the card that go
inside it to be accessed.

Types of expansion slots:

 ISA: Industry Standard Architecture is an older type of expansion slot
which is not in use. You can use this slot to connect the system with
video cards, sound cards, networking cards, etc. This is bigger in size
than the PCI and is black in colour.
 PCI: Peripheral Component Interconnect is a high speed, intelligent bus.
This slot has 64 connections on the motherboard and each connection is
capable of handling data of 1 bit at a time. Expansion slot changes with
technology changes. The video cards can be inserted along with the
older network cards and the computer. It is preferred that bus
architecture that supports the different cards and adapters are used
more.
 AGP: Accelerated GraphicsPort provides a high speed data path
between video card and the motherboard. Motherboard has only one 1.5
V AGP slot.
 PCIe: PCI express is a new technology that is slowly replacing AGP. PCI
express x 16 can transfer data up 4 GB on the motherboard which is
twice as fast as the AGP slot. It comes in five different sizes such as
PCIe x1, PCIe x2, PCIe x4, PCIe x8, PCIe x16
Always keep in mind that when you perform motherboard upgradation these
expansion slots are of equal importance. It is very important to retain the
existing card to be added to the new motherboard. If the motherboard
doesn’t accept the expansion slots then you need to add the suitable slots
and raise the cost and complexity of the upgrade.
3.2.3 Memory slots
Memory slots are the small holes orgaps which are used to connect external
memory devices to the motherboards. RAM in today’s motherboards must
be added to the motherboard through slots. These are known as memory
slots. The memory slot used to add base RAM is DIMM/RIMM slot. RIMM is
the new generation memory slot which offers high access memory speed. It
is easy to install the memory slot to the motherboard but when it comes to
upgradation it involves more of adding larger modules than adding slots.
This has a direct effect on the expense of the memory. It is important to
understand the actual size of memory the motherboard can accommodate.

3.2.4 The power of chipsets

The main difference between modern computers and old computers is that
modern computers have less chips. This is because most of the functions
are handled by two or three chips on the motherboard that are integrated as
chipset. The chipset connects the memory and the CPU to drive controllers,
expansion buses, I/O ports, and video and sound controllers.
Figure 3.1 explains to you the detailed structure of the chipset on the Intel
pentium 4 motherboard. The block diagram illustrates working of D850 GB
Pentium processor for your understanding. Accordingly at the heart of the
motherboard functionality, you have the 82850 memory controller hub which
is connected and interfaces between processor, system memory and AGP
bus. I/O controller hub is responsible for managing the hard drive
controllers, USB ports, hardware monitor, PCI bus and sound subsystem.
The Firmware hub is responsible for managing the system BIOS and CMOS
functions.
Figure 3.1: Block diagram of the Intel Pentium 4 Motherboard
3.2.5 Form factor

Form factor is defined as the physical position that the system components
like motherboard, and its holder, the key components such as CPU, memory
modules, the different slots and ports have. There are three types of form

factors. They are AT, ATX, and BTX. You should know that form factors do
not directly contribute to the performance of the motherboard. In that way if
you consider the first evolution baby AT and the advanced BTXboth have
same characteristics in performance.
Full AT was the first form of the motherboard that covered the large area in
the system. AT stands for advanced technology and the name is because
there was new introduction of various technologies in the family of
motherboards. Full AT was 11 inch in length and 12 inch in breadth. This
created problem with heat absorption due to the lack of ventilation. It was
also not able to access some of the items in the motherboards because
some of the drive bays were hung on the motherboard.
Due to this Baby AT was built which became very popular. It was 10 inch
long and 8.5 inch wide. This form has DIN keyboard connector in the top-
corner of the board which differentiates it from other types. This was
reduced almost to 2/3rd of the size of the full AT board and also contained 7
ZIF (Zero Insertion Force)slot for classic Pentium processors. It is the way to
connect Pentiums processors on the motherboards to the data bus.
Intel wanted to make a motherboard that would support Pentium II
processors. Therefore ATX with new AGP slot was built. ATX stands for
advanced technology extended and intended to use easily, support for
current and future I/O, support for current and future processor technology,
and reduced total system cost. It was 7.5 wide and 12 inches long which
included I/O and USB ports. This was intended to support to current and
future technology, current and future I/O and reduce the cost.
Though ATX was supporting Pentium processors; it failed in cooling the
system. Therefore BTX was built by Intel to support Pentium processor with
proper heat liberation. BTX stands for balanced technology extended. The
BTX will come primarily from taking the advantage of in-line airflow. This
layout allows many of the main board components to utilize the same
primary fan airflow, thereby reducing the need for, and noise from, additional
system fans. In some cases this also allows fewer and/or less expensive
heat sinks to be used when compared to ATX solutions.
Apart from this you can classify chipset into two types. They are North-
bridge and South-bridge which are basically used for the communication

between various components is done by FSB through the Chipset. This is

explained in the section 4.6.

1. ______________ can be called as active back plane.
2. What are the different designated sockets used in the motherboard?
3. Additional components are connected to motherboard with the help of
____________.
4. What is the main difference between old and modern computers?
a. Motherboard has only one 1.5 V AGP slot
b. RIMM offers high access memory speed
c. Form factor directly contributes to the performance of the
motherboard
d. BTX defines In-line airflow.
3.3 Motherboard Up-gradation

In previous section, we have discussed the meaning of motherboards and
how to make motherboard active with the help of various concepts such as
chipsets and slots. When the systems get older the motherboard has a very
limited feature for its upgradation. However, you can add RAM and upgrade
a CPU which has very less impact on motherboard’s performance. These
days the prices of the motherboard have dropped to such an extent that
upgrading a motherboard is more cost effective. In this section 3.3, you will
learn when to upgrade a motherboard, how to do it and what problems that
you might encounter when upgradation process begins.
3.3.1 Considerations
Motherboard upgradation is not a very difficult process rather it is a time
consuming and detail-oriented process. Therefore, whenever youstart this
process you need to have a plan for perfect execution to obtain its full
benefit. The following are the points you need to consider whenever you
have to upgrade PC. They are:
 When you upgrade the motherboard we must be careful in specifications
since each of them has unique features. Here the number of I/O ports
and its types will determine the feature of expandability.

 While talking about the characteristics, it is very important to consider

the place and space available for the motherboard to fit in the system.
The nuts and bolts which you use to connect the motherboard and
during upgradation are important. What is of concern is the size of the
motherboard because it has to be placed inside the system space. You
should take care that the size of the motherboard is suitable as it should
not get crushed with drives and the power supply.
 While upgrading you must take care that you have place for the
expansion slots and new processor. If the main purpose of your
upgradation is to add AMD or dual core then there is a need for heat
sink to remove the extra heat produced by two or more processors.
Therefore you must plan the motherboard is such a ways that this sink
easily fits in along with one or more expansion slots.
 Before considering to buy a new motherboard you make sure that all the
rest of the components are working properly or whether there is any
need for further upgradation of the other components. The main
components to be taken care of is to see whether the old hard drive
supports the new motherboard and functions to its full potential; whether
the video controller card supports the full favour or new AGP 3D
graphics card is needed; whether the existing memory type supports the
mother board or new memory modules like EDO RAMs, SDRAM DIMMs
etc., have to be upgraded. It is necessary to look at these because at a
lesser cost you can boost the performance of the motherboard to its
maximum.
 It is always better during upgradation to change the motherboard to a
new motherboard rather than changing alone the defected part because
a new motherboard gives good support with respect to cache, space
and RAM availability.
 To overcome the cost effect of time, many of the organisations have
designed a device that mounts processor, cache, and RAM on a readily
accessible module which is called as daughtercard. It is based on
modular mother board. This can be replaced in few minutes once the
upgradation is done. Only disadvantage of this module is that each
daughter card needs to be designed for a particular motherboard which
is specific and sometimes it becomes costlier than the conventional
motherboard.
 There is one more way of overcoming the disadvantage. Instead of

taking more time to replace the motherboard you could install
MicroChannel systems to any of the expansion slots. This system is also
called as Processor card. It helps in logging out of the original processor
by taking whole control of the resident CPU. This allows upgrading the
motherboard. Though the cost of the processor card is more than
another CPU itself, it is more standardized than daughterr boards.
3.3.2 Performing the upgradation
An upgradation is a process that involves many steps starting from pre
upgradation to postupgradation. From unit 1, you have got the knowledge of
overclocking the CPU and have seen that it does not involve many
processes to follow. This section takes you through the different processes
involved in upgradation. You also need to remember a few things before
upgradation. The following are the preliminary steps which you need to take:
 When a standardized program is executed we should try to get some
result out of it so that it becomes a yardstick for you after motherboard
upgradation. For example, BIOS agent is a program which is used to
automatically identify your computers BIOS and other system
information. Using this program you can easily identify BIOSdate, CPU
data, BIOS type, CPU data, etc.
 You need to have a backup of the whole system before you start
preparing for upgradation. Because there is a severe chance of
collateral system damage.
Electrostatic protection
Motherboards are extremely sensitively to electrostatic discharges. You
need to follow some of the precautionary measures to ensure the safe
handling of motherboards and other components during the process of
upgradation.
 You need to cable the antistatic mat to the motherboard and do proper
grounding for its connections. You must have enough mats to cover the
entire place. Don’t place the motherboard on electrostatic area for any
reason.
 While handling the motherboard and its components use antistatic strap
to rescue yourself from the shock which can be produced when your

body comes in contact with the static motherboard. You should also
have a proper arrangement for the grounding to the strap.
 Do not touch the circuit chip or pins and try to hold it from the edges.
 When the components are disassembled for upgradation, place all the
componentsin antistatic bags.
 Try to avoid upgradation process in dry weather because there is
possibility of creation of electrostatic charges in clothes and bodies.
After you have taken all these precautions you need to have the updated
CMOS settings so that it needs to be loaded on the new motherboard’s
CMOS. Current BIOS versions allow you to enter BIOS defaults in the
CMOS setup. Some of the CMOS may be loaded manually.
The following are the steps for motherboard upgradation which you
need to follow.
 You must be very careful while handling the screw driver blades. If the
blade accidentally slips on the motherboard then it can cause severe
damage by even a scar or scratch on the chip.
 You should turn off the system and unplug it from AC receptacle before
opening the cover of the cabinet. This will help you in taking measures
to avoid accidental power supply when you are working on the system.
 When you remove the screws by holding the outer cover place it is a
safe place. Place the outer cover place in a safe place where it is not
damaged. Now you can see the inside of the PC.
 You need to label the things which you can see inside the PC which
helps you in connecting back the cable to specific points after
upgradation.
 Now it is the time for you to remove your original motherboard.
Therefore, make a safe place for keeping your motherboard. This
involves few steps.
o You can start removing the expansion boards and place it inside the
antistatic bag and keep the bag on the antistatic mat.Remove all the
screws gently and then try to lift the motherboard. If you get a tight
feeling in lifting the motherboard then it means there are some
screws which you have overlooked while detaching. Doesn’t
forceopen the motherboard hard otherwise it canget damage.
o Remove the cable connected to the motherboard.

o Detach the drives if any for floppy and hard drive.
o Disconnect the power cables.
Installing the new motherboard
Now your system is ready for installing the new motherboard. A little effort is
required to see that the motherboard fit inside the system and work properly.
You must follow the instructions given below to place your motherboard
inside the system.
 Place the motherboard gently inside the system and ensure that the
slots and ports are properly aligned. You need to check that the holes
from the case match with the holes from the motherboard. You should
not apply force while inserting the motherboard into the case. This can
damage your motherboard itself or result in upgradation failure.
 While fixing the bolts you should always make sure that the motherboard
is away from contact with conductive materials. Always use a
nonconductive washer between the bolt and the motherboard.
 Refer to the user manual for any kind of clarifications. Now you need to
check for some basic connections. You can check the jumper for each
module or DIP switch. These include the case switch off/on, case
indicator lights, reset buttons and speakers.
 After installing you need to reassemble the original system which you
have disconnected. You must ensure that all the memory modules,
BIOS, RAM, CMOS are fixed appropriately; the memory modules must
snap gently into the place. Also connect the external devices like
keyboard, mouse and monitor.
 The last and final step in testing the system. You may have installed the
best settings but there is always a chance of working away from the
requirement once it is assembled. Therefore, there is a need for testing
the system to ensure that all the components and cabling are well jelled
with each other. It initially starts with POST that displays the message
asking for you to start the set up. POST stands for Power-On-Self-Test
which performs the preliminary checking for the availability of the various
components that are essential to boot the system and ensures the
correctness of the operating system. You must click ok for starting the
set up. You have to be very careful in reviewing the CMOS. You need to

download as many CMOS as possible as the CMOS is responsible for

booting your system and helps in maintaining performance. You will be
studying CMOS in detail in unit 5.
 You must set the variables in their default state for now and reboot the
system. Then ensure that the system completes POST successfully and
boot the system.
 Finally install the hardware drives for any of the components newly
installed. Ensure that the device managers are free from errors or
problems.
Now you have completed the motherboard upgradation successfully.
Activity 1:
Try to upgrade any old PC motherboard and note down the problems that
arise while performing the upgradation.

6. ____________determines the features of expandability.
7. How will youremove the extra heat produced by the processors?
8. Why is it always better to go in for new motherboards rather than
changing one or more componentsinthe old one?
a. CMOS settings needs to be loaded on the new motherboard’s
CMOS.
b. You need not worry about screw driver blades since they are very
small.
c. Labelling the things inside the PC create confusion.
d. We must always use non-conductorbetween mother board and
any metal attached to it.
e. If the motherboard doesnot fit gently inside the system then you
need to apply force to fix it.
3.4 Troubleshooting
In the earlier sections you have studied the motherboard upgradation
process. You have studied the basic consideration to be kept in mind before
and while upgrading the motherboard. By now you would have been able to

perform the upgradation. In any of the technical systemswhen you install or

upgrade there is a chance of motherboard encountering faults and errors.
Most of the errors and failures will be detected in the POST itself. But, apart
from the POST detection of errors there are some faults which need to be
identified and solved. In this unit you will learn when and how to choose
between repair and replacement of the motherboard. You will also learn how
to carry out inspections to identify the problems.
3.4.1 Steps to identify whether to repair or replace the motherboard
When any key component of the motherboard fails or shows problem in its
working you will be faced with the question of either replacing that particular
component with a spare or to change the whole motherboard and replace it
with a new one. You might assume that it is comfortable to change the
components and replace them. But when it comes to the availability of the
spare parts it is difficult to find them when they come to the higher end
processors. Therefore, it is always better to install a new motherboard
because it is readily available in the market and easy to buy. The only
problem is the cost. Buying a new motherboard is several times costlier than
replacing the defected part.
Since the motherboard replacement is an expensive idea. Therefore we
need to verify whether we need to replace or repair. In order to take decision
on whether to replace or repair we need to follow the below steps for
inspecting the PC. Based on which you can take confirmed decision.
 You should ensure that all the connectors are properly connected.
Check for the power cable attached to the motherboard. Other cables
must be attached tightly.
 You should check out that the CPU chips, ROM chip and CMOS and
RTC module are mounted on the socket properly.
 You should ensure that the AC power supply is in proper order. If the AC
is connected with heavy loads of water motor or boiler, use the other
connecter supply for the PC. Take proper measure to protect yourself
from injury as described in section 3.3.2.
 As mentioned above in the electrostatic precaution, take care of the
screws, paper clip or any conducting wire which can cause short circuit
in the motherboard or cause motherboard failure.

 If your motherboard is having any port connected please make sure that
those are disabled by setting jumpers or switch. For example video port
must be disabled otherwise there will be a problem of hardware conflict
and motherboard may crash or can cause interference in the
motherboard performance. Always refer to a PC guide to set the jumper.
 You must verify that the screws connected to the motherboard do lead
to grounding. Also ensure that there is enough space between the
conducting material and the motherboard. Do not turn the screw so tight
that the motherboard may suffer from erratic connections.
The above general guidelines help you in identifying the faults and failures
and help in correcting those errors. These help in identifying most the
problems that a motherboard can encounter. Even after following the above
steps if you encounter motherboard failure then it is time to replace it.
Activity 2:
a. Find out why your system automatically powers back on after a power
failure
b. Find out why your system is not turning off when you press the power
button
c. Identify why your system is not booting even after installing a
motherboard.
Hint: Refer the concept of symptoms of motherboard inthe book on
troubleshooting, maintaining, and repairing PCs by S.J.Bigelow

10. Why do you think replacing the motherboard is better than replacing
the components in the motherboard?
3.5 Summary
Motherboard being the heart of any PC provides the system resourcesand
supports many important components of CPU and handles memory. There
is always aimmediate need for upgrading motherboard. Therefore, modular
motherboards are used for upgradation. There are different slots and
sockets which are used in different PCs to connect various components into
the motherboard. In modern motherboards there is an absence of chips or

some cases very negligible. Expansion devices are used to give the
motherboard the added features. The memory size must be adoptable by
the motherboard.
When you upgrade a motherboard you can include additional RAM, and
upgrade a CPU. You should consider many factors like dimensions and
mounting; feature comparison; CPU and slot locations; cost; traditional
upgrades; daughtercard upgrades; processor card, etc. When you want to
upgrade you must undertake pre and post upgradation preparation which
involves, electrostatic protections, downloading CMOS settings, physical
preparation of the system cabinet, removing the original motherboard,
installing and reassembling the motherboard and finally testing the
motherboard for working conditions.
In every installation there is always a scope for errors. When any such error
occurs you must check for various components for their performance. Also
you need to take a decision whether to replace the components or the
motherboard itself with a new piece. In this unit you studied the various
inspecting points before starting the motherboard repair. By now you would
have got the knowledge of how to identify the problem in the motherboard
and to troubleshoot the same.
3.6 Glossary
Term Description
Math Secondary processor which helps in doing lots of calculations
Coprocessor and helps in saving lot of precious time of the CPU
SCSI Small computer system interface is a set of interface or set of
standards which communicates data transfer between computer
and other peripheral devices
I/O port Input-Output port connects the devices such as keyboard,
monitor, printer to communicate with computer system
Processor It manages the resources and data for expansion by performing
card required operations
Daughter card It is an extension motherboard which is circuitry
CMOS It is an semiconductor chip and holds data without requiring
external power supply

POST When the computer system is on, it performs a self test to check
whether the keyboard, RAM, disk drives are connected properly.
This is called Power On Self-Test
BIOS It is a collection of programs that is present on the chip and tells
the computer how to start.
RTC module Real Time Clock module is specially designed for DS1307 clock.
This comes with the pre-programmed current system clock.

1. Explain the classification of sockets and slots.
2. What are the points to be kept in mind while upgrading motherboard?
3. How do you perform upgrading?
4. What is the use of trouble shooting motherboard?
5. What are the basic points to be taken care of while troubleshooting a
motherboard?
3.8 Answers
1. Motherboard
2. Socket 7, socket 8, slot 1, slot 2, socket 360, slot A, socket A, socket
432.
3. Expansion slots
4. a. True
b. True
c. False
d. True
5. Less chips
6. Number of I/O ports
7. With the help of sink
8. New motherboards give good support with respect to cache, space &
RAM availability.
9. a. True
b. False
c. False
d. True
e. False

10. New motherboards are readily available in the market and spare
components are difficult to obtain.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer Section 3.2.1. Sockets and slots
2. Refer section 3.3.1. Considerations
3. Refer Section 3.3.2. Performing the upgradation
4. Refer Section 3.4. Troubleshooting
5. Refer Section 3.4. Troubleshooting
References:
 Trouble Shooting, Maintaining and Repairing PCs, the 1st author in PC
Publications, 2001
QuePublishing, 2003
E-References:
o www.motherboards.mbarron.net/testing.html
o www.static.commentcamarche.net/en.kioskea.net/pictures/pc-images-
motherboard.png

Unit 4 Buses
Structure:
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Bus
4.3 Industry standard architecture (ISA)
8-Bit-ISA
16-BIT-ISA
4.4 Peripheral component Interconnect (PCI)
PCI Bus configuration and signals
PCI layout
PCI signals
4.5 Accelerated graphics Port
AGP vs PCI
AGP layout
AGP signals
4.6 FSB
4.7 Dual Independent Bus(DIB)
4.8 Troubleshooting
4.9 Summary
4.10 Glossary
4.12 Answers
4.1 Introduction
In the previous units we discussed about many important components of the
computer system like memory, CPU, motherboard, memory slots, etc.,
which are required for a computer? But, when you have various important
components together the question arises as to how they could be linked and
communicated between each other so that the data in the form of
information or address of the memory location can be transferred. This
question is answered by the use of electric wires. These are called Buses.
Specifically Bus is an electric cable or collection of cables that are used to
transfer the data, information or the address of the memory location. In this
unit we will discuss the importance of this data travelling agent and list the
different types and parts of the Bus. We will explain the importance of AGP
and help you to use of expansion Buses to connect the expansion devices.
IBM came to a conclusion that connecting the expansion elements which
are required and leaving the other functions of the expansion devices which
can connect with the plugin through the Bus was a feasible choice.
Objectives:
 Define a Bus.
 Identify a Bus in the computer system
 Classify and explain the different types of Bus in detail.
 Differentiate between the types of Bus
 Resolve the basic Bus problems through troubleshooting
4.2 BUS
As we discussed above Bus is a collection of cables that is used to
communicate between two or more components of the computer system.
Bus consists of three major types such as address Bus, data Bus and
control Bus. Address Bus is the one which carries the formation of the
location of the information. Data Bus is the one which carries data between
the different components of the computer. Control Bus is the one which
allows transferring the control instructions from CPU to memory or I/O
devices. A typical diagram of the connectivity of the Buses is as shown in
the figure 4.1. In this figure you can observe that the data Bus allow two way
transfers between CPU, I/O and the memory. Address Bus and Control Bus
allow only the control flow from CPU to I/O and memory.
Figure 4.1: Bus connection

The control Bus helps in performing the specific operations by the

respective devices. Address Bus is used to send and specify the address of
the specific location. The data bus is used to transfer instructions from
memory to the CPU for execution. It carries data to and from the CPU and
memory as required by instruction translation.
All Buses are measured in terms of clock speed and measured by MHz.
Width specifies the amount of data transferred in one time. For example 8
bit Bus can transfer 8 bit data. Buses are connected to number of devices
which are working at different speed, some are faster and some or slow.
When the devices operates which can perform slower than other devices
cannot send or receive the data. Therefore clock speed needs to set so that
all the devices interact with each other at same speed. A Bus is also called
as backbone because it connects the computers through one cable.
As discussed in unit 3 sections 3.2.2 most of the CPUs use the expansion
slots to connect the add-on rather than connecting the extended device.
Expansion Buses are used to connect the system with the peripheral
devices like printer, monitor, scanner, etc. This has made the PC a flexible
machine that can be configured to the requirement of the external devices or
add-ons. This has given rise to different types of Buses. In order to make
the application execution faster and the transfer of data bits faster, fast Bus
is used. Local Bus is used to directly connect the data transfer to the CPU.
Buses can be serial and parallel. Serial Buses are those which allow the
data to travel in single bit-serial form. Parallel Buses are those that allow
data transfer in multiple wires in a parallel form. Based on the type of Bus
used with the particular devices as mentioned above Bus can be
unidirectional and bidirectional. Unidirectional Buses allow data transfer
from one device to another in one way path. For example control Bus allows
transfer from CPU to I/O and Memory and not backward. Bidirectional
Buses allows data to travel through it from one device to another in both the
direction. For example data Bus allows the data to travel to and from the
CPU to I/O and memory. Internal and external Buses are used to connect
the internal and external devices. Internal Bus allows connection between
internal components like sound card and CPU. External Bus allows the
connectivity between any external devices like USB. Therefore different
architectures were designed to support the different kinds of Buses and the

computer system and its components. Generally with respect to this kind of
architecture, the Bus has been divided into three major types. They are ISA,
PCI and AGP.

1. ____________ is the electric wire that is used to answer the question
of linking and communication between different components.
a. Control Bus is the one which carries data between the different
components of the computer.
b. Local Bus is used to directly connect the data transfer to CPU.
3. Buses are measured in terms of _____________ and measured by
_________.
4. ____________Buses are used to connect peripherals.
5. The three major types of Buses are ___________, _____________
and ___________.
4.3 Industry Standard Architecture (ISA)

As you have already studied meaning of ISA in unit 3 section 3.2.2 we will
directly discuss on the architecture of ISA. Industry Standard Architecture
Buses were also referred to as PC Buses. The use of standardized Buses
helped to support the operating system and many application software. ISA
made a path to the manufacturers to produce faster and supportable PCs
and expansion devices. Depending upon the architecture used by the
processor two versions of ISA was used.
They were:
 8-Bit ISA
 16-Bit ISA
4.3.1 8-Bit ISA

8-bit ISA was used by PC/XT Bus. The PC/XT is commonly referred to as
the XT, was IBM's successor to the original IBM PC. XT stands for extended
technology. The XT was designed to serve the enhanced machine for
commercial purpose.
8-Bit ISA was the original ISA found on IBM machines which was 8 bits wide
indicating the 8 bit data of the 8088 processor. 8-bit ISA consisted of 62 pins
out of which 20 address and 8 data lines were available. It ran with a speed
of 4.77 MHz. Diagram of Simple 8-bit Bus is given below in figure 4.2
Figure 4.2: Diagram of 8-Bit Bus
The 8-bit ISA Bus consists of single card edge connector with 62 pin
contacts. The Bus provides 8 data lines and 20 address lines which allow
the board to be placed in the conventional memory. The Bus supports
connection for 6 interrupts (IRQ2-IRQ7) and three DMA channels (DMA0-
DMA2).
All though each connector on the Bus is supposed to work in the similar
fashion, the PC which is designed with eight expansion slots requires any
card inserted in the eighth slot to provide a special signal called “card
selected” on pin labelled B8. Timing requirement for the eighth slot are also
tighter.
Interrupts and DMA (Direct memory access) channels are supported by this
Bus. The table below shows the DMA channel that has expansion with its
specific standard function. An interrupt is an event in hardware that triggers
the processor to jump from its current program counter to a specific point in
the code. DMA channels are system pathways used by many devices to
transfer information directly to and from memory.

Table 4.1: DMA channel expansion
DMA Channel Expansion Specific function

0 No It can refresh dynamic
RAM
1 Yes For Add-on cards
2 Yes Floppy disk controller
3 Yes Hard disk controller
The oscillator pin in both PC/XT and PC/AT ISA Bus configuration provides
the system oscillator signal to the expansion Bus. An oscillator is a circuit
which creates a waveform output from direct current input. When the PC
needs to be reset, the RESET DRV pin drives the whole system into the
reset state. The 20 address pins connects an expansion board to the
system address Bus. When address signals are valid, the Address Latch
Enable (ALE) signal indicates that the address may now be decoded.
When errors occur on the expansion board the -I/O channel Check (-I/O
CHCK) signal applies flags to the mother board. The minus sign before the
signal indicates that the active low logic is used in the signal. The 6
hardware interrupts are IRQ2, IRQ3, IRQ4, IRQ5, IRQ6, and IRQ7 which
are used by the expansion board to seek the attention of the CPU. Interrupt
0 and 1 handles the high priority of the timer chip and keyboard. Therefore
these interrupts will be busy handling timer chip and the keyboard and it is
not available to the Bus.
4.3.2 16-bit ISA
16-bit ISA is an expansion of 8-bit ISA with the connection of 36-pin
connector added along with the 62-pin connector as add-on. 8-bit Bus is
replaced by 16-bit Bus by doubling the number of data bits and adding pin
connectors. 16-bit was used in PC/AT Bus. The IBM Personal Computer/AT
are also called as PC AT or PC/AT, was IBM's second-generation PC,
designed around the 6 MHz Intel 80286 microprocessor and released in
1984 as machine type 5170. The name AT stands for "Advanced
Technology", and was chosen because the AT offered various technologies
that were then new in personal computers. . This diagram of 16-bit Bus is as
shown in the figure 4.3

Figure 4.3: diagram of 16-bit Bus
The diagram consists of 62 pin connector of 8 bit Bus and an additional 36

pin connector is used with label C and D. An extra 8 bits were used to
normalize the total 16 bit data bus. These 8 bits didn’t have any effect on the
working of the 16-bit Bus. The table shows the pin assignments of a 32 pin
connector.
In addition to 8-bit data, 16-bit Bus consists of extra 8 bits, five interrupts
and three DMA channels. One extra bit is used for +5dc volts which is not
included in number of bits. It is also added with four additional address lines.
The speed is increased from 4.77 MHz to 8.33 MHz.
You should observe that though in ideal situation PC/XT should run on
PC/AT expansion slots, it is far from reality with most of the older version of
XT slots.
Therefore there was an idea of mixing both 8-bit Bus and 16-bit Bus
architecture which consist of 32-pin connector and could be expanded
without starting from scratch for the sake of expansion. Now, ISA Bus
architecture has retired since most of the systems are adopting PCI and
AGP architecture.

6. ____________ Buses are also called as PC Buses.
7. The two versions of ISA are ___________ and ____________.
8. 8-bit ISA was used by __________ Bus.
9. 8-bit ISA consists of _________ pins out of which of ________ and
___________ are address and data liens respectively.
10. 16-bit Bus consists of extra _________ bits, ________interrupts and
_____________ DMA channels.
11. The speed is increased from ____________ to __________ MHz.
4.4 Peripheral component Interconnect (PCI)

As you have already studied meaning of PCI in unit 3 section 3.2.2 we will
directly discuss on the architecture of PCI. Graphics processing cards
became difficult to process with 32-bit Bus processors with 8.33 MHz speed.
During the development of versions there were two architectures which
were merged and named as VL and PCI. VL stands for VESA Local Bus.
(VESA) Video Electronics Standards Association local bus acted as high
speed path for DMA and memory mapped I/O. This is different from ISA Bus
as ISA Bus handles interrupts and port mapped I/O.
The disadvantage with VL was its Bus performance was dependent on CPU
speed. The manufacturer failed to give the standard specifications.
PCI was developed in mid-1992 by the integration of Intel and a group of
manufacturers. In section 4.4.1 and 4.4.2 you will study about the
configuration, layout and signals of PCI.
4.4.1 PCI configuration
PCI is a vast improvement over ISA Bus architecture with the increase in its
speed from 8.33 MHz. to 33 MHz frequency. This increased the data
transfer from 5MB/Sec to 132MB/sec. Another important characteristic was
that it gave automatic configuration property to the switches and peripherals.
This feature also automatically adjusts the interrupts requests, DMA
assignments, the addresses of the requests and data used by the PCI
peripheral. The following are the features supported by PCI Bus which are
used today.
 Linear Bursts: whenever memory sends data to the peripheral devices it
will be in linear address order. Linear Burst is a method of continually
filling the data line in the Bus by transferring the data. Linear address
order is the process of increasing the next byte in the order which read
or write the large amount of data into the single address. This is the
important feature of PCI. This helps in increasing the performance rate
of PCI when compared to Bus which does not have linear burst
capability by almost double the time.
 Low access latency: access latency is the time taken by the CPU to
permit the request access by the peripheral for its control. Reducing this
time increases performance of the PCI. Since this kind of expansion slot

support lower access latency the system can easily send the data to the
CPU.
 Bus mastering: Bus mastering is a feature of PCI which helps in any
intelligent peripheral to have a control of the Bus which is used in
boosting the throughput of the architecture. This supports in handling the
task according to the priority base. The high priority task can be handled
and throughput can be increased.
 Concurrency: when a processor chip works with BUS masters
simultaneously rather than waiting for them to complete, the process is
called concurrency. Wait state may be sometimes zero at the time of
concurrency
 Dual voltage architecture: dual voltage features expects two different
voltages to be supported. PCI Bus supports +5 volts as well as +3.3
volts which are called as low voltage mode.
4.4.2 PCI Bus Layout
For any architecture there must be proper borders and boundaries. This is
given to the PCI architecture by their layout. The layout of the figure to show
How it is arranged is given in figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4: PCI Bus layout
In the figure it is observed that +5 volts connector is divided into two

segments. A +3.3 volts connector is added with a key at the 12th position of
the Bus just to avoid any insertion of the +5 volts board to +3.3 volts Bus.
A +5 volts connector is added with a key at the 50th position to avoid the
wrong insertion of +3.3 volts board into the +5 volts slot.
In general the same system resources cannot be used by the other devices.
This is an exemption is PCI. PCI Bus has its own internal interrupts which
handle the requests on the BUS. To avoid the confusion PCI Buses are
named as A1, A2, A3,……., B1, B2, B3, …….. C1, C2, C3,…… and D1,
D2, D3,…….. PCI uses a technique which holds the signal dynamically and
whenever there is a requirement it can be reassigned. This technique is
called Interrupt ReQuest (IRQ). IRQ can be shared by two or more PCI
devices. These IRQs can be accessed during CMOS setup routine.
4.4.3 PCI signals
There are various signals which serve different functions in the PCI Bus.
The PCI configuration is differentiated as asynchronous and synchronous
based on the dependence of the FSB speed. FSB stands for Front sided
Bus which is responsible for data transfer between CPU and one of the two
chips of the Core logic chipset on the mother board. An asynchronous
configuration is found in the latest motherboards whose PCI speed can be
set independent of FSB.FSB derives the Bus clock of the PCI. You can see
some of the signals below in the table along with its functions.
Table 4.1: The function of PCI signals
Signals Functions
Clock signal Provides timing for the PCI Bus
It can be varied from 0Hz to 33 MHz
Reset Signal Reset all PCI devices
Command/-Byte Defines which of the bytes are transferred
enable signal
Parity/PAR64 Represents the Parity across address/data and byte enabled
signal lines
-Request Initiates the Bus mastering
(-REQ)
signal/line
-Grant (-GNT) Approves the Bus mastering request
signal/line

-Frame Signal Clock Frame is driven true when valid PCI Bus cycle is in
progress.
Target Ready Target Ready signal is driven true, if within the given Bus
(-TRDY) signal cycle the device is able to complete the transaction
Initiator Ready Indicates that the Bus is ready to accept the data or confirms
(-IRDY) signal that the data in the Bus is valid.
Stop (-STOP) This indicates the initiator to terminate or halt the current data
signal transfer.
Initialization This also works as Chip select during read and writes
Device Select transaction of PCI configuration.
(IDSEL) signal
Device Select As an Input, it has to indicate the current transfer status to
(DEVSEL) know whether it has assumed the control
signal As an output, it has to find out itself as the target for current
Bus transfer.
Lock (-LOCK) Prevents the other initiator to modify the locked addresses or
signal selected expansion device.
Primary and Reports data parity errors and address parity errors in the
secondary error PCI BUS.
reporting (PERR
and SERR)

12. ________ is a high speed intelligent Buses
a. In VL architecture the performance of the Bus is independent of CPU
speed.
b. PCI gave automatic configuration property to switch and jumper-less
peripherals.
c. Linear bursts helps in increasing the performance rate of PCI when
compare to Bus which do not have linear burst capability by almost
double the time.
14. ___________ is the time taken by the CPU to permit the request
access by peripheral for its control.
15. ___________ is the technique which holds the signal dynamically and
wherever there is a requirement it can be reassigned.
16. ___________ derives the Bus clock of the PCI.
17. FSB stands for ____________.

4.5 Accelerated Graphic Port (AGP)

AGP stands for Accelerated Graphics Port which is designed to provide
throughput demands of 3 D graphics. The growth in the field of computer
science and engineering gave a significant improvement in the PC. The
visualization of the information is improved in its quality in colour depth
resolutions and wide range of special effects which creates the requirement
of more storage place. This is not only demands for more memory but also
requires huge bandwidth for data transfer. This was fulfilled by Accelerated
Graphics Port (AGP) which is well applicable for 3D applications.
You can visually experience the life like realism with the use of 3D images.
AGP helps you to accelerate between the text and 3D images and the PCs
graphic controller will be coordinating with the system memory to store and
transfer the graphics data. AGP has many additional characteristics which
make AGP a useful technology for graphics. The following are the
characteristics of AGP.
 It accelerates graphics performance by giving high speed Bus
 Graphic controller is enabled
 Helps in speeding up the data flow from CPU to graphics controller. In
this case the data is about the decoded data of video.
 It provides high bandwidth
Structure of AGP
Since the AGP’s performance is directly proportional to the bandwidth, the
device is fixed in such a position that increases the bandwidth. An
architecture is developed which act as an interface between chipset and
graphic controller. The architecture is as shown in the figure below:

Figure 4.5: Block diagram of AGP architecture
The AGPset is used to accelerate the graphic performance and is directly

connected to the system memory through a dedicated high speed Bus. 3D
texture data is provided to the AGPset through the system memory. AGP
enables the hardware called as graphic accelerated controller to execute
texture maps directly from system RAM or local memory. An AGP interface
is placed between PC’s chipset and graphic controller which helps in
increasing the bandwidth. The graphic accelerator controller and the
AGPset is connected through AGP Bus. This AGP helps to speed the flow
of decoded video from the AGPset to the graphic controller and vice-versa.
Another dedicated high speed Bus is connected to L2 cache through the
core data controller. In addition to the conversion of texture mapping,
offloading this tremendous data overhead from the PCI Bus leaves PCI free
to handle drive data transfers and other I/O controllers.
With the help of AGP that offers the bandwidth which is twice the bandwidth
of PCI, 2 bytes of data can be made to pass through the AGP CLOCK with a
bandwidth of 532 MB/s. More refinement or adjustment to the AGP handles

the data and allow 4 Bytes to be passed with the bandwidth of more than 1
GB/s on every AGP clock. This means that the bandwidth is doubled when
the AGP clock refines the data byte.
4.5.1 AGP vs PCI
Before studying the difference between AGP and PCI we should throw a
glance on its similarities. Both Buses use at least one PCI slot. AGP was not
created to replace PCI, but to create a new dedicated Bus which is used to
help the graphic cards functioning.
The important feature of AGP specification is that a 32-bit AGP will easily fit
into PCI configuration. But still there are many features which differentiate
AGP from PCI with advance advantages.
They are:
 The bandwidth capacity of AGP is 4 times greater than PCI with
pipelining or super-pipelining features.
 AGP supports optimized 3D graphics
 AGP uses clock speed up to 66 MHz where the PCI used a fixed clock
speed of 33 MHz.
 AGP makes multiple requests for the transaction and PCI will make only
one request at a time and wait until the earlier requests are executed
completely.
 There is no sharing of bandwidth with other devices in AGP whereas
PCI shares it with other devices.
The result of the significant improvement and additions in 32-bit AGP
intended in optimising for high performance 3D graphics. The most
important difference is the clock speed. The PCI users fixed 33 MHz Bus
whereas the clock speed of AGP varies up to 66 MHz.
The basic comparison between PCI and AGP has been shown in the below
table.
Table 4.2: Comparison between PCI and AGP
PCI AGP
Address/data is multiplexed Address/data is de-multiplexed
Non pipelined Request is pipelined
Data bytes will be high at 133 MB/s Data bytes will be peak at 533MB/s
with 32 bits with 32 bits

Multiple target and multiple master Single target and single master
Connected to the entire system Connected to only read/write memory.
this is not connected to I/O operations
There is High/low priority queues No priority queues
4.5.2 AGP layout

AGP is used on ATX and NLX machines. NLX (New Low Profile Extended)
was a form factor proposed for low profile, low cost, mass-marketed retail
PCs. NLX specification defines the motherboard size, hole mounting
locations, riser card location, and maximum component heights on
motherboard. It has three variations 3.3 V, universal and 1.5V. Though the
signal layout is similar the key locations are different. Therefore, these cards
arenot interchangeable. While checking compatibility between video card
and the motherboard In AGP you can ignore the speed multiplier as it is
negligible and interchangeable. The table below will help you in
understanding the important functions of the different graphics card.
Table 4.3: AGP cards and its functions
AGP card Type of Description

connector
It Supports 3.3V signalling and has the
3.3V Card 3.3V slot
available speeds1x, 2x.
1.5V Card 1.5V slot
available speeds1x, 2x, 4x.
It Supports 3.3V and 1.5V signalling and
Universal
Double slotted has the available speeds 1x, 2x at 3.3V and
Card
1x, 2x, 4x at 1.5V.
3.0 Card 1.5V slot
available speed4x, 8x.
Universal It Supports 1.5V and 0.8V signalling and
1.5V 3.0 1.5V slot Available speeds are 1x, 2x, 4x at 1.5V and
Card 4x, 8x at 0.8V.
Supports AGP 3.3v, 1.5V, and 0.8V
Universal 3.0 signalling. Speeds available are 1x, 2x at
Double slotted
Card 3.3V and 1x, 2x, 4x at 1.5V and 4x, 8x at
0.8V.
Note that different slots will have different key positions in the card.

4.5.3 AGP signals

In order to work in an advance performance mode the full bandwidth needs
to be utilized and with the Bus is queued by the target. The following are
some of the signals which helps in operating the AGP card by asserting
them.
Table 4.4: AGP Signal and its functions
Signal Function
PIPE # This request is asserted by the current
master
It indicates that the target has to queue
up the full width request.
Read Buffer Full signal (RBF#) Indicates whether the pre-requested low
priority read data can be readily accepted
by the Master.
Once RBF# is asserted, the arbiter
cannot initiate the request of taking back
the low priority read data to the master.
Write Buffer Full signal (WBF#) Indicates Whenever there is data keying
from the core program to ensure that
whether master is ready to accept the
data
Once WBF# is asserted the arbiter
cannot initiate the request to provide
data.
GNT# Indicates that the signals have some
meaning to the master
FRAME# Indicates the output form the core logic
AD Bus Strobe 0 signal (AD_STB0) 2x data transfer mode on address line is
provided
Data providing agent drives this signal
SideBand Strobe signal (SB_STB) Timing for SBA is provides and driven by
AGP master
CLOCK (CLK) Provides timing for both AGP signals
Clock divisors help in under clocking or overclocking the FSB in the

motherboard. Wider range of FSB gives greater variety of clock divisors.


18. _______________ Port is applicable for 3D applications.
19. State whether the following statements are true or false
a. Performance of AGP is directly proportional to the bandwidth
b. The bandwidth capability of AGP is 4 times greater than PCI
c. RBF# indicates the pre-requested low priority read data can be
readily accepted by the master.
d. GNT# indicates that the Whenever there is data keying from the
core program to ensure that whether master is ready to accept the
data
20. AGP is used on __________ and _______ machines.
4.6 Front Sided Bus (FSB)

FSB stands for Front Sided Bus and used to connect CPU to the computer
system and CPU with the various other components of the system. FSB is
two directional flows of data. It means various components send and
receivethe data from the processor. FSB is also called as processor Bus
because its acts as a main path for the data flow from processor to other
parts of the motherboard. The speed of FSB ranges from 66MHz, 100 MHz,
133 MHz, 266MHz, 400MHz and above. This is one of the most important
considerations while buying motherboard.
The important feature of the FSB is its bit size. It is observed that 32 bit FSB
performs 100% more than that of 16 bit FSB. Therefore the measure of data
transfer delivered in one tick (part of 1 CLOCK cycle) is an important
consideration of FSB.
The communication between various components is done by FSB through
the Chipset. The chipset consists of two processors namely Northbridge and
Southbridge. Both the bridges act as controllers and policemen between the
CPU and various components of the system which is responsible for data
transfer among them. Northbridge has its own heat sink since it works
continuously and easily gets heated up fast. Northbridge is also called as
Memory Controller Hub (MCH) and Integrated Memory Controller (IMC).The
Southbridge is the chip that controls all the functions of the computer
peripherals. The Southbridge can usually be distinguished from the north
bridge by not being directly connected to the CPU.

The main difference between Northbridge and Southbridge is that

Northbridge will take care of traffic of the faster components of the CPU and
the Southbridge will controls the slower traffic components. The faster
components of the CPU are video cards and random access memory.
Sometimes Northbridge also handles the control of CPU cache. The slower
components as I/O devices, DMA controller and system clock fall in to the
control of Southbridge and it is also called as I/O controller Hub (ICH). The
speed of these Buses depends on speed of FSB. When the CPU is fast and
it is connected with low performance FSB then there is a result of data
bottlenecks. In this case Processor performs faster than FSB for one activity
and waits for FSB to send the new instruction. This state of CPU is called
idle state. Therefore to utilize the faster CPU you should also have faster
FSB.
21. FSB is also called as ________________.
22. The chipset consists of two processors namely ___________ and
____________.
23. The state of CPU that it performs faster than FSB for the activity and
waits for FSB to send the new instructions is called ____________.
4.7 Dual Independent Bus (DIB)

Dual Independent Bus is architecture to connect the processor, memory,
and L2 cache. L2 cache is a set of memory circuits which is designed to
speed up access to frequently used data. One bus connects the processor
to L2 cache and a second connects the processor to main memory. The two
Bus features of DIB enables the data flow simultaneously or in parallel
processing method rather than queuing up in a single sequential method
and waiting for a long time to complete one instruction and CPU going to
idle state. In DIB one Bus connects the CPU to level-2 cache and other Bus
connects memory to level-2 cache. The main use of this connection is that
level-2 cache helps in increasing performance of the Bus externally.
The following are the features of DIB:
 Increase of speed due to double Bus
 Scale up of the performance externally independent of the speed of the
Bus.

 Allows access to faster cache.

 Allows multiple and parallel cache requests through the process of
pipelining cache to the processor.
24. DIB connects ____________ to _________ and ___________.
25. DIB allows single sequential method for processing. (True/ false)
4.8 Troubleshooting
Generally trouble shooting of the Busis not done since it is more of a
passive connector. It can be very easily replaced. But for some of the major
signals which are connected to the motherboard you might need to trouble
shoot. This happens at the POST board. Normally you could do this process
by using LED lights in the POST boards. A light-emitting diode (LED) is a
semiconductor light source. These are used as indicator lamps in many
devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. LED light is used in POST
board to indicate the status of the power supply, control signals and clock
time. When the LED is missing in the board then it means that there is
some error in connection in the motherboard.
You can note the following hints to rectify the Bus errors.
 You can use the multi-meter to check the voltage level in the Bus.
Irrespective of low voltage or standard Bus you have to find the -12 volt
dc and +5 volt dc. You should ensure that a low voltage Bus should
have +3.3 Volt dc. Otherwise, you need to conclude that there is fault in
the Bus and need to replace power supply.
 You can adjust the CLOCK signal between 0 Hz and 33 MHz. The
timing signals for the external device and slots is provided by CLOCK
signal. If the CLOCK signal is 0 then the expansion device will not work
and you need the check the motherboard circuitry and rectify it.
 After correction or rectifying the expansion device, it can be set to its
original settings by reinitializing with the help of Reset signal. You should
always note that Reset signal should be active only once or twice after
the power is supplied.

Some of the important considerations while connecting Bus to the

various components are as follows.
 You should take care of the Bus slot versions. For example a PCI
interface of 2.4 may not work with its full functionality when it is
connected to a PCI interface of version 2.3 or lower versions. They are
compatible with the only slots to which they are designed for.
 As the connectors are mechanical devices, they are more likely to worn
out. When you are connecting the device be careful while fixing the
motherboard because if the connections are wrong some of the
functionality of the motherboard may fail or it may also cause severe
motherboard damage. If you are more likely connecting and
disconnecting the expansion devices, it may result in unreliable
connections.
 It is always better to remove the faulty board or replace it. You should
always remove and reinsert the board since board is a metallic device. If
the board develops metallic oxides it will not work properly. By removing
metallic oxide you can remove the dust from the expansion slots.
 When you find a faulty board, after removing it from the system test it on
another board before replacing it to confirm the problem is related to
motherboard itself. Sometimes the signal in Bus may also cause for
different kind of component failure.
When the Bus slot gets failed, then very small methods you can apply.
 You can block the slot and damaged slot should not be used
 Replace the damaged Bus slot with the new Bus slot connector.
 Replace completely the motherboard.
26. Troubleshooting of Buses can be done at ____________.
27. _________ is used to find the faulty Buses.
28. CLOCK signal can be adjusted between _________and _______.
4.9 Summary
Bus has been the little passive interrupt which has the capability to be an
agent for communication between CPU, memory and various components
of the computer. Bus is divided into three types of Bus, address Bus, data

Bus and control Bus. It is a backbone of the network allowing the data to
pass through various computers and network. These are the electric wires
which help in transferring the data. There are various types of Buses based
on the type of its use such as expansion Bus, local Bus, internal and
external Bus, unidirectional and bidirectional Bus. The Bus architecture is
divided into 3 major types like ISA, PCI and AGP. The other kinds of Buses
are FSB and DIB which are responsible for connecting the various
components to motherboard. Industry Standard Architecture which are not
in use were used to connect the system with video cards, sound cards,
networking cards, etc. This is bigger in size than the PCI and is black in
colour. ISA Buses were also referred as PC Buses. ISA has its two versions
namely 8-bit ISA and 16-bit ISA.
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) is a high speed, intelligent Bus.
PCI supports many features like, linear burst low access latency, Bus
mastering, etc.
AGP is best suited for 3D applications. AGP’s performance is directly
proportional to the bandwidth; its bandwidth is twice than that of PCI. The
important feature of AGP specification is that a 32-bit AGP will easily fit into
PCI configuration. It can process multiple request rather than waiting for a
long time for the new instruction and making the CPU sit idle.Bus is queued
by signals.
FSB stands for Front Sided Bus and used to connect CPU to the computer
system and CPU with the various other components of the system. FSB is
two directional flows of data, i.e. means various components send and
receives the data from the processor.
DIB which stands for Dual integrated Bus enables the data flow
simultaneously or in parallel processing method rather than queuing up in
a single sequential method and waiting for a long time to complete one
instruction and CPU going to idle state.
Troubleshooting with respect to Bus is done at POST boards and rectified
using LED lights.

4.10 Glossary
Term Description
I/O The term I/O is used to describe any program, operation or
device that transfers data to or from a computer and to or from
a peripheral device. Every transfer is an output from one device
and an input into another. Devices such as keyboard.
Back bone A central conduit designed to transfer network traffic at high
speeds.
Interrupt An interrupt is an event in hardware that triggers the processor
to jump from its current program counter to a specific point in
the code. It is a signal that says that an event has occurred.
LPT Port Line Print Terminal is the original, and still common, name of
the parallel port interface on IBM PC-compatible computers. It
was designed to operate a text printer that used IBM's 8-bit
extended ASCII character set.
PC/AT The IBM Personal Computer/AT are also called asPC AT or
PC/AT, was IBM's second-generation PC, designed around the
6 MHz Intel 80286 microprocessor and released in 1984 as
machine type 5170. The name AT stood for "Advanced
Technology", and was chosen because the AT offered various
technologies that were then new in personal computers
DMA Channel Direct memory access (DMA) channels are system pathways
used by many devices to transfer information directly to and
from memory.
Expansion IN the computer an opening is there where a circuit board can
be inserted to add new capabilities to the computer called
expansion slots.
COM3 A COM3 (or Communications 3) port is a communications
channel on the computer that is used to transmit data from
hardware devices to the processor.
IRQ IRQ stands for Interrupt ReQuest, and refers to special

numbered channels that are used by devices to get the
processors attention.
PC/XT The IBM PC/XT (also written PC-XT or PC XT), commonly
referred to as the XT, was IBM's successor to the original IBM
PC.


1. Explain the working of Bus connection.
2. Bring out the different DMA channels with its specific functions
3. After the development of two versions of architecture of Buses, why was
PCI Bus selected?
4. Explain the features supported by PCIBus?
5. List the different PCI signals along with their functions?
6. What are the characteristics of AGP?
7. Explain the architecture of AGP along with its figure?
8. Compare between PCI and AGP?
9. How do you troubleshoot Bus problem?
4.12 Answers
1. Buses
2. a. False , b. True
3. CLOCK speed and MHz
4. Expansion
5. ISA, PCI and AGP
6. ISA
7. 8-bit and 16-bit
8. PC/XT
9. 62, 20, 8
10. 8, 5, 4
11. 4.77 MHz to 8.33 MHz
12. PCI
13. a. False , b. True , True
14. Access time
15. Interrupt ReQuest (IRQ)
16. FSB
17. Front Sided Bus
18. AGP

19. a. True m b. True , c. True , d, False

20. ATX and NLX
21. Processor Bus
22. Northbridge and Southbridge
23. Idle state
24. Level-2 cache, CPU and Memory
25. False
26. POST board
27. LED lights
28. 0 Hz to 33 MHz
Terminal Questions
1. Refer Section 4.2. BUS
2. Refer section 4.3.1, 8-bit Bus, Table 4.2. DMA channel expansion
3. Refer Section 4.4, Peripheral component Interconnect
4. Refer Section 4.4.1, PCI configuration
5. Refer Section 4.4.3, PCI signal, table 4.1, the functions of PCI signals
6. Refer Section 4.5, Accelerated Graphic Port
7. Refer Section 4.5, structure of AGP
8. Refer Section 4.5.1, AGP vs PCI
9. Refer Section 4.8, Troubleshooting
References:
hardware, 5th edition by Stephen J. Bigelow, Tata McGraw Hill
Publications, 2001
 Upgrading and repairing PCs, 15th anniversary edition by Scott Mueller,
E-References:
 http://www.interfacebus.com/Design_Connector_PCMCIA.html
 http://parts.digikey.com/1/parts/601570-ic-8-bit-bus-sw-2port-20-tssop-
pi5c3244le.html
 http://www.javvin.com/hardware/DIB2.html
 http://www.developer.Intel.com/technology/agp/index.htm

Unit 5 CMOS
Structure:
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 The need of CMOS
5.3 CMOS Optimization tactics
5.4 Configuring the standard CMOS setup
5.5 Troubleshooting
5.6 Summary
5.7 Glossary
5.9 Answers
5.1 Introduction
In the previous unit we have discussed about the meaning of BUS and its
different types. You get to know the function of each type of BUS and the
different kinds of BUSes used in PC/AT and PC/XT. After the PC/AT came
into existence IBM gave more options to setup the parameters. CMOS is a
small and low-power RAM chip which was used to store the system’s setup
parameters. In PC/AT the discrete switches were replaced by logical
switches. When the computer starts, the BIOS read the parameters which
are stored in the CMOS RAM. BIOS use these parameters in the normal
operation of the system. For this reason it is very important that while
confirmation of the system you must always use correct settings.
In this unit you will get a detailed view of selection of CMOS parameters.
You will get to know the guidelines for proper CMOS optimization and
battery maintenance.
Objectives:
 Identify the need for CMOS.
 Get the CMOS set up key sequences and tactics.
 Do the configuration of standard CMOS setup
 Maintain and resolve the CMOS problems through troubleshooting.

5.2 The need of CMOS

CMOS RAM is the acronym for Complementary Metal Oxide
semiconductors. CMOS is the semiconductor or battery powered chip which
exists on the Motherboard and is responsible for retaining certain system
information like date, time and some system setup parameters when the
computer system is shut down. It is also called as Very Low-Power static
RAM. The present CMOS RAM provides 128 bytes of memory. The main
function of CMOS provides storage facility to the RAM to store information
whenever the computer boots up, such as hard disk types, keyboard and
display type, chip set, and even the time and date. This information’s is lost
when the power goes off. Only the last saved information will remain.
Therefore CMOS is used to access your hard disks along with needful
information. This also helps in accessing operating system.
Although the CMOS RAM has nickel cadmium battery as its protection for
power supply as it recharges, it is always advisable to keep a copy in CMOS
in case disaster strikes.
BIOS require the information present in the CMOS to carry out the basic
input/output system and functioning of interfaces. Therefore CMOS is very
useful when the RAM is lost after the power goes off. A battery is connected
to the PC to provide power to the CMOS. This battery is called CMOS
battery which helps in storing the date, time and system attributes until the
next time system is turned on.

1. ______________ is a small and low-power RAM chip which was used
to store the system’s setup parameters.
2. When the computer starts, ____________ read the parameters which
are stored in the CMOS RAM.BIOS
3. CMOS RAM is also called as _______________.
4. CMOS RAM has ________________ battery.
5. _______________ helps in storing the date, time and system attributes
until the next time system is turned on.

5.3 CMOS Optimization Tactics

 As you know CMOS set up data does not automatically get all the data
or it does not configure itself as a package. It needs to be keyed in by
the manufacturer by using some setup routines. Earlier PC/AT
depended on disk-based setup utility for its setup routines. That means
floppy disk which contained the CMOS setup utility was used during the
booting of the computer. Before learning the procedures you must first
know how to enter CMOS setup in the computer.
 CMOS optimizing tactics is a method of choosing as many number of
suitable set as possible. Due to complexity in the architecture, the PC
seeks more and more CMOS setup to be downloaded. In this case it is
very difficult to choose the optimizing method. However if we follow
some of the points we can get the CMOS setup as per our requirement.
These points can be tactics to download the setup which you will be
listing later in this section 5.3.
 To initiate CMOS setup, launch the setup utility in the first place as the
manufacturers are hardly consistent in accessing the setup utilities.
Most of the times we should launch the set manually in beginning of the
configuration once your set up is complete and testing is done a
message will appear on the monitor indicating the correct key or key
combination. These key combination may be press <F2>, press <F3> or
Del. One of the example of the key combination may be similar to as
shown below,
 Press <F1> to enter Setup…
 Some BIOS versions will not display these kinds of setup messages on
the monitor but the setup routine is still accessible.
 As there are various numbers of key combinations, to practice and to
keep in mind all the combinations is a cumbersome task. Table 5.1 will
help you in case of any difficulty you may face during CMOS
configuration. The key combination of the BIOS differs from the type of
manufacturers which is as shown below

Table 5.1 CMOS setup key sequences

Sl. BIOS manufacturers Key or Key sequence Manufacturer
No.
1 DTK BIOS ESC key at the time DTK
of POST
2 AMI BIOS Del Key at the time of American Megatrends
POST incorporation
3 Award BIOS CTRL+ALT+ESC Award
4 Gateway 2000 PC F1 Gateway
5 ALR PC(PCI F2 ALR
systems)
6 ALR PC(non-PCI CTRL+ALT+ESC ALR
systems)
7 Compaq PC F10 Compaq PC
8 IBM PS/2 BIOS CTRL+ALT+INS after IBM
pressing CTRL
+ALT+ DEL
9 Phoenix BIOS CTRL+ALT+ESC or Phoenix
CTRL + ALT + S
10 Sony PC F3 during the starting Sony
of PC , and then
press F1
 If you forget any of the key combinations or you get stuck during the
configuration verify then use anyone of the key listed in the table. This
will force the CMOS setup routine by causing configuration change.
Some times this will cause error in the CMOS configuration and still ask
you to proceed to setup routine.
 As the PC systems continue to progress, the number of devices as well
as the key combinations went on increasing and there were many
possible setup entries which gave rise to 100s of combination..
Therefore, it became very difficult to select the optimum combination
among these. Due to the complexity in the architecture if you have to
choose the right one, you must follow the following points:
 Basic Check: ensure that the components which are installed have
standard CMOS settings. For example, you should verify for date,
time, memory available, hard disk and floppy disk etc.

 System cache must be enabled: ensure that all your cache memory
is enabled. You must enable the level-1 and level-2 cache available
in the system. These caches are called as internal and external
caches respectively.
 Wait states of RSM must be minimized: ensure that your main
memory or RAM is setup at the minimum wait state values. You
should also be careful while setting the low wait state. If the vales
are too low it can hang the configuration. RSM stands for Removable
Storage manager is an interface designed to manage removable
storage devices and media.
 ROM shadowing must be enabled: by shadowing the video and
system ROM you can increase the performance of the system.
 Power management must be enabled: ensure that the power
management features in the system are enabled. It saves electricity
and increases the life of many components.
 Drive access must be optimized: ensure that the both the drive and
drive controller you are using support each other. You should always
use fastest data transfer protocol.
 Go with BIOS defaults: you are always presented with the built in
default CMOS BIOS setup. It is a mere waste to re-enter the CMOS
parameters from the beginning. In the CMOS main menu you can
find the option on select BIOS defaults. Though default settings may
not have effective performance it can help you when you are
frustrated in making wrong attempts once or twice.
 There is no guarantee that you will able to use all the available
features through CMOS setup. Some of the options may have
activated their hidden settings. When you are not able to see the
options it may cause severe damage with respect to PC
performance. For example, if the cache setting and DRAM timing
settings are unavailable it can have serious problem in PC
performance. Therefore, there are various methods and tools
available to use these hidden settings based on the BIOS versions.
The following are some of the machines with their ways to access
BIOS.

 AMI (American Megatrends) machines: AMI setup is a program that

allows you to access AMI BIOS and change the hidden settings. This
program is suitable for AMIs High Flex BIOS and AMI WinBIOS.
 Non AMI Machines: The machine which does not use AMI BIOS like
Award, phoenix, etc., uses CTCHIPZ utility to check and access the
hidden settings. CTCHIPZ is a utility program that allows you to
change chipset specific registers that is specifically a system
configuration setting similar to BIOS set up that affect all kind of
system operation from cache size to PCI settings. In this type you
need to know the chipset type so that correct configuration file can
be selected for that particular system. You need to check the
document to select correct file name with an extension for
configuration which is represented as .CFG is a configuration file
format used for storing settings. CFG files are created by many
programs to store information and settings that differ from the
defaults settings.
Activity 1:
What will you do when you cannot enter CMOS setup even though the
correct key combination is used?
Hint: Refer the concept of symptom of motherboard under the book on
troubleshooting, maintaining, and repairing PCs by S. J. Bigelow

6. In PC/AT, _____________ was being used which contained the CMOS
setup utility during booting of the computer.
7. __________BIOS used Del key at the time of POST.
8. ___________ saves electricity and increases the use of many
components.
9. Non AMI machines use ____________utility to check and access the
hidden settings.
10. By _______________ the video and system RAM you can increase the
performance of the system.

5.4 Configuring the standard CMOS setup

 In-order to configure the system you should know the system correctly.
Otherwise the computer will not boot the system in the first stage. The
Standard CMOS setup consists of a display with basic information about
system’s date, time, floppy disk drives, hard disk drives and other
external peripherals. These data are the important requirements for
booting the system.
 The below are the configuration steps for CMOS
 Computer hardware specification gathering: you need to gather
necessary information needed to configure the CMOS. The different
specifications are to set the system data and time, minimum requirement
of memory to be installed, the requirement of the drives if any and its
type.
 You need to select the second screen to set the parameters for the
booting and disk drives. Set the locations so that you can boot the
operating system and the options for second and third location can be
set. You can also set the characteristics on how the system should
behave from this page.
 In order to set the video characteristics you need to set the shadow
memory and disable the video on-board memory. you can label the type
of video you have installed and set memory timing.
 When you create a setting on the computer you need to enter legacy
products that don’t detect the PnP (plug and play) details. Plug and play
is a device that enables the external devices to be connected to the
computer and automatically detects the devices in the system. This you
can set in the PnP/PCI page. It will allow you to define the addresses
and interrupts for each card. Once the settings are prepared as per the
requirements you need to press the Esc key to get back to the main
menu. One you save and exit the system will reboot.
 You can re-enter the CMOS settings program and check for any errors if
your system don’t boot and rectify them.
 There are many entries found commonly in the CMOS standard setup
menu list. They are as given below:
 Date and time: you can change the date and time of the system clock
using these settings.
 Error halt: if an error is detected in the initial stage of the PC start, to

ensure whether the PC will stop, this entry is used. There are some
more similar entries which help in handling the halt. They are:
a. No errors: this entry is used to ensure that system will not stop when
the error is detected.
b. All errors: this entry is used when the BIOS detects a nonfatal error
and stops the system. It will prompt you for the inputs.
c. All, but keyboard: this entry is used when you do not require the
system to stop for keyboard error and to stop when other devices
encounter error.
d. All, but disk: this entry is used when you want to continue running in
disk error and stop for other devices.
 Floppy drive A: this setting is used to know the type of the floppy of the
floppy drive installed for drive A. for example, 1.44MB 3.5 inch or 1.2 MB
5.25 inch floppy disk drive. Please note that there were 2 floppy disk
drives in older computers. Therefore two drives were used for floppy
disks. Floppy drive A and floppy drive B.
 Halt on: whenever you need to skip the errors during the POST, you can
use this entry.
 Hard disk C: you can auto-detect the hard drive attributes by setting the
SCSI drive setting the position as none. If not you can define the hard
drives using the following six parameters. Cyl is the number of cylinders
available on your hard disk. Heads is the number of heads available in
the hard disk. WPre is the setting which specifies where write Pre-
compensation begins in the cylinders. Please note that in the newer
computers this entry has no value. So set it to a negative value or to a
maximum value so that it does not have any effect on the calculations.
LZ setting helps in specifying the cylinder used as the landing zone
without an auto-parking feature. In the newer computers it has no value
so set it to 0 or to the maximum number of the cylinders of the drive.
Sect/Trk is used to get the number of sectors per track. Size based on
the number of cylinders, heads and the sectors entered the total drive
size is automatically calculated using the formula,

 Like floppy disk drive hard disk drive also has two drives C and D.
 Daylight savings: this entry helps in allowing the RTC to activate the
daylight saving scheme. If this scheme is not activated automatically
then you need to activate the scheme manually.
 HDD Delay: some of the hard disk will require more time to initialize itself
in the BIOS. When the BOOT is very fast then there may not be enough
time to initiate itself properly therefore this setting helps in prompting
delay in the boot up and identify the hard disk drive. Though you can
select various options of time select the lowest time for the HDD delay to
maintain the boot speed.
 Keyboard: this setting helps to identify whether a keyboard is attached to
the system. If this is not installed then BIOS performs the keyboard
check during the POST and allows booting of PC without prompting the
keyboard error.
 Memory: this setting is used to choose the kind of memory elements to
be displayed in the start time. Based on the following types the content
is distinguished by the BIOS POST:
o Base Memory: finds out the amount of base memory installed.
o Extended Memory: finds out the amount of extended memory
installed.
o Other memory: finds out the available memory that can be allotted to
different applications. For example AGP buffer area and RAM area.
o Total Memory: this is the sum of base, extended and other memory
of the system.
 Primary display: this setting is used to identify the type of display used in
the system. For example, for the older computers the type of display
differs from VGA, PGA or EGA. For newer computers VGA alone serves
the purpose.
 Quick Power-On-Self-Test: you can speed up your booting time by
selecting Quick POST. This entry prompts the BIOS to skip some of the
check like memory count during the POST.

Activity 2:
How will you manage when you notice that only some CMOS setup
entries are corrupted when running a particular application?
Hint: Refer to the concept of symptom of motherboard in the book on

11. ___________ is the number of cylinders available in the hard disk.
12. ___________ is the setting which specifies where write pre-
compensation begins in the cylinder.
5.5 Troubleshooting
 CMOS failure is a very rare case since it is most important feature for
system boot. But still, due to the loss of some of the CMOS settings or
data, the system is compromised due to the poor configured CMOS
setup. In this section you will discuss on identifying the CMOS set up
problems and how to correct those problems.
5.5.1 CMOS password troubleshooting
 Password is a means of protecting your system away from the malicious
and snooping entities. When there is shift or transfer of system from one
person to another or one department to another department, then there
is a great chance of losing the password. This will lead to unused of the
system because computer will not start without the password luckily this
data will be stored in the CMOS settings. If you could manage to clear
the CMOS RAM you can easily disable the password security. But you
should be careful while clearing the settings because some of the
settings are very crucial and if they are lost then it is very difficult to get
them back.
 You may deal with these unwanted passwords in many ways with the
help of some of the tips given below.
 Ask a friend: whenever you lose your CMOS password it can sometime
happen that one of your friends or colleagues knows about it. Ask them
if anybody knows the password. This saves so much of difficulty and any
time after log in you can change the set up.

 Check for the jumper by name “Clear password”: Jumper is a conductor

which is used to close a break or bypass part of an electrical circuit.
These are used basically to set up or adjust mother boards. You can
take a look inside the motherboard and check for the jumper on the
mother board by name password clear. It will be written clearly with
similar names for the reason of security once you find the jumper then
you can set it and boot the system. Later you may cut the power supply
and reset the jumper. By now your password should be clear and your
CMOS settings will not be lost.
 Prompt for configuration change: you can also disconnect SIMM (single
inline memory module) or DIMM (dual inline memory module) from the
system and start the computer. BIOS will recognize the configuration
change and give you an error message prompting you to setup the
CMOS. This allows you to disable the password by entering inside the
CMOS without clearing the other settings inside it.
 Clear the CMOS RAM: finally this can be used to clear the password.
But this is the most crucial step because if you are careless enough to
lose the important CMOS settings then it is very difficult to get back the
settings unless you tweak it. Here you can search for the jumper on the
motherboard which is written as CMOS clear. Start the computer by
setting the jumper. You can see message indicating the loading of
default settings or CMOS clear. Now switch off the computer and reset
the jumper. By now your password will be disabled. Now you can restart
and reconfigure the CMOS setting from the beginning.
5.5.2 MOS battery Maintenance
It is very important to maintain the CMOS chip and CMOS battery to be
maintained separately. This battery needs to be changed frequently. When
you replace the battery ensure that you have the CMOS backup on external
disk. Once the backup is taken then,
 Shut down the computer
 Unplug the system
 Remove the battery
 Now the CMOS RAM loses its settings.
 Recycle the original battery

 Install the new battery based on the instructions provided by the

manufacturer.
 Secure the new battery
 Restart the computer
 After booting, go to CMOS setup routine and restore each setting. Boot
the system from the disk which contains the setup routines.
 Now you should be able to restart the computer in a normal way.
In case you are using the older batteries, remove the CMOS back up battery
first. Though the batteries are safe and secure, due to their acid based
electrolyte which can leak. Electrolytes are the substances that produce ions
when they are in contact with the solutions as they are free to move in
solutions. It may cause damage in the contacts and damage motherboard
itself. Circuit damage or destroyed motherboard cannot be repaired.
Activity 3:
Suppose you have lost your system password, then perform the best step
to start your computer.

a. “Clear password” is a jumper name.
b. Circuit damage in the motherboard can be repaired.
5.6 Summary
Complementary Metal Oxide semiconductors are known as CMOS RAM in
short and also called as Very Low-Power static RAM. BIOS read the
attributes from the CMOS RAM to perform normal operation in the system.
Therefore, to have a proper system you should have correct CMOS settings.
The information on date, time or addresses are lost when the power goes
off. BIOS require CMOS to carry out the basic input/output system function,
hardware devices and interfacing function. A battery is connected to PC to
provide power to the CMOS. This battery is called CMOS battery which
helps in storing the date, time and system attributes until the next time
system is turn on.

Launch set up utility in the first place as the manufacturers; CMOS setup
initiates hardly are consistent in accessing the setup utilities, in most of the
cases you only have to launch the setup in the beginning of the
configuration.
 You have studied the key sequences and their functions. If you forget
any of the key combination or get stuck during the configuration verify
and use anyone of the key listed in the table shown earlier. This will
force the CMOS setup routine by causing configuration change. As the
number of devices as well as the key combinations increase a number
of combinations come into existence. To get optimum solutions we need
to choose the right one with the help of following points like:
 Basic Check, System cache must be enabled, Wait states of RSM must
be minimized, ROM shadowing must be enabled, Power management
must be enabled, Drive access must be optimized, Go with BIOS
defaults. These options give no guarantee to use available features of
CMOS setup use. While configuring the standard CMOS setup there are
many entries found commonly in the CMOS standard setup menu list.
They are Date and time, Error halt-No errors, All errors, All, but
keyboard, All, but disk, Floppy drive A, Halt on, Hard disk C.
Troubleshooting and maintaining the CMOS involves maintenance the
battery rather than maintain the CMOS chip. Here you need to take care of
CMOS of password of maintenance and battery maintenance.
5.7 Glossary
Term Description
RSM Remote switching module is a switch that Is away from the host or
control office.
Shadowing Certain settings are hidden to increase performance. This is called
shadowing
HDD delay It is the setting that allots halt time to CMOS when the hard disk
drive is slow and takes too long time to set up itself in the
computer and BIOS is very fast so that it can initiative itself.
Jumper It is a conductor which is of shorter length and is used to close a
break in the computer. They are used to setup the circuit boards
RAM Random Access memory is a type of memory that can be
accessed anytime dynamically. It is volatile memory


1. List the need of CMOS.
2. Why is it difficult to select optimum combination?
3. List the entries of CMOS standard menu list.
4. What is a password? How do you manage password problem?
5. Explain CMOS battery maintenance.
5.9 Answers
1. CMOS
2. BIOS
3. Very low-power static RAM
4. Nickel Cadmium
5. CMOS battery
6. Floppy disk
7. AMI
8. Power management
9. CTCHIPZ
10. Shadowing
11. Cyl
12. WPre
13. a. True
b. False
Terminal Questions
1. Refer Section 5.2.1 the need of CMOS
2. Refer Section 5.3 CMOS Optimization tactics
3. Refer Section 5.4 Configuring the standard CMOS setup
4. Refer Section 5.5.1 CMOS password troubleshooting
5. Refer Section 5.5.2 CMOS battery maintenance
References:
Publications, 2001


 CMOS, Circuit design, layout and simulation, third edition by R. Jacob
Baker, Wiley IEEE publishing, 2010.
E-References:
 http://www.dalsa.com/corp/markets/ccd_vs_cmos.aspx
 http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=130913
 http://www.ehow.com/how_7570417_access-cmos-configuration-award-
bios.html

Unit 6 BIOS
Structure:
6.1 Introduction
Objectives
6.2 BIOS
Power-On-Self-Test (POST)
Routines
6.3 BIOS features
AMI BIOS
Awards BIOS
Microid Research BIOS (MR BIOS)
Identifying the BIOS chip
6.4 BIOS and boot sequences
6.5 BIOS shortcmings and compatibility issues
Device drivers
BIOS shadowing
Direct Control
BIOS bugs
6.6 Troubleshooting
6.7 Summary
6.8 Glossary
6.10 Answers
6.1 Introduction
In the previous unit you have seen how settings are important for the
efficient execution of the PC. You have come to know that there are different
parameters which are used by BIOS to start the computer. Each set of
components such as chipset are designed in various ways based on the
requirement. To understand the complexity of the technology by the
computer BIOS is used. BIOSwhich stands for Basic Input Output System is
present in the RAM and used as an interface between computer hardware
and operating system. BIOS give the standard set of functions to access the
operating system. Therefore, each computer has different BIOS with the
same set of functions.

In this unit you will study the working of typical BIOS. You will study how to
identify BIOS versions through some examples. You will also study various
features that can be supported by BIOS. BIOS isnot only meant to support
motherboard but also various components. Whenever a new video card is
developed which is not known to the BIOS then a BIOS RAM chip
subsystems such as video and drive controller is designed. During the
system initialisation the first step is to locate if any valid BIOS ROMs are
present in the upper memory which are referred as adapter BIOS. In a
computer you can fit up to six or more BIOS ROMS like:
 System BIOS
 Video adapter firmware
 Drive controller BIOS
 Network adapter board BIOS
 Modem card firmware
 SCSI adapter BIOS
Objectives:
 Explain the working of BIOS.
 Identify various features of BIOS.
 List the boot sequences for various BIOS versions
 get various shortcomings and issues related to BIOS
 Identify the basic problems in BIOS and resolve through troubleshooting.
6.2 BIOS
BIOS or BASIC Input Output System is an electronic program that instructs
the computer to start operation.It is a collection of instructions located in the
ROM chip that are designed to manage themselves even when there is disk
failure.BIOS occupy 128KB of upper memory space (as you studied in unit 2
UMA is the space of real mode memory which is dedicated to handle
memory requirements of the physical computer system) in the motherboard.
The main function of BIOS dependson three sections. They are POST,
CMOS Setup routine and the system services routines. The typical working
of Motherboard BIOS function is as shown in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1: Function of Motherboard BIOS
BIOS instruct the POST to perform the checking operations to verify that all
the components required to boot the system are available and working
properly. It instructs the Setup routine to configure the hardware and RAM. It
instructs the Service routines to form a layer between hardware and
operating system
6.2.1 Power-On-Self-Test (POST)
Power-On-Self-Test is a routine that is run to ensure that all the components
and functions of the computer are working correctly to start the computer
successfully. The POST only checks the system for availability of resources;
however, POST also manages the initialization of computer system entirely.
It performs the following steps, along with a check for availability of
resources.
 Initialization of all the activities for the PC is done by POST.
 System RAM and ROM instructions need to undergo a low-level
diagnostic and reliability test which is done by POST.
 POST checks the CPU, motherboard start up, CMOS for system
configuration data (the 128 bytes of CMOS)
 POST sets up the index interrupt vectors for the CPU ranging from
0000h to 02FFh, i.e. ranging from 0 bytes to 768 bytes. Address 0000h
to 02FFh is the on-chip expanded RAM area, totally 768 bytes.This area
canbe accessed by external direct addressing mode with instruction.
 POST then sets up a BIOS stack area ranging from 0300h to 03FFh,
i.e., 769 bytes to 1023 bytes.
 POST loads the BDA in low memoryranging from 0400h to 04FFh.,

i.e., 1024 bytes to 512 KB
 POST detects the optional equipment if any.
Lastly, after performing all the checks and managing, POST proceeds to
boot the operating system in an available disk.
6.2.2 Routines
Once the hardware and system configuration is carried out you might
require an engine which can help you in system configuration and providing
accessibility to the various resources. Therefore, routines are required.
Routines are the set of sequences of a big Computer program; in this case it
is BIOS program. It consists of standard unvarying procedure. Routines are
classified into two types:
 CMOS setup routines
 System Service routines
CMOS setup routines
CMOS setup routines are the set of instructions in the BIOS RAM which is
used to alter and test the CMOS settings. This routine helps in setting the
parameters for hardware drives and used to establish the attributes required
for your computer and to store them. This routine helps you in hard drive
installation. In the older computers CMOS setup routines are provided as an
external utility which was on the floppy disk. In modern computers these
routines are built in the motherboard BIOS itself. System setup is very
helpful when the POST encountersa mismatch while comparing the
hardware setting information with the CMOS RAM. If the settings do not
match the boot process is halted and display system setup error. The
CMOS setup varies based on the BIOS manufacturers.
System Service Routines
System services are the functions that separate hardware and operating
system. A system is a collection of different types of chipsets, motherboards
designs, bus architectures, processors, etc. System services allow them to
work on a single operating system. Interrupts are used to invoke services.
Interrupts are the signals that help in stopping the operation of the CPU and
see what it has to do as its next function by sending the control to another
memory address. In this memory address it usually has a subroutine meant
for a specific operation. Once this operation is complete the interrupt returns
its control back to where the PC had left before the interrupt occurred.
Interrupts can be produced from three major sources:
 The CPU
 A hardware condition
 A Software condition
The CPU produces an interrupt which is known as processor interrupts. This
interrupt is caused when a program turns out to be unusual, unexpected or
erroneous. For example, since any number divided by zero is infinity,
whenever a program tries to divide a number by ZERO, the CPU will take it
as integer value and generate INT 00h, which causes an error message as
“Divide by zero” error. INT 00h is executed after an attempt to divide by zero
or when the quotient does not fit in the destination.
Hardware interrupts are generated when any external device requires
special attention form the CPU to perform a specific function. IRQs are
asserted with logical level to invoke this kind of interrupt. When this happens
CPU interrupts its current activity and gets busy in the hardware activity
caused by the interrupt. When this task is completed CPU resumes its
original task. For example, whenever you press a key in the keyboard, it
asserts a logical level corresponding to INT 09h. This invokes keyboard
handling routine. INT 09h is called after every key press and release and
during the time when a key is being held.
Software interrupt is generated when a CPU needs to check the hardware
device. For example, whenever you press “PRNTSCN” (print-screen)
button, it generates INT 05h. the interrupt will simply store the video or text
buffer to the printer port. INT 05h is executed when Shift+PrintScreenis
pressed and when the BOUND instruction detects a bound failure.
System service gives functionality to the computer devices where the setup
makes the system configured to the various devices.
1. ____________ is present in RAM that acts as an interface between
computer hardware and operating system.
2. BISO instructs the service routine to configure the hardware and RAM
(true/false)
3. POST stands for ____________.
4. Which are the two types of routines?

6.3 BIOS Features

Due to the advance in technology there is vast change in motherboard,
chipset, video, drives, etc. Therefore BIOS also needs to improve its
technology so that it can gel with the resources of the system. Inorder to
improve BIOS we must befamiliar with the major features of BIOS. BIOS
offers the following features given in the Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: BIOS Features
Resources
BIOS features
Support
CPU support  Should support wide range of CPUs specifically based on
the manufacturers like Intel, AMD Cyrix.
 Look for Pentium series.
Chipset support  Should support the new chipset families like Intel’s Core 2
and AMD CPUs
 This support is very important because chipset is
responsible for motherboard designers to implement the
other features like memory architecture,BUS architecture,
etc.
Memory Support  Should support the modern memory and auto-size itself
 Parity and error checking and correction (ECC) should be
supported.
 BIOS can support upto 4GB of RAM
Drive support  Should support 32-bit disk transfers.
 BIOS should also support removable media drives like zip
(medium-capacity removable disk storage system) or
SyQuest (it is a removable mass storage system that
comes in 44 Mb and 80 Mb sizes and a product of SyQuest
Co.) drives.
 BIOS may also support RAID functions
Power  Should support the ACPI (Advanced Configuration and
Management Power Interface is a standard specification provides an
Support open standard for unified operating system-centric device
configuration and power management)specification.
 Power management is very much important for desktop and
lower version of the system to avoid wastage of energy.
 Should support DPMS (Display Power management
Signalling is a specific standard used to reduce the power
consumption in the monitor) for monitors and other display
devices

I2/O support  I2/O support means an Intelligent I/O support. This is

responsible for allowing the dynamic assignment to the port
and resources of I/O devices.
Plug-and-Play  Should be able to identify and configure PnP (Plug and
support Play is an option for the computer that gives it a feature of
automatically discovering the hardware components as
soon as it is connected to new component without the
intervention of manual installation or configuration)devices.
 Communicates with windows to determine system
resources and to support signals communicating with PCI
buses.
USB Support  Should support complete compatibility with all the USB
(Universal Serial BUS is a specification used by the system
to transfer data between the computer and the external
digital device.) hardware and hubs
 Should support both Universal and Open HCI (A host
controller interface (HCI) is a register-level interface that
enables a host controller for USB or any hardware to
communicate with a hostcontroller driver in
software.)standards
ParallelPort  Should support full range of port modes which includes
Support Standard Parallel port, bidirectional mode, enhanced
capabilities port( ECP), Enhanced parallel port (EPP)
PCI and AGP  Should support full specification of all version of PCI or
support AGP.
Antivirus  Should provide antivirus facility.
support  Should save the master boot record from being changed.
You are aware that BIOS is classified depending upon the type of its
manufacturers. Some of them are discussed here.
6.3.1 AMI BIOS

AMI stands for American Megatrends Incorporation which played a leading
role in the development of BIOS and its different versions for PC. In this kind
of BIOS the code appears in the lower portion of the POST display. The
code indicates the relative age of the BIOS. The following code indicates an
Older BIOS which was manufactured between 1986 and 1990:
DINT-1123-040990-K8
The format used in the above code is AAAA-BBBB-DDMMYY-Kx where

 AAAA is the BIOS types which also include chip identification code
 BBBB is the AMI customer Reference number which is the code of the
motherboard manufacturers.
 DDMMYY is the date on which the BIOS is released which is given in
day/month/year format.
 Kx indicates the keyboard BIOS code and x indicates the level of its
revision.
If you consider recent AMI BIOS, the code usedis A#-BBBB-CCCCCC-
DDDDDDDD-EEEEEE-FFFFFFFF-G format in which
 A is the CPU types which identifies the CPU vintage, where 8086 is
represented by zero, 8088 by 1, 80286 by 2, 80386 by 3, 80486 by 4,
Pentium by 5 and so on and # represents the size of the BIOS where 0=
64KB and 1=128KB
 BBBB represents the version number that you can use to identify the
current BIOS on the system.
 CCCCCC represents the AMI customer Reference number which is the
code of the motherboard manufacturers.
 DDDDDDDDdefines the key operating attributes of the BIOS and is a
set of eight logical flags. They are:
o Halt on error during POST
o Initialize CMOS RAM at every boot
o Keyboard controller output pin 23, 24 blocked
o Mouse support in BIOS and keyboard controller
o Wait in case of POST error
o Display floppy error during POST
o Display video error during POST
o Display keyboard error during POST
 EEEEEEis the format for date on which the BIOS is released. This is
given in (day/month/year) format.
 FFFFFFFFis the BIOS types which also includes chip identification code
 Gindicates the keyboard BIOS code and indicates the level of its
revision.

6.3.2 Awards BIOS

Awards BIOS is another important manufacturer of BIOS. Like AMI, Award
BIOS code also appears in the lower portion of the POST display during
memory count up. At this point you can note down the BIOS number, the
BIOS date, and the version. You must copy it exactlyhence you can use
pause key to do this. This can be used to identify the chipset type and
motherboard manufacturer. The Award BIOS uses the following format in its
code:
AAAAABBCD
Where
AAAAA represents the type of chipset used in the motherboard which is the
first five characters. For example, 2C4S0 which represent AMD Elan 470
chipset (it is a type chipset versions which uses AWARD BIOS).
BB represents motherboard manufacturer. These are a combination of sixth
and seventh characters. For example, XA represents ADLink technology
motherboards.
C represents the model of the motherboard. Based on the chipset
manufacturer can use same model number for representing this.
D represents the constant value which has no meaning as major. It is 00.
6.3.3 Microid Research BIOS
Microid Research BIOS is also known as MR BIOS. The BIOS identification
string is situated at the top right corner of the summary screen. If you look at
the BIOS code you can directly identify the motherboard model and
manufacturer as it directly relates to them. For example, C&T_300
represents the MR BIOS which are designed for Chips & Technologies
using CS8230 as its processor.( This can be more understandable if you go
through the table which specifies the identification strings for MR BIOS is
any manual for MR BIOS. You can get this table in the fifth edition of the
book written by Bigelow’s troubleshooting, repairing and maintain PCs.)
6.3.4 Identifying the BIOS chip

Identifying the BIOS type is also important. When it comes to replacing the
chip or motherboard you must identify the BIOS manufacturer. The best way
is to check for the sticker which shows the name of the manufacturer. You
need to peel off the sticker and you will find the manufacturer code.

Activity 1:
Try to collect some more formats of BIOS code representation and using
the specification manual try to identify the manufacturer.
Hint: Refer the concept of symptom of motherboard in the book on

5. BIOS features depends on _________.
a. BIOS should give support of parity and error checking and
correction to memory.
b. BISO supports ACPI specification for disk drives.
c. I2/O support is responsible for allowing the dynamic assignment to
the port and resources of I/O devices.
7. __________________ is the code format followed by AMI BIOS.
8. According to AMI BIOS in the code format A#-BBBB-CCCCCC-
DDDDDDDD-EEEEEE-FFFFFFFF-G, EEEEEE represents
_______________ format.
6.4 BIOS and Boot Sequences

Booting the BIOS starts with a series of steps where the process starts from
switching the power-on to loading the operating system. Though the BIOS
follows similar method, it works a bit differently with respect to eachnew
version.
BIOS perform the following test as its general procedure:
1. Disable NMI: BIOS disables the non-maskable interrupt line to the
CPU. The problem if any in CMOS RAM chip or its circuitry causes
failure. In some of the BIOS video is disabled along with parity / DMA
and NMI; then the DMA chips are initialized, failure at this point is
normally due to the PIT(programmable interrupt timer) or DMA chips.
2. PIT test: memory refresh requires very importantly a test on
Programmable Interrupt timer (PIT). Failure indicates that there is some
problem with PIT chip.

3. Power-on delay: the soft and hard reset bits will get reset in the system.
Here the failure indicates that the keyboard controller or system clock
generator chip has a problem.
4. Initialize chipsets: BISO initializes the motherboard in the system. The
failure here indicates that there may be some problem caused by
chipset, BIOS or clock generator chip.
5. BIOS ROM checksum: ROM contents undergo checksum test and
adds the factory preset value which is equal to 00h. 00h is a default
value set to the ROM for checking the error free BIOS ROM. If error
occurs this value is not equal to default value. The failure indicates that
BIOS ROM is defective and hence not equal to 00h.
6. Keyboard test: buffer space is set for the commands by sending the
command to the keyboard controller. A failure indicates that there is
some problem with keyboard controller chip. In some BIOS
thekeyboard and keyboard controller (KBC) are initialized. Problems
here are due to keyboard connection faults, or a failure of the KBC
chip.
7. CMOS shutdown check: CMOS RAM test, CMOS checksum
calculation and updating of CMOS diagnostic byte are done by BIOS.
The problem can occur in the RTC/CMOS chip or CMOS battery.
8. Disable video: it disables the video controller chip. The failure indicates
that there is problem in video controller board itself.
9. Memory test: check for amount of availability of memory. Problem
indicates that there is some fault in the memory chip.The first 356KB of
memory is tested with any diagnostic routines in the chipsets. A fault at
this point is normally due to defective memory chips, SIMMs or DIMMs.
10. Check memory refresh: it uses PIT to refresh memory
11. Check low address lines. The system checks the first 16 address lines
controlling the first 64KB of RAM. A problem with this test typically
means a fault in an address line.
12. Check low 64KB RAM. The system now checks the first 64KB of
system RAM. A problem here is usually the result of a bad Ram chip
13. Initialize support chips: BIOS proceeds to initialize the programmable
interrupts timer (PIT), the programmable interrupt controller (PIC), and

the Direct Memory Access (DMA) chips. A fault here would be located
in one of those locations.
14. Load INT vector table: BIOS loads the system’s interrupt vector table
into the first 2KB of system RAM
15. Check the keyboard controller (KBC). BIOS reads the keyboard
controller buffer at I/O port 60th. A failure here indicates a fault in the
keyboard controller chip.
16. Video tests. The system checks for the type of video adapter in use,
then tests and initializes the video memory and adapter. A problem with
this test typically indicates a fault with the video memory or adapter,
respectively. Video memory is tested on “Mono” and “CGA” adapters (if
installed). Check the adapter card if trouble occurs here.
17. Load the BDA: The system now loads the BIOS data area (BDA) into
conventional memory
18. Test memory: BIOS checks all memory below IMB. A problem here is
typically the fault of one or more RAM modules, the keyboard controller
chip, or a bad data line.
19. Check DMA registers. BIOS performs a register-level check of the DMA
controller(s) using binary test patterns. The failure indicates the
problem in DMA chips.
20. Check the keyboard: The system performs a final check of the
keyboard interface. A failure indicates the fault of the keyboard
21. Hard Drive test. Test and initialize the hard disk controller and drive. If
there is trouble here, there may be an improper setup, a bad controller,
or a defective hard drive.
22. Perform high-level tests: it test high-level devices as the floppy and
hard disks, serial adapters, parallel adapters, mouse adapter, and so
on. The failure results in corresponding text messages display.
23. Load the OS: It loads the operating system by triggering the INT19th
which is a routine. A failure indicates with an error message such as
“Non-system disk”.
24. Security. The system will ask for the password (if one has been
configured). If this does not happened, check the CMOS data or the
CMOS RAM chip. For Example, a CMOS password may have been
cleared if the CMOS backup battery has been removed.”


9. ____________________ sequence loads the BIOS data area into
conventional memory in AMI BIOS.
10. Interrupt vectors are initialized by ___________ table.
6.5 BIOS shortcomings and compatibility issues

When we start troubleshooting the problems first we must be aware of the
kind of problem and the reason of that problem. Though hours are spent in
building and installing BIOS there are still shortcomings inBIOS. You should
have a clear knowledge on the weakest area of BIOS before youstart
troubleshooting it.
6.5.1 Device Drivers
Device drivers are the devices that act like aliaison between computer
hardware and the operating systems. They are required to connect the
components to the operating system and make them work efficiently. The
general components that need drivers are mouse, keyboard, video card,
sound card, Ethernet, wireless card, card readers, card slots, etc. Some of
the device drivers are default in the operating system. They get downloaded
as default drivers automatically whenever related device is installed in the
system.
6.5.2 BIOS shadowing
BIOS chips are extremely slow speed devices. Therefore there was a
necessity of read only memory so that BIOS data must be maintained even
when power goes off. Dues to the proximity of slow access time the
permanent storage chips were not acceptable. Therefore It was necessary
to accelerate the access time of BIOS ROM. Thus came the concept of
shadowing.
BIOS shadowing is a process that copies the content of ROM into RAM
memory which helps in improving the speed of the system. The setting is
normally enabled in ROM. Through the use of CMOS routine it can be set
on or off. System BIOS ROM is most commonly shadowed. Apart from the
ROM BIOS the most commonly shadowed BIOS is Video BIOS. Since the
routines of the video card are executed very often this can be shadowed by
storing the content of video ROM into thesystem RAM memory. By doing
this you can improve the performance of the system.

6.5.3 Direct Control

Direct Control is a concept which is still being revived by the software
developers so that they can give the direct control of the applications to the
hardware. If the applications are directly worked by PC hardware, it helps in
increase of system performance. BIOS must be able to ensure that the
hardware component should be compatible with the operating system and
any application software even after the variations. This is still been a
research area on which all the software developers are working just to
increase the system performance. Though working with hardware is not a
new concept still lot of improvements need to find result.
6.5.4 BIOS Bugs
BIOS Bugs are the accidental errors or omissions inBIOS codes.When the
BIOS is manufactured it is duplicated into number of copies and
motherboard manufacturer purchases it unknowingly. When a bug is
present in the BIOS, the system gets locked or results in the crash of the
motherboard or certain other operations. Bugs are very harmful to the
system. It is very easy to switch off the application that contains a bug. But if
the BIOS has bug in it, then you cannot switch off the computer rather you
need to replace the motherboard.
While updating any versions of BIOS on the PC you need to ensure that the
working matches with your current motherboard. For example if you are
using Phoenix BIOS, it may have some symptom that resembles the
symptom of problem which was already appeared. Then, in that case you
can take up BIOS upgrading which saves the data, for instance.
11. __________________ is a process that copies the content of ROM into
RAM memory which helps in improving the speed of the system.
12. _________________ are accidental errors in BIOS codes.
Activity 2:
Consider a situation when an error occurs in the BIOS. What are the
stepsyou will follow to rectify it?

6.6 Troubleshooting
You have seen that the system can generate a number of error messages
when any problem occurs. When you start the computer it undergoes
Power-On-Self-Test (POST) which conducts a number of tests to check for
the availability of peripherals and ensure their correct working. POST
generates two types of error messages. They are:
 Beep codes
 POST codes
Beep codes are generated during the POST process as the first step of
general process of checking the system which is called as initial program
loading, booting or boot strapping. If you find a beep code in the system
after the POST then it means that some problem has been encountered that
has not been able to display on the monitor. These beep codes are
generated through the speakers after the video system has been executed.
You can find out the meaning by following the steps given below:
1. Hear the beep code switch on the computer
2. Listen carefully the beep code to identify the type of the beep code
3. You need to guess the meaning of the beep sound according to the
number of beeps heard. For example if you hear “beep-beep-beep”
beep code it has different meaning than “beep-beep” beep code.
4. After recognizing the beep code the method used to troubleshoot the
problem depends on the type of the BIOS manufacturer.
When the BIOS start with the Self-Test of the components on the
motherboard, it goes through several steps of checking, testing and
initializing the hardware components. Before entering each step, the BIOS
writes a 2 digit hexadecimal identifying code (FF: which resembles the final
code or 01 indicating the initialization) to an external address. This code is
commonly referred to as a POST code. The meaning of the codes varies
widely. These codes are useful during the manufacturing process to help
identify problems. To the consumer, they are useful in cases where the
system won't boot up and the video screen does not work, or if you are
attempting to make modifications. If the BIOS detects a problem, execution
stops at the problem place, and the last code in the output will indicate what
the failure is.

POST code is a single byte hexadecimal character. The hexadecimal

codes output by the BIOS change rapidly during a normal startup process
as different milestones in the boot process are reached. These codes
provide vital clues about what has gone wrong when your system won't boot
and you don't have a beep code or onscreen messages to help you. To
monitor these codes, you need a POST card. These cards are available in
versions that plug into either ISA or PCI expansion slots. The simplest ones
have a two-digit LED area that displays the hex codes, whereas more
complicated (and expensive) models also have additional built-in tests.
A POST code directly corresponds to the checking going on in the POST.
Whenever a particular operations during POST stops with a POST code
then that post code can be a reference to determine the problem. The POST
code can be read using POST reader card. By comparing the POST code or
beep code with the corresponding meaning in BIOS, you can determine the
problem and rectify it.
Another important aspect is to troubleshoot the BIOS bugs. Bug are very
harmful to the computer as it destroy the complete working of the system if a
single setting is missed. Whenever a bug is present in the BIOS, the only
way is to eliminate the bug by updating the chip or by flashing the BIOS.
You can also update BIOS file to get the missing settings back.Replacing a
motherboard is the last option to eliminate a bug in the BIOS
Activity 3:
1. How do you rectify if your EISA configuration is not complete?
2. How do you rectify the floppy disc controller failure?
3. Find out what INTR #1 error is.
Hint: Refer the concept of symptom of motherboard in the book on

13. POST generates _____________ and ________________.
6.7 Summary
BIOS stand for Basic Input Output System and are added on ROM chips to
provide an interface between the raw PC hardware and standardized

operating system. In general BIOS contains three major sections like POST
(Power-On-Self-Test), Setup and System Routines. POST performs a low
level diagnostic and reliability test of all the main components of the system.
When the POST encounters a problem then it stops and the CMOS Setup
will come up with an error message. System service routines are the
functions that form the layer between hardware and the operating system.
Whenever there is necessity and a specific function has to be carried out
always see that the operating system is interfaced with Interrupts which are
the small programs that make the running application and take the control to
required module.
There are specific types of features which help the BIOS in controlling and
testing the various components of the system. Some of the major areas that
need support from BIOS are CPU, Chipset, Memory, drive, power
management, I2/O, PnP, Parallel port, etc.
BIOS will differ in its featuresdepending on the manufacturers. Some of the
prominent manufacturers of BIOS are AMI, Award, Phoenix, etc. You also
studied the various format used in BIOS code by various manufacturers.
Like the BIOS code, boot sequences also vary with manufacturers. You
have discussed on the shortcomings and compatibility issues of BIOS which
threw light on device drivers, shadowing, direct control and bugs. These
issues and problems caused in BIOS can be rectified using the error
messages which are displayed during or after the completion of the POST.
There are two types of error codes that are generated. Beep code and
POST code. Beep codes are formed by the speakers of the system and
POST codes are single byte hexadecimal characters. Whenever there is a
problem in the system it is identified with the help of beep code or POST
code by referring to the manufacturer’s manual.
6.8 Glossary
Term Description
ECC Error Checking and Correcting is a permit that can detect single
and dual bit errors, and can correct single bit errors.
RAID Redundant array of independent disk is a method of storing data
on multiple hard disks in different places which allows performing
overlapping of I/O operation increasing performance.

Parity Parity is a error detection form that uses a single bit to represent
the odd or even quantities of '1's and '0's in the data.
ACPI Advanced Configuration and Power Interface is a standard
specification provides an open standard for unified operating
system-centric device configuration and power management.
DPMS Display Power management Signalling is a specific standard used
to reduce the power consumption in the monitor
Intelligent I/O This has the capability to assign the input/output devices to a port
freely available.
PnP It is an option for the computer that gives it a feature of
automatically discovering the hardware components as soon as it
is connected to new component without the intervention of manual
installation or configuration.
USB Universal Serial BUS is a specification used by the system to
transfer data between the computer and the external digital
device.
Antivirus It is a software which is used to protect computers from any kind
of malware, virus, Trojan horse, etc that may cause harm to the
computer.
Drive It is a mechanism to read and write data on the storage types. It
may be hard disk drive or floppy disk drive.

1. Explain the working of motherboard BIOS in detail.
2. What are the features of BIOS?
3. Given the code (2A6LGTJ10). Identify the chipset and BIOS
manufacturer of this code.
4. List the boot sequence of Phoenix Technologies.
5. How do you troubleshoot any problem in BIOS?
6.10 Answers
1. BIOS
2. False
3. Power-On-Self-Test
4. Setup routine and system routine
5. Manufacturer of the BIOS

6. a. True
b. False
c. True
7. AAAA-BBBB-DDMMYY-Kx
8. DD/MM/YY
9. Load the BDA
10. Vector
11. BIOS shadowing
12. BIOS bugs
13. Beep code and POST code
Terminal Questions
1. Refer Section 6.2, Motherboard BIOS
2. Refer Section 6.3, BIOS features
3. Refer Section 6.3.2, BIOS features and also refer the manual for
specification on Award BIOS.
4. Refer Section 6.4, BIOS and Boot sequences
References:
Publications, 2001
 CMOS, Circuit design, layout and simulation, third edition by
R.JacobBaker, Wiley IEEE publishing, 2010.
E-References:
 http://www.postcodemaster.com/
 http://www.biosman.com/biosrecovery.html
 http://faydoc.tripod.com/structures/05/0546.htm
 http://www.computerhope.com/beep.htm

Unit 7 Power Supplies and Power Management

Structure:
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Switching Regulations
7.3 Potential Power Problems
Recognizing the problems
Dealing with the power problems
Upgradation
7.4 Power Management in windows OS
7.5 Troubleshooting
Switching power supplies
Power management
7.5 Summary
7.6 Glossary
7.8 Answers
7.1 Introduction
In Unit 6 you have seen how BIOS plays an important role in starting a
computer while in the previous Unit 5 we discussed how CMOS performs
the function of checking. For all these tasks to be performed you need to
switch on the computer which in turn requires power supply. A commercial
AC (Alternate Current) is converted into one or more levels of DC (Direct
Current) by power supply which is used by electronic and electromagnetic
devices. A faulty power supply may cause damage to the keyboard, CMOS
settings, BIOS, data loss, or may even cause motherboard damage. In the
past few years Power has become a very vital resource. Power
management is also as important as power supply.
This unit not only explains the simple operation of switching on power
supply but also offers guidelines for selecting and upgrading the supply, and
also offers solutions for the problems arising from it. Moreover, you will learn
how to review the power management schemes of desktops and laptops,
how to use these schemes and how to troubleshoot the troublesome power
management problems.

Objectives:
 Explain the concepts of switching regulations
 Recognize the potential power problems
 Perform the upgrading of the power supply
 Identify the power management problems
 Resolve the problems through troubleshooting.
7.2 Switching Regulations

The power wastage in the regulator can be reduced by supplying the
enough energy needed to the regulator. This achieves and maintains a
stable output voltage which increases the efficiency of the power supply to a
greater extent. Therefore, rather than wasting the excess of input energy,
the same energy can be circulated to a feedback loop. The feedback loop is
the path that leads to the initial energy generator point of the feedback
signal to the subsequent modification of that event. This feedback signal
maintains a check on the output voltage provided to the load and turns the
AC switch on or off as per requirement and maintains the normal level of the
output without creating much heat. This prevents loss of energy in the form
of heat. The working of the switching power supply is as shown in figure
7.1.
Figure 7.1: Block diagram of a switching power supply
In the figure you will observe that AC voltage is given as input and is
immediately converted into to DC. This pulsating DC voltage is passed

through primary filters to give primary DC voltage. Primary DC voltage is the

voltage generated from the primary filters through which the DC pulse
passes. Here, these are switching pulses and unlike linear power supply AC
is not transformed before rectifying the requirement of the pulse. Therefore,
DC voltage can easily pass till 170 volts because the maximum capacity of
the DC pulse through the filters is 170 volts. We need to note that in many a
case DC level is more than AC voltmeter.
After you start the power supply the switching transistor is turned on and off
at high frequency and long duty cycle. In the overall cycle there may be
sequence of signal getting off and on. Duty cycle is the amount of time that
a signal is “on (active or logic 1)” The duty cycle is a fraction of time refers to
how long a system can keep operating before it needs a rest. The
adjustment to the duty cycle is done continuously with the help of switching
circuits. The transistor acts as a chopper which breaks the pulsating DC into
chopped DC which forms the first signal for the step-down transformer.
Here, the duty cycle is responsible for affecting the AC voltage. Long duty
cycle which is large is the output voltage especially used for heavy loads
while Short duty cycle is the output voltage is a low signal. This cycle is
especially suited for light loads. You can set and adjust the switching circuits
as well as view these signals and chopped DC (the DC which is spread
across the circuit) with the help of oscilloscope. Oscilloscope is a electronic
equipment that provides visual images of varying electrical quantities and
allows observation of constantly varying signal voltages, usually as a two-
dimensional graph with function of time in x axis and electrical potential
differences in the y axis.
Though the transformer’s secondary wiring that passes through secondary
filters does not produce the AC voltage with pure sine wave or sinusoid is a
mathematical function that describes a smooth repetitive oscillation, it allows
the use of the remaining power supply. It is again passed through filters to
obtain a secondary DC voltage that is applied to the load. Secondary DC
voltage is the voltage that is generated by the secondary filters. The voltage
is once again chopped and adjusted by the switching circuits. There is more
consumption of power on the secondary circuit when there is an increase in
the load and so naturally the voltage drops. This is then increased by
boosting the duty cycle which results in voltage being regulated. Similarly

when the load on the circuit decreases, the power consumption is less. In
this case the voltage is regulated by normalizing the duty cycle.
Advantages of switching power circuit
 When the switching transistor is on, the current is drawn in the primary
circuit. Therefore, power wastage is very less in the primary circuit.
 The secondary circuit provides just enough power to keep the load
voltage regulated. Therefore, power wastage is very less in the
secondary rectifier, filter and switching circuit.
 This concept can reach a higher efficiency than linear supplies.
 Components are small in size and packed tightly.
Disadvantages
 It acts as radio transmitters and causes problems in radio and television
reception.
 The shield on the switching circuit needs to be replaced very often,
whenever power supply is repaired.
 Strong electromagnetic spectrum can easily disturb the working of the
logic circuit.
 There is not enough noise in the circuit to interfere with the load as all
the noise has been removed by the filter which is designed with care.
The output voltage will always have some amount of high frequency
ripple.
 Troubleshooting is very difficult as it contains many components.
In actual practice, an integrated circuit has sensing and switching functions.
AC line voltage is transformed into DC line which is then rectified and
filtered by the single chip regulator. The chip is responsible for chopping the
primary DC into chopped DC and the output voltage is sent back to the
switching chip which continuously sets and adjusts the duty cycle based on
the requirement.

1. _________________ is the path that leads to the initial energy
generator point of the feedback signal to the subsequent modification
of that event.
2. AC line voltage is rectified and filtered by ____________.

3. ___________________is the amount of time that a signal is “on”

compared to overall cycle.
a. Switching power circuit components are large in size and difficult
to pack inside.
b. Switching power circuit acts as radio transmitter.
7.3 Potential Power Problems

Power supply is referred to as the ‘lifeblood’ of the PC. Therefore, it is very
important for you to identify the basic power problems and check if there is
any need for upgradation of the power supply. You must be very cautious in
dealing with power systems as AC can be very dangerous if dealt with
carelessly.
7.3.1 Recognizing the power problems
Proper identification of power problems is very important which can be done
through a simple procedure. The basic indication of power problem is that if
there is any malfunction in the power supply then booting the PC will not be
possible. Less voltage or low power supply typically results in error
indication in the POST board. When you identify the problem then it is a
matter of troubleshooting the problem or replacing the device. This is a
simple enough solution if the problem occurs when the PC is started.
However, most problems occur midway when the PC starts working.
Consequently, the power supply will not be able to provide sufficient energy
to keep the PC running. There are some general problem indicators by
which you can recognize the problem. The chronic problems listed below
will help you to identify the power supply problem which might arise midway
in the course of working:
 The computer freezes midway of the system working. However, this
does not always mean that there is a power problem as most times the
system freezes due to some problem in software applications or if there
is a configuration fault. Power problem can only be suspected when the
PC freezes for no reason several times in an hour or several times in a
day
 Random memory errors: memory error message does not always
indicate power problem. However, when you suddenly see a memory

error message or when you have just finished upgrading the device
driver and face trouble, you could attribute it to power problem. There
could be more chances of power problems whenever you shift the
system to a different location.
 Hard drive data is lost or corrupted: this problem may occur due to many
factors like losing data cable or getting operator error Therefore, it is
essential to confirm that there is proper connectivity. If you find a
problem in drive reading or writing to the disk, then check the power
before attempting disk back up or running any diagnostics Because if
you do so without rectifying the power problem you might end up
causing still more severe damage. If your check returns no error then
you can continue disk diagnostics. The problem of hard drive data being
lost or corrupted could be caused when you install another drive or when
you expand the motherboard.
 Trouble in communicating with modems or peripherals: when using
modem and mouse you might come across a number of communication
errors like modem driver missing, mouse not connected, etc. Therefore,
you must first ensure that all the peripherals are connected and
configured properly. The systems which are ready and working may
develop problems midway or difficulties may occur while working with a
printer which could be due to power problems.
 Hardware failures: The characteristic of this type of problem is its
recurrence.. For example, when you see memory error, you will replace
the memory and after few days the same error may recur. This means
that there are some spikes in the power supply AC line. Sometimes
power problems could cause the whole system to crash yet the real
problem might not be apparent. In extreme cases, a severe power
problem can damage one or more chips on the motherboard, expansion
boards, or drives.
7.3.2 Dealing with Power problems
Now that you are equipped with the knowledge of detecting power
problems, you can take steps to rectify them. The chronic problems listed
above would have given you an idea that power problems should not always
be attributed to power supply fault. It is very important to keep in mind that
before switching the PC on, you should always check for AC line voltage.

 Check for AC: Although oscilloscopes are used to measure and view the
voltage they are very expensive to measure smaller Hz of memory
Therefore, you can follow below steps to test the AC:
o You can check for AC voltage for providing the right amount of
voltage. You can use multi-meter to measure the output at wall
outlet. Check for any obstruction in the circuit that causes low
supply of voltage.
o Check if any other device like air cooler which draws high energy,
exists in the same line. Then try to switch off all the devices and
restart your PC. When you want to use those devices again make
sure that your PC is shut down completely.
o If there are no other devices then you must check for a line for
proper outlet or get one line with the help of an electrician, ensuring
that there is proper grounding.
When you are satisfied that all the above conditions are met and still
the problem persists then you could conclude that there is a problem
in the power supply to the PC.
 Suspect the Supply: when you suspect that there is some problem in
computer power supply, then there may be a problem in the hardware
installed. You could use a good quality surge protector between AC
outlet and AC cord and also check on another AC line to avoid spikes.
Connect a multi-meter inside the PC to check the voltage level at each
supply. The table 7.1 given below will give you an idea on power supply
wire assignments:
Table 7.1: Index of Power supply pin assignments
Color of the wire Voltage indicator

Black Ground
Blue -12Vdc
Yellow +12Vdc
Brown +3.3 V Sense (This signal is used to detect the
voltage level of the +3.3 V signal being provided to
the motherboard. This allows the power supply to
"fine tune" the +3.3 V output in the event of
excessive voltage drop between the supply and the
components that use +3.3 V.)
Orange +3.3Vdc in ATX and NLS machines

Purple +5 Vdc Standby Voltage (max 10mA) 500mA or

more typical
Red +5 Vdc
White -5 Vdc
Orange Power Good in AT style supplies (+5Vdc)
Green Power supply ON
Gray Power OK
You must ensure that the +12Vdc and +5Vdc are correct. If you find that the
output voltage is low then it means that many other devices are using the
same line and the system is overloaded. You can also disconnect the new
device if you have recently upgraded the computer and try starting the
power supply to check. This can verify that the problem existed is due to the
device upgraded or not. Then you start upgrading the power supply.
However, if you find that the problem persists then you must repair the
power supply by troubleshooting or replacing it.
7.3.3 Upgradation
Generally, when a new system is purchased, more importance is given to
specification with respect to CPU speed, memory capacity, or motherboard
configuration but least thought is given to specifying the power supply. It is
important to ensure that proper power supply is provided that support the
new devices like hard drive, CD drive, internal modem, etc.
When you choose a power supply you must consider two important
factors:
 Power capacity of the new supply: The power capacity of the new supply
which is measured in watts is the maximum amount of power supplied
safely to a load. Choosing a proper power rating for an upgraded supply
is always measured in approximation. Usually you can calculate the
rating by adding 50W to the original power supply. For example, when
upgrading an IBM AT supply, the actual power supply would be 192W
but it is taken to be the next rating as 242W (192W+50W).
 Physical dimensions: The physical dimension of the power supply
device also plays a very important role. The device must fit into the
space given in the PC. You should be able to bolt the device into the
place and see that the mounting holes are aligned with the original

supply. The new supply must have a connector which must be

compatible with motherboard. You should always ensure that it has
correct connector for the particular motherboard.
When you test the power supply upgradation it is very vital to ensure that is
carefully handled. While installing new upgraded power supply, you must
always ensure that the computer is switched off then locate the line voltage
selector switch and ensure that it is set appropriately. Till you ensure that
power supply is installed correctly, remove any expansion boards connected
to it. After verification you can power down the PC and reinstall the
peripherals and expansion boards. Charge your PC for 48 hours and your
system will be ready for use.
Activity 1:
Suppose you find the system is not switching on how do you suspect
power supply problem?
Hint: Refer Section 7.3.1 dealing with problems

5. The basic indication of power problem is that if there is any
malfunction in the power supply then it will ____________ the PC.
6. What can be suspected when the PC freezes for no reason at all
several times in an hour or several times in a day?
7. What is the indication of gray color wire in the computer in power
supply pin assignments?
8. The important factors to be considered when choosing a power supply
are ______________ and __________________.
7.4 Power Management in Windows OS

Power Management is an important component of the system performance
that helps in directing the power supply efficiently to other parts of the
components. Power Management can be achieved when the BIOS, chipset,
operating system and other devices cooperate to reduce power demands of
an idle computer. The system can be left open without use in a sleep mode
or power saving mode. In that way system will only use 5W of the power
which leads to less electricity bills and lower cost in running a PC.

The operating system is responsible for supporting the controls and dialogs
needed for selecting the power management scheme. Windows is
considered to be a premiere operating system and you can configure any
power management settings of the system through power management
properties dialog box. One of the examples of power management dialog
box in Windows XP is as shown in the figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2: the power Management dialog box in Windows XP
The first step in power management under Windows is selecting a power

scheme. This scheme acts as the controller for hardware devices which
control the power-down timing. The power saving modes are of three types:
 Basic conservation: In this mode the monitor can automatically go to
sleep mode or LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) backlight can be switched
off after the system has been idle for more than the specified time while
the rest of the system is running. This saves the energy that is
consumed by the monitor.
 Standby: when your system is idle or you are busy for certain period of
time and intend to work on the system later then you can put the system
into standby mode. Standby mode makes the monitor and hard drives
switched off and power down in some of the components of the system.
When you come back to the work on the system switches on and
resumes the same state quickly as you had left it. It saves the battery
power in laptop computers.

 Hibernation: this mode is when you keep your system idle for longer
period say more than a day then it automatically switches off by turning
off the hard drive and monitor first and then shutting down the computer.
There are a number of schemes which are used to control power
management in Windows. Some of them are given below:
 Selecting a power scheme: In order to enable standby mode you need
to select a power scheme. To do this follow the steps below:
Click start → settings
Click Control panel
Double click on Power Management icon
You will get a power management dialog box as shown in figure 7.2.
Click the Power schemes drop-down menu
Select from the available choices according to the use of your system .
You will generally have options like Always ON, Home/Office Desk and
Portable/Laptop.
After selecting the scheme the settings like System Standby, Turn-off
Monitor, and Turn-off hard disks will be updated to their default values. You
can tweak the values according your need. Suppose you want to give more
time before turning off the monitor when the system is in idle mode then you
can set the values under “Turn-off Monitor”. After making the changes click
apply and click ok.
 Saving/Deleting a Power scheme: when you set the timer values
according to your need and want to save under a unique name, then you
can click Save As and enter the name of your new scheme. This will be
added to your power schemes drop-down list. If you want to delete the
existing power scheme or do not want any of the power scheme names
in the drop down list you can simply select the intended scheme and
click delete.
 Manually invoking the standby mode: If you want to put your computer
into standby mode manually then you can use the shutdown dialog box
as shown in the figure 7.3 and click standby.

Figure 7.3: Shut down dialog box in windows XP
This can also be done by setting this mode on when the computer power is
on or when you close the laptop display. To do this follow the same step
given in selecting a power scheme section in the earlier paragraphs (refer
figure 7.2)
Click the advanced tab
You will get the dialog box as shown in figure 7.4
Find the drop down list labelled “When I press the power button on my
computer”
Select the “standby” in the list
Click apply and click OK.
 Manually invoking the Hibernation mode: As you know Hibernation
mode helps in restoring all the files and folders when it is turned on
again. In order to select this mode you need to (refer figure 7.2)
Click the Hibernate tab
Figure 7.4: the advanced Power management Properties under windows XP

You will get the dialog box as shown in figure 7.5

Select the check box labelled “Enable hibernate support”.
You can also click on advanced tab and look for the entry labelled “When
you press the power button on my computer” as shown in figure 7.4 and
then click Hibernate. If this tab is not found in your dialog box then that
means your computer is not supported with hibernate feature.
Figure 7.5: Enabling the Hibernate power saving mode in windows XP

 Incoming call in Standby mode: when a modem receives an incoming
call during standby then it comes back to its active mode immediately
and attends the call. This will happen when the external modem is on
and the communication modem software is open. During the call
duration the system should come out of standby mode and after the call
the system should go to standby mode automatically.
 Passwords in Standby or Hibernation: Any one can move the cursor to
get the system out from the standby mode or hibernate mode. In order
to prevent this and safeguard your system from external users you can
invoke password when it is in standby or hibernate mode.
Follow the same steps as mentioned above You will see power
management dialog box as shown in figure 7.2.
Click advanced tab

Click on check box labelled “Prompt for password when computer goes off
standby”. You can use your Windows password (system password) for both
standby and hibernate mode.
 Configuring Battery Warnings: you can configure your system to give
warnings at the time of low or variation battery conditions and suggest
the PC to act according to the conditions. To do this you need to click
on the UPS tab and configure the settings.

9. __________________ is responsible for supporting the controls and
dialog needed for selecting the power management scheme.
10. The three power saving modes are basic conservation, standby and
________________.
11. __________________ is the mode that switches off the computer
automatically when it is in idle state for a long period.
Activity 2:
Set the hibernate mode in your computer and set the password to come
out of hibernate mode.
Hint: Refer section 7.4 power management in windows OS
7.5 Troubleshooting
7.5.1 Switching Power Supplies
Troubleshooting a switching power supply is not an easy task. It requires
more time and extra effort to perform the task. The problem in the power
supply comes in a number of ways which has no standard technique to
trouble shoot. However, if you follow some of the basic tips you may avoid
the problem to a maximum extent.
1. As heat is basically released from the battery and power supply device
cooling is very important. Therefore, you need to have clean fan blades
and open ventilators.
2. The AC line voltage switch must be set correctly for the connected
region.

3. Secure power supply connectivity is very important. You should ensure

that the motherboard and hard drives are connected with the power
supply in a secure manner.
4. Always avoid using Y-adapter all over the system especially hard disk
drive. Because Y-adapter sometimes has problem in the splitter. Y-
adapter allows you to connect two devices to one power cord.
Therefore, when such a problem arises you should try connecting
directly.
5. Ensure the output voltage is always in tolerance. It is usually +/-5
percent.
6. When a new device is added during the upgradation there may be a
chance of overloading and possibility of errors occurring.. If that
happens you should remove the device and test the power supply. If it
works properly then try upgrading the power supply and then reinstall.
7.5.2 Power Management

The main use of power management component is to direct the supply in a
controlled manner. Ideally, when the system goes to idle state it must
consume very little power. This also avoids data corruption and system
crash since the BIOS, chipset, devices and OS are in idle state. But due to
BIOS incompatibilities buggy drivers (the drivers which are faulty) and
noncompliant hardware devices creates negligible issues that may result in
power management problems. The troubleshooting of these depends on the
part of the system where the problem has occurred. A general way of
starting your computer on such an occasion is as follows:
1. Start your computer in Safe mode
2. Click Start → settings →control panel
3. Double-click the system icon
4. Click the device manager tab
5. On the resources tab clear the Use Automatic Settings check box and
Click Interrupt Request
6. In the Resource Type column, Click Change setting
7. Give the value in the value box.
8. Close the Control Panel and reboot the system in normal mode.

Activity 3:
1. If you encounter a write data error when using a CD-RW under
Windows XP how will you trouble shoot it?
Hint: Refer troubleshooting power management in the book on

a. Fan blades must be clean to release excess of heat out of the
system
b. It is compulsory to use Y- adapter all over the system especially in
connecting HDD.
7.6 Summary
Power supply plays an important role in PC operation and its components. It
converts AC into one or more levels of DC that can be used by electronic
devices inside the computer. Though you might not be willing to give more
importance to it, in reality any fault in the power supply can create severe
problems in the stability issues, data loss, and also result in damage to
motherboard or drives. You can always prevent the use of power by the
system while in idle state. In this unit you have seen the working of the
typical switching power supply and got to know reliable guidelines for
selecting and upgrading a power supply. Major power management
techniques for computers on Windows operating system were also
reviewed. You also saw how to use those schemes and to troubleshoot
many of the power supply and power management problems.
7.7 Glossary
Term Description
RMS Root Mean Square is the measure of AC voltage which
produces the same volts as DC voltage without showing the
loss of energy
Oscilloscope electronic equipment that provides visual images of varying
electrical quantities and allows observation of constantly
varying signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional graph
with function of time in x axis and electrical potential
differences in the y axis.

Vdc Volts dc is the measure of amount of voltage passing in the

input or output line. Usually it is dc because AC line voltage is
transformed into dc voltage.
Switch Switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical
circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one
conductor to another

1. Explain the typical working of switching power supply with a neat
diagram.
2. How will you recognize a power problem?
3. What are the different schemes in power management?
4. List the tips for troubleshooting switch power supply.
7.9 Answers
1. Feedback loop
2. Single chip regulator
3. Duty cycle
4. a. False
b. True
5. Not boot
6. Power problem
7. Power OK
8. Capacity or the new supply, physical dimensions
9. Operating system
10. Hibernate mode
11. Hibernate
12. a. True
b. False
Terminal Questions
1. Refer Section 7.2, Switching regulations
2. Refer Section 7.3.1, recognizing the problem
3. Refer Section 7.4, Power management in Windows OS
4. Refer Section 7.5.1, Switch power supplies.

References:
Publications, 2001
E-References:
 http://eetd.lbl.gov/EA/Reports/39466/
 http://www.microsoft.com/windowsxp/using/setup/learnmore/russel_
02march25.mspx
 http://www.tech-faq.com/configuring-power-management.html
02march25.mspx

Unit 8 Storage Devices

Structure:
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 The Hard Drive
Construction
IDE drive standard and features
Troubleshooting
8.3 CD-ROM Drive
Basics of CD-ROM drive
Construction
Troubleshooting
8.4 The DVD Drive
DVD media
The DVD drive and decoder
Troubleshooting
8.5 Blue-Ray disc drive
Physical Media
Software standards
Troubleshooting
8.6 Flash Memory drive
Essential components of flash drive
Size and style of packaging
Troubleshooting
8.7 Summary
8.8 Glossary
8.10 Answers
8.1 Introduction
In unit 2 we discussed about Memory and its features which is used to store
data in the computer. We got to know that memory is divided into primary
memory as well as secondary memory. Both the memory devices require an
engine which helps in working of the storage devices. During all the
evolution of computers we depend on the storage devices for storing data
and information. Earlier computers used floppy disc to store the data. With
the improvement in technology the type of devices got its transformation

towards Compact disc and DVDs. Now blue-ray disc and flash memory are
becoming famous. With every introduction of the different types of discs the
drive structure also saw its prominent change.
Disk Drives are the machine that reads and writes the data into the
respective disks. Disk drive makes the disk to rotate and has head which
reads or writes the data onto the disk.
In this unit 8 you will study the different types of disk drives that are used to
read and write data into the disk and identify the different features of all the
drives. This unit presents you the essential principles of hard disk drives and
file systems. We will discuss about the basics of CD-ROM technologies.
Here we will throw light on DVD background and explain its typical working.
We can learn about the new technologies in the disk drives like Blue-ray
disk and flash memory. We will get to know some of the guidelines to install
and troubleshoot these different kinds of disk drives.
Objectives:
 Identify the different types of disk drives and its use
 Elaborate the working of hard disk drive and its features
 Explain the concepts of CD-ROM drive and its construction.
 Describe DVD drive
 Describe Blu-ray disk drive
 Elaborate Flash memory
 Resolve the problems of various types of disk drives through
troubleshooting.
8.2 The Hard Drive

The hard drive is also known as hard disk drive or fixed disk drive. It is the
main and largest storage device on the computer. It is referred usually in the
computer by C: drive. This consists of all the important programs and
applications of the computer. Hard Drive is a non-volatile memory, random
access device for electronic data in the computer. Hard drives are very
much similar to the video tapes. Therefore the data is stored on the long,
thin tape which is coated with some magnetic material of its surface.

8.2.1 Construction
Hard drive consists of magnetic read/write heads that reads the data from
the rotating discs.
It consists of the different part which serves the different function of the hard
disc. Hard disc consists of one or more rough and solid substrate called as
Platters. Platters are made out of aluminium as it is a light material. They
are circular in shape and magnetic substances are coated to both the sides
of the platters for read/write the data. A two or more magnetic heads are
connected to the platter in order to read/write the data into the disc. Platters
move on the common axis and heads are allowed to move on the radius on
the platter. Therefore it allows the heads to read all parts of the surface.
The information of each division of the platter is formed to represent a
specific location. This forms a design of set of concentric circles which is
used to record the data. Each concentric circle on a platter is called as
atrack and these tracks are further divided into sections. When the head of
one surface on one track, the head of the corresponding other surface is
also on the respective track. All the tracks are together called as cylinder.
Sometimes track and cylinder are used interchangeably you can see a
typical assembly of platter and its data organization in the figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1: Data Organization on a hard disk drive

A platter contains thousands of tracks. Tracks are further divided into a

smaller segment which is called as sector. Each sector holds a 512 byte of
data which include error checking and housekeeping data that are used to
identify sector, track and CRC (Cyclic Redundancy check) result. CRC is
also called as polynomial code checksum is a function that is designed to
detect the changes that occur to the computer data accidently. The hard
disk must be manufactured in high priority due to extreme smaller versions
of the components. The main part of the hard disk is separated from the
contact of external air so that no dust should enter the platter and avoid the
damage caused to the read/write head.
 Data Density Characteristics: We should take care that all the
information must be fact in the media of hard drive platter. We can get
the maximum amount of capacity in terms of megabytes per square inch
(MBSI) from areal density of the media. The following are the factors that
affect the real density.
1. The size of the magnetic particle is a barrier to areal density. Areal
density is more if the coercivity (it is the magnetic field applied during
magnetization of any Ferro magnetic material) of the hard drive is
large and tighter magnetization field with smaller read/write head
allow higher areal density.
2. The altitude of a read/write head over the platter surface (which is
also called as head height) affects density if the read/write head
passes closer to the hard drive then areal densities will be more. If
then read/write head passes away from the media then due to
magnetic field areal densities will be reduced.
3. Another major important limiting factor is surface smoothness
because smoother surface allow read/write head to fly closer to the
media.
 Latency and Seek: Latency is the time delay that exists between the
moment that read/write command is initiated over the physical interface
of the drive and the moment where the desired information is placed.
Latency also refers to the time taken to pass the needed byte under a
read/write head. If the read/write head has not quite reached the desired
location there will be short latency. If the head has just missed the
desired location then the head must wait for one full rotation. Therefore
latency can be very long. Seek time is the time taken to step the
read/write head between another delay added by the track to the hard
drive performance. There are number of ways in seek time listing they
are track-to-tack seek, full stroke seek and average seek.
 Track-to-track seek is the time required to step between two adjacent
tracks on the platter.
 Full stroke is the time required to step from inner most to the outer most
tracks. This time is relatively longer. The average seek time is half the
full stroke seek time.
 Seek and latency is together needed to load and save files. For
example, while loading a file certain amount of seek time is taken to
locate the track which contains starting of the file. There is some latency
during the platter rotating around the necessary sector.
The major parts of the hard disk are the frame, platters, read/write
heads, head actuators, spindle motor and electronics package.
o Frame: The frame is also called as chassis which is an important
part of the hard drive. This affects the structural thermal and
electrical integrity of the drive. In order to mount the other
components on the hard drive the frame must be strong and provide
steady platform. Therefore cast aluminum is used in larger drives for
chassis and the smaller drive in the laptop computer uses a plastic
chassis.
o Read/Write Heads: Read/write head form the interface between the
electronic circuitry and magnetic media of the hard drive. While
writing, electronic signals are translated into the magnetic flux
transitions with the help of a head which saturate points on the
media where the transition takes place. The read operation works
almost reverse to this process. Here flux transitions induce electrical
signals in the head that are amplified, filtered and translated into
respective logic signals.
o Head Actuators: Hard drives use voice coil motors which are also
called as rotary coil motors which are used to actuate head moment.
Voice coil motors work with the principal of analog meter moments
that is a permanent magnet is enclosed within two opposing coils.
When there is a current flow in the coil, it produces a magnetic field
which opposes the permanent magnet. In order to cause a deflection

which is directly proportional to the amount of driving current, a force

of opposition is maintained by attaching the head arms to the
rotating magnet. The greater opposition and deflection is obtained by
increasing current signals. You can choose the cylinder by
incrementing the servo signal and maintaining the signal in a desired
level. Voice coil motors are very small and light assemblies that are
well suited to fast access times and small hard drive assemblies.
The process of track following is called serving the heads.
o Spindle motors: The speed at which the media passes under the
read/write heads is one of the major factors that are responsible for
drives performance. Media is passed under the read/write heads by
spinning the platter at a high rate of speed.
The spindle motor is a brushless, low profile DC motor (Direct Current)
which is responsible for spinning the platter. An index censor provides a
feedback pulse signals which detects the spindle as it rotates. Index signals
is used by control electronics of the drive which is used to regulate spindle
speed as precisely as possible.
 Drive electronics: hard drives are made up of sophisticated circuitry.
The drive electronics board which is mounted below the chassis
contains all the necessary circuitry to communicate data and control
signals with the particular physical interface, the read/write heads and
spinning the platter
8.2.2 IDE drive standards

Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) is a standard electronic interface used
between a computer bus and the mass storage devices in which the
controller is integrated into the disk or CD-ROM drive. It is also called as
intelligent drive electronics.
 Binary Megabyte Vs Decimal Megabytes: there is a huge confusion
between the different meanings of megabytes. Since the computer uses
electronic signals, the data will be converted in to 0’s and 1’s which we
called it as binary digits. Therefore, all the data, addresses, programs
and calculations will be in form of binary numbers. As the computer
works in the form of binary numbers it is measured as the collections of
bitsi.e.1 byte = 8 bits, and in the power of 2. Therefore,

1 Kilobyte = 210 = 1024 bytes

1 Megabyte = 220= 1,048,576 bytes
1 Gigabyte = 230 = 1,073,741,824 bytes
 IDE/ATA: ATA stands for advanced technology attachment. Typically
IDE and ATA are same and are developed to interface the controller to
the harddrive mechanism. This avoids relaying on standalone computer
boards, reduces interface costs and makes the drive easier for firmware
implementation. As IDE has been proved to be low cost and easily
configured system, it created revolution in the disc drive industry.
IDE/ATA is used synonymously sometimes. But in actual ATA is the
standard that defines the drive and its operations whereas IDE is the
trademark which refers to the 40-pin interface and drive controller
technology which is designed to implement the ATA standard.
The original IDE/ATA standard defines the following features and transfer
modes.
1. The two devices that are configured as master and slave shares a single
channel that called by a specification.
2. It includes support for PIO modes 0, 1 and 2. PIO stands for
programmed Input/output is a mode of transferring data between the two
peripherals. The different modes are used to transfer data between the
CPU and a peripheral such as a network adapter. Mode 0 takes the
longer time in transferring the data and the transfer rate increases
gradually with decrease in time taken by the modes.
3. It includes support for single word DMA modes 0, 1 and 2 and multi
word DMA mode 0. With the introduction of this mode, PIO mode is not
used.
It does not support for enhancements for non-hard disk IDE/ATA devices,
block mode transfers or any other advanced features.
 Data transfer modes: There are two measures of data transfer. They
are,
1. The internal data transfer: The rate at which data is taken from the
platters.
2. The external data transfer: The rate at which data is passed between
the drive and the controller.

The modern standards of external data transfer are listed as PIO and
DMA modes. The DMA data transfers mean that the data is transferred
directly between the drive and the memory without using CPU as an
intermediary whereas PIO data transfers uses CPU between the drive
and the memory.
 Drive Caching: Hard disk contains an integrated cache which is also
called as buffer. The purpose of the buffer is similar to other caches. It is
not a part of PC cache hierarchy. Cache acts as a buffer between a fast
device and a slow device. The results of the recent disk read or stored in
cache and whenever it is requested it fetches the information.
Cache is used improve the performance of hard drives by reducing the
number of physical access to the disk.
 Troubleshooting: The problem related to hard drives are very
importantly resolved because if you lose some programs and data it is
major lose for user but many drive problems are recoverable without
replacing the drive.
You can follow the below guidelines for troubleshooting the problem in the
hard drive.
o Be careful for power and static discharge: whenever you change the
jumpers or unplug the cables and cards make sure that you have turn of
the computer. Wear an antistatic wrist strap when you are working on
your computer or handling drive.
o Verify compatibly: The drive controller and the drive must be verified so
that they are matched to each other.
o Check all cards: You must ensure that all expansion cards are placed in
their respective slots on the motherboard and securely mounted with
screws.
o Check all connectors and cables: All the ribbons and power cables must
be securely connected. The ribbon cables are prone to get damaged at
the connectors. You need to try with a new cable which is good. You
must ensure that no connector pins are bent. Pin one on the interface
cable must be aligned with pin one on the drive and the controller.

o Verify drive jumper settings: You must ensure that you have installed
all the necessary jumpers and removed the incorrect and duplicated
jumper settings by reviewing the instructions in the manual.
o Check your power supply capacity: whenever you add a new device to
your computer you must ensure that it gets sufficient power supply for
that device.
o Verify the drive settings in the CMOS setup: The drive settings in the
CMOS setup must not exceed the physical specification of the drive. It
should also not exceed the limitation set by the operating system and
the BIOS.
o Check for viruses: your system must be periodically scanned for
viruses. Before using an unknown device in the computer for the first
time scan it for viruses.

1. IDE standards for _________________________.
2. The two devices that are configured as master and save shares a
single channel that called by a _________________.
3. ____________________ is an adapter of the CD that is designed to
store computer data in the form of text, graphics and stereo sound.
Activity 1:
How do you troubleshoot a hardware problem when you encounter an
invalid command line error when using any kind of Nuts and Bolts.
Hint: Refer the concept of troubleshooting an hard drive from the book
Troubleshooting, Maintaining and Repairing PC’s by Stephen J. Bigelow
8.3 CD-ROM Drive

8.3.1 Basics of CD-ROM drive: CD-ROM (Compact Disc, read-only-
memory) is an adaptation of the CD that is designed to store
computer data in the form of text, graphics and stereo sound. The
digital approach allowed excellent stereo sound quality which does
not degrade the quality when the disk is played each time. CD-ROM
drive is originated from digital audio recording. CD-ROM drive can

only read data and it cannot write. It is known for its low cost, good
reliability and broad media compatibility.
 CD Media: CD’s are produced by stamping the pattern of pits and lands
onto a molded polycarbonate disc which is also known as substrate. The
substrate is covered with a silvered coating which allows in reflecting the
laser light. A tough scratch resistant is coated on a disc after silvering.
Finished disc is labeled through silk screen (It is a printing technique in
which artwork is converted onto films to create a fine mesh screens).
 CD data: CD’s are recorded as single continuous spiral track running
from the spindle area. Fig 8.4 shows an example of spiral pattern as it is
recorded on the CD. The inside dotes lines shows the relationship
between the pits and lands. CD’s use a highly focused laser beam and
laser detector to sense a presence or absence of pits. When laser light
strikes the land it reflects light towards the detector which produces a
very strong output signal. When the laser light strikes a pit the light is
slightly out of focus.
 EFM Basics: EFM stands for eight to fourteen modulations is a complex
decoding process that convert sequence of pits and land into meaningful
binary information. EFM is used by CD to obtain the ability of placing a
large number of bits into a limited number of flux transitions, user data,
error correcting information, address information and synchronization
pattern are contained in the form of bits stream which is represented by
pit and land. Flux transition is the bits encoded by magnetic media and it
is not the discreet orientation of any magnetic area.The EFM encoding
technique equates each byte (8 bits) with a fourteen bit sequence which
is called a symbol. In this technique each binary one must be separated
by atleast two binary zeros.
 Data storage: A CD-ROM contains twenty four synchronization bits,
fourteen control bits, twenty four data symbols and eight complete error
correction symbol (EC). You must always keep in mind that three
merged additional bit separates each symbol by bringing the total
number of bit in the frame to 588. Therefore 588 bit on the CD-ROM
represent 24 bytes of data which can be expressed as a number of pit
and land. There are ninety eight frames in a data block. Therefore each
block carries 98x24 which is equal to 2048 bytes. The data delivered by

the basic CD-ROM to its host computer is equal to 153.6KB (75 blocks)
of data per second.
As u know the CD-ROM disc is recorded as one continuous spiral track
around the disk, the ordinary sector and track id information that we attach
to the magnetic disc does not apply very well rather the information can be
divided in terms of 0-59 minutes recorded initially at the beginning of each
block. In normal production the CD-ROM run between 553 to 650 MB caring
of compact disc. CD is reliable data storage medium for long term. The life
of the CD is affected by its physical storage and handling. You can follow
some of the following tips to protect and maintain the disc.
1. Avoid bending the disc
2. Never heat the disc
3. Avoid scratching the disc
4. Keep away chemicals from the disc
Excessive dust and finger print interfere with the laser beam can cause disc
read error. When this happens it can be cleaned by a dry soft linen cloth. Do
not wipe the circular motion with your hand fingers. Always store the disc in
a cradle during storage or travel.
8.3.2 Construction
All the drives must be able to accept the standard size disc from variety of
surfaces. Even then the drive must spin the disc at the constant linear
velocity (CLV). CLV is a qualifier for the rated speed of an optical disc drive
and the writing speed of recordable disc that means disc speed varies
inversely with the tracking radius. Whenever the tracking comes almost near
to the disc edge the disc speed slow down and vice versa. Typical working
of the CD ROM can be shown with the help of a exploded diagram of CD
drive as in the figure 8.2.

Figure 8.2: Exploded figure of a basic CD drive
 Working of CD-ROM: CD-ROM is organized with cast aluminum or rigid

stainless steel at the center of the drive Similar to other drives, this drive
also has a single primary structure for mounting the mechanical and
electronic components of the drive. All together forms the frame of the
hard disk. The frame is attached with the lid, front bezel; eject button
and volume controller button in order to provide extreme and beautiful
appearance for the drive. It offers fixed reference slot for CD insertion
and removal. The electronic package of the disc drive is further divided
into several PC board assemblies. They are, main PCB which handles
drive control and interfacing and the head phone PCB, which provides
the head phones with an audio amplifier and a jack. The actual physical
of the drive is performed by the main CD sub assembly. If spindle motor
performs the serious work of spinning and reading a disc, then sub
frame is mounted with a spindle motor and connected to a spindle
motor PC board. The drives main PC board manages the operations to
position the sled motor.

 CD-ROM electronics: The electronics package can be further divided

into two major areas; they are controller section and drive section. A
controller section does the connection of the peripheral interface to the
drive controller board. The drive section electronics manages the
physical operation such as load or unload, spin the disc and move the
sled etc. of the CD-ROM. It also does data decoding and error correction
and the drive circuitry converts and analog output from the laser diodes
into an EFM signal.
 CD-ROM software: A low level device driver allows programs to access

the CD-ROM at the hardware level. If you change or upgrade the device
the device drivers must also upgraded.
8.3.3 Troubleshooting
CD-ROM installation is a very easy task. But the problems lie in the
compatibility issues, poor media quality, outdated drivers, conflicting
software applets, and operating system versions. In this section you will get
to know few troubleshooting procedures for CD-ROM drives.
Changing the Drive letters: As you know that the windows will assign a
specific letter for each CD drive in the system during the start time, we will
have initially default letters for the drives. Though we may have the initial
adjustments automatic we can change the Drive letter as per our name. but
we should take few measures while changing the drive letter. The following
will give you steps to change the drive letter.
1. you need to click start → settings → control panel
2. double click the system icon → click the Device Manager tab →click the
settings tab
3. in the Reserved Drive Letters section, set Start Drive Letter and End
drive letter to the specific drive letter you wish to use for your CD-ROM
→ click OK repeatedly till you return to the control panel.
4. Restart the computer to see you changes effected.
Auto Insert Notification (AIN): sometimes you may observe that the CD
drive blinks for every few second even if there is no read/write operation is
happening. This is due to the Auto Insert Notification (AIN) feature of
windows that allows the disk to automatically identified and set ready when
the disk is inserted in the drive. Normally there is no harm with AIN but

some programs may be very sensitive which can be affected by AIN.

Therefore you can disable AIN using the following steps
1. Click start →settings→control panel
2. Double-click the device Manager, double click CD-ROM and then
double-click the desired CD drive
3. Click settings tab→click the auto insert notification check box to clear it.
4. Click close button. Restart your computer to see the update.
CD drive Performance: sometimes you may observe that when you
attempt to access the CD drive, it is not performing so well. This can occur
when the cache size is configured properly. You can use the following steps
to optimize the CD-drive settings
1. Click start →settings→control panel→Double-click system icon
2. On the performance tab, click file system
3. Click the CD-ROM tab
4. Move the supplemental cache size slider to the right to allocate more
system RAM for caching data from the CD drive.
5. When reading continuous data use a higher settings in the optimize
access pattern for box. When reading random data increase the
supplemental cache size setting and decrease the optimize access
pattern for setting
6. Click OK → close. Restart the computer when prompted.
Activity 2
Try to optimize your CD drive settings and give a broad overview of the
result.
Hint: Refer the concept of CD drive performance under section 8.3.3
Self Assessment questions

4. ___________ is a complex decoding process that convert sequence of
pits and land into meaningful binary information.
5. __________ Driver allows programs to access the CD-ROM as the
hardware level.
6. __________ allows the disk to automatically identify.

8.4 DVD Drive

The compact disc made a way for world of new evolution in the PC. Since
these CDs disk could handle only 650MB of computer programs and data or
one hour of music, it is found to be outdated medium of storage in case of
multimedia applications, large databases and interactive games. DVD is a
high density storage media which is low widely used in the computers. DVD
stands for Digital Versatile Disk that can hold program, data, audio and
video. It is capable of providing up to 17GB of external storage on your
computer.
 Access Time: the time needed by the drive to locate the required
information on the disk is called access time. These drives are very slow
and can take up to hundreds of milliseconds (mS) to access information.
 Data transfer rates: it is defined as the time taken to read the data from
the disk. Once you access data from the disk it has to be transferred off
of the disk to the system. There are two ways of measuring of data
rates. They are,
1. Speed at the which the data is read into the onboard buffer of the
drive
2. Speed at which the data is transferred across the interface in the
drive controller.
8.4.1 DVD media

The data is recorded in a spiral pattern as a series of pits and lands in to a
plastic substrate. DVD looks in size and dimension very similar to compact
disks. There are few key differences that make DVD more superior than CD.
They are,
1. Data is very concentrated on the disk. The DVD tracks are 0.74µm apart
where as in the CDs use the tracks that are 1.6µm apart. To locate
these smaller geometries DVD sued very short wavelength laser light.
2. Multiple layers of pits and lands are employed in the DVD so that one
disk can have several layers worth of data.
3. DVD-ROM disk use only one side of the disk at least for a while.
Therefore DVD can offer upto 8.5GB of data storage for one sided disk
and upto 17GB for double sided double layer disk.

You can increase the life of your disk by following some of the rules
given below:
1. You should not bend the disk.
2. You should never heat the disk as the material used is plastic.
3. Avoid scratches on the disk. Circular scratch can entirely wipe the data
from the DVD.
4. Avoid using chemicals to clean the disk.
8.4.2 The DVD drive and decoder

DVD drive looks very similar to any CD-ROM drive. You can recognize the
DVD drive only with the “DVD” logo on the drive. A typical front view of the
DVD drive is as shown in the figure 8.3
DVD drive of a motorized disk tray that loads and unloads the disk. This tray
can be closed and opened by using the load/unload button in the drive. The
LED lights indicate the activity of the drive i.e. it shows a light blinking when
the data is being read from the disk. It is also called as busy indicator. There
is headphone jack since the DVD also serves as CD audio and also it has
volume controller that can be used to adjust volume directly from the front
panel.
Figure 8.3: Front view of DVD drive

The rear view of the DVD drive looks similar to the one given in figure
8.4.
Figure 8.4: Rear view of DVD drive
It used 4-pin connector to connect to the power. The signal connector may
be SCSI that can be directly connected to existing drive adapter. You can
set a series of small jumpers to set the drive identify. There are two audio
output connectors. One is 4-pin connectors that attaches to the sound board
and the other 2-pin connectors that’s supplies sound to a digital recording
system.
The MPEG-2 decoder: though DVD disk can easily provide 4 GB of storage
which is still not enough space to hold the audio and video data required for
an average- length movie. Movie data are highly compressed during being
recorded. This creates problemswhile playing as while decoding it may give
broken audio or dropped video frames. Therefore to ensure smooth real
time playback of the DVD movie, hardwarebased MPEG-2 decoder card is
added to an available PCI slot and connector directly to the monitor. The
decoder decompresses the MPEG-2 information relieving a tremendous
amount of work from the system processor. Decoded audio from the movie
is also passed from the decoder card to the sound card using CD audio

connection. Decoding can be finished by suing software applications. Not

necessarily all the time we need to decode hardware components. Software
decoding is much simpler than hardware decoding.
Decoder board connections: there are five major connections on the MPEG-
2 decoder card.
 Analog input jack: analog input is used for mixing in an auxiliary audio
signal to the decoder card.
 Analog output jack: provides the master audio signal that is fed to the
line input of your existing sound card.
 Digital output jack: it is used to drive an external digital device.
 Monitor connector: the MPEG-2 decoder card will drive the video
graphic adapter (VGA) through monitor connector.
 Video input connector: the video input is put to the decoder card, so that
while decoder card is idle the video signal is passed through the MPEG-
2 card to the monitor.
8.4.3 Trouble shooting

Here we will provide you with a series of guidelines to resolve wide range of
problems and troubleshooting issues.
if you want to set the DVD system configuration to a default state while
installing or correctingthe problems in DVD-ROM you can do it using the
below criteria.
1. Video configuration: irrespective of the amount of video RAM provided
by your video adapter, try to set the display to 640 X 480 using 16-bit
color. Set the monitor type to standard VGA.
2. DVD drivers: update your drivers regular to provide better hardware
compatibility. You should ensure that you have latest drivers.
3. Video drivers: video drivers are also updated regularly for better video
performance and compatibility. Check for the webpage for your video
card vendor for updated video drivers.
7. __________ is the time recorded by the drive to locate required
information on the disk.

8. State whether the following statements are true/false.

a. MPEG-2 decoder is used to compress and decode movie data.
b. Analog output is used for mixing in an auxiliary audio signal to
the decoder card.
c. Digital output jack is used to drive an external digital device.
Activity 3
How to troubleshoot when your DVD drivers refuse to get installed?
Hint: Refer the concept of troubleshooting DVD drive from the book
Troubleshooting, Maintaining and Repairing PC’s by Stephen J. Bigelow
8.5 Blu Ray Disk Drive

Blu-Ray Disk is often referred shortly as BD. BD is the advanced version of
DVD which is made out of smaller pits and lands. Single Layer BD can store
about more than five times the DVD capacity (almost 25 billion bytes) and
double layer BD can store upto 50 billion bytes. The name is because it
uses blue-violet laser light to read or write the data from the disk.
BD uses 0.1mm(milli-meter) cover layer which is used to move the data
closer to the lens. Through this we can achive higher density. To read the
smaller pits it requires a blue laser of wavelength at 405 nm (nano-
meter).teh technology used in BD is HDMV. HDMV (High Definition Movie)
is a technology that is used to provide functioanlity of high definitio graphics
planes, animated and popup menu buttons and sound effects for the
selection of menu buttons
8.5.1 Physical Media
The working of the Blu ray disk drive is as shown in the figure 8.5.

Figure 8.5: The block diagram of Blu Ray Disk Drive
The signal that is encoded is sent to a write pulse compensator (device

which converts the analog pulse into multiple pulse or waves) where the
signal is modulated to multi-pulse. By adjusting the leading edge of the first
pulse and the trailing edge of the cooling pulse of the multi-pulse signal, we
can control the accumulation amount in accordance with the Mark length,
enabling the Mark edge position precisely. The pulse waveform thus
modulated is sent to a laser driver circuit, which modulates the power of
laser beam to record Mark/Space data on a Blu-ray Disc™. To play-back
recorded data, the reproduced signal through an Equalizer is fed to the
Phase Locked Loop (PLL). The output signal of the Equalizer is also fed to
the Analog to Digital converter (A/D) converted to a digital signal at the clock
timing of PLL, then passed through a PRML channel to correct the initial bit
error, and output as signal to the subsequent digital signal processing
circuit. The modulated binary data is sent to the Write Pulse Compensator to
control the Mark edge position precisely. The output signal of Write Pulse
Compensator goes through Laser Driver and Optical Pick-up. The optical
pick-up has a spherical aberration compensator to focuson the both layers
of the Dual Layer disc. The reproduced signal was equalized and filtered
and passed through PRML decoder to correct the initial bit error.
The standard disk size is of 12 cm in size. The single layer blu-ray disk can
handle up to 25GB of data and dual layer disk can handle up to 50GB of
data.
 Types of Blu-ray disk: the Blu-ray disk can be differentiated based on
storage capacity of the disk. They are,
o Mini Blu-ray Disk: Mini disk size has the physical size of 8 cm. In this
type, the single layer Blu-ray disk can handle 7.8 GB of date and
dual layer disk has handled 15.6 GB of data. This version has been
designed for compact recording devices like compact camcorders
o Blu-ray disk recordable: this refers to two types of optical disk format
that is used with an optical disk recorder. They are BD-R and BD-
RE. BD-R disk can be written only once. BD-RE is a recordable and
can be re-used by erasing the existing data for multiple numbers of
times.
o BD9 and BD5: this was proposed as a cost-effective to 25/50 GB
BD-ROM disks. In this type it used the same codecs and instructions
pattern as the Blu-ray Disk video to record at a low cost. BD5 is the
lower capacity version with an idea of using inexpensive DVD media
for recording using single-layer 4.7 GB DVDs.
o Later multilayered recordable disk in BDAV format (Blu Ray Disk
Audio/ Video is a format that support Audio and video) with a speed
of 2X (72 Mbps) and 4X (144Mbps) that was capable of 100/128GB
called BD-R 3.0 came into existence.(Blu-ray Disc recordable (BD-R)
refers to two optical disc formats that can be recorded with an optical
disc recorder. BD-R discs can be written to once.BD RE is the ideal
format for making sequential backups, or recording video for time
shifting purposes. BD-RE can be erased and re-recorded multiple
times. Along with a multi layereddisc rewritable in BDAV with the
speed of 2X and 4X, capable of 100GB called BD-RE 4.0 (upgraded
version of BD-RE)also became in use.

8.5.2 Software standards

 File system: The file format used in Blu-Ray disk is UDF. UDF stands for
Universal Disk Format, is a convergent friendly format for the computer
and other electronic devices like TV, Music Player, etc. this format is
used in the latest versions of Blu-ray disk such as BD-ROM, BD-RE, and
BD-R. The application used for BD is BDAV for recording the digital
broadcasting. Blu-Ray Audio/Video application is a consumer- oriented
Blu-ray video format. It is used for audio /video recording.
 Directory and file structure: Blu-ray disk files are stored in a directory
called BDMV. BDMV stands for Blu-ray Disk Movie is a container that
stores the audio, video and other streams in BDAV format such as
MPEG, etc. it also has interactive menus with the help of java
implementation in blu-ray disk program instructions. BDMV contains the
following which must be present in the folder while playing.
o BACKUP: stores a copies of “index.bdmv” file, the
“MovieObject.bdmv” file, all the files in the PLAYLIST directory and
all files in the CLIPINF directory.
o INDEX.BDM: the information of the contents of BDMV directory is
stored in this file. One BDMV directory has only one index.bdm file.
o MOVIEOBJ.BDM: the information of one or more Movie objects is
stored in this file. One BDMV directory has only one Movieobj.bdm
file.
o PLAYLIST: Movie Playlists are stored in the database files. The files
are stored with an extension .MPLS.
o CLIPINF: contains the Database files for Clips. The clip files are
stored with a file name with an extension .CLPI. these files contains
the information about the audio/video clip stream file
o STREAM: this directory contains the stream files. It stores the file
names with an extension .M2TS which support MPEG 2 transport
stream. They store BDAV MPEG 2 files. The file name is made up
of 5-digit number associated with the Audio/Video stream file and its
CLIP information file.

 No Power on the Blu-ray drives: If you find difficult even to power up
your Blu-ray player, then you must, check for the secure connection of
the power cord. Check the outlet by plugging any other device like lamp
or clock. Even then if your Blu-ray drive does not turn on, then servicing
may be required.
 No Picture from the Blu-ray drive:if the power light is on and you are
able to see the picture then, you need to check to make sure all cables
are securely connected to the television and that they are in the correct
ports. Check the input settings on the television to make sure you are
set to the right channel or selection. For example, your TV may need to
be on channel 2 or have the HDMI input option selected. Refer to your
television's user manual if you are unsure which settings apply. You can
also check by restarting the TV. Ifstill the picture don’t appear then,
output video format is not correct. You can hold the stop button for more
than ten seconds so that the setting are reset and may correct the
problem.
 Some disk is not playing on the drive: suppose any disk is not playing on
the Blu-ray disk drive, you must remove the disk and clean the disk for
any dirt. Cleaning may sometimes help you in solving the problem. You
must be sure that you are placing the disk in a proper direction and not
upside down. You must always use the original disk and appropriate
disk format which the drive is able to support.

9. The data layer in the Blu-ray disk is closer to the surface of the disk
(true/false).
10. The two types of Blu-ray optical disk recorder are ____________.
11. BDMV stands for ____________.
8.6 Flash Memory Drive

Flash Memory drive is an external storage device which can be used to read
and write the flash memory. Flash drive is also called as USB flash drive or
thumb drive or pen drive. You can see a typical figure as shown in figure
8.6.

Figure 8.6: Flash Memory disk drive
This device is less expensive and very reliable and durable source of
storage media. The flash drive is used for the same purpose like CD-ROM
and floppy disks.
8.6.1 Essential component of flash drive
Flash drive consists of four parts. They are,
 Male type-A USB connector: this connector is used to connect the flash
drive to any computer available in the computer world. Male type-A USB
connector provides a physical interface to the host computer. This is
similar to the contact shown in the figure 8.6
 USB mass storage controller: This controller implements the USB host
controller. USB mass storage controller contains a small microcontroller
along with a small amount of on-chip ROM and RAM.
 NAND flash memory chip: is a nonvolatile data storage medium that
requires no power to retain the stored data. These are mostly used in
digital cameras, memory cards, USB flash drives, etc. it is shown in the
figure 8.6 labeled as NAND EEPROM and bonding wires.
 Crystal oscillator: .A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit
that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of electric
material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency.It is a
very important part of the device.
 LEDs: These are small lights that indicate the data transfers.

The other components are jumpers, write-protect switches and USB

connector cover or cap.
8.6.2 Size and style of packaging
Flash drives come in large number of variety, size and shapes. Some drives
are big and some are very tiny. Some drives are so much big in size
because the manufacturers use large housing to cover the drive which
makes the USB device difficult to plug in the port. This may block the
adjacent port to be connected to another device. If such devices have to be
used it needs to be connected through an extended cable. The features of
smaller size, robustness and cheaper price of flash drive make it very
popular among all the case mod. (Computer case is modified in any non-
standard way is taken as case mod). Heavy packaging will not work reliably
when plugged directly unless you use USB extension cable. The format
used in the Flash drive is FAT (File Allocation Table) file system
USB flash drives are the wonderful tools to store massive data into small
portable device and extremely easy to use. Still there are few solvable
damages that can occur in flash drives. When troubleshooting a USB flash
drive, there are few things you need to follow. They are,
1. Check for the lights in flash drives is activated as it is plugged in to the
USB port. If it is not turned on as soon as you plugged in then it means
your drive is not plugged properly or the device is damaged.
2. Ensure that you have downloaded the correct and necessary device
drivers and installed properly. You must enquire with the manufacturer
that the right driver must be downloaded and installed from the
manufacturer’s website so that they get the original and complete
drivers.
3. Ensure that you are identifying the correct drive for your flash drive. Like
the hard drive as got “C:” as default drive, each drives are identified by a
specific letter. There may be more than one flash drives in a computer
each of them are differentiated by a specific Alphabet. You must ensure
that the intendeddrives identity is observed in the space of your my
computer.
4. Whenever you are not able to recognize your flash drive on your
computer, try the drive on other computer to check whether it is working

fine with other computer. if it does then it is the problem of your

computer.
5. If you observe that your flash drive is seriously damaged and it cannot
be repaired then before discarding it contact a professional so that they
retrieve the data contained in the flash drive.

12. ___________________________ is used to connect the flash drive to
computer.
8.7 Summary
Disk Drives are the machine that reads and writes the data into the
respective disks. The different types of disk drives are hard drives, CD
drives, DVD drives and the latest Blu-ray disk drives and Flash memory
drive.The hard drive is also known as hard disk drive or fixed disk drive. It is
the main and largest storage device on the computer. It is referred usually in
the computer by C: drive. CD-ROM (Compact Disc, read-only-memory) is an
adaptation of the CD that is designed to store computer data in the form of
text, graphics and stereo sound.DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disk that
can hold program, data, audio and video. It is capable of providing up to
17GB of external storage on your computer. Blu-Ray Disk is often referred
shortly as BD. BD is the advanced version of DVD which is made out of
smaller pits and lands. Single Layer BD can store about more than five
times the DVD capacity (almost 25 billion bytes) and double layer BD can
store up to 50 billion bytes. The standard disk size is of 12 cm in size. The
single layer Blu-ray disk can handle up to 25GB of data and dual layer disk
can handle up to 50GB of data. Flash Memory drive also called as USB
flash is an external storage device which can be used to read and write the
flash memory. This device is less expensive, very reliable and durable
source of storage media. The flash drive is used for the same purpose like
CD-ROM and floppy disks. And in this unit we have discussed on the
troubleshooting tips for various types of disk drives.

8.8 Glossary
Term Description
C: Drive It is the default drive in the computer which is basically used to
store the program files.
Disk Drive It is a device that holds and spins an optical disk and reads
information from it.
Floppy Disk It is a magnetic storage media that is made up of a thin flexible
magnetic storage medium sealed in a square or rectangular plastic
carrier lined with fabric that removes dust particle.
Case Mod Computer case is modified in any non-standard way is called as
case mod.
MPEG Moving Picture Experts Group is an organization of experts to sets
standards for audio and video compression and transmission.
MPEG-2 It is a standard used for the generic coding of moving pictures and
related audio information.

1. Explain the working of hard drive with a neat diagram.
2. Describe the construction of CD-ROM
3. How to troubleshoot CD-ROM?
4. Explain the DVD drive & decoder.
5. Provide the guidelines for DVD drive troubleshooting.
6. What are the different types of Blu-ray disk?
7. Elaborate the flash memory drive.
8. List the guidelines for troubleshooting flash memory drive.
8.10 Answers
1. Integrated Drive Electronics
2. Specification
3. CD-ROM
4. EFM
5. Low level device
6. Auto Insert
7. Access time

8. a. True
b. False
c. True
9. True
10. BD-R and BD-RE
11. Blu-ray disk movie
12. Male type-A USB connector
Terminal Questions
1. Refer section 8.2.1: The hard drive construction, fig 8.1, typical
diagram.
2. Refer section 8.3.1: Basics of CD-ROM drive.
3. Refer section 8.3.3: Troubleshooting.
4. Refer section 8.4.2: The DVD drive and decoder.
5. Refer section 8.4.3: Troubleshooting of DVD drive.
6. Refer section 8.5.1: Physical media types of Blu-ray disk.
7. Refer section 8.6: Flash memory drive.
8. Refer section 8.6.4: Troubleshooting a USB flash drive.
References:
Publications, 2001
 DVD demystified, third edition by Jim H. Taylor, Mark R. Johnson,
Charles G. Crawford, McGraw Hill Publications, 2006
 How to Do Everything with Windows Vista Media Center, By Joli Ballew,
Justin Harrison, McGraw Hill Publications, 2008
E-References:
 http://pcsupport.about.com/od/componentprofiles/p/p_hdd.htm
 http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-hard-drive.htm
 http://www.faqs.org/docs/linux_admin/x1001.html
 http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid5_gci214013,00.
html
 http://www.jemisp.com/megabyte.htm
Unit 9 Parallel Port

Structure:
9.1 Introduction
Objectives
9.2 Parallel Port functioning
Signals and time diagram
Port operation
IEEE1284 Modes
9.3 Troubleshooting
Preventing parallel port trouble
Configuration of parallel port device under Windows
9.4 Summary
9.5 Glossary
9.7 Answers
9.1 Introduction
You have seen in unit 4 that buses are used to transfer data from CPU to
the peripheral devices connected to it. Port is a hardware that supports the
communication between one computer to another computer and other
peripheral devices. Parallel port is a device that is used to connect and
communicate between computer and various peripherals. In parallel port,
circuit for collage, decode data and control signals are virtually eliminated
because it sends the entire data from computer to printer simultaneously.
Though it is simple, parallel port is not free from failures as there may be
cable problems, static discharge damage, or continuous hardware defects,
leading to printer disconnection. Due to the inadequacy to handle faster
peripherals by the conventional bidirectional port, IEEE released a standard
for bidirectional parallel peripheral interface signalling method. This method
is named as IEEE1284 and it is useful for bidirectional parallel
communication.
In this unit you will study about pin assignment, operation of conventional
parallel ports and also the advances that have taken place. You will also
study the different modes of IEEE1284 and issues related to the standard.

Apart from this, the unit will discuss various troubleshooting steps that you
could use to separate and rectify port problems.
Objectives:
 Describe the operation of the parallel port
 Identify the advances in the Parallel port
 Resolve the problems through troubleshooting.

9.2 Parallel port functioning
The parallel port interface is one of the simplest circuits in the PC. Figure
9.1 illustrates a typical bidirectional port.
Figure 9.1: Bidirectional Port
A parallel port consists of three registers:

The data register
The control register
The status register

Address bits A0 to A9 are decoded to determine the active register among

the three. –I/OR and –I/OW lines are used to determine whether the signals
on the data bus are being read from or written to the specific register.
Handshaking signals are bidirectional protocol used between sender and
receiver to acknowledge to the sender that the data has been received.
These signals are used to trigger the interrupt to request a new character.
Data register, the ‘heart’ of a parallel port provides registers to read and
write data making it a bidirectional port. It is loaded into the system by
passing a value in it to access the printer. The bidirectional control register
is used to set condition for the CPU so that a new character can be
requested and manage the behaviour of the port. For example, when the
printer is ready to accept another character the control register is set to
generate the interrupt. The status register is used to determine the status of
the printer.
As you know that the conventional parallel port is implemented in a series of
three registers, when one register is used to buffer the 8 data bits, the other
two registers handle the handshaking signals of the port. The base address
of each port corresponds to the data register. The specific port’s status
register is accessed through the base address with an offset value of 01h
(Identifier 2) while the control register is accessed with an offset value of
02h (Identifier 3)
9.2.1 Signals and Time diagram
Signal is any time varying quantity which is generated to produce the
interrupt. All signals in the parallel port are compatible with conventional
signal levels. Most of the computers use 25-pin sub-miniature D-type
female connector. The D-subminiature or D-sub is a common type of
electrical connector used particularly in computers. In D type connector D is
the prefix for the whole series that denotes the shell size (A=15 pin, B=25
pin, C=37 pin, D=50 pin, E=9 pin), followed by the actual number of pins,
followed by the gender. Typical diagram of a 25-pin sub miniature is shown
in the figure 9.2. At the printer device the parallel connection uses 36-pin
connector. This 36-pin connector is called as Centronics type connector.

Centronics mode is one of the conventional methods of transferring data to

the printer in which it does not have handshaking mechanism. The exact
reasoning is not clear since 11-pins of the Centronics connector will remain
unused. The data sent by the sub miniature D-type connector is to
responded by Centronics connector as soon as possible because the data
will not reside in the connector for longer time. There are three types of
signals - Data signals, handshaking signals and ground signals. The
following section describes each signal in detail.
Figure 9.2: A typical Parallel port cable assembly
Data signals are the conductors that carry information from the parallel port
to or from the printer or other peripheral. There are eight data lines (D0 to
D7). These lines are located from pin 2 to pin 9. The pin 1 and pin 0 are
occupied by ground signals. Handshaking signals are bidirectional protocol
used between sender and receiver to acknowledge to the sender that the
data has been received. Ground signals are used to reduce the noise
effects in the signal. They also provide common electrical reference
between the computer and peripheral. –Initialize signal (-INI) is initialized to
ensure that the printer starts. It is active low so that the printer will apply
logic 0 to initiate the start. The Select signal (SEL) is used to inform the

computer that the component is ready to receive the data. It is active high so
that the logic 1 indicates that the printer is online and ready.
The computer will know that it does not have to send data when the printer
select signal is logic 0 since it is not ready. In order to verify whether the
data is ready on the parallel port signal –Strobe Signal (-STR) is used. It is
used to accept the data from the peripheral and store it on the printer’s
internal buffer for processing. In order to delay the computer from sending
the data until the printer is ready Busy signal (BSY) is used. When a strobe
signal is received by the peripheral, it drives the busy signal to logic 1. This
remains at logic 1 until the printer is ready for next byte. Busy signals can
indeterminately delay the computer when peripheral error occurs. For
example, whenever the paper gets stuck in the printer or paper is exhausted
or ribbon is jammed, it remains at logic 1 for a long time. Whenever the
printer has to communicate to the computer that it is ready to receive
another character it uses Acknowledge signal (ACK) which is active low
signal.
9.2.2 Port operation
Printer is placed online by parallel data transfer. Initially busy signal must be
logic 0, strobe signal and acknowledge signal must be logic 1. This is the
indication that the printer is ready to accept one byte of data. When the
printing is initiated, it checks the status of the printer setting and the CPU
polls the desired LPT (Line print terminal) port. LPT is the original form and
still commonly used as parallel port interface. If the status shows ready then
a byte of data is written to the data register and passed to the peripheral.
Data must be valid for at least 0.5 µS (microsecond) before the strobe signal
is set to logic 0. Printer responds with the Busy signal by returning a logic
one. This changes the status of the port. The strobe pulse must lasts for at
least 1.0µS. Data must be held at least 0.5 µS after the strobe signal is
passed. This timing indicates that it has enough time to receive data. It is
the minimum requirement of the connector that the data must be valid for
minimum of 0.5 µS below which is the time not sufficient enough to receive
the data. Computer stops sending data now since the Busy signal is logic 1
and previous data is still being processed. Timing diagrams are the artefacts
that are used to explore the behaviours of one or more objects throughout a
given period of time.

Figure 9.3: Typical timing diagram of a parallel port
Busy signal is set to logic 0 after the data byte is processed by the printer.
Acknowledge signal with logic 1 is sent to the computer indicating that it is
ready to receive the data. This is shown in the timing diagram in figure 9.3
which illustrates this theory. The printer sets busy signal high when it is
processing a character after the select signal in the initialise mode. Once the
busy signal is low that means when the printing of a character is done, it set
the acknowledge signal high and request the printer for new data to send.
In the mode of printing, after the printer line receives a character for printing
request, the character bits are put on the data line. Busy signal is tested
repeatedly until it is found to be low, then the strobe signal is sent. The
printer set busy signals high when the character data have been latched and
sets it low again when the character has been processed. Once the busy
signal is low the acknowledge signal is set high indicating the new data
request. In the diagram you can find the three major types of signals

responsible for the complete processing of printing a series of character

they are initialise signals, data transfer signals and error signals. Once the
acknowledge signal is set high in the data transfer signal a new data can
come on the data line that is represented by new data available label in the
data signal.
Suppose if the printer container has exhausted with paper or paper is struck
the error signal indicates the paper out by selecting the paper out signal
high. This paper out signal remains high until the paper is replaced or paper
is loaded. Once the paper is loaded the paper out signal is set to low and
select signal sends the data to the printer. Once a select signal is low the
busy signal in the error mode will be high indicating the process of printing.
In diagram 9.3, one complete cycle can take a bit over 1mS (millisecond).
Advanced Parallel port
It is very easy to understand the appeal of a parallel port because you just
need to plug into the 25-pin D-type connector and it is ready to run. It works
on the concept of plug and play. The parallel port has evolved to improved
modes which are of different types like unidirectional port, “Type 1”
bidirectional port, and “Type 3” bidirectional port.
Unidirectional ports: this mode was used in earlier parallel port. As the
name indicates this port is used to send data from the PC to the printer
device. For most of the general purpose computers unidirectional port was
enough for communication.
“Type 1” bidirectional ports: Bidirectional ports were used to send and
receive data from computer to printer and vice-versa. Though the
bidirectional port is not faster than unidirectional port it came into existence
because of its ability to send data back to the PC which made the use of the
parallel port to connect to other peripherals besides printers.
“Type 3” bidirectional ports: This mode attempted to increase the
throughput of the parallel port by using Direct Memory access (DMA)
techniques. This approach allowed the CPU to define a block of memory to
be sent. A DMA controller takes over control from the CPU and sends and
receives the data without the intervention of CPU which results in faster data
transfers. This port removed the problem of slower performance of
bidirectional port due to the intervention of CPU for the transfer of data.

9.2.3 IEEE 1284 Modes

By the end of 1980s it was clear that the conventional bidirectional ports
were not adequate to handle faster peripherals. Therefore, a group of major
PC manufacturers formed the Network Printing Alliance (NPA) which
attempted to develop a new architecture. Later IEEE joined with NPA and
released a standard for bidirectional parallel peripheral interface signalling
method which was named as IEEE standard 1284.
The IEEE 1284 standard is a standard set by IEEE and NPA for connecting
a computer to peripheral devices over a parallel physical and electrical
interface. IEEE allows data to flow in one direction, from computer to
peripheral as well as it supports bi-directional data flow.
IEEE 1284 specifies 5 standard modes of operation in it, each of them
specifying the data transfer from either printer to computer, computer to
printer or bidirectional flow. The five modes are:
Compatibility mode: This mode is used to define the basic protocol used in
the computers to transfer data from computer to printer. It is also called as
Centronics mode. It was mainly designed to serve the dot matrix and older
laser printers. In this mode, data is kept on the data signal and status is
checked for errors and busy signals. When this is clear strobe signal is
initiated to send the data to the printer. In this mode it carries data rate up to
150 bytes/second at 6 meter or 20 ft. with an AB-cable or up to 150 kbps at
10 meter or 32.8 ft. with a CC-cable (composite connector which is used to
connect newer peripherals, wiring between the connectors in a cable and
connecting the board to the parallel port of the PC). The drawback of this
mode is that there is a serious problem in communicating with LAN (Local
Area Network) adapters, removable disk drives and the newest generation
of laser printers.
Nibble mode: this mode allows reverse data transfer to the computer.
Combining with compatibility mode it can create bidirectional data transfer
line. As nibble is half byte (4 bits) of the data units nibble mode is capable of
sending 2 nibble of data from peripheral to the computer in two data transfer
cycles. Nibble mode is best suited for printers and can operate on all PCs
that have a parallel port. It does not have much effect on low bandwidth but
may not support it when used with other bidirectional devices other than

printers. This mode carries data rate up to 50 kbps at 6 meter or 20 ft. with a
CC-cable which can be increased to up to 150 kbps at 10 meter or 32.6 ft.
Byte mode: this mode requires software drivers to disable the drivers that
control the data signals so that data can be sent from the printer to the
computer. The data is sent at the same speed as sent from the computer to
the printer. This mode is able to send one byte (8 bits) of data transfer and
when combined with compatibility mode can create bidirectional data
transfer line. It carries data rate up to 500 kbps at 10 meter or 32.8 ft. with
CC-cables.
ECP mode: Extended Capability Port mode is an advanced mode for
communication between printers and scanners which allows data
compression for images and FIFO facility for items in queue. ECP provides
high performance bidirectional path between computer and the peripheral.
And supports data rates up to 2 to 4 MB per second. The features of ECP
mode are:
Run length encoding (RLE) data compression for host system’s LPT port.
FIFO buffers for both forward and backward channels.
Feature of channel addressing is used for multifunction logical devices
within a single physical device such as printer/fax/modem devices. For
example, In a printer/fax/modem device, where a single parallel port is
connected to a peripheral device using channel address software driver of
ECP mode, you can assign a new channel to the modem while the printer is
still busy in printing a high resolution image.
This mode carries data rate up to 500 kbps at 1 Mbps at 6 meter or 20ft. or
10 meter or 32.8 ft. with CC-cables.
EPP mode: Enhanced Parallel Port mode was designed to provide a high-
performance parallel interface which could be used with the standard
interface. The EPP mode uses one ISA I/O cycle that transfers data
between the computer and the peripheral devices. This allows data transfer
rate at the speed of 500 KB to 2MB per second, depending on the speed of
the slowest interface. The EPP mode is bi-directional. and suitable for
network adapters, data acquisition, portable hard drives, and other devices
that need speed.

It uses single instruction to transfer data to or from the PC. Moreover, the
EPP protocol provides a high degree of coupling between the peripheral
driver and the peripheral devices.
IEEE issues
While IEEE might be appealing, there are some serious considerations to be
kept in mind while dealing with it. You must specifically ensure that you
have IEEE 1284 complaint parallel port, cable and peripheral devices like
printer, tape drives, hard drive and so on. The main problem in using IEEE
port is using the specific printer cable with older dot matrix printer. To benefit
from IEEE you must have at least IEEE 1284 cable and a device with
significant memory capacity such as a laser printer.
The computer must be able to determine the features of the peripheral that
is connected to it so that it can choose the mode of standard. Therefore, a
method called negotiation was developed to determine these factors.
Negotiation is a series of events that exists on the parallel port interface and
used to determine the requirement of type of mode for the device. For older
device compatibility, mode is selected for operation as it does not respond
to negotiation.
1. ______________ is a device that is used to connect and
communicated between computer and printer.
2. Data registers are called as ______________.
3. ______________ is any time varying quantity which is generated to
produce the interrupt.
4. IEEE joined with ______________ released a standard for bidirectional
parallel port.
9.3 Troubleshooting
Though the parallel port is a very simple device it can throw some huge
challenges. Although the easiest way would be to replace a port whenever
there is a problem in it, the following tips might help you to detect any
problem in the mother port before you do so. There are three options before
you:

South Bridge chip that supports the parallel port can be replaced. Though
this can be economical it is not common practical solution.
Set the jumpers to disable the faulty parallel port and install a multi
expansion I/O slot to take its place. This offers a cheap, fast fix for a
defective parallel port.
Motherboard can be replaced. This is a simple but very expensive option.
This is the last solution for any technician when the parallel port is defective.
9.3.1 Preventing parallel port trouble
Though the parallel port is very a simple device it is important for you to
address some common issues that manifest themselves regularly. The
following points could be considered before identifying the problem:
Cable: As a cheap or damaged cable can cause serious problem it is
essential that you ensure that the cable length is less than 6 ft. When you
suspect a cable problem try connecting a different cable or a good known
cable. In most cases using the IEEE 1284 cable will solve the problem.
Port mode: you need to choose a right mode for the right device. Not all the
parallel ports operate well on ECP or EPP modes. In case of defects or
problems in the printer try changing the mode to compatibility mode or any
standard mode in the CMOS setup. In high end devices you need to specify
the setting as ECP or EPP to get full functionality of the port.
Hardware conflicts: It is very common to have a conflict if the system uses
second LPT port (LPT2) for IRQ5 because it is mostly used up by sound
boards. The line print terminal (LPT) was designed to operate text printer. If
you have two or more LPT ports in the system, then you need to configure
the sound boards to use another IRQ or to remove the sound board entirely.
Printer driver conflicts: This problem is common when you use certain
parallel port devices such as Iomega Zip drives, SyQuest SyJet drives etc.
The parallel port receives the special reserved non printable characters by
these drives. This signals the drive that the next data is for the drive and not
for the printer. This situation can cause conflicts between the drivers and
each unit might appear like a defective system. Therefore, by using one LPT
port for the parallel port drive and another LPT port for the printer will
resolve the above mentioned conflict.

Printer monitoring software: printer monitoring may also cause conflict in

drivers. Some printers have status drivers that monitor the printer status.
When such printers are connected to the pass-through port of the parallel
port, they may disable the printer monitoring drive and also corrupt the data
resulting in system problem. Therefore, you should disable the status
communication which does not affect the printing.
9.3.2 Configuration of parallel port device under Windows
There are some common issues that arise while configuring the parallel port
device under Windows which are categorized as follows:
Cabling problems: suitable cable must be used for the parallel port and the
device. Try to connect the device directly to the parallel port if you have
switch box or pass-through type of connector between the port and the
device. You could also try to accommodate the additional device if you have
any other peripherals device other than printer by setting up the additional
parallel port on your computer.
Port disabled: check the status of the parallel port by rebooting the PC and
selecting the CMOS setup. LPT port must be enabled and particular IRQ
must be assigned to the port. For example IRQ7 for LPT 1 or IRQ 5 for LPT
2. In the Bios listing IRQ5 is available and the default IRQ is used for sound
card. If the sound card is not used the network card and LP2 are often set to
the IRQ5 as it support the secondary parallel port devices. IRQ7 is typically
for primary parallel port. If the parallel port is not used then IRQ7 can be
assigned to another LPT1 device or any primary device.
Port configured improperly: In CMOS setup, check the parallel port mode
to ensure that compatibility mode or standard mode is set for basic printers
and high end printers which may need ECP or EPP mode to function
properly.
Disable any status monitors: you need to disable any status monitoring
software on the system. Also, Windows startup folder needs to be checked
during the boot time. You need to disable real-mode software by remarking
out the offending command line in CONFIG.SYS or AUTOEXEC.BAT.
Wrong mode set for parallel port device: you should ensure that the
printer is not set to plug-and-play mode.

Check and correct any IRQ conflicts: Check and correct IRQ conflicts.
You need to verify that a particular IRQ allocated to a parallel port is not
used by any other device. This kind of setting is a problem with sound board
and IRQ 5. You need to remove or reconfigure the device which has
conflicts. For example, consider a SyQuest drive. If you have no SCSI
controllers listed, then it indicates that a SyQuest Windows driver is
prevented from loading, indicating an IRQ conflict.
Check and remove any similar device drivers: whenever you upgrade a
parallel port device ensure that the older driver is removed so that there is
no interference with the new device drivers. For example, if you have
upgraded your Windows with SyQuest Windows’s parallel port drivers and
another removable media device such as tape backup running a device
drive on older Windows, this will compete with the newer drive and prevent
the SyQuest drive from installing properly under Windows. In that case you
need to remove or uninstall any device drivers or software related to old
parallel port device and then reinstall the new device drivers.
Activity 1:
How will you troubleshoot when you hear a beep code or see a POST
error indicating a parallel port?
Hint: Refer the concept of symptom of parallel port in the book on

a. There will be serious problem in the port if you use a cheap cable.
b. You should enable the status monitor software when there is a
problem in the port.
6. ECP stands for ______________.
9.4 Summary
Parallel port is a device which is used to connect and communicate between
computer and other peripheral devices. Parallel port interface is one of the
simplest and straight forward circuits in the PC. It consists of three registers
which perform specific functions: they are data register, status register and
control register.

While accessing the printer, the system CPU loads the port data register
with the value to be passed. In this unit you studied the different types of
signals which are responsible for transferring the data from the computer to
the peripheral device which is mostly a printer. You also discussed the
operation of the parallel port with the help of different kinds if signals which
have been represented with the help of parallel port timing diagram. Apart
from these, a comparison between the various parallel port modes such as
unidirectional port and bidirectional ports were made in this unit.
You have not only come to know the standard used in new peripheral
device and its different mode components but also discussed how to
prevent the parallel port from experiencing any problem, but if problems to
occur then how to troubleshoot in the Windows configuration.
9.5 Glossary
Term Description
LPT port Line print terminal is the original form and still commonly
used as parallel port interface
Centronics This is one of the conventional methods of transferring data
mode to the printer in which it does not have handshaking
mechanism. therefore we need to react fast to the data send
by the host
Handshaking They are bidirectional protocol used between sender and

signals receiver to acknowledge the sender that the data is received
Nibble One nibble is equal to 4 bits or half byte
Byte One byte is equal to 8 bits or double the nibble
D-type female The D-subminiature or D-sub is a common type of electrical
connector connector used particularly in computers. In D type connector
D is the prefix for the whole series that denotes the shell size
(A=15 pin, B=25 pin, C=37 pin, D=50 pin, E=9 pin), followed
by the actual number of pins, followed by the gender.

1. Explain the operation of the parallel port in detail.
2. Differentiate between different nodes of IEEE 1284 standard.

3. How will you resolve the problem of Windows configuration through

troubleshooting?
9.7 Answers
1. Parallel Port
2. Bidirectional
3. Signal
4. NPA
5. a) True
b) False
6. Extend Capability Port
Terminal Questions
1. Refer sec 9.2.2 Port Operation
2. Refer sec 9.2.3 IEEE 1284 modes
3. Refer sec 9.3 Troubleshooting
References:
Publications, 2001
E-References:
 http://eetd.lbl.gov/EA/Reports/39466/
02march25.mspx
 http://www.tech-faq.com/configuring-power-management.html
02march25.mspx
 http://courses.engr.illinois.edu/ece390/books/labmanual/parallel-
comm.html
 http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci213469,00.html
 http://ckp.made-it.com/ieee1284.html

Unit 10 Serial Port

Structure:
10.1 Introduction
Objectives
10.2 Asynchronous Communication
The data frame
Signals
Baud Vs BPS
10.3 Serial Port functioning
DTE Vs DCE
Serial port signals
10.4 Modems
Constructing and operating a modem
Signal modulation
Installing a modem
Troubleshooting
10.5 Troubleshooting
Configuration
Serial port conflicts
10.6 Summary
10.7 Glossary
10.9 Answers
10.1 Introduction
Unit 9 acquainted you with parallel port, its trouble shooting and the different
types of modes in port operation. You also got to know the significance of
signals and timing diagrams with respect to parallel port which is used to
connect printer with the computer.
Serial port is a device that is used to connect and communicate between the
low-bandwidth devices like modem and keyboard and mice. It uses two data
lines; one to transmit data and another to receive data. Right from the
beginning the serial port has been a bidirectional port making it possible to
interact between a computer and other peripheral devices other than

printers. As it used very few signal lines, it made the cable less expensive
and reduced potential connector problems.
In this unit you will study the essential concepts of serial port and its
operation and the guidelines to troubleshoot serial port problems.
Objectives:
 Discuss the essential concepts of serial communication.
 Explain the set up and working of modems devices.
 Resolve the serial port problems through troubleshooting.
10.2 Asynchronous Communication

Asynchronous communication is a type of communication in which a start
signal is initiated before a data byte or character and a signal is sent after
each code. The serial port has to send and receive the data on a single
data line. This poses a challenge in receiving the data from the device.
It is very easy to send the synchronizing clock signal through the data wire.
The method by which the clock is used by the receiving device to detect
each data bit is known as synchronous communication.
On the other hand, when the stream of data bits reaches the receiving end,
the original data is retained by eliminating the synchronization bits.
Asynchronous communication is that communication which does not
depend on the clock. In section 10.2.1, 10.2.2 and 10.2.3 you will be able to
identify the different concepts of asynchronous communication. Major
concepts include the following they are,
 The data Frame
In order to use the asynchronous communication the data bits need to be
combined with the synchronization bits before transmission. These
synchronization bits have three types of information at the receiving device
like:
where the data starts
where the data ends
whether the data is correct.
Synchronization bits combined with data byte are called as Data Frame. A
data frame format is as shown in the figure 10.1.

Figure 10.1: Typical diagram of asynchronous data frame.
Serial port is bipolar port which means that it has 2 voltages; both positive
and negative. The positive voltage represents logic 0 which indicates space
and negative voltage represents logic 1 which indicates mark. You can
observe in the diagram that the first element in the asynchronous data frame
is start bit. This start bit is always logic 1 or mark. Whenever the receiver
identifies the logic 1 that means that the data frame has started. From 2 nd to
8th bit are data bits. The number of bits can be altered or set by the
communication software. Parity bit, an error checking bit can be included
after the 8th bit. It is calculated by both sending and receiving device. The
data is correct only when both parity match otherwise an error is flagged.
Serial communication has five types of parity.
They are:
None: None indicates word is not added with parity bits.
Even: if the data bits contain odd number of 1s, then the parity is set to 1 to
make the number of 1s even.
Odd: if the data bits contain even number of 1s, the parity is set to 1 to
make the number of 1s odd.
Mark: parity is always set to 1
Space: parity is always set to 0.

The last part is the stop bit which is always logic 0. Stop bit indicates the
receiving device that the device has to remain idle until it receives the next
subsequent start bit. Framing is represented as data/parity/stop. For
example, the connection to a BBS(Bulletin Board system) that is a
application dedicated to sharing or exchange of information or messages in
the telecommunications network) typically uses 8/N/1 framing which means
that it has 8 data bits/ no parity bit and 1 stop bit.
 Signal Levels
As the serial port uses bipolar signalling, it is able to support very long
cabling with less noise. Positive voltage is represented by logic 0 (space)
between +3 Vdc and + 15 Vdc. Negative voltage is represented by logic 1
(mark) between -3 Vdc and -15 Vdc. Serial ports can also use +/- 5 Vdc or
+/- 12 Vdc since power supply directly produces those voltages.
Baud vs BPS
Baud is defined as the number of signal events in the transmitted signal.
When the bits are transferred from serial port through a modem then
modem will modulate the data through different series of phase, frequency
and amplitude transitions. While a transition is referred to as a baud the total
number of frequency or voltage signals per second existing on a
communications line is the Baud rate. Sometimes it is also referred to as
switching speed. Bit per second or Bps refers to the number of data bits that
can pass through a specific point in one second. For example, if we have a
serial port, we consider 1 bit = -12 volts and 0 bit = +12 volts. If bps of the
serial port is 38,400, a sequence of 010101 would also be 38,400 baud. As
the voltage fluctuates between negative to positive and vice-versa, there are
38,400 shifts/sec. Considering another sequence 111000111, for this there
will be less fluctuations of voltage as the number of 1’s in sequence stays at
-12 volts but still we can say that there are 38,400 baud because there is a
chance of increase in the number of changes/sec.
The modems like voice band digital modem ( are modern modems that does
not require much time to transfer data as it is not dependent on modem – to-
modem speed and can use serial port speed for the data transfer) can
encode more than one bit per second in every transition. Therefore, the bps
of a modern modem is several times higher than its baud rate. For example

a modem which operates at 2400 baud might transmit data at a speed of

9,600 bits per second.
1. ______________ is a device that is used to connect and communicate
between the low bandwidth devices.
2. The method of receiving device with the help of clock to detect each
data bit is known as ______________ communication.
3. The combination of synchronisation bits and the data byte is called as
______________.
4. ______________ is defined as the total number of frequency or voltage
signals per second existing in a communication line.
10.3 Serial Port Functioning

Serial port performs many important functions. Some of them are:
 Parallel data needs to be converted into a series of serial bits;
appropriate framing bits needs to be added and the data line is to be
provided with those bits at the proper rate.
 It must also work in the reverse process i.e. the serial data must be
accepted at a known rate; framing bit must be removed and the serial
data converted to bus form.
 The key component part of serial port is a single chip which is known as
universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART). It is the controller
that takes bytes of data and transmits each data bit in a sequential
fashion. At the destination end there is another UART controller which
reassembles the individual bits into complete byte. UART is used in
modems as well as for non-networked communication between
computers, terminals and other devices.
10.3.1 DTE vs DCE

DTE stands for data terminal equipment and is considered to be a dumb
terminal or a serial port of a computer. DCE stands for data carrier
communication and is normally a modem or any other piece of data
communication equipment. There is an important distinction between DTE
and DCE because data and handshaking signals are swapped at the DCE
end. For example, the transmit pin which exists on the 3rd pin of a DTE
cannot be directly connected to the same pin of the DCE. Rather, it must be

routed through receive pin. DCE is responsible for such swaps so that the
3rd pin on the transmit pin connector gets connected to related pin on the
receive pin.
Two DTEs cannot be connected with a straight-through cable. However, null
modem is used to swap the signals and connect the transmit lines between
the two DTE.
10.3.2 Serial Port Signals
Serial post signals are very helpful in easily turning on and off by a switch.
Signals can also be sued to monitor external devices without exchanging
the serial data. Signals provide messages like loss of power, battery low
alarm and status information with the help of power supply model.
Serial port uses either 25-pin connector or 9-pin subminiature D-type
connector to be used in the PC. These connectors look like the ones shown
in figure 10.2.
25-Pin M
9-pin M
Figure 10.2: 25-pin M and 9-pin M
Serial cables are identical at both the ends. Like parallel port, serial
connections also have three types of signals namely, data lines, control
lines, and ground lines. Data signals are the conductors that carry
information from the serial port to or from the modem or other peripheral.
Control signals are bidirectional protocol used between sender and receiver
to acknowledge the sender that the data is received Ground signal is used
to reduce the noise effects in the signal. The data signals and control
signals are bipolar in nature. Bipolar signals are also called as bipolar
transmission. It is a method of sending binary data over cable or wire. These

signals are represented by 2 logic states high and low and denoted by logic
1 and logic 0.
Tx and Rx: These are the kind of data lines which are responsible for
sending and receiving the data in the serial port. Tx stands for transmit line
which sends the serial data from the computer. Rx stands for Receive line
which accepts serial data from the serial port device. A peripheral device
consists of both Tx and Rx signals. Its working is as shown in Figure 10.3.
Figure 10.3: working of Tx and Rx in the computer system
When the computer is connected to a peripheral, then one device sends the
data to the other using Tx line and the other device receives the same data
using Rx data line and vice-versa. In the Figure, Vcc is the common
collector voltage which supplies power to the device and GND is the
grounding of the device. Only one device can have control over the data
lines at a time.. If more than one device tries to send data to the single Rx
line then it gives error message stating “bus contention”. This message
means, rather than communicating among devices to a single device, no
data will be sent or received correctly. The figure 10.4 shows how the bus
contention message is obtained.

Figure 10.4: bus contention messages between more than two devices.
In the above figure you can see that the computer will not receive any data
since the two devices peripheral 1 and peripheral 2 are sending the data on
the same line at the same time creating contention.
RTS and CTS: RTS stands for Request to send which is a signal that is
generated by the DTE (Data terminal equipment). This signal informs
DCE(Data carrier equipment) that it will receive a data. But this does not
mean that DTE can unload the data to DCE because DCE must be ready to
receive the data. Therefore, once the DCE receives the RTS signal DTE
waits for CTS signal back from the DCE. CTS stands for Clear to send are a
signal that tells the DTE that the receiver node is ready to receive the data.
Then DTE starts sending the data. This RTS/CTS signal is responsible for
control data flow through the system hardware.

DTR and DSR: DTR stands for Data Terminal Ready is a signal that tells
the DCE that the DTE is ready to establish a connection. This signal is
asserted when the DTE is initialized and ready to start the serial operation.
After the DTE informs the DCE that connection is ready to be established,
the DCE will initialize itself and when it is ready sends DSR signal back to
DTE. DSR which stands for Data Set Ready is a signal which tells DTE that
DCE also has established the connection and DTE can send the data. The
DTR/DSR signal is established when the DTE and DCE are initialized and
are active through the connection. If any of these signals fail then the
connection is disconnected and the RTS/CTS signal will have no existence.
The major difference between DTR/DSR and RTS/CTS is that the RTS/CTS
signal informs the DTE/DCE that the data is being sent or received by them
while the DTR/DSR establishes connection between DTE and DCE and
initializes both of them.
DCD: DCD which stands for Data Carrier Detect is particularly used with
modem. It generates this signal when a carrier is detected from a remote
device and when it is ready to establish the communication pathway. DCD
signal is sent back to the DTE so that DTE remains active as long as the
connection is established.
RI: RI which stands for Ring Indicator is a signal asserted by DCE and
particularly used in modems. This signal which is generated when it detects
a telephone ring is important if a remote user wants to call in to seek your
permission to access your computer from a remote machine. Ring indicator
is also important when the computer gives a “wake on ring” in case of power
management configuration.
SelfAssessment Questions
5. UART stands for ___________.
6. _______ is a data communication equipment.
7. Bipolar signals are also called as bipolar _____________.
8. _______ is a transmit line which outputs the serial data from the
computer.
9. RTS stands for ___________.
10. _______ Signal is asserted when the DTE is initialised and ready to
start the serial operation.

10.4 Modems
A combination of modulator and Demodulator, is shortly known as Modem.
Modem is a device that is used to modulate analog signals to digital signal
and demodulate the digital information to corresponding analog signal. It is
also used to communicate the data from one computer to another computer
through a telephone line.
10.4.1 Constructing and Operating a Modem

Modems are fabricated with specialized chips and discrete parts. Working of
a modem can be summarized as follows:
 First parallel form data must be translated to serial form and vice-versa.
That means the serial data must be converted to an audio signal so that
it can pass through a telephone line. This audio signal contains the
transmitted signals. this is called as data compression. It is easy to
transmit the data from computer to modem than the modem transmitting
to computer. Modem collects all the bits of information together and
converts to send the data over the telephone line. Audio signals
received from the telephone line must be separated from transmitted
signals, and reconverted to serial data.
 Whenever the data is converted from one form to another they are prone
to cause errors may be with loss of data or adding some unwanted data.
Error checking technique in modem verifies that the data receives has
no damage in its data.
 It is common that the speed rate of the network is not the same.
Suppose the dial up network at the sending end is faster than the other
end which receives it, then the control flow tells the sending end to
pause the data till the receiving end receives the already sent data. The
flow control is done either by using software or hardware. Software
controller has specific noise which generates a character that sounds
pause. The sending data is paused until it gets next proper character for
sending the data. Hardware controller use wires in the modem cable.
 Finally, the modem uses non-volatile RAM (NVRAM) to store the list of
set up parameters.

Construction of Modem: The construction of the modem is explained by

differentiating the types of modems. There are two types of modems:
internal modem and external modem.
Internal modem: the internal modem is a stand-alone board that plugs in
with ISA or PCI Buses. The design of the internal modem is as shown in the
figure 10.5
Figure 10.5: Block diagram of an Internal Modem
The internal modem consists of one UART (universal asynchronous

receiver/transmitter) device that is responsible for converting data from
parallel form to serial form and vice-versa. UART forms the basics of serial
port and it is very important to set the UART in the computer properly. The
serial data is converted into audio signals before sending through the
telephone lines. The audio signal is made to pass through the telephone
interface through RJ11 (registered Jack) connector which is a telephone
jack that allows you to check the line and make calls when modem is idle.
The signal is sent to the demodulator by the telephone interface and is freed
from transmitted line by it. The demodulated data is sent to UART which
again converts the serial data into parallel words which are placed on the
system bus.

In the initial stages of modem operation, the speaker is used to check the
dial tone for connectivity. Overall operation of the modem is managed by the
controller which accepts the command from the modulator and some
parameters which are to be changed. NVRAM is the non-volatile random
access memory which stores the default loaded parameters. During a power
cut you can load the default parameter from the NVRAM. The internal
modem gets power supply directly from the expansion bus.
External modem: external modems are the devices that are used to connect
computers with public network. The external modem is not present as built
in device inside the serial port but is connected from outside the computer.
The block diagram of the external modem is as shown in the Figure 10.6.
Figure 10.6: Block diagram of an external modem
The working of the external modem is similar to the internal modem except
that the device is connected to the serial port of the system rather than
being connected directly to the expansion bus. An external modem is
connected to computer through the already configured serial port in the
computer. 9-pin or 25-pin serial cable is used to connect modem to the
computer externally which makes the set up easier and faster because you
need not bother about the interrupt lines and I/O address settings. In
external modems hardware conflicts are rare.
The external devices are powered using a small AC adapter. External
modem provides LEDs which states the series of signal status which allows
you to check the communication status.

10.4.2 Signal Modulation

Modulation is the method of conveying a message signal inside another
signal that can be physically transmitted. Modulation is the addition of
information (or the signal) to an electronic or optical signal carrier.
Modulation can be applied to direct current to alternating current, and to
optical signals.
Once the bipolar signal is accepted by the modem from a serial port, the
carrier signal being generated on the telephone must be modulated so that it
reflects the logical levels of the transmission. Therefore, the two ends of the
modem must be capable of executing the same modulation scheme (about
which you will be studying later in this section).
Modulation schemes: modulation is a process of changing the properties of
high frequency wave form with respect to the modulating signal. Wave form
is also called as carrier signal which is the property of the signal such as
shape and form. Example: wave moving in a solid, liquid or gaseous
medium. There are three physical characteristics of a wave form namely,
amplitude, frequency and phase which are adjusted to represent a bit.
Amplitude is the magnitude of the wave which is measured in volts peak-to-
peak or volts RMS (Root Mean Square). It represents the distance travelled
by the wave form above and below the zero axis.
Frequency is the number of times that a single wave will repeat in any given
time. It is measured as cycles-per-second or hertz. 1800 Hz signal repeats
1800bps. Phase is the time reference of the signal which is measured in
degrees. For example: 90 degrees is the time taken to travel 25 percent of a
wave, 180 degrees is the time taken to travel 50 percent of the wave, 270
degrees is the time taken to travel 75 percent of the wave, etc.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the method of transmitting digital signals. It
is similar to frequency modulation where only the carrier frequency is
changed. This is one of the oldest modulation schemes. FSK has two binary
states logic zero and logic one. Logic 1 represents the wave at different
frequency and logic 0 represents the wave at a particular frequency. In this
technique baud is equal to bps. For example: if frequencies are sent at 300
baud and each baud can carry one bit so FSK can send 300 bps.

Phase shift keying (PSK) is digital modulations signal that changes or

modulates the phase of a reference signal. This is similar to FSK but only
the phase timing of a carrier wave is changed. Logic o or logic 1 is
represented by a carrier change. PSK can encode 1, 2, 3 or more bits per
baud because phase can be shifted in several specific increments. For
example, 1400 baud modem can transmit 2800bps over 1800 Hz carrier
using PSK.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) technique is a combination of
amplitude modulation and phase shift keying. It uses the amplitude
modulation and phase shift keying to encode 6 bits data onto the baud in
which 4 bits are reserved for data. In this method QAM represents 2 bits by
four phase states and another 2 bits by four levels of amplitude. For
example, if the base rate of carrier signal is 2400 baud, it carries 9600 bps.
10.4.3 Installing a modem
The modem is a PnP device. The motherboard is designed such that the
system automatically detects the device and resource assignments. You
must be very careful while installing because problem may arise due to
incorrect installation of the hardware or software of the device.
When you are replacing the modem, you should ensure that the device is
initialized and check for the correct operating strings which usually depend
on the modem manufacturers. The applications software must be installed
properly and care should be taken to ensure that the new modem software
too is installed correctly and the old modem if present is removed.
Hardware installation:
You need to be concerned about installing internal modem rather than
external modem since external modem is directly connected to serial port
from outside. While installing internal modem you should be very careful as
you have to open the case and fit the device inside. The following are the
general steps to be taken to install the internal modem:
1. First you have to shut down the windows and unplug the computer.
2. Remove the bolts of the case and keep it in a safe place.
3. If you are replacing the modem then carefully separate old modem by
removing the bolt and detach the modem from the chassis and place it
in an antistatic place.
4. Identify the availability of expansion slot for the new modem card.

5. Insert the modem card by pushing it firmly and evenly inside the slot.
Ensure that the card is seated properly in the slot and replace the
screws to secure the bracket of the modem card to the computer
chassis.
6. Reconnect the modem with the telephone jack.
7. If you want to use the phone on the same line then you should plug the
phone to the phone jack. You must also have a microphone to avail
simultaneous voice and data feature.
Software installation
Once the hardware is installed it needs the support of device drivers and
application software. The following are the steps to be taken to install the
software:
1. The modem must be automatically detected when the Windows restarts.
If the device is PnP complaint then you need to use the Add New
Hardware wizard to execute the installation process.
2. Select the “Driver from disk provided by hardware manufacturer” and
then click OK.
3. Insert the CD to install the device drivers, and the select the drive letter.
4. After you Click OK modem’s drivers will be loaded by the Windows.
5. Verify the modem installation for success once it is loaded. When your
desktop returns, then click start, select settings and then click control
panel.
6. Double click the modem icon.
7. The suitable description of the modem is obtained in the modems
properties dialog box as shown in Figure 10.7. This means your modem
installation is done properly.

Figure 10.7: modem properties dialog box under windows XP
8. To test the modem click the diagnostics tab. Select the modem and
click for more info button.
9. After a few minutes, you should see the more info dialog box as
shown in the Figure 10.8 which lists the modem’s port information as
well as series of standard modem commands.
Figure 10.8: More Info Dialog box of the Modem
10. Once the modem is working you can install any other applications
that accompany the modem.

10.4.4 Modem troubleshooting

Although the failure rate of modem installation is very small, it is time
consuming and difficult. Therefore, it is very necessary to install the modem
from the beginning. When a modem fails there are number of factors which
should be checked as described below:
 Incorrect hardware resources: unique IRQ line and I/O port is to be set
up by an internal modem. If another serial device uses the assigned
resources, the modem or the device will result in conflicts and will not
function properly. In that case you will have to remove the modem and
check for available resources. External modems make use of the
existing COM ports. You must reconfigure the internal modem to clear
the conflict so that the modem can use its resources.
 Defective telecommunication resources: telephone lines are used by the
modems to establish connections among the computers. If the modem is
not correctly hooked up or if there is a defect in the telephone jack then
even though the modem may work well there will not be a connection. In
that case separate the telephone line cord from the modem and try the
line on an ordinary telephone device. You should hear a dial tone when
you lift the receiver. Try to call a local number. If the line rings then
telephone line is working properly. Check the RJ11 jack on the modem.
 Improper cabling: the external modem is connected to the serial port of
the computer through a cable. You must ensure that there is a “straight-
through” type cable and it is connected between PC and modem. You
must also check that the two ends of the cable are installed evenly and
there is no bend pins otherwise use a new cable.
 Improper power: The external modems receive the power supply from
the small ac adapter. Therefore, ensure that the ac adapter is connected
to the modem properly. If batteries are used they must be fresh and
completely installed.
 Incorrect software settings: Before the connection is established both
internal and external modems must be initialized. If these settings are
absent or incorrect then it is expected that the modem will not respond
to the computer. Check the communication software and ensure that the
comment strings are appropriate for the modem and ready to be used.

 Suspect the modem itself: you need to check for modem settings so that
the jumpers or DIP switches are placed correctly with each setting. The
most susceptible point is the telephone interface which is very sensitive
to high voltage spikes that might enter the telephone line.
 Command processor: You must check for the command processor
which is the controller that manages the operation of the modem in the
command mode and interrupts command strings. When a new model
installation fails to behave as intended you must check the working of
command processor of the modem.
SelfAssessment Questions
11. Modulator and demodulator are together known as ___________.
12. The telephone interface is connected to ______ to receive audio signal.
13. ______________ is digital modulation signal that changes the phase of
the reference signal.
14. COM is a ________ port.
Activity 1:
How do you troubleshoot when your modem is detected on the wrong
COM port on your PC?
Hint: Refer the concept of symptom of modem in the book on
The serial port mechanism is a very simple I/O device. Even then it shows
some of the special challenges. Older PC used an 8-bit bus therefore it was
convenient to just replace the board outright in case of failure. In today’s
computer however, as there is an integrated component on the
motherboard, you have to be more careful. When you detect a failure on
the serial port you have three choices:
UART replacement: with the help of surface mount soldering tools and
replacement chips UART can be replaced in an economical way.
Motherboard jumpers can be set and an expansion slot be installed to take
the place of the defective port as by doing this the computer will assume
that there is a port available.

Motherboard outright replacement: this technique is simple it is very

expensive.
10.5.1 Configuration change
When you need to change the configuration of the serial port you need to do
so, on the DOS mode. In order to make the changes you can use the MODE
command and type it in the command line prompt,
Mode comX: /<parameters>
Where X is the COM (communication) port number that you need to change.
Suppose if you want to change the port number from already exiting one
you need to use the above command to specify which communication port
you require. If you specify Mode COM2 then you will the changing the
communication port of your modem to COM2.
<Parameters> represents the features of the port that need alterations such
as baud rate, parity data bit and stop bits. You can refer to Table 10.1 to
know the complete list of serial port parameters that you can change using
MODE command.
Table 10.1: list of serial port parameters and its description
Parameter Description
BAUD Sets the data transmission rate in bits per second
PARITY Sets how the system checks for transmission errors
using the parity bit. The value can be one of the
following: N(none), E(even), O(odd), M(mark), or
S(space)
DATA Sets the number of data bits in a frame
STOP Sets the number of stop bits that define the end of a
frame
TO=ON/OFF Turns the infinite timeout processing option on or off
X=ON/OFF Turns the XON/XOFF protocol on or off
DTR=ON/OFF Turns the DTR circuit on or off
ODSR=ON/OFF Turns the output handshaking using DSR circuit on or off
OCTS=ON/OFF Turns the output handshaking using CTS circuit on or off
RTS=ON/OFF|HS|TG Specifies the settings for the RTS circuit to on, off,
handshake or toggle
IDSR=ON/OFF Turns the DSR circuit sensitivity of or off

For example, MODE COM1: BAUD=2400, PARITY=N DATA=5 STOP=1

TO=OFF XON=ON ODSR=OFF OCTS=ON DTR=OFF IDSR=OFF
10.5.2 Serial Port Conflicts

Hardware and software conflicts are the most common in serial port and it is
a frequent problem in troubleshooting. Though there are four communication
ports in today’s PC and BIOS, there are only 2 IRQ available for serial port.
When external modems need to be connected, they are connected through
serial ports which are also known as COM ports. COM stands for
communication ports used for serial port that is responsible for
communication between the computers. There are four types of COM. The
different COM port and its respective IRQ availability is shown in Table 10.2
Table 10.2: the COM and its IRQ Occupancy
COM port I/O addresses IRQ

COM1 0x3F8 IRQ4
COM2 0x2F8 IRQ3
COM3 0x3E8 IRQ4
COM4 0x2E8 IRQ3
Therefore, it means only two IRQ; IRQ3 and IRQ4 are available for the COM
port.
0x3F8: This address number (1111111000) is used to refer whether the
COM port will be even or odd. In this case, the number after 0 is 3 which
refer to an odd number. So the COM port will be odd. For example COM1 or
COM3. The letter “F” stands for first i.e. the first of the even communication
port. That means COM1.
0x2F8: this address number is represented by binary number 1011111000.
Here, the first number after 0 is 2, refers to an even number. So, the COM
port will be even. For example COM2 or COM4. The letter “F” stands for first
i.e. the first of the even communication port. That means COM2.
0x3E8: the address number is represented by binary number 11111101000.
Here it refers to odd number indicating odd COM port. And the letter E
indicates the next eliminating the first. Therefore in this case it is COM3.

0x2E8: the address number is denoted by binary number 10111101000.

Here it refers to odd number indicating even COM port. And the letter E
indicates the next eliminating the first. Therefore in this case it is COM4
This can be used to memorize the allotment of COM port.
When you try to upgrade the PC by adding I/O adapters you may normally
encounter problems. If the computer has two COM ports from the
motherboard manufacturers, adding a third port will result in hardware
conflict. This can be rectified by disabling the new COM port or one of the
existing among the two ports or by setting the jumper of the new COM port.
Sometimes device drivers may also be a cause for the problem. If a new
COM port is installed and problem arises, disable the driver reference in the
CONFIG.SYS and try to install a new protected driver using ADD New
Hardware Wizard under windows XP.
Activity 2:
What step will you take when you see an 11xx or 12xx serial adapter
error displayed on your system?
Hint: Refer the concept of symptom of serial port in the book on

15. State whether the following statements are True/False:
a. Motherboard outright replacement is an economical way to replace
the modem.
b. By setting the motherboard jumpers and installing an expansion
slot in the place of defective port, the computer will assume that
there is a port available.
10.6 Summary
Serial port is a device that is used to connect and communicate between the
low-bandwidth devices like modem and keyboard. Serial port used two data
lines; one to transmit data and another to receive data. It is a bidirectional
port. Asynchronous communication is a type of communication in which a
start signal is initiated before a data byte or character and a signal is sent
after each code. Clock can be used by receiving device to detect each data
bit. This method is known as synchronous communication. The combination

of synchronization bits and data byte is called as Data Frame. Serial port
uses either 25-pin connector or 9-pin subminiature D-type connector to be
used in the PC.
DTE stands for data terminal equipment. DCE stands for data carrier
communication and is normally a modem or any other piece of data
communication equipment. The distinction becomes very important between
DTE and DCE because data and handshaking signals are swapped at the
DCE end.
RTS which stands for Request to send is a signal that is generated by the
DTE which informs DCE that it will receive a data. CTS which stand for
Clear to send is a signal that tells the DTE that the receiver node is ready to
receive the data.
Modem is the combination of modulator or demodulator which converts
analog signals to digital and vice-versa. Construction of internal modem
needs to be undertaken carefully as you have to open the case of the
computer and work inside the system. Though the rate of failure of modem
and serial port is minimal, you have to be a bit more careful while
troubleshooting.
10.7 Glossary
Term Description
COM Communication port is a serial port which is serial port that is
responsible for communication between the computers.
IRQ IRQ stands for Interrupt ReQuest, and refers to special
numbered channels that are used by devices to get the
processors attention.
25-pin D type D-sub contains two or more parallel rows of pins or sockets
connector usually surrounded by a D-shaped metal shield that provides
mechanical support, some screening against electromagnetic
interference, and ensures correct orientation. It consists of 25
pinouts.
9-pin connector. Similar to 25-pin connector but it consists of 9 pinouts
GND Grounding is a direct connection to the earth to prevent
contact with a dangerous voltage if electrical insulation fails.
VCC Common collector voltage is a power supply connected to a
transistor.


1. Explain in detail the concept of asynchronous communication.
2. Describe the working of serial port functioning.
3. Describe the construction and the operation of a modem with a neat
diagram.
4. What are the guide lines in installing a modem?
5. How do you the resolve the problems in the serial port through
troubleshooting?
10.9 Answers
1. Serial Port
2. Synchronous
3. Data Frame
4. Baud rate
5. Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
6. DCE
7. Transmission
8. Tx
9. Request to send
10. DTR
11. Modem
12. RJ11 Telephone Jack
13. Phase Shift Keying
14. Serial
15. a. False
b. True
Terminal Questions
1. Refer Section 10.2, Asynchronous Communication
2. Refer Section 10.3, Serial Port
3. Refer Section 10.4.1, Constructing and Operating a Modem
4. Refer Section 10.4.3, Installing a Modem

References:
Publications, 2001
E-References:
 http://oss.sgi.com/LDP/HOWTO/Modem-HOWTO-22.html
 http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci214405,00.html
 http://www.sparkfun.com/tutorials/224
 http://ipsit.bu.edu/sc546/sc546Fall2002/blocknode/understandingrts.html
 http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/pseries/v5r3/index.jsp?topic=/co
m.ibm.aix.commadmn/doc/commadmndita/asynch_flowcontrol_dtr.htm
 http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-modem.htm
 http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-serial-ports.htm
 http://www.tech-faq.com/quadrature-amplitude-modulation.html

Unit 11 Input – Output Devices

Structure:
11.1 Introduction
Objectives
11.2 Mice
The Mouse
The Trackball
Cleaning a Pointing Device
Troubleshooting
11.3 Keyboards
Basics of Keyboard
Maintenance and Troubleshooting
11.4 Basics of Sound Boards
The Recording
The Playback
Sampling Concept
The Role of MIDI
An Inside Look of a Sound Board
11.5 Troubleshooting a Sound Board
Hardware (Resource) Conflicts
Other Sound Card Problems
Other Problems
Full-Duplex Drivers
Soundboard Accelerations
Multiple Codec’s
WAV Playback Problems
11.6 Summary
11.7 Glossary
11.9 Answers
11.1 Introduction
Many common and easily recognizable input devices like keyboard and
mouse are used to give instructions through commands or information to a
computer to accomplish a task. The keyboard allows you to enter a text
into word processing software so that you can complete your assignment, or
type in a search query on a web browser while the mouse allows you to
navigate around the screen and select options by clicking the button.
Output devices like the computer monitor and the printer enable you to see
or obtain information once the data has been fed into the computer and the
computer in turn has completed its function. The monitor who provides
instant feedback on the screen in the form of an image is referred to as ‘soft
copy’ while the printer allows you to create a ‘hard copy’ of the information.
Apart from these, sound cards allow you to record and playback your voice,
about which function you will be learning in this unit.
This unit will enable you to learn about other kinds of device that can be
attached to the computer so that special information can be fed into it and
then viewed in a number of ways.
Objectives:
 Explain the functions of mouse and ways of troubleshooting it
 Discuss the importance of keyboards and their maintenance
 Describe the features of sound boards
 Troubleshoot the problems associated with sound boards
11.2 Mice
Modern PCs come with a pointing device called Mouse which is used to
point at a particular option on the screen and then select that option by
clicking it. Although there are varieties of mouse manufactured by various
companies, their basic function remains the same. Microsoft and Logitech
are the top manufacturers of Mice.
11.2.1 The Mouse

The standard mouse consists of several components: a housing to hold
roller ball to move the cursor on the monitor by moving the device on the flat
surface, two Buttons for selection, a cable to connect the mouse, an
interface connector. The outermost housing, made of plastic, generally has
two buttons on the top; some mice may have three buttons requiring special
software to operate. Modern mice come with a scroll wheel in between two
buttons, which will be very much useful to scroll through the pages. The
bottom of the housing contains a small roller ball that rotates as the mouse

moves across the tabletop. The movements of this roller ball are translated
into electrical signals transmitted to the computer across the cable. The
connector used with the mouse depends on the type of interface used.
Once the mouse is connected to the computer, a device driver, which can
be separately loaded or built into the system software, helps it to
communicate with the system. Figure 11.1a shows a mouse with two
buttons and a scroll wheel.
Housing
Right click button Scroll Wheel

Roller ball
Left click button
Figure 11.1a: A modern mouse
The cross section of the mouse is as shown in the Figure 11.1b.
Figure 11.1b: Typical opto-mechanical mouse mechanism
The mechanism of the mouse internally is very simple. The rubber ball in it
rests against two rollers, one for translating the X-axis movement and the
other for the Y-axis movement. These rollers are usually connected to small
disks with shutters that alternately block and allow the passage of light.

There are small optical sensors which detect movement of the wheels by
noting an internal infrared light blink on and off as the shutter wheel rotates
and "chops" the light. The infrared light blinks are then translated into
movement along the axes. This type of setup is called an opto-mechanical
mechanism and is popularly used nowadays.
Microsoft IntelliMouse
A new variation of the popular mouse called IntelliMouse was introduced by
Microsoft in late 1996 looking exactly like the standard Microsoft mouse
except for a miniature gray wheel rising up between the left and right
buttons. The only change in mouse are the wheel has two main functions:
the primary function to act as a scrolling device, allowing one to scroll
through documents or Web pages by merely pulling down or pushing it up
with the index finger and the secondary function to act as a third mouse
button when pressed. This is very useful while browsing Web pages or
working with word processing documents or spreadsheets. The major
advantage of IntelliMouse is that, unlike other three-button mice by other
vendors, it does not get in the way while working and there is less likelihood
of it being clicked by mistake. Its only drawback is that the new wheel will
work only if the software is rewritten to support it.
11.2.2 The Trackball
If you were to turn over a traditional mouse you will observe a stationary
device called a track ball or roller ball. If you move or rotate this roller ball,
the cursor also will move in turn.
In the case of traditional mouse, the user needs to perform three tasks
simultaneously viz. grasping the mouse, moving it and clicking the button.
However, the newer version allows the user to perform these tasks
independently of each other. The trackball comes in various sizes. If the ball
is small, it requires less effort for its movement or rotation. As regards
buttons on the trackball, they can be single click, right click, double click, or
drag-lock. While some trackballs are of the plug and play type requiring no
installation other than connecting of a cable to the computer's port others
have supporting software to be installed in the computer. This software
enables you to customize the acceleration of the mouse and assign different
functions to the buttons of the trackball. Below figure 11.2 shows a sample
trackball.

Figure 11.2: The Trackball
The largest trackball available is the 3 inch trackball found in BIGtrack (a

trackball model from Info grip, an hardware company) which requires less
fine motor control than a standard trackball. The left and right mouse click
buttons located behind the trackball prevent unwanted mouse clicks.
1. The trackball allows for the user to perform each of these tasks
separately of one another.
2. The size of ball of trackball will vary from as large as a cue ball, to as
small as a marble. The smaller the ball, the less amount of effort or
rotation of the ball.
Sent at 4:11 PM on Tuesday
3. Buttons on the trackball can be a single click, right click, double click, or
drag-lock which helps in selecting various features of computer such as
selecting an icon on desktop, refreshing the PC, choosing word file on
the desktop, etc.
11.2.3 Cleaning the Pointing Device

Cleaning Mouse: Whenever you notice the mouse pointer moving across
the screen in a jerky fashion, it is advisable to clean it. This jerkiness is a
result of dirt and dust getting trapped around the mouse's ball and roller
assembly, thereby restricting its free movement. When you turn over the
mouse housing you will notice the mouse ball surrounding which is an
access panel that can be opened. Remove the panel and observe the roller
ball and the socket in which it rests. Turning the mouse back over will make

the roller ball fall into your hand. You should ensure that there is no visible
dirt or any other contamination or you need to wash it with soapy water or a
mild solvent such as contact cleaner solution or alcohol and dry it off. Next
take a look at the socket in which the roller ball normally rests. You will see
two or three small wheels or bars against which the ball normally rolls. If you
see dust or dirt on or around these wheels or bars, then clean them. It is
important to ensure that there is no dirt or dust remaining because if it is
present the movement of the roller ball is hindered and the mouse will not
work properly. After thorough cleaning, insert the roller ball into the socket
and securely attach the cover panel thus making the mouse function again.
If you encounter problems with the mouse, it is advisable to look in only two
general places-hardware or software.
Hardware Problems: The hardware problem generally relates to interrupt
conflicts and is more difficult to solve.
 Interrupt Conflicts: A computer uses internal signals called Interrupts to
indicate when something needs to be done. A mouse uses an interrupt
whenever it has information to be sent to the mouse driver. The mouse
might not work properly or even might not work at all if a conflict occurs
and a different device uses the same interrupt used by it. If your system
uses a mouse port then interrupt conflicts do not normally occur but they
can occur with the other types of mouse interfaces. Mouse ports built
into modern mother-boards are almost always set to IRQ 12. On
machines that use a PS/2 mouse (a type of mouse that plugs into a
PS/2 mouse port), this is the IRQ reserved for its use. Using a PS/2
mouse frees up the COM1 serial port and the interrupt it uses for other
devices. If your system has a motherboard mouse port, you should take
care that you don't set any other adapter cards to IRQ 12, otherwise a
conflict occur. Whenever you use a serial mouse (a mouse that
connects to a computer via a serial port) there is every likelihood of
interrupt conflicts occurring if you add a third or fourth serial port. The
reason behind this is that in ISA bus systems, odd-numbered serial ports
(1 and 3) are often improperly configured to use the same interrupts as
the even-numbered ports (2 and 4). Therefore, if your mouse is
connected to COM2: and an internal modem uses COM4: both might
use the same interrupt, resulting in a conflict. But if you move either the

mouse or the modem to a different serial port you can use both of them
at the same time. For example, if your mouse uses COM1: and the
modem still uses COM4:, you can use them both at the same time
because odd and even ports use different interrupts. The best way to
prevent these interrupt conflicts is to make sure that no two devices use
the same interrupt.
 In case the driver declines to acknowledge the mouse irrespective of its
type, then try using a different mouse which works. If you find that the
problem is caused by a defective mouse, then the best option would be
to replace it with a good mouse.
Software Problems: Software problems, which are trickier than hardware
problems generally, manifest themselves as the mouse "just not working." In
such instances, you would do well to check the driver and the software
applications before assuming that the mouse itself is faulty.
 Driver Software: The mouse requires the installation of a device driver to
function properly. It is recommended that you use default drivers built
into the Windows or OS/2 operating environments. In case you want the
mouse to work with DOS applications then you should load an extra
driver (via CONFIG.SYS).
 Application Software: It is necessary to check the setup information or
configuration section of the program if your mouse does not work with a
specific piece of application software, Even after indicating to the
program that you are using a mouse, and it does not work, then it is
recommended that you contact the technical support department of the
application software company for help.

1. The largest manufacturers of mice are __________ and __________.
2. Trackball is a stationary device. (True or False).
3. __________ in the mouse are very difficult to resolve.
11.3 Keyboards
The keyboard, a primary input device is one of the basic system
components. Used for entering commands and data into the system the
keyboard is the friendliest input peripheral. You can not only key in program

and data through it, but also give commands to the software from the
keyboard. It is almost impossible to use a computer without a keyboard.
11.3.1 Basics of Keyboard
Keyboard generally consists of 105 keys. The keyswitch (a type of small
switch placed under the keys) is activated when a key is pressed. An
electronic circuit in the keyboard determines as to which key has been
pressed. Then a standard 8-bit code is generated and sent to the computer.
Detecting which key is pressed and generating the corresponding code is
known as encoding. There are two types of keyboards. One is the serial
keyboard which sends data, bit by bit, in a serial fashion and the computer
converts the data into parallel byte. The other is the parallel keyboard which
sends the data as a byte in a parallel form; all the bits are sent
simultaneously on the different lines (wires). It is essential that the cable
between the keyboard and the computer has more wires in a parallel
keyboard.
Figure 11.3: 101-key enhanced keyboard layout.
Keyboard Functions
A matrix of rows and columns connect the keyswitches; each keyswitch
having a fixed set of coordinates, namely, row number and column number.
The keyboard electronics performs the following functions:
 Sensing a key depression
 Encoding
 Sending code to computer
The keyboard electronics follows a standard technique known as scanning.
The keyboard electronics sends inputs, signals to the matrix through the
rows while the outputs are sent through the columns. The electronic circuit

senses the column lines. There are different types of keyswitches. Some of
the common types are:
 Mechanical keyswitch – These switches will have metal contacts in a
momentary contact arrangement.
 Membrane keyswitch – These switches are formed together on a sheet
that is fixed on a rubber dome sheet.
 Capacitive keyswitch - Capacitive switches are non-mechanical type of
switches currently used.
Key Switch Design
Keyboards nowadays come with several types of switches; most keyboards
use one of several variations on a mechanical key switch. A mechanical key
switch relies on a mechanical momentary contact type switch to make
electrical contact in a circuit while some high-end keyboard designs use a
totally different non-mechanical design that relies on capacitive switches.
The following are the variations of mechanical type switches:
 Pure mechanical
 Foam element
 Rubber dome
 Membrane
Pure Mechanical: Generally it has a tactile feedback mechanism with a clip
and spring arrangement to give a "clicky" feel to the keyboard and a built-in
feature offers some resistance while pressing the key. Mechanical switches,
whose life time is 20 million keystrokes, are very durable and usually have
self-cleaning contacts.
Foam element: Older keyboards used this technology in which switches are
characterized by a foam element with an electrical contact on the bottom
that is mounted on the bottom of a plunger attached to the key itself. When
the switch is pressed, a foil conductor on the bottom of the foam element
closes a circuit on the printed circuit board below and a return spring pushes
the key back up when the pressure is released. The advantage of using
foam is that it reduces the contact, thereby preventing bounce. The
disadvantage of using this type of switch is that it is prone to corrosion on
the foil conductor and the circuit board traces below.

Rubber dome: Rubber dome switches are mechanical switches which are
the improved versions of the foam element-type switches. These switches
which use a rubber dome instead of a spring that has a carbon button
contact on the underside, are very simple in design, use fewer parts, are
highly reliable and very popular in modern computers. When the key is
pressed, the key plunger presses on the rubber dome, causing it to resist
and then collapse all at once,. As the rubber dome collapses, the user feels
the tactile feedback, and the carbon button makes contact between the
circuit board traces below. When the key is released, the rubber dome
reforms and pushes the key back up.
Membrane keyboard: Membrane keyboards are very suitable for extremely
harsh environments. When no other type of keyboard can work in certain
situations, these sheets can be bonded together and sealed and protect
from the elements.. Many industrial applications use membrane keyboards
especially for terminals that do not require extensive data entry but are used
to operate equipment such as cash registers.
Capacitive switches: Although they are expensive, these switches have
the advantage of being resistant to dirt and corrosion and also offering the
highest-quality tactile feedback of any type of switch. A capacitive switch
does not work by making contact between conductors but instead, two
plates usually made of plastic are connected in a switch matrix designed to
detect changes in the capacitance of the circuit. When the key is pressed,
the plunger moves the top plate relative to the fixed bottom plate. These
switches have a lifetime of up to 25 million or more keystrokes.
11.3.2 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Although difficult intermittent problems might give rise to keyboard errors,
generally two simple problems are usually faced by users:
 Defective cables
 Stuck keys
Defective cables are easy to spot if the failure is not intermittent. If the
keyboard stops working altogether or every keystroke results in an error or
incorrect character, then the problem lies with the cable. Troubleshooting
such a fault is simple, especially if you have a spare cable on hand. To do
this simply replace the suspected cable with one from a known working
keyboard, and ensure that the problem is set right. However, if the problem
still exists then you should try to look elsewhere for its source. By using a
DMM (Digital Multi-Meter). you can test the cable for continuity by removing
it from the keyboard.
Keyboard stuck key failure
When you press a key on the keyboard, the processor built into the
keyboard (8048- or 6805-type) reads the keyswitch location in the keyboard
matrix. The processor then sends to the motherboard a serial packet of data
containing the scan code for the key that was pressed. This is called the
Make code. When the key is released, a corresponding Break code is sent,
indicating to the motherboard that the key has been released. The Break
code is equivalent to the Make scan code plus 80h (‘h’ stands for
hexadecimal). For example, if the Make scan code for the "A" key is 1Eh,
the Break code would be 9Eh. By using both Make and Break scan codes,
the system can determine whether a particular key has been held down and
determine whether multiple keys are being pressed. If you get the message
“keyboard struck, key failure”, you can look up the scan code to determine
which keyswitch is causing the problem. You can solve the problem
removing the keycap of the offending key and cleaning the switch.
Many newer systems have a electrical fuse that can be replaced. This
protects the motherboard keyboard and mouse connectors. Locate any type
of fuse on the motherboard in the vicinity of the keyboard or mouse
connectors. Some other systems may have a socketed keyboard controller
chip (8042-type), in which case, it may be possible to repair the
motherboard keyboard circuit by replacing this chip. As these chips have
ROM code in them, it is advisable to get the replacement from the
motherboard or BIOS manufacturer.
Cleaning a Keyboard
Periodical cleaning is a part of maintenance, which is essential to maintain a
keyboard in good condition. Preventive maintenance requires that you
vacuum clean the keyboard weekly or at least monthly. You could also use
canned compressed air (available at electronics supply stores) to blow the
dust and dirt out instead of using a vacuum cleaner. Before you dust a
keyboard with the compressed air, turn the keyboard upside down so that
the particles of dirt and dust collected inside can fall out. You should avoid

pressing the keys hardly. You should also avoid playing games for a long
time to increase the durability of key switches.
4. A standard technique known as __________ is followed by the
keyboard electronics.
5. __________ is a keyboard controller chip.
6. One of the best ways to maintain a keyboard in top condition is
__________.
11.4 Basics of Sound Boards

A sound card is also known as an audio card. It is a computer expansion
card that facilitates the input and output of audio signals to and from a
computer under control of computer programs. Sound cards are very much
useful in providing the audio component for multimedia applications such as
music composition, editing video or audio, presentation, education, and
entertainment (games). Many computers have sound capabilities built in,
while others require additional expansion cards to provide for audio
capability.
When the PC standard was first created, it did not have audio capabilities
than basic beeping or tone generation. The reason for this was that the PC
standard created in 1981, and other computers of that time had similar
rudimentary capabilities. However, systems that were designed later, such
as the Macintosh, which was introduced in 1984, did include high-quality
audio capabilities as an integral part of the system hardware and software.
Although there still is no universal audio hardware and software standard for
PC compatible systems, the inherent expandability of the PC platform allows
audio capability to be easily added, and at least one genuine standard has
emerged.
Sound Card Devices
Joysticks: A number of sound cards may have a joystick, or game port. A
joystick is ideally meant for game playing and is best chosen through hands-
on experience like speakers.
MIDI Connector: In order to use MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)
to create synthesized music, you have to connect musical keyboard or other
MIDI device to the sound card. The joystick port on sound cards has unused

pins that can be used to send and receive MIDI data. If you connect a MIDI
cable to the joystick port, you can connect PC to a MIDI device.
Synthesizer: If you are considering MIDI and you intend to compose or play
music, then you will need sequencer software, which is a musical
application designed to play back musical notation to record, edit, and play
back MIDI files.
11.4.1 The Recording
You need to connect a microphone to the sound card to record sound in the
computer. Some of the sound cards may not have options to connect a
microphone. While purchasing a sound card, you should check whether it is
having an ‘Audio In’ jack to plug the microphone.
11.4.2 The Playback
Speakers are used to playback the recorded sound. Successful multimedia
presentations, business applications, and MIDI work require external high-
fidelity stereo speakers. Sound cards offer little or no power to drive external
speakers. Although some sound cards have small 4-watt amplifiers, they are
not powerful enough to drive quality speakers which are essential for quality
sound. A 16-bit sound card may provide better sound to computer speakers.
However if you have good speakers then 8-bit sound card can also provide
better sound. Speakers are measured by the following three criteria:
 Frequency response: This is a measurement of the range of high and
low sounds that a speaker can reproduce. The ideal range is from 20 Hz
to 20 KHz.
 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). This is an expression of the amount
of distortion or noise created by amplifying the signal. The amount of
distortion is measured in percentages. An acceptable level of distortion
is below .1 percent (one-tenth of 1 percent). For some CD-quality
recording equipment, a common standard is .05 percent. Some
speakers have a distortion of 10 percent or more. Headphones often
have a distortion of about 2 percent or less.
 Watts. This is the amount of amplification available to drive the
speakers. Many sound cards have built in amplifiers, providing up to 8
watts per channel. (Most provide 4 watts.)

Headphones are an option when you can't afford a premium set of

speakers. Headphones also provide privacy and allow playing sound card
as loud as you like.
11.4.3 Sampling Concept
A technique called digital sampling helps in recording and playback of
sounds. In order to record your voice, you first speak into a microphone. The
Analog-to-Digital Convertor (ADC) translates the analog waves of your voice
into digital data that the computer can understand. To do this, it samples, or
digitizes, the sound by taking precise measurements of the wave at frequent
intervals. Figure 11.3 shows the sampling technique.
Analog Sound Signal
Digital Pulses
Figure 11.3: The sampling technique
The number of measurements per second, called the sampling rate, is

measured in kHz. The faster a card's sampling rate, the more accurate its
reconstructed wave is.
In case you want to play back your recording through the speakers, the
Digital-to-Analog Convertor (DAC) will perform the same basic steps in
reverse. With accurate measurements and a fast sampling rate, the restored
analog signal can be nearly identical to the original sound wave.
Some reduction in sound quality can be caused even with high sampling
rates. Distortion may also occur due to the physical process of moving
sound through wires. Two measurements are used by manufacturers to
describe this reduction in sound quality:
 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), expressed as a percentage
 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR), measured in decibels (dB), a unit of
sound.

For both THD and SNR, smaller values indicate better quality. Some cards
also support digital input, allowing people to store digital recordings without
converting them to an analog format.
11.4.4 The role of MIDI
1980’s saw the development of MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)
to communicate between synthesizers. Although it was earlier just a
specification, now it has become a standard, which allows programs to play
music through the PC sound card.
MIDI, a computer standard music format is used to write compositions and
musical events. Actually the sounds are found in your sound card not in the
MIDI files. These files only give a description of how the music is to be
played. For example a MIDI sequence can describe the hit on a piano key.
The MIDI sequence describes:
• The instrument
• The note
• The strength of the key hit
• How long to maintain the note
11.4.5 An Inside Look of a Sound Board
Figure 11.4 shows an inside look of a PCI (Peripheral Computer Interface)
sound card. The sound card may contain a lot of jumpers, which you have
to set/reset before connecting other devices.
Figure 11.4: A PCI sound card

Locate any jumpers on the sound card if used by it and identify what they
control. There may be jumpers that set the MIDI port to use with a joystick,
or jumpers that set the IRQ (Interrupt Request) for the controller for CD-
ROM. Locate the jumpers for the IRQ setting. When a bridge is made with a
jumper between two adjacent posts, the jumper is said to be ON. When the
jumper is removed, it is OFF.
7. __________ is required to record the sound.
8. The number of measurements per second, called the __________, is
measured in kHz.
9. MIDI stands for __________.
11.5 Troubleshooting a Sound Board

In order to install a sound card, you will have to select IRQ numbers, a base
I/O address, or DMA channels that don't conflict with other devices.
Although most cards are already configured to be used on an otherwise idle
set of ports, sometimes problems do occur. Therefore troubleshooting may
be required which may mean changing board jumpers or switches, or even
reconfiguring other cards.
11.5.1 Hardware (Resource) Conflicts
 A device or hardware conflict occurs when sound card simply doesn't
work (no sound effects or music). Sometimes it may repeat the same
sounds over and over and causes PC to freeze. Sound cards usually
clash with other devices installed in the PC. There are generally three
sources of conflict in sound card installation:
o Interrupt ReQuests (IRQs). IRQs are used to "interrupt" PC and get
its attention.
o Direct Memory Access (DMA) channels. DMA channels are the way
to move information directly to PC's memory, bypassing PC's
processor. DMA channels allow sound to play while PC is doing
other work.
o Input / Output (I/O) Port addresses. An I/O Port address in PC is
used to channel information between the hardware devices on sound
card and PC. The addresses usually mentioned in a sound card
manual are the starting or base addresses. A sound card has

several devices on it, and each one will use a range of addresses
starting with a particular base. Most sound cards include installation
software that analyzes PC and attempts to notify any of the standard
settings in use by other devices.
It is advisable to install a sound card using the default settings where
possible because poorly written software cannot work properly with alternate
settings, even if they do not cause conflicts.
Solving Hardware Conflicts
The best way to find a hardware conflict is to locate all of the documentation
for the PC and its various devices, such as a tape backup interface card,
CD-ROM drive, and so on. The most common causes of system resource
conflicts are the following:
 SCSI host adapters
 Network interface cards
 Bus Mouse adapter cards
 Serial Port adapter cards for COM3: or COM4:
 Parallel Port adapter cards for LPT2:
 Internal modems
 Tape drive interface cards
 Scanner
interface cards.
You could find out as to which device is conflicting with the sound card by
temporarily removing all of the expansion cards except the sound card and
other essential cards like the video card. Then add each of the cards
removed, one at a time, till you find that sound card does not work. When
you come to the last card, it is most likely the troublemaker, the card
causing the conflict. Now, either switch the settings for the device that is
conflicting with sound card or change the settings of the sound card. To do
this, set jumpers or DIP (Dual In-line Package) switches, or use sound
card's setup software to change its settings.
11.5.2 Other Sound Card Problems

No Sound
You could consider the following solutions if you don't hear anything from
the sound card,:

 Ensure that the sound card is set in such a way that it uses all default
resources, and that other devices using these resources are either
changed or removed.
 Are the speakers connected? Check that the speakers are plugged into
the sound card's Stereo Line Out or speaker jack.
 Find out whether they are amplified speakers and are powered on.
Check the strength of the batteries or the adapter's connection to the
electrical outlet.
 If the speakers are stereo check that the plug inserted into the jack is a
stereo plug, not mono (short form of Monaural or Monophonic sound
reproduction, which is a single-channel).
 Make sure that the mixer settings are high enough. Many sound cards
include a mixer control for DOS and/or Microsoft Windows. The mixer
controls the settings for various sound devices, such as a microphone or
CD player. There may be controls for both recording and playback.
Increase the master volume or speaker volume when in the play mode.
 Use sound card's setup or diagnostic software to test and adjust the
volume of the sound card. Such software usually includes sample
sounds that play.
 Switch off computer for a minute and then switch it back on. Such a hard
reset (as opposed to pressing the Reset button or pressing
Ctrl+Alt+Delete) may clear the problem.
 If computer game lacks sound, check that it works with sound card. For
example, some games may require the exact settings of IRQ 7, DMA 1,
and address 220 to be Sound Blaster-compatible.
Scratchy Sound
If there is a scratchy sound then the solution is quite simple. You could solve
the problem in the following ways:
 If the sound card is near other expansion cards could be picking up
electrical interference from other expansion cards inside the PC.
Therefore, move the sound card to an expansion slot as far away as
possible from other cards.
 If you find that the speakers are too close to the monitor move them
farther as the speakers may be picking up electrical noise from monitor.
Manipal University Jaipur Page No.: 226

 Ensure that you are not using a cheap FM (Frequency Modulation)

synthesis sound card because most of the cards that use FM synthesis
instead of wave table sound generation have very poor quality output. It
is recommended that you upgrade to a card that has wave table
synthesis so you can get the full benefit of high quality sound.
11.5.3 Other Problems
Sometimes sound problems can be difficult to solve. Due to quirks and
problems with the way DMA is implemented in some motherboard chipsets,
there can be problems interacting with certain cards or drivers. Sometimes
altering the Chipset Setup options in CMOS settings can resolve problems.
These kinds of problems can take a lot of trial and error to solve.
11.5.4 Full-Duplex Drivers
If you can play a wave sound and record it at the same time (e.g., using
Windows Sound Recorder), then your sound card is full-duplex. However, if
the program you are trying to use needs DirectSound. You need full-duplex
compatible DirectSound drivers. You might find some information on this at
your card's manufacturer website.
Sometimes sound card drivers become corrupt or have conflicts after an
operating system update, or if additional hardware is installed. To solve this
problem, if you have a new sound card, reinstall the driver that came with
the device. If audio support is built into your motherboard, or the sound card
is not a newer model, download and install the latest drivers from the
manufacturer's website.
If system conflicts occur after installing additional hardware, try uninstalling
the sound card drivers, reboot the computer a few times, and then install the
drivers again. If your operating system has a system restore feature, try
restoring the computer to one of the restore points when the sound card
worked.
11.5.5 Soundboard Accelerations
It is found that soundcards, especially onboard, can cause a number of
problems. More often than not you might find that the card is not the real
cause of the problem, as you may hear the sound properly but the game
might be running slower than usual or even might crash. A number of
problems could be caused like: distorted/weird sound slowdown, especially

on top of the line PC's. This is especially true if the game is reporting 30 or
higher FPS (frames per second). This may lead to random crashes of the
desktop or hanging.
Blue screen crashes (especially protection faults and similar)
are often due to this. You could prevent this from occurring by: ensuring you
have the most up-to-date driver for your sound hardware; disabling Direct
X's (Microsoft’s gaming technology) sound optimization.
Follow the below steps to do this:
1. Go to start. Select run. Type in "dxdiag" (an executable file to diagnose
direct X) and hit enter.
2. The Direct X Diagnostic tool will launch. Wait a couple of seconds while it
detects hardware information.
3. Click on the sound tab.
4. Move the hardware acceleration slider all the way to the left (off or none
will be displayed).
5. Ok and exit.
The actual performance hit on your system is variable. Many manufacturers
bypass Direct X's software acceleration in favor of their own hardware or
driver based routines. In majority of the cases, you won't notice any
difference with how the game plays (except less crashes and more stability).
If you do see decreased performance, try moving the slider up a notch and
retest the game. Often you can get basic acceleration or better before the
initial problem reappears.
11.5.3 Multiple Codecs
If you find there are several codecs on the same card, you need to call
snd_ac97_mixer () (a procedure to run codecs) multiple times with
ac97.num=1 (setting the value of the variable num) or greater. The num field
specifies the codec number. If you set up multiple codecs, you either need
to write different callbacks for each codec or check ac97->num in the
callback routines.
11.5.4 WAV Playback Problems
When you try to play wave sound (.wav) files in Windows you might
encounter the following problems prompting you to troubleshoot them:
Program-specific problems such as improper configured Playback device,

incorrect Mixer settings, incorrect Hardware configuration, Damaged wave

sound files, Compression-related problems
Program-Specific Problems
In case you are not able to play .wav files with a specific program that you
use in Windows, then you should check if the same problem occurs when
you play the file with another program. For example, if you are attempting to
play the file from a third-party program that is not included with Windows, try
to play the file from Media Player or Sound Recorder.
To start Media Player or Sound Recorder, click Start →Programs→
Accessories→ Multimedia and Multimedia → click Media Player
In case the problem occurs only when you try to play the .wav file with one
program, the files that are associated with that program may be damaged,
or the program may not be configured correctly then it is advisable to
contact the software manufacturer to solve it. However if the problem occurs
with multiple programs, then it could be that the problem may be caused by
any of the reasons discussed in this unit.
Playback Device Not Configured Properly
If you find that you are unable to play .wav files in Windows, or if .wav files
are not played at the proper volume, then the reason could be that you have
not selected a playback device, or the playback device that you have
selected may not have been configured properly. Therefore, in order to
select and configure a playback device you should:
1. Click Start → Settings → Control Panel.
2. Double-click Multimedia or Sounds and Multimedia.
3. In the Playback box, click the playback device that you want to use in
the Preferred Device list, and then move the Volume slider to the value
you want.
4. In the Recording box, click the playback device that you want to use in
the Preferred Device list, and then move the Volume slider to the value
you want.
5. Verify that your speakers are properly connected to the sound card, and
that the speakers are turned on.

Mixer Settings Not Configured Properly

If the mixer control settings are not configured properly then you will not be
able to play .wav files in Windows, or .at files (audio file created with Sony's
Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding (ATRAC) compression algorithm;
designed for storage and playback on portable media devices) in their
proper volume. You could use the mixer control program that is included
with Windows to adjust the volume for playback, recording, and voice
commands. If you are using Windows 3.1 drivers with your sound card, you
must use the mixer control program that is included with the sound card to
adjust the volume for playback, recording, and voice commands. It is
sensible to contact the sound card manufacturer if your sound card does
not include a mixer control program, or if you need information about how to
use the mixer control program that is included with your sound card,.
In order to configure mixer control settings with the mixer control program
that is included with Windows:
1. Click Start → Programs → Accessories → Multimedia or Entertainment
→ click Volume Control
2. Verify that the Mute All check box below the Volume Control slider is not
selected.
3. Verify that the Mute check box below the Wave slider is not selected.
4. Verify that the Balance sliders for Volume Control and Wave are in the
center of the scale.
5. Move the Volume Control and Wave sliders at least halfway to the top of
the scale.
You may need to adjust the current Volume Control or Wave slider settings
to play .wav files at the volume level that you want.
Damaged Wave Sound Files
If you cannot play .wav files in Windows, or if .wav files are not played
properly, the .wav files that you are attempting to play may be damaged. To
determine if a .wav file is damaged,
1. right-click the .wav file
2. click Properties → click the Details tab. The Audio Format box should
contain information about the type of compression that was used to
compress the file, the sound quality of the file, and whether or not the file
is in stereo. If this information is missing, the .wav file may be damaged.

In case the information in the Audio Format box is not missing, try to play
other wav files that are compressed by using the same type of compression
as the wav file that you are attempting to play. If you are successful then it is
possible that the first .wav file that you tried to play may be damaged.

10. __________, __________, and __________ should not conflict with
other devices while installing a sound card.
11. __________ is the way to move information directly to PC's memory,
bypassing PC's processor.
12. The __________ box should contain information about the type of
compression that was used to compress the file, the sound quality of
the file, and whether or not the file is in stereo.
11.6 Summary
Let’s recapitulate important concepts discussed in this unit:
 A standard mouse consists of several components: A housing that can
be held in the hand and moved around, a roller ball that signals
movement to the system, buttons (usually two) for making selections, a
cable for connecting the mouse to the system and an interface
connector to attach the mouse to the system.
 The keyboard is the primary input device. It is used for entering
commands and data into the system. The keyboard is the friendliest
input peripheral.
 A sound card has many uses, including: adding stereo sound to
entertainment (game) software, increasing the effectiveness of
educational software, particularly for young children, adding sound
effects to business presentations and training software, creating music
by using MIDI hardware and software, adding voice notes to files,
adding sound effects to operating system events, enabling a PC to read,
enabling PC use by disabled individuals, playing audio CDs.
 In order to install a sound card, you will have to select IRQ numbers, a
base I/O address, or DMA channels that don't conflict with other devices.

11.7 Glossary
Term Description
Mouse Mouse is a pointing device which is used to point a particular

option on the screen and then select that option by clicking.
Different manufacturers produce different varieties of mouse.
Trackball Trackballs are also called as "rollerballs". They are best

described if you turned the traditional mouse over exposing the
ball. Trackballs are a stationary device. Movement or rotation of
the ball moves the cursor.
Keyboard The keyboard is the primary input device. It is used for entering
commands and data into the system. The keyboard is the
friendliest input peripheral. Both program and data can be keyed
in through it.
Analog-to- The Analog-to-Digital Convertor (ADC) translates the analog

Digital waves of your voice into digital data that the computer can
Convertor understand. ADC will be used while recording the sound in a
(ADC) PC.
Digital-to- Digital-to-Analog Convertor translates the digital signals in the

Analog computer to analog waves. Using DAC you can playback the
Convertor recorded sound.
(DAC)
Direct DMA channels are the way to move information directly to PC's
Memory memory, bypassing PC's processor. DMA channels allow sound
Access to play while PC is doing other work.
(DMA)

1. Explain the features of a mouse and a track ball.
2. How does the key board function? How will you determine the Key
board failure?
3. List out the steps involved in installing a sound card.
4. How will you overcome the IRQ conflict with sound card?

11.9 Answers
1. Microsoft, Logitech
2. True
3. Hardware problems
4. Scanning
5. 8042
6. Periodic cleaning
7. Microphone
8. Sampling rate
9. Musical Instrument Digital Interface
10. IRQ numbers, base I/O address, DMA channels
11. DMA channels
12. Audio format
Terminal Questions
1. Mouse is a pointing device which is used to point a particular option on
the screen and then select that option by clicking. Different
manufacturers produce different varieties of mouse. Trackballs are also
called as "rollerballs". Trackballs are a stationary device. Movement or
rotation of the ball moves the cursor. (Refer sections 11.2.1 & 11.2.2)
2. When a key is pressed, the keyswitch is activated. The keyboard has an
electronic circuit to determine which key has been pressed. Then a
standard 8-bit code is generated and sent to the computer. (Refer
section 11.3.1)
3. To install a sound card, you have to select IRQ numbers, a base I/O
address, or DMA channels that don't conflict with other devices. Most
cards come already configured to use on otherwise idle set of ports, but
problems occasionally arise. (Refer section 11.5)
4. The audio portion of a sound card has a default IRQ setting, but also
supports any of several alternate interrupts. You should try to leave the
sound card at the default setting (usually IRQ 5) and change other
adapters where possible. (Refer section 11.5)

References:
 Troubleshooting, Maintaining and Repairing PC’s by Stephen J.
Bigelow, TMH
 Understanding and Repairing PCs by Mueller, PHI.
E-References:
 http://www.freeopenbook.com/upgrading-repairing-pc/ch18lev1sec2.html
 http://www.fileinfo.com/extension/at3
 http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-sound-card.htm

Unit 12 Video Adapters and Accelerators

Structure:
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.2 Conventional Video Adapters
Text & Graphics
Video BIOS
Direct X
Replacing / Updating an Adapter
12.3 Classification of Video Display Hardware
12.4 Graphics Accelerators
Factors for Video Speed
12.5 3D Graphics Accelerator Issues
The 3D Process
Issues in 3D Speed
Improving 3D Performance
Avoiding the Basic Problem
Missing Display Options
Basic Troubleshooting in Windows OS
12.7 Summary
12.8 Glossary
12.10 Answers
12.1 Introduction
In this unit we shall discuss about video adapters and accelerators. A user
gives raw information to the system through the input device and gets the
processed information through the output device, usually a visual display
unit, also called as monitor. This output display is made possible by a
special hardware called video adapter. This video adapter card may be a
standalone device or may be integrated into the motherboard. Display
adapter, graphics accelerator or graphics card are other names of the video
adapter. Modern video cards have most advanced features such as 2D / 3D
graphics rendering, video capturing, multiple monitor outputs and MPEG
decoding.
In this unit we shall discuss various classifications of video adapters. Also

there are a number of factors such as bandwidth, memory etc. which are
responsible for the speed of video. This unit also throws light on these
factors. Advanced gaming requires powerful 3D accelerators. We shall
discuss the steps involved in 3D process and methods to improve 3D
performance. Finally we shall discuss various basic troubleshooting
techniques for video adapters.
Objectives:
 Explain the features of conventional video adapters
 Classify video display hardware based on their functions
 Discuss the issues associated with 3D graphics accelerator
 Resolve the problems in video cards through troubleshooting
12.2 Conventional Video Adapters

A conventional video card gets the processed output from the processor and
converts into a form that the monitor can display. Thus it acts in between the
processor and the monitor. These cards just accept the data from the
processor and send it to the monitor. They did not have any processing
power.
IBM (International Business Machines) introduced the first PC configured
with a video card called Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA) in 1981
followed by the first commercial 2D/3D Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) in
1995. These cards usedthe SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array) standards
which incorporated 3D functions. Several advanced features and
capabilities such as anti-aliasing, MIP mapping, and z-buffering are included
in modern graphics cards. The Accelerated Graphics Port or AGP has been
introduced by Intel.
Usually a video adapter is a printed circuit board that plugs into a personal
computer to give it display capabilities but these capabilities, depend on
both the logical circuitry (provided in the video adapter) and the display
monitor. For instance, even if the video adapter is very powerful, a
monochrome monitor cannot display color.

Components of Graphics/Video Cards

You will find that a standard video or graphics card is composed of several
components mounted on a printed circuit board (abbreviated as PCB,
which is a thin plate on which chips and other electronic components are
placed) which include the following devices:
 Graphics Processing Units (GPU) – A Graphics Processing Unit
(GPU), also called (Visual Processing Unit (VPU) is a special type of
microprocessor that takes up the job of graphics rendering from system
CPU. GPUs are used in embedded systems, mobile phones, personal
computers, workstations, and game consoles. Modern GPUs are very
efficient at manipulating computer graphics, and their highly parallel
structure makes them more effective than general-purpose CPUs for a
range of complex algorithms. In a personal computer, a GPU can be
present on a video card, or it can be on the motherboard. More than
90% of new desktop and notebook computers have integrated GPUs,
which are usually far less powerful than those on a dedicated video card
Like CPU (Central Processing Unit), GPU is a dedicated processor
designed for accelerating video and 3D graphics rendering.
 Video BIOS – Like system BIOS, Video BIOS is the firmware that
contains the basic program that controls the basic operations of the
video card. This includes the interaction with the computer and the
software applications.
 Video memory – Video memory provides the memory needs of the
GPU and the display unit.Generally video memory ranges from 128MB
to 4GB. However new and emerging graphics cards contain more
memory.
 RAMDAC – Random Access Memory Digital-to-Analog Converter
converts digital signals to analog signals. These analog signals were
used in old cathode ray tube (abbreviated as CRT, which is a
specialized vacuum tube in which images are produced when an
electron beam strikes a phosphorescent surface) displays. However new
LCD displays do not require the RAMDAC.
 Outputs – Modern video cards include the standard outputs such as
VGA (Video Graphics Array) connector; DVI (Digital Visual Interface);
9-pin VIVO (Video In Video Out) for S-Video, composite and component

video; HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface); and the advanced

DisplayPort that is intended to replace VGA and DVI connectors.
12.2.1 Text& Graphics
Text and graphics are the two basic modes offered by video adapters. In
text mode, a monitor can display only ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange) characters. The term graphics represents almost
everything on computers that is not text or sound.The representation and
manipulation of image data by a computer is also termed as computer
graphics. In graphics mode, a monitor can display any bit-mapped image.
Within the text and graphics modes, some monitors also offer a choice of
resolutions. If the resolution is low, then more colors can be displayed by the
monitor. As advanced video adapters contain their own memory, computer
memory is not used for storing displays. Additionally, most adapters have
their own graphics coprocessor for performing graphics calculations.
Suchadapters are referred to as graphics accelerators.
12.2.2 Video BIOS
You are aware that the system BIOS (Basic Input Output System) provides
a set of functions that are used by software programs to access the system
hardware. Likewise, the video BIOS provides a set of video-related functions
that are used by programs to access the video hardware. The video BIOS
interfaces software to the video chipset in the same way that the system
BIOS does for the system chipset.
It should be kept in mind that the BIOS code and the software drivers in the
Video BIOS can differ for different cards that use the same video chipset. As
there is an increase in the variety of cards available in the market and you
need different code to support the BIOSes of different cards, software
programming has become difficult. VESA (Video Electronics Standards
Association, an international standards body for computer graphics founded
in 1989 by NEC Home Electronics and eight other video display adapter
manufacturers) has introduced a standard for high-resolution BIOS code
called the VESA BIOS Extensions (VBE). You can apply these by means of
hardware code or software drivers so as to have more standardized control
over the video.

12.2.3 DirectX
DirectX is a technology from Microsoft, which is a collection of Application
Programming Interfaces (APIs) for handling tasks related to multimedia,
especially game programming and video, on Microsoft platforms. Originally,
the names of these APIs all began with the word Direct, such as Direct3D,
DirectDraw, DirectMusic, DirectPlay, DirectSound, and so forth. But later on
the name DirectX was coined to refer to all of these APIs (the X standing in
for the particular API names) and this continued to be the name of the
collection. When Microsoft developed a gaming console called ‘Xbox’, to
indicate that the console was based on DirectX technology. The initial X has
been used in the naming of APIs designed for the Xbox such as XInput and
the Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool (XACT), while the DirectX pattern
has been continued for Windows APIs such as Direct2D and DirectWrite.
For the development of video games for Microsoft Windows, Microsoft Xbox,
and Microsoft Xbox 360, 3D graphics API within DirectX (Direct3D) is being
widely used. Other software applications for visualization and graphics tasks
such as Computer Aided Design / Computer Aided Manufacturing
engineering use Direct 3D You would have observed that the terms
‘Direct3D’ and ‘DirectX’ have been used interchangeably.
The DirectX Software Development Kit (SDK) consists of runtime libraries in
redistributable binary form, along with accompanying documentation and
headers for use in coding. Originally, the runtimes were only installed by
games or explicitly by the user. Windows 95 was not launched with DirectX
but it was included with Windows 95 OEM (Original Equipment
Manufacturer) Service Release 2 Windows 98 and Windows NT 4.0 both
contained DirectX which SDK can be downloaded for free.
The new versions of DirectX such as Direct3D 9Ex, Direct3D 10 and
Direct3D 11, available only for Windows Vista and Windows 7 were built to
depend upon the new Windows Display Driver Model.
Direct3D 9Ex: this allows full access to the new capabilities of drivers while
maintaining compatibility for existing Direct3D applications. The new
Vista/Windows Display Driver Modelgraphics architecture includes a new
video memory manager that supports virtualizing graphics hardware to
multiple applications and services such as the Desktop Window Manager.

Direct3D 10: It is designed around the new driver model in Windows Vista
and featuring a number of improvements to rendering capabilities and
flexibility.
Direct3D 11: It has the major features of multithreading support to assist
video game developers in developing games that better utilize multi-core
processors.
12.2.4 Replacing / Updating an Adapter
It is important to know which type of video adapter can be used in your
system as there are three main types of video adapter upgrades available.
Add-on Video Card
Add-on video card can be physically inserted into and taken out of the
computer as an individual hardware component. It can be plugged in PCI or
AGP slots. In order to upgrade an add-on video card, you haveto remove
the old card and drivers and install the new video card and drivers.
Motherboard Video-only Chipset
This type has an integrated video along with an open AGP expansion slot.
Either you can use the motherboard’s integrated video or plug-in your own
video card in the AGP slot. Modern PCs are equipped with this setup. You
should disable the on-board video and add an AGP video card and install
drivers for the new card to upgrade to this type.
Motherboard with Integrated Video
There is only on-board video in this type.You will not find an extra AGP slot
that you can use to install a new video card. You may be able to install a
slower PCI video card or if you really want an AGP video card you can opt
for a motherboard upgrade (to one that offers an AGP slot).
1. The AGP technology was introduced by _______________.
2. DirectX technology is from _______________.
3. BIOS stands for _______________.
12.3 Classification of Video Display Hardware

A video display adapter is also referred to as graphics accelerator card
which is an expansion card whose function is to generate output images to a
display. These cards offer added functions, such as rendering of

accelerated 2D and 3D images, video capture, TV-tuner adapter, MPEG-

2decoding, light pen, TV output, or the ability to connect multiple monitors.
High performance video cards also support PC games.
Video display adapter hardware is integrated on the motherboard chip in
earlier machines. It was also called as video controller or graphics controller.
Recent computers use a graphics chipset which is developed along with
Northbridge on the motherboard. This chip has embedded memory and
some amount of system RAM. This reduces the total RAM available. This is
called integrated graphics or on-board graphics and it is used by those who
runs 3D applications. A dedicated Graphics Card on the other hand has its
own RAM and Processor specifically for processing video images. Almost all
of these motherboards allow the disabling of the integrated graphics chip in
BIOS, and uses buses like AGP, PCI, or PCI Express slot for adding a
higher-performance graphics card in place of the integrated graphics.
There are two broad categories of video display hardware: non-accelerated
and accelerated cards. In the non-accelerated graphics adapters, as the
early graphics adapters were, the system CPU did all the work related to
processing and calculating. The adapters just received data from the
processorand forwarded the signals to the monitor. The computer needed to
change each pixel individually to change the image on the screen when
using the non-accelerated (un-accelerated) graphics adapters. However, the
introduction of Graphical User Interface operating systems such as
Windows created some problems. It was then found that systems began to
slow down as the CPU was left trying to move large amounts of data from
the system RAM to the video card.
Video cards in recent age are accelerated and connected to the system's
CPU through high-speed buses such as PCI (Peripheral Computer
Interface) or AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port). A graphics accelerator, for
example, is a type of video adapter that contains its own processor to boost
performance levels. These processors are specialized for computing
graphical transformations, so that they can achieve better results than the
general-purpose CPU used by the computer. Additionally, they free up the
computer's CPU to execute other commands while the graphics accelerator
is handling graphics computations. The popularity of graphical applications,
and especially multimedia applications and computer games, has made

graphics accelerators not only a common enhancement, but a necessity.

Nowadays most computer manufacturers include a graphics accelerator
with their mid-range and high-end systems.
Apart from the graphics processor used, other characteristics that
differentiate graphics accelerators are:
 Memory: Graphics accelerators have their own memory, which is
reserved for storing graphical representations. Because of the demands
of video systems, video memory needs to be faster than main memory.
The amount of memory determines how much resolution and how many
colors can be displayed. Some accelerators use conventional DRAM
(Dynamic RAM), but others use a special type of Video RAM (VRAM),
which enables both the video circuitry and the processor to
simultaneously access the memory.
 Bus: Each graphics accelerator is designed for a particular type of video
bus (AGP or PCI).

4. Video display hardware can be broadly classified as
_______________and _______________.
5. DRAM stands for _______________.
6. VRAM stands for _______________.
12.4 Graphics Accelerators

Graphics accelerators are coprocessors that reside in your computer that
assist in drawing graphics. If your system is equipped with a graphics
accelerator then it does have to transfer raw pixel data over a slow general
bus and chipset. Instead of it will use graphics accelerator for transferring
the pixel data over the bus and chipset and draw image. Thus a graphics
accelerator works concurrently with a general CPU to improve graphics
performance of the system. They are also called as Graphics Processing
Units (GPU).
GPU is a single-chip processor with integrated transform, lighting, triangle
setup/clipping, and rendering engines. It is capable of processing a
minimum of 10 million polygons per second. It was first, defined and
popularized by NVIDIA in 1999, who marketed the GeForce 256 (name of
the GPU model) as the world's first GPU. The release of the Radeon 9700
saw the introduction of the Visual Processing Unit (VPU) by

ATI Technologies in 2002.
Custom microchips found in graphics accelerators contain special
mathematical operations commonly used in graphics rendering. The
efficiency of the microchips determines the effectiveness of the graphics
accelerator. They are mainly used for playing 3D games or high-end 3D
rendering. A GPU implements a number of graphics primitive operations in a
way that makes running them much faster than drawing directly to the
screen with the host CPU. Modern GPUs also have support for 3D computer
graphics, and typically include digital video–related functions. Figure 12.1
shows a modern graphics card. Intel, NVIDIA, AMD (Advanced Micro
Devices), S3 Graphics VIA Technologies and Matrox are some of the
popular companies manufacturing GPUs.
Graphics
Processor
Figure 12.1: A Modern Graphics Processing Unit
Computational functions of GPUs

Modern GPUs use most of their integrated circuits to perform calculations
related to 3D computer graphics. They were initially used to accelerate the
memory-intensive work of texture mapping and rendering polygons, later
adding units to accelerate geometric calculations such as the rotation and
translation of vertices into different coordinate systems. Recent
developments in GPUs include support for programmable Shaders (A Pixel
Shader is a graphics function that calculates effects on a pixel level) which
can manipulate vertices and textures with many of the same operations

supported by CPUs, oversampling and interpolation techniques to reduce

aliasing, and very high-precision color spaces. Because most of these
computations involve matrix and vector operations, engineers and scientists
have increasingly studied the use of GPUs for non-graphical calculations.In
addition to the 3D hardware, today's GPUs include basic 2D acceleration
and frame buffer capabilities (usually with a VGA compatibility mode).
12.4.1 Issues in Video Performance
The following are some of the common hurdles faced regarding video speed
performance,
 Graphics memory bandwidth
 Communication between host and graphics accelerator
 Features and host feature emulation
 Monitor refresh
Graphics Memory Bandwidth

The speed at which the accelerator can output its results to memory is one
of the biggest challenges in graphics performance. The various techniques
used to improve the performance are:
 Using VRAM, a kind of RAM technology that could allow multiple
accesses per cycle (one for video refresh, and one for accelerator
output)
 Using RAMBUS, wherein the RAM is partitioned over multiple buses
 Slicing the memory in large sequential banks
 Embedding an eDRAM (embedded Dynamic RAM) and splining the on-
chip
 Increase the efficiency of memory accesses via tiled addressing
Host, Accelerator Communication
A command queue (or FIFO-First In First Out strategy) helps in
communicating operations from the host to the accelerator. The host
graphics API (Application Programming Interface) are decomposed to these
accelerator specific commands which are then executed by the graphics
accelerator and then de-queued by the graphics accelerator in oldest first
order. Writing to and arbitration of the graphics queue usually involves
writes and reads to memory mapped graphics register locations, or I/O
ports. However, writes to ordinary system memory and graphics based DMA
strategies are also possible.

Earlier graphics accelerators faced the hurdle of the queue being too small
(typically 16 entries) to give the host and the graphics accelerator sufficient
opportunity for parallelism. So, the host driver would commonly be stalled
waiting for the queue to free up enough space for the next operation. But in
modern graphics accelerators, you will not face this problem as the queue
has been significantly expanded usually to sizes usually above 512 entries.
While a register window retained a small queue, a portion of the graphics
memory would be used as an extension queue to the register window
queue.
Some accelerators, in order to improve queue access performance use the
ploy of memory mapping the queue to contiguous sequential addresses, to
use the PCI bursting capabilities of the host chipset.
Features and Host Feature Emulation
There are various factors which influence the marketability of graphics like:
price, how well they support games, and how well they conform to
standards. Earlier, starting in 1989, PC based graphics acceleration was
limited to 2D but with the advent of DirectDraw and Direct3D and availability
of 3D accelerated games, 3D is being preferred. 3D is not as simple as 2D
for graphic companies to deal with.
Monitor Refresh
Monitor refresh is the last factor in determining the video speed which takes
a certain amount of memory bandwidth away just to update the monitor. But
3D applications perform double buffering in order to prevent tearing or
flickering. By double buffering we mean that the trace is sent back and forth
between two frame buffers and the monitor is alternately refreshed by the
buffer. In order to repoint the monitor to refresh from a different section of
graphics RAM to avoid tearing, you have to wait until the current refresh (if
one is pending) is complete. Typically this is done by "waiting for vertical
retrace". This "wait period", however is dictated by the specifications of your
monitor, not by the performance of your CPU or graphics accelerator.
7. The term GPU was coined and popularized by _______________.
8. The term VPU was first introduced by _______________.
9. GPU stands for _______________.

12.5 3D Graphics Accelerator Issues

3D computer graphics requires a lot of computer processing power and a
large amount of memory. Until late 1995, 3D acceleration was only found on
a small number of high-end products its target applications being high-end
rendering packages and supporting engines. However, with the introduction
of powerful Pentium chips, the demand for 3D accelerators has increased
manifold with all modern PCs incorporating them.
It was found that the initial 3D accelerators were slower than conventional
GUI accelerators under Windows, and poor in DOS at a time when most PC
games ran on that platform, the main problem lying with software support.
Moreover, with 32-bit Super Games Consoles on the increase, the quantity
and quality of titles available for the 3D cards was poor.
With Microsoft supporting DirectX and enhancing Windows 95 as a
multimedia platformand with the sales of 3D graphics chips exceeding 42
million, in 1997, attitudes changed. There was a phenomenal increase in the
demand for 3D graphics chips with sales going up to 140 million by the year
2000.
12.5.1 The 3D Process
The main purpose of a dedicated 3D graphics chip or a dual-purpose 2D/3D
graphics chip is to take away load from system CPU and perform the
rendering by itself. This rendering, or drawing, is accomplished through the
graphics pipeline in two major stages: geometry and rendering. The
geometry stage is performed by the CPU. In this the CPU handles all
polygon activity and converts the 3D spatial data into pixels. The rendering
stage is handled by the 3D hardware accelerator. It manages all the
memory and pixel activity and prepares it for painting to the monitor.
Earlier, although for a brief period, the only way a PC user could have
access to 3D acceleration was throughan add-on card that worked along
with a conventional 2D card. The latter was used for day-to-day Windows
computing, and the 3D card gained popularity only when a 3D game was
launched. As 3D capability rapidly became the standard, these 3D-only
cards were replaced by cards with dual 2D/3D capability. These 2D/3D
combo cards combine standard 2D functions plus 3D acceleration
capabilities on one card and represent the most cost-effective solution for
most gamers. Almost all modern-day graphics cards have some kind of

dedicated 3D acceleration, but their performance varies a lot. If you want to

upgrade to 3D, you could go in for a dedicated 3D add-on card.
12.5.2 Issues in 3D Speed
A CPU's capabilities are stretched while handling the various 3D rendering
techniques involving complex calculations. Even if you have dedicated 3D
accelerators to perform many of the functions identified abovethe CPU still
handles most of the geometry calculations – such as, the positioning of every
filtered pixel that appears on-screen. With current 3D accelerators sending
out over a 100 million pixels per second, this is beyond the capacityof even
the fastest CPU. The 3D accelerator literally has to wait for the CPU to finish
its calculations.
12.5.3 Improving 3D Performance
Two very different ways of improving 3D performance have been found.
One is the use of dedicated geometry processor which takes over the
geometry calculations from the main CPU. Another means is offered by
processor manufactures who have tried to boost the 3D performance of their
CPUs because they feared that once geometry processors became
standard on graphics boards, it would only take a mediocre processor to
perform other functions such as running the operating system and
monitoring devices. Hence they provided specialized instruction sets Katmai
New Instructions (KNI - The code name for the new multimedia instructions
that were built into the Pentium III (Katmai) chipin the case of Intel and
3D Now! (an extension to the 8086 instruction set,)in the case of AMD for
improving 3D performance. But, in the long run, the increase in performance
provided by these new MMX-style (Multi Media extension) instructions will
appear insufficient to cope with the brute power of the new generation of 3D
accelerator. Moreover, most users including gamers do not upgrade their
systems regularly and have CPUs which are relatively slow. Therefore,
dedicated geometry processors are the most preferred.
Some typical problems encountered with video cards are discussed in this
section. Most of the problems addressed are related to specific setup issues
with the video subsystem. You should always make sure that you are using
the correct drivers for your video card. If you have any problems related to

the video subsystem, or even general instability with the system that shows
up when you are running Windows, thenbe sure that it is caused due to the
use of faulty or incorrect drivers. The video cards are generally shipped with
their drivers in a floppy-disk or CD-ROM from their manufacturers. However
the up-to-date drives can be found in their company’s website. These will
often fix many of the strange problems sometimes seen when installing a
new video card.
12.6.1 Avoiding the Basic Problem
Problems Associated with Graphics/Video Cards and Devices
Video cards, graphics cards, and other 2D/3D graphic accelerator cards are
bunched with the corresponding device drivers that are essential for the
proper function and performance of the graphics device. Sometimes these
old device drivers may not work properly if you upgrade your motherboard,
processor or operating system. Under these circumstances you need to
uninstall the old drivers, download the latest drivers suitable for the
upgraded motherboard, processor or operating system and then reinstall it.
Resolving Installation Problems with Driver Detective
The device driver update tool called Driver Detective can be used to update
Graphics and video device drivers quickly and accurately. The Driver
Detective tool can identify individual graphics and video cards with driver
problems. They can also automatically download the most up-to-date
drivers suitable for a particular motherboard, processor and/or operating
system.
If you encounter difficulties like crashing, hanging, freezing, etc. Then it
means that the display adapter has some problem. In case your video card
displays some things incorrectly then you may be able to identify the
problem by comparing your screen errors with examples screenshots. This
section contains some screenshots of video cards which show different
kinds of visual problems. But if your video card crashes or hangsthen it
isoften difficult to find the cause because there could be various other
reasons displaying the same signs. You could carry out some standard
procedures to set right the problem. As a last resort you could seek the help
of support forumsBut before trying these proceduresit is advisable to create
a system restore point as described below. A restore point allows you to

undo software changes you make while trying to solve your video card
problem.
1. Install the latest motherboard chipset drivers
2. Uninstall your old display drivers and then install the latest display
drivers
3. Disable your sound system
4. Disable your AGP port
5. Do physical checks
6. Test your CPU and RAM
7. Check your power supply
12.6.2 Missing Display Options
Missing display is a common problem in which the operating system, such
as Windows XP, does notappear on the screen. In other words, the
computer starts up but nothing appears on the monitor. Assuming that your
monitor is in good condition, your next step should be to take a look at the
video card.
This particular problem can be caused from several different things such as
a video card that is not properly seated or a loose connection from the video
card to the monitor. Troubleshooting this problem will require you to locate
the video card inside your computer and verify the following:
 Assuming that the video card adapter is separate from the motherboard,
you should check that the card is properly seated. Sometimes one end
of the card may creep out of the slot when it is initially screwed in
resulting in no display appearing on the monitor.
 Verify the correct jumper settings for video cards that are mounted to the
motherboard by checking the documentation that camewith the
hardware.
 The cable running from the monitor to the video port may also be broken
or there may be a loose contact. Examine the monitor cable to ensure
that there are no broken or bent pins. A bent pin can usually be
straightened using a pair of sharp-nosed pliers. Also check that the
cable running from the monitor to the VGA port is secure.

12.6.3 Basic Troubleshooting in Windows OS

Operating System does not appear
Suppose if the initial screen of the startup process appears on the monitor
and then if the display goes blank, then there is a possibility of wrong video
driver installation. When an incompatible video driver with the operating
system is installed these kinds of problems will surface. If your operating
system is Windows XP, you can follow procedures given below to resolve
the problem.
 In Windows XP, start the computer in Safe Mode by pressing [F8] when
the Starting Windows message appears.
 From the boot menu select the Safe Mode option. This will force
Windows XP to start using the standard VGA driver, instead of the video
driver that is used when the operating system is started normally.
 Once the computer is started in Safe Mode, you can install the correct
video driver using Device Manager.
You can get a detailed description of these steps under the section
"Updating Video Drivers".
Another cause for the video problem discussed above could be due to
overclocking. Although this is a popular method used to get more
performance out of a hardware component such as a video card adapter, it
could result in display problems. The problem can once again be resolved
by starting Windows XP in Safe Mode and configuring the video card to
operate at its default speed.
Poor Display
Poor display can cause, besides fuzzy appearance, distorted text, monitor
flickering etc. Due to poor display there may be chances of causing
headaches and sore eyes after working for long time on the computer.
Therefore this problem has to be resolved.
There are a number of causes which lead to poor display. You should first
verify that the latest driver for the video adapter has been installed. You can
determine which driver version is currently installed in Windows XP by
completing the steps outlined below:
1. Right click the Windows desktop and click Properties.
2. From the Display Properties dialog box, click the Settings tab.
3. Click the Advanced button.

4. Click the Adapters tab.

5. Click the Properties button under Adapter Type as shown in Figure
12.2.
6. Click the Driver tab.
Figure 12.2: Verifying device driver
Select the Properties button under Adapter Type to locate specific driver
information including the driver version. You can find the version information
beside the Driver Version field. Compare this version with the latest version
on the manufacturer's Web site. If the driver needs to be updated complete
steps four through seven listed under the section entitled “Updating Video
Drivers”. If the latest driver is installed, you may need to adjust the
resolution and refresh rate (this is the rate at which the video card redraws
the screen) for the video adapter card. Incorrect display settings can cause
problems with your display.
Screen Resolution
In order to configure display settings, right click the Windows XP desktop
and click Properties to open the Display Properties dialog box. Then select
the Settings tab as shown in Figure 12.3 to change the resolution settings.
Use the slider under Screen resolution to adjust the settings. Normally, a 17
inch monitor will have a default resolution of 800x600.

Figure 12.3: Changing the screen resolution

Use the Settings tab from the Display Properties dialog box to change the
resolution. If you are unable to select the desired resolution that should be
supported by the video card, you will need to again check that the operating
system has correctly identified the card. In Windows, you can use Device
Manager to make sure the card has been properly detected. If the card has
not been properly identified, you will once again need to check the driver. It
is usually recommended that you use the drivers supplied by the
manufacturer instead of the drivers included with Windows.
The screen resolution may also be limited if the wrong monitor is selected.
To check the monitor selection, once again open the Display Properties
dialog box and select the Settings tab. Click the Advanced button and select
the Monitor tab. If the monitor listed is not correct, you will need to update
the driver for the monitor.
Refresh Rate
If the problem still persists after adjusting the resolution, your next step
should be to adjust the refresh rate. Lower refresh rates tend to cause
flickering so it is important to verify this setting. You can adjust the refresh
rate using the Settings tab from the Display Properties dialog box.

Once again, select the Settings tab and click the Advanced button. Select
the Monitor tab as shown in Figure 12.4. Use the drop down arrow to adjust
the refresh rate to about 70 MHZ. Remember that a higher refresh rate will
reduce the amount of flickering. As with the screen resolution, if you are
unable to select the desired refresh rate, go back to the video driver to make
sure the latest one is installed. Use the Monitor tab to adjust the refresh
rate.
Figure 12.4: Selecting refresh rate for the monitor
It is important to verify that the monitor supports the screen resolution and
refresh rate configured in the Display Properties dialog box. You should
refer to the documentation or manual that came with your monitor in order to
identify the values that are supported.
Problems Displaying Videos or Animations
You will encounter problems with videos and animations, if the display
adapter driver does not support DirectDraw. If videos and animations are
not correctly displayed on the monitor, you should first determine if the video
card adapter driver supports DirectDraw which can be accomplished using
the DirectX Diagnostic Tool. Then from the Run command type DxDiag.exe
and click OK. From the Display tab, click the Test DirectDraw button.
Windows XP will perform a series of tests. If your display does not pass
each of the tests, you will need to update the video adapter.
If updating the video adapter driver does not solve the problem, verify that
your video card is indeed supported by the operating system installed on

your computer. If you are running Windows, you can check the Hardware
Compatibility List (HCL) to determine if the video card adapter is supported.
Updating Video Drivers
Faulty or incorrect video drivers can result in such things as operating
system instability, video subsystem problems, and so on.Most video cards
come with drivers on a floppy disk or a CD-ROM. You can use the drivers
that came with the hardware or visit the manufacturer's Web site to obtain a
more recent one. The drivers should come with a text file outlining the
installation process.
The first step in updating the driver is to identify the make and model of your
video card. In Windows XP, you can see a list of all the hardware
components within Device Manager. The video card should be listed under
Display Adapters as shown in Figure 12.5. However, if it is has not been
recognized by Windows XP, it may be listed under Unknown Devices.
Double click on the video adapter listed to identify the make and model. This
information can be used to retrieve the latest driver from the manufacturer's
Web site. Device Manager will list the Display Adapter installed in the
computer.
Figure 12.5: Device manager screen

If you are running Windows XP, you can update a device driver using the
steps listed below:
1. Right click My Computer and click Properties.
2. From the Hardware tab, click Device Manager.
3. Within Device Manager, double-click the video adapter listed under
Display Adapters.
4. Click Update Driver as shown in Figure 12.6 to open the Hardware
Update Wizard.
5. Accept the default option, Install the Software Automatically.
Choose the Install from a List or Specific Location option if you
have the updated driver so you can indicate the file location. Click
Next.
6. Windows searches for an updated driver and instructs you if an
updated driver has been found.
7. Click Finish once the updated driver has been installed.
Figure 12.6: Updating device driversscreen

A majority of video adapter card problems can be solved by ensuring that

the correct driver is installed and that the display settings are properly
configured based on the capabilities of your hardware. However, if you are
unable to resolve the problem using the steps discussed in the previous
sections then, it might be advisable to contact the manufacturer of the video
card.

10. KNI stands for ______________.
11. MMX stands for ______________.
12. You need to run ______________file to test whether your monitor
supports DirectDraw or not.
12.7 Summary
Let’s recapitulate important concepts discussed in this unit:
 Video adapter is a board that plugs into a personal computer to give it
display capabilities. Those capabilities of a computer, however, depend
on both the logical circuitry (provided in the video adapter) and the
display monitor.
 DirectX is the technology from Microsoft, which is a collection of
Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) for handling tasks related to
multimedia, especially game programming and video, on Microsoft
platforms.
 The video display hardware can be broadly classified into non-
accelerated and accelerated cards.
 A Graphics Processing Unit or GPU (also occasionally called visual
processing unit or VPU) is a specialized microprocessor that offloads
and accelerates graphics rendering from the central processor. It is used
in embedded systems, mobile phones, personal computers,
workstations, and game consoles.
 Video cards, graphics cards, and other 2D/3D graphic accelerator cards
are bundled with the corresponding device drivers that are essential for
the proper function and performance of the graphics device.

12.8 Glossary
Term Description
GPU GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) islike CPU (Central Processing
Unit).It is a dedicated processor designed for accelerating video
and 3D graphics rendering.
Video BIOS This is the firmware that contains the basic program that
controls the basic operations of the video card, including
interaction with the computer and the software applications.
Video Memory It provides the memory needs of the GPU and the display
unit.Generally video memory ranges from 128MB to 4GB.
However new and emerging graphics cards contain more
memory.
RAMDAC RAMDAC (Random Access Memory Digital-to-Analog
Converter) converts digital signals to analog signals. These
analog signals were used in old CRT displays. However new
LCD displays do not require the RAMDAC.
DirectX DirectX is the technology from Microsoft, which is a collection of
Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) for handling tasks
related to multimedia, especially game programming and video
on Microsoft platforms.
VRAM VRAM (Video RAM) isa kind of RAM technology that could allow
multiple accesses per cycle (one for video refresh, and one for
accelerator output).
RAMBUS RAMBUS is a technology, wherein the RAM is partitioned over
multiple buses.

1. Explain the features of conventional video adapters.
2. Briefly explain the major classification of video display hardware.
3. List out the issues associated with video speed.
4. Explain the precautionary measures to be taken to avoid basic problems
in video cards.

12.10 Answers
1. Intel
2. Microsoft
3. Basic Input Output System
4. Accelerated, Non-accelerated
5. Dynamic Random Access Memory
6. Video Random Access Memory
7. NVIDIA
8. ATI Technologies
9. Graphics Processing Unit
10. Katmai New Instructions
11. Multi Media Extension
12. DxDiag.exe
Terminal Questions
1. Refer section 12.2: Conventional Video Adapters
2. Refer section 12.3: Classification of Video Display Hardware
3. Refer section 12.4.1: Issues in Video Performance
4. Refer section 12.6.1: Avoiding the Basic Problem
References:
Bigelow, TMH
 The Indispensable PC Hardware Book by Messmer (Addison Wesley-
Third Edition)
E-References:
 http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-graphics-adapter.htm

Unit 13 SCSI and USB Systems

Structure:
13.1 Introduction
Objectives
13.2 SCSI systems
SCSI concepts
Installing a SCSI system
SCSI considerations
Troubleshooting
13.3 USB systems
USB concepts
USB architecture
Troubleshooting
13.4 Summary
13.5 Glossary
13.7 Answers
13.1 Introduction
In unit 8 and unit 11 you have studied various peripheral devices which are
used for input and storage media. In unit 8, section 8.6 you studied Flash
memory which can be externally connected to a port. You need some
device to connect these devices. Also In order to achieve a greater
performance in the data transmission between system and the peripheral
devices, you can connect computer devices to each other with less cable.
Therefore you can use Small Computer System Interface was introduced
this became famous as SCSI systems (also pronounced as ‘scuzzy’). In this
unit you will study about SCSI devices through which you can connect your
peripheral devices to computer and to each other.
SCSI is a set of standards that define commands, protocols, and electrical
and optical interfaces for physical connection and data transmission
between computers and peripheral devices. SCSI provided a single adapter
which can operate a number of unique devices simultaneously, bonded by
same signal cable. SCSI systems can handle all the devices like, CD-ROM,
hard drives by a system fitted with a SCSI adapter through which they can

achieve data throughputs better than the other low-end PCs. These low-end
PCs used separate adapters for each of these devices.
In this unit we will discuss on the overview of SCSI interface. We shall cover
the essential installation tips of a SCSI host adapter. You can also get to
know the guidelines to resolve SCSI problems.
We always wanted to have devices that do not require installation and
updating the new PC device. This idea gave rise to the birth of USB.
Universal Serial Bus is hardware interface that is used to attach secondary
hardware devices like pen drive, hard disk, etc., in a PnP way. In this unit
you will also study the general concepts of USB. You will get to know the
guidelines for troubleshooting the USB in case of problems.
Objectives:
 Understand the essential concepts of SCSI systems
 Perform installation of a SCSI host adapter
 Discuss some of the SCSI issues
 Resolve the SCSI problems through troubleshooting
 Understand the general concepts of USB
 Explain the architecture of USB
 Resolve the USB problems through troubleshooting
13.2 SCSI Systems

SCSI stands for Small Computer System Interface. It was designed to allow
the peripheral devices to operate on single adapter rather than using
separate adapters for each device. This increases throughput and
performance of the system.
13.2.1 SCSI concepts
SCSI uses single adapter to operate number of devices simultaneously.
This concept is based on device-level interfaces like Parallel and serial port.
We have studied this in unit 9 and unit 10 respectively.
The PC does not bother about the name of the device attached to it. It
sends the command and data to the device and waits for the device to
respond. For example, the printer that was there working fine 10 years ago
will work properly with the recent processor of the computer when

connected because it only works with the command and data. This means
the computer peripherals and hardware components are completely free
from compatibility issues because it is taken care by SCSI devices.
 Device independence: In order to maintain the device independence
feature of the device, SCSI is both a BUS and a command set. SCSI is a
bus which is a collection of cables and switches where each cable has
its name and specific purpose. A command set is a limited set of
instructions that is used to allow the computer and peripheral device to
transmit data over the bus. For example, The SCSI Test Unit Ready
command is used to determine if a device is ready to transfer data
(read/write), i.e. if a disk spins up or the disk is ready or loaded. The
example for SCSI are hard drives, optical devices, printers etc. The
appearance of these devices is one and same because any old device
can be easily replaced by a new device without modifications. Since the
method to connect to the device is done by the peripherals device and
not by microprocessor, the computer can employ some small set of
instructions that flow to and fro between the peripheral and computer.
 Bus length: SCSI devices are connected with a 50 pin or 68-pin cable
whose total length will measure the overall bus length. There are two
types of SCSI devices based on the length of the buses. They are
internal SCSI devices and external SCSI devices. Some of the system
may have either internal or external or both.
Internal SCSI device are those that are connected to the computer through
passive terminators installed in the drive. These devices are connected to a
SCSI controller ribbon cable.
External SCSI devices are Inline terminators connected in series.
These devices have closed ended terminators plugged into a bus connector.
When the system has only internal SCSI devices, the bus length is
measured from the SCSI host adapter to the last internal SCSI device on
the terminated device. When there are only external SCSI devices, the bus
length is measured from the SCSI host adapter to the last external SCSI
device on the terminated device. If there are both internal and external SCSI
devices, then the bus length is measured from the last external device to the
last internal device. With the use of short bus length the implementations of
SCSI have become faster.
 Initiators and targets: Based on the type of SCSI bus, the devices can
be initiators and targets. An initiator is a device that starts
communication when something has to be done. A target is a device
that responds to the initiator’s commands. The organisation for initiator
and target is a two way process and interactive. An initiator may become
target in the course of data transfer cycle and vice-versa. There must be
at least one initiator and one target in the system. Usually the SCSI
adapter card will be the initiator and all the other devices like hard drives
or CD-ROMs are usually the targets.
 Synchronous and asynchronous: SCSI needs a handshaking protocol
to organise data transfer from sending end to receiving end.
There are three types of handshaking protocols. They are asynchronous,
synchronous and fast synchronous.
Asynchronous protocol works like a parallel port in which whenever each
byte is received it must be acknowledge and request is sent before the next
byte can be sent. This type of operation leads to reliable but slow
performance.
Synchronous and fast synchronous operations do not bother about request
and acknowledge handshake only for data transfer. Therefore the
operations will be slightly faster with a fixed amount of delay time called as
offset.
The fast synchronous protocol uses shorter signals, which gives faster
speed. The protocol to be used is chosen by the initiator and the target
through their communications.
 Disconnect and Reconnect: SCSI gives features of disconnect and
then reconnecting the devices again later. This feature is the main
reason of SCSI desirability in the multitasking environment and allows
different operations to operate simultaneously. The initiator can decide
whether it can give the feature authority of disconnecting the device to
the target.
 Terminators: It is a small resistor array which is used to enhance with
SCSI signal integrity.
The SCSI cable must be terminated with a location of terminating resistor
depending upon the devices that are added to the Bus. Since there is a

particular limit to the number of devices that can be added to the cable, the
termination have become a big deal. They just have to add the resistor.
Termination has become a very important element of SCSI setup and
troubleshooting. The incorrect termination can cause lot of signal problem.
There are two types of terminators, active terminator and passive
terminator. Active terminator provides its own regulated power sources. This
feature will influence the longer cable. Passive terminator has resistor pack
that can be plugged into SCSI device.
Passive terminator is suited for short distances usually work for cable length
inside the PC.
 SCSI IDs and LUNs: SCSI bus is designed to support eight devices at a
time (hard drive, DVD drive, host adapter, Scanner, Printer, etc.) called
as logical unit. A logical unit number must have its own unique ID
number ranging from 0 to 7. The SCSI IDs are the set for SCSI adapter.
Each SCSI device uses jumpers or DIP switches (A series of tiny
switches built into circuit boards which helps us to configure a circuit
board for the specific types of the computer or the applications.).
Generally the SCSI adapter is set for ID7 (SCSI ID 7 is the preset SCSI
ID for the SCSI host bus adapter giving it the highest priority on the
SCSI bus), the primary SCSI hard drive is set to ID0 (it is the standard
ID used for an internal drive) and the secondary SCSI hard drive is set
to ID1 (low priority comparatively). From ID2 to ID6 are the unique ID
numbers in which the other devices can be placed.
A logical unit number or LUN is a number used to identify a logical unit,
which is a device addressed by the SCSI protocol or similar protocols. Logic
unique numbers (LUNs) are similar to SCSI ID that is used to identify a
logical unit. LUNs indicate devices within devices. Every SCSI ID from 0 to 7
can have up to eight LUNs that mean there can be eight sub devices for
every given device ID. You can also make your device ID consisting of more
than eight sub devices. For example, suppose you have three hard drives
E:, F: and G:, ID2 can be used by all three drives but E: can be assigned to
LUN0, F: to LUN1, G: to LUN2. Unfortunately, an SCSI user cannot decide
randomly to use LUNs assignment because there must be a hardware
designed for that purpose. If you have a device that uses LUNs like CD juke
box, you may need to enable LUNs support in the host adapter’s bios or
device drivers.

 Bus Configuration: As we know, SCSI uses single ended cabling that

support an eight bit data bus also known as A-cable. This eight bit data
Bus is a 50-pin assembly. SCSI cable with 50-pin single ended system
consists of 3 major sections. They are ground wire, data signal and
control signal. The brown line is carried by at least half of the single
ended interface. There are eight data lines from D0 to D7 and one data
parity bit (DPAR). The parity bit is always an odd number in SCSI. There
are four terminator power lines (TERM PWR) and nine control signal
wire.
The following will explain each of the signals:
 C/D - Control/Data: This signal is target driven that allows the target
device to select whether it will be returning a command or data to the
initiator.
 I/O: This signal is target driven that allows the target device to determine
whether it will be receiving the data or sending the information along the
data Bus.
 MSG - Message: This signal is target driven that allows the target device
to send coded status or error messages back to the initiator during the
message portion of SCSI Bus cycle.
 REQ - Request: This signal is data strobe signal that is also target
driven which allows a potential target device to obtain data on the Bus.
 ACK - Acknowledge: This signal is initiated driven which is also called as
data strobe signal that is sent in response to target! REQ signals that
inform the target device that it has gained the use of the Bus.
 BSY - Busy: This signal is either target driven or initiated driven. This
signal allows the device to inform the Bus that the target device is busy
 SEL - Select: This signal is neither target driven or initiated driven that is
used by an initiator to select a target device.
 ATN - Attention: This signal is initiator driven that is produced by the
initiator which informs the target device that initiator has message ready.
The target should switch to the message phase.
 RST - Reset: This signal is target driven or initiator driven and is strobe
signal that triggers a Bus-wide Reset off all devices. Usually only one
device produces a reset signal.
13.2.2 Installing a SCSI system

Ideally SCSI host adapters are PnP devices that can automatically detect
the resource connected to the PCI slot. Problems occur because of
|incorrect hardware or software installations. In this section, you will
understand the overview of SCSI adapter installation process and SCSI
BIOS setup.
 Internal Hardware installation: you need to install the SCSI host adapter
and connected to at least one SCSI device.
You must follow the steps below to perform installation of a typical SCSI
host adapter:
1. Switch off the computer and unplug it.
2. Unbolt the case and detach the screws and keep it in a safe place.
3. While replacing the SCSI host adapter with new one, remove the
older device carefully and keep it on a antistatic surface or antistatic
bag.
4. Identify the new SCSI host adapter which is usually connected to
PCI slot or ISA slot. Remove the cover of the new slot and keep the
screw in a safe place.
5. Insert the SCSI host adapter card slowly and firmly inside the slot.
Fix the screw to tighten the bracket.
6. Connect the computer’s drive activity LED cable to the suitable
connector of the SCSI card.
7. You should ensure that all the other bus connections are proper if
needed.
You should have proper terminator for SCSI bus and no SCSI IDs. The
SCSI IDs of each SCSI device must be verified and the termination end
point must be properly checked.
 Software Installation: Any hardware requires the appropriate software
available for proper execution of the device. You must install the
necessary device drivers for the SCSI device you have installed.
You need to follow the instructions below to properly install the software
to the windows.
1. It should automatically detect the SCSI device when windows start
up.
2. Click on Driver which is provided by the device manufacturer in the
Disk. Then click OK.

3. Driver CD should be inserted into CD ROM, then select CD-ROM

drive. Then click OK. This will load the SCSI drivers into the
windows
4. Once loading is finished verify for installation success. When your
desktop returns then Click start → highlight settings → click control
panel.
5. Next double click on the system icon → click the Device Manager
Lab.
6. Double click on the SCSI Controllers branch to expand it.
7. Now it is possible to see that your new SCSI host adapter is listed in
the system properties. If you can see the name of the device drivers
then it means that your new device is installed properly. If not, then
you need to check the installation.
8. Once you get to see the device in the system properties you can now
exit the Device Manager and start the use of your SCSI adapter.
13.2.3 SCSI considerations
While adding or upgrading the SCSI support on your computer you must
consider the four important elements. They are the SCSI peripheral, the
SCSI host adapter, the SCSI cable assembly, and the SCSI software driver.
If any of these elements is missing, then the installation will suffer from
problems.
 The SCSI peripherals: you need to find out the compatible devices with
the architecture of the SCSI controller such as SCSI hard drive or CD-
ROM. You must know about the wide range of SCSI ID settings of each
of the SCSI device. The peripheral device must be flexible to run on any
of the eight SCSI IDs (0-7). SCSI peripheral should support SCSI parity.
We must be sure about the type of SCSI devices as the SCSI devices
are of two types such as internal and external. If you use internal SCSI
device then there must be enough space inside the PC to fit the device
inside. If you are using external device then there should be two SCSI
connectors on the adapter to allow the chain connectivity for adding
devices later. Device drivers must be compatible with the same standard
protocol used by adapters. Compatibility is an issue because if the
device drivers are not compatible then it will not work properly. The
peripheral you are using must offer built-in cable termination.

 SCSI host adapter: SCSI host adapter is an important device. The

adapter chosen should be compatible with the existing PC bus. It should
support the standards. The adapters must be flexible enough to work
with all SCSI IDs from 0 to 7. The host adapter also requires device
driver to run properly. Therefore, the same standard device driver must
be used that is compatible with the host adapter.
 SCSI cables: Though the recent cabling is highly standardised, check
for proper cabling. While choosing the peripherals, be aware of the cable
requirement. Don’t use specialized cables because all devices may not
support them. Keep the cable length short and use the good quality
cabling. You must also take care of termination and end point of cabling.
The termination and ending of the cables must be thoroughly checked
and verified.
 SCSI drivers: Device driver provides instructions that allow the SCSI
host adapter to communicate with the PC as well as with the
peripherals. The peripheral as well as host adapter requires device
drivers to operate. Therefore you must use the same standard device
drivers that are compatible to the devices.
In many cases, the troubles are caused during installation, setup, and
operation of the devices that is on the bus. When you are installing a device,
install one by one then you will have less problems. You must first check the
host adapter SCSI BIOS initialization message. If you don’t find the
initialization message when you switch on the computer then it is sure that
there is some problem with system SCSI host adapter. This means that
either the adapter is installed properly or device itself is defective. If this test
is passed in the SCSI checking them probably the problem is in the driver
installation. You must ensure that any old CMOS settings are mapped
wrongly to the new device. Then you need to unselect the settings. Below
are the general tips or checklist for troubleshooting the SCSI device in the
following.
 You must ensure the power supply of the computer is sufficient enough
to handle all the SCSI devices in the computer.
 The quality of the cable must be good and securely attached to each
device.

 The orientation of each connector on the SCSI cable must be verified

properly.
 SCSI ID of the device must be properly selected. You must make sure
that duplicate IDs are not allowed unless LUNs designations are used.
 You must ensure that the two ends of the cable must have proper
terminations and should have active terminators.
 You must verify for the proper configuration of SCSI controller. There
must be no conflicts in the SCSI controller in case of IRQs, BIOS
addresses, or I/O. you must check the SCSI host adapter BIOS. The
SCSI BIOS can be disabled if you are not using SCSI hard drives in
booting. This decreases the problem related to performance or
compatibility issues can be solved.
 You must check for CMOS setup for drive configuration. If the SCSI
drives are in the system and IDE drives are not in the system then make
the drive entries under CMOS as “none”.
 You need to check for the PCI slot containing the SCSI host adapter is
active or not and ensure that it is using the unique IRQ.
 You need to check the DOS drivers for host adapter and non HDD
devices are installed properly in CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT.
CONFIG.SYS is the primary configuration file for the DOS and OS/2
operating systems. It is a special file that contains setup or configuration
instructions for the computer system. AUTOEXEC.BAT is a root
directory batch file that is responsible for executing commands at system
start up.
 You need to check for the protected mode drivers if you are working
under windows. You must see that any necessary protected drivers for
the host adapter and SCSI devices are installed properly.

1. __________ is a set of standard that define commands, protocols and
electrical and optical interfaces for physical connection and data
transmission between computer and peripheral devices.
2. SCSI stands for ___________.
3. SCSI devices use _______________ cable to get connected.
4. SCSI needs ____________ protocol to organize data transfer from
sending end to receiving end.

5. ________________ is a small register used to enhance with SCSI

signal integrity.
6. _____________indicate devices with in devices.
7. You don’t need to install SCSI host adapter and no need to connect
any SCSI device in order to configure SCSI. (True/False).
13.3 USB systems

Universal serial Bus (USB) is a serial Bus standard for connecting the
device to the computer without installing the driver when the computer is
shut down and restarted. It is termed as intelligent serial interface and a
technology for high speed data transfer over cable. USB is often used for
connecting keyboard, mouse and portable data storage devices to the
computer. It is very user friendly when compared to alternative port such as
parallel and serial port.
In this section you will study the general concept of USB and get to know
the troubleshooting procedures to solve the problems with implementation
and performance on windows platform. You will also study the architecture
of USB.
13.3.1 USB Concept
The USB interface simplifies the problem faced by external peripheral
devices such as printer, scanner, drive, etc due to integration. Using USB
interface you can directly pin the devices to the computer. The USB is a
hardwired connection linking two or more hardware components within a
computer system and is designed to provide a fast and functional means for
adding external components to a PC. With the help of USB there is no need
to install and reconfigure the system of a dedicated computer. Computer
peripherals automatically configure as soon as they get attached to the
computer without rebooting a system or executing the CMOS setup routine.
USB allows up to 127 USB devices to run simultaneously on computer.
USB devices: Each USB device has the same potential as every bit, as
diverse as the personnel computer itself. Some of the devices that is
designed for USB in the computer are telephones, modems, keyboards,
mouse, CD-ROM drives, joystick, scanners, digital cameras and printers.
Additional to these devices USB’s 12Mbits/s data rate supports other
peripherals such as MPEG-2 video (MPEG-2 is a standard for the generic

coding of moving pictures and associated audio information. It describes a

combination of lossy video compression and lossy audio data compression
methods which permit storage and transmission of movies using currently
available storage media and transmission bandwidth.) Based product, data
gloves (device which is in a form of gloves with concept of virtual reality
measure the movements of the fingers who wear the gloves and transmits
them to computer) and digitizer(it is device for converting analog signals into
digital signals which combines two operations of sampling the input data
and quantizing samples). USB also acts as DSL interface (Digital Subscriber
Line) and accommodate cable modem. DSL is a technology that provides
data transmission over the telephone network without interfering with the
voice service.
 Implementing USB: It is simply a matter of attaching a USB hub such
as USB keyboard and then attaching USB device to the hub. If there is
no USB available in the system. You will need to upgrade the
motherboard to a chipset that contains USB-complaint. Once the new
motherboard is placed USB device can be attached.
 Enabling USB: BIOS control the USB port on the motherboard that
enables through the system CMOS setup utility. you can locate the USB
configuration setting section once you enter the CMOS setup. You can
find these settings under input output port configuration menu or
peripheral setup menu. Enable the USB ports, before using the USB
 Types of USB host controller: There are two types of USB host
controller. They are UHCI (Universal Host Controller Interface) and
OHCI (Open Host Controller Interface). These types are responsible for
having an impact on USB device compatibility. UHCI is a register level
interface that enables a host controller for USB or fireware hardware to
communicate with a host controller driver in the software. OHCI is a
register level interface to assure software works properly with any
hardware. OHCI does not support all the USB devices USB devices
often work fine with UHCI. For example, sometimes you find that a USB
peripheral may not function properly in any USB port that is when you
attempt to use it Compaq USB camera with an OHCI, the camera may
not get detected or may not work properly. This probably means that
your camera is designed to work on the UHCI host controller and not

supported on OHCI controller. OHCI host controller has optimization

feature that allow multiple transaction submitted in a single frame
whereas UHCI host controller send only a single transaction per frame.
This means your camera cannot respond to a second transaction within
a second frame.
In order to find the type of the USB host controller in your computer you
must use the following steps,
1. You need to click start → settings →control panel
2. Double click on the system icon and select the Device Manager tab
3. Expand the universal serial Bus entry by clicking the plus sign (+) in front
of it. This is to be done to see controller information dialogue.
4. Locate UHCI or OHCI on the dialogue box.
USB Features
You can list few of the features of USB as follows,
1. When USB device connects to a computer, the computer acts as the
host device.
2. You can connect up to 127 devices to the host using USB.
3. The USB 2 has the maximum data rate of 480 megabits per second.
USB 2.0 is an external serial interface used on computers and other
digital devices to transfer data using a USB cable. The designation
2 refers to the standard or version of the USB interface.
4. You can connect two wires of the USB cable to power supply. One wire
for voltage supply and other wire for grounding.
5. For low power devices like keyboard, mouse they can be directly
connected to the computer and draw their power supply from the BUS.
High power devices such as printer, scanners have their own power
supplies and draw minimum power from the BUS.
6. You can plug the USB devices into the BUS and unplug them at any
time.
7. When the computer goes to power saving mode the USB devices can
automatically put to sleep mode by the host computer.
13.3.2 USB Architecture

USB is a connection with two points in which one point is a master on host
and another point works as slave. Host is usually a computer that may have
127 slaves connected at a time. Computer has 2 to 4 USB connectors but
hub number may increase up to 127.
The USB system architecture consists of three main components they are
Host computer, USB device and USB cable.
 HOST computer: It controls the communication between the computer
and USB devices. There are two layers in the host computers. They are
USB host controller hardware layer and a software layer. The software
layer includes USB device drivers for a wide range of USB peripherals
such as keyboards, mice, digital still cameras, scanners, mass storage
devices etc.
USB hardware layer is responsible for the following
 To Detect the attachment and remove the USB devices
 Monitor device status and collect activity statistics
 Provide power to attached USB devices
 Manages control and data flow between the USB host and USB devices.
 Checks the basic validity of bus transactions
USB software layer is responsible for the following

 Handles USB devices and their connectivity
 USB devices enumeration and configuration
 Appropriate device drives will be loaded.
 Power management on the bus and bus bandwidth
 Manages the data transfer between the software and hardware
USB Devices: These devices are the peripherals of the computers that
communicate with the host computer using USB protocol. Some of the
devices are flash Drive, MP3 player, image still camera, video camera, etc.
Additional to this, there is special type of USB device called as USB hub that
gives the additional attachment points to connect more peripherals. USB
Hub is a device that has multiple USB ports which is used to plug the
various USB devices and other hubs.
USB Cable: cable is a wire that is used to connect host computer and USB
device.

Figure 13.1 shows a USB cable.
Figure 13.1: USB cable
The maximum length of standard USB cable limits to 5 meters for high
speed devices and 3 meters for low speed devices. The reason behind
using short cable length is the maximum allowed delay of the signal is
limited to shorter time above which the connection will be lost. Practically,
some USB devices may work with longer than specified cable. When longer
cable is used it may decrease the signal quality provided by the USB bus.
This avoids the USB device to work properly or may not work at all.
Usually USB problems are not severe. But still there are few steps which
can control these small problems such as hardware failure, device driver’s
configuration problems, cabling problems, firmware/BIOS problems, Root
hub configuration problems, etc.
The steps are as follows:
 Hardware failures or Configuration problems: There may be some
hardware problems such as high or low power, limited bandwidth,
malfunctioning, etc. In this case, make sure that the root is working
properly through the Device Manager. If you find an exclamation mark in
a yellow circle or triangle along with root hub then it means there is
some error. USB Root Hubs are both physical and virtual installation
ports that can be found on your computer that are used for implementing
and installing additional hardware files and components to your
computer's hard drive. You need to verify that the BIOS assign the
Interrupt request line (IRQ) to the root USB controller. This is very
important as it loads the device drivers. If the devices are not working
when you plug the device to a root hub then check the power
requirement of the bus. If the device tries to draw more power than the

capacity of the bus then the device don’t work. Otherwise if the port gets
less power, then port is not at all active. Then also it will not work.
 Device driver configurations problems: when the device is connected
to the root hub, it should automatically load and configure the device
without even asking a device driver. If the computer prompts you for
device driver then you need to enquire with the manufacturer of the
device that the windows you are using support the specific device.
 Cabling problems: USB has two types of cables. They are high speed
and low speed cables. If you plug high speed cable in to a low speed
cable, then it can cause signal distortion over a long distance. The major
difference between the two types of cabling is their shielding.
 Firmware/BIOS problems: Firmware is software that is stored
permanently inside the ROM. It is the key to all USB devices. All the
information about the device is present in the device’s firmware. Port
reset itself once the descriptors in the firmware are loaded into the
system. Verify the root hub and you must have up-to-date firmware for
both BIOS and USB device. Malfunctioning of firmware results in loading
the second copy of the device in the Device Manager. When you
remove and insert the device, the device becomes available again and
appears as the second instance of the same device. When you find this
you must verify that you have the most up-to-date firmware for that
device.
 Root Hub Configurations Problems: This problem is related to
computer set up. IRQ line need to be assigned by an USB controller in
the computer BIOS. You must assign the IRQ through CMOS setup.
8. Which devices are termed as intelligent serial interface?
9. UHCI stands for _____________.
10. The two types of cables are __________ and ___________.
11. State whether the following statement are true or false
a. Hardware problems are due to high or low power and limited
bandwidth

b. When the USB device is connected to the root hub we need to load
the device drivers and configure the device by using drivers in the
disk.
c. Firmware is antivirus software.
d. Root hub configuration problem is a problem related to computer
set up.
Activity 1
What will you do when you find the PC hangs when working with USB?
Hint: Refer the concept of USB symptoms under the book on
13.4 Summary
SCSI is a set of standards that define commands, protocols, and electrical
and optical interfaces for physical connection and data transmission
between computers and peripheral devices. The computer peripherals and
hardware components are completely free from compatibility issues
because it is taken care by SCSI devices. Installation of SCSI devices is
very easy because it is similar to PnP devices. The different checklist can
be used to verify the installation of SCSI devices. It is very easy to
troubleshoot the connectors and wires since it will not give much trouble.
The trouble may cause during installation, setup, and operation of the
devices that is on the bus.
Universal serial Bus (USB) is a serial Bus standard for connecting the
device to the computer without installing the driver when the computer is
shut down and restarted. USB allows up to 127 USB devices to run
simultaneously on computer. USB is a connection with two points in which
one point is a master on host and another point works as slave. Host is
usually a computer that may have 127 slaves connected at a time.
Computer has 2 to 4 USB connectors but hub number may increase up to
127. The USB system architecture consists of three main components, Host
computer, USB device and USB cable.
Though the USB problems are not severe, there are few steps which can
control these small problems such as hardware failure, device driver’s
configuration problems, cabling problems, firmware/BIOS problems, Root
hub configuration problems, etc.
13.5 Glossary
Term Description
Firmware Is a software that are stored permanently inside the ROM.
Root hub Are both physical and virtual installation ports that can be found on
your computer that are used for implementing and installing
additional hardware files and components to your computer's hard
drive.
USB hub Is a device that has multiple USB ports which is used to plug the
various USB devices and other hubs.
DSL Is a technology that provides data transmission over the telephone
network without interfering with the voice service.
MPEG-2 Is a standard for the generic coding of moving pictures and
associated audio information. MPEG-2 (Motion Picture Experts
Group – 2) is a compression standard for digital television. It
enables digital television broadcasters to transmit video streams
with higher resolution and audio streams with higher quality sound
while using as little bandwidth as possible.

1. Explain the SCSI concepts in detail.
2. Describe how to perform installation of SCSI system.
3. Write the steps involved in troubleshooting procedure in SCSI system.
4. Explain the essential concepts of USB system
5. Describe the working of USB.
6. What are the general procedures for troubleshooting USB?
13.7 Answers
1. SCSI
2. Small Computer System Interface
3. 50 pin or 68-pin
4. Handshaking
5. Terminator
6. LUN
7. False
8. USB

9. Universal host controller interface

10. High speed and low speed
11. a. True
b. False
c. False
d. True
Terminal questions
1. Refer section 13.2.1, SCSI concepts
2. Refer Section 13.2.2, Installing a SCSI system
3. Refer Section 13.2.4 troubleshooting
4. Refer section 13.3.1, USB concepts
5. Refer section 13.3.2, SCSI architecture
6. Refer Section 13.3.3, troubleshooting
References:
Publications, 2001
E-References:
 http://pcsupport.about.com/od/termss/g/scsi.htm
 http://www.usblyzer.com/usb-system-architecture-components.htm

Unit 14 PC Assembly
Structure:
14.1 Introduction
Objectives
14.2 Plug and Play Devices
PnP under Windows OS
Enabling PnP under Linux
Troubleshooting
14.3 Identification of Cables in Computers
14.4 Fitting of Cabinet
14.5 Mounting Motherboard in Cabinet
14.6 Summary
14.7 Glossary
14.9 Answers
14.1 Introduction
In the previous units you studied the concept of CPU, memory,
motherboard, Buses, CMOS, BIOS, power supply and power management,
storage devices, parallel port, serial port, input-output devices, video
adapters and accelerators, and SCSI and USB systems. These concepts
you have studied individually in detail. You have studied the basic concepts
of all these devices and components. But any computer device is useful only
when it works well when connected to the computer and interact with all the
other devices of the computer. This unit will tell you how to accommodate all
the devices in one block and the working of the computer. In this unit we
shall discuss about assembling the PC with all the different components
discussed so far. Before you begin the process of assembling, first you need
to identify various devices and components need for a PC. In this unit, you
will study to identify necessary devices and components that make up a PC.
Also you will identify various cables in the computer, as a lot of devices
need to be connected to the computer. Operating systems such as
Windows OS, Windows Vista and Windows 7 support Plug and Play
devices. In these OS, you need not configure your devices; just plug your
device into the respective port, your system will work.

The essential parts of a computer are generally packed in a case; a desktop

computer will have a case or the tower (the box with most of the
components that actually make it work), and various input and display
devices (monitor, mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.). The case consists of
several basic physical parts such as motherboard (or Mainboard), CPU,
memory, hard disk drive, any additional drives, network or modem card and
any additional cards. Generally computer cases come with power supply.
However, if your case does not have it, then you should buy one. You
should take care that the case you have is able to accommodate the
motherboard that you buy otherwise you will face problem of securing the
two together if the holes in both do not correspond with each other. Afteryou
have taken these precautionary measures, you can start assembling a PC.
Objectives:
 Use plug and play devices under Windows OS and Linux
 Identify various components and cables in the computer
 Assemble various components in the computer cabinet
 Mount the mother board into the cabinet
14.2 Plug and Play Devices

Plug and Play (PnP) is a combination of hardware and software support that
enables a computer system to recognize and adapt to hardware
configuration changes with little or no involvement by a user. This feature
enables you to add devices to a computer or even remove devices from, it
even without any understanding about the hardware or even performing any
manual configuration. For example, you can add and remove plug and play
devices such as keyboard, mouse, monitor, pen drive, external hard disk
etc.
PnP is supported by the device hardware, device drivers and system
software. The hardware industry standards, PnP ISA definition and the PC
Card standard are provided for easy identification of add-in boards and
basic system components. The system software support for PnP, together
with PnP drivers provides the following:

 Automatic and dynamic recognition of installed hardware

In this, the system software recognizes hardware during initial system
installation. It also recognizes PnP hardware changes that occur
between system boots, and responds to run-time hardware events such
as docking or undocking and device insertion or removal.
 Hardware resource allocation and reallocation
The PnP Manager determines the request made by .devices hardware
resources such as input/output ports, for interrupt request, direct
memory access channels, memory locations etc., when a new device is
added to the system that requires resources already in use; the PnP
Manager reconfigures resource assignments. PnP device drivers do not
assign resources directly but only identify the requested source. The
PnP Manager retrieves the requirements for each device during
resource allocation.
 Loading of appropriate drivers
The PnP Manager determines which drivers are required to support
each device and loads those drivers accordingly.
As a PnP driver is an important part of PnP support it is important for it fulfill
certain criteria to qualify as PnP, namely, it shouldprovide the required PnP
entry points, handle the required PnP IRPs, and follow PnP guidelines.
14.2.1 PnP under Windows OS
Since the time the first Plug and Play (PnP) support was provided in the
Windows 95 operating system, the technology has evolved dramatically due
to OnNow design initiative. OnNow outlines a comprehensive, system-wide
approach to controlling system and device configuration and power
management with the help of Advanced Configuration and Power Interface
Specification (ACPI) which provides these services for all versions of
Windows later than Windows 95. The main purpose of the Plug and Play
design creation is to simplify PCs for end users.
The Windows 2000 Plug and Play implementation does not rely on an APM
BIOS or a Plug and Play BIOS. It is actually designed to extend the existing
Windows NT I/O infrastructure to support Plug and Play and Power
Management. In Windows 2000, Plug and Play support is optimized for
laptop, workstation, and server computers that include ACPI system boards.

Moreover, the Plug and Play device driver support for many device classes
is provided by the Microsoft Windows Driver Model (WDM), which also
supports power management and other new capabilities that can be
configured and controlled by the operating system.
Plug and Play Architecture in Windows 2000
Figure 14.1 shows the architecture of Plug and Play in Windows 2000.It
contains two modes of functionalities: user-mode functionality and kernel-
mode functionality. The user-mode functionality cooperates with kernel-
mode components to provide dynamic configuration and interfaces with
other components that need to participate in Plug and Play, such as Setup
and Control Panel. Boot-time Plug and Play activity and interfaces with the
HAL (Hardware Abstraction Layer), Executive, and device drivers are
supported by the kernel-mode functionality. Let’s see the functions of
various components in this architecture.
Figure 14.1: Plug and Play Architecture in Windows 2000
 Plug and Play Manager in Kernel-mode

There are a number of activities performed by the kernel-mode Plug and
Play Manager in Windows 2000 like maintaining central control, directingbus
drivers to perform enumeration and configuration, directing the device
drivers to add a device, start a device, and so on. Apart from these the Plug
and Play Manager can send requests to determine whether a device can be
safely kept in pause mode or removed; give the device driver an opportunity
to synchronize outstanding I/O requests to the incoming request; coordinate
with the user mode Plug and Play counterpart to pause or remove devices
that are available for such actions.
 Power Manager and Policy Manager in the Kernel-mode
All power management APIs are handled by the Power Manager component
in the kernel-mode in combination with the Policy Manager. It also
coordinates matching power events, and generates power management
IRPs. It is the Power Manager which gathers the requests made by several
devices to be turned off, When several devices request to be turned off, the
Power Manager collects those requests, decideswhich requests must be
serialized, and then generates appropriate power management IRPs. The
Policy Manager component in the kernel-mode monitors activity in the
system and integrates user status, application status, and device driver
status into power policy. It is only under specified circumstances or upon
request that the Policy Manager generates IRPs to change device power
states.
 I/O Manager in the Kernel-mode
There are a number of services provided by the I/O Manager in the kernel-
mode for device drivers like translating user-mode read and write
commands into read or write IRPs, andmanaging all the other main
operating system IRPs. As the functions of these interfaces are same as in
Windows NT 4.0 and both Windows NT 4.0 and Windows 2000 include the
I/O Manager, a Windows 2000 Plug and Play driver can be manually
installed on Windows NT 4.0 to serve as a Windows NT 4.0 driver, but it will
not support Plug and Play or other features specific only to Windows 2000.
 WDM (Windows Device Manager) Interface for Plug and Play
The I/O system provides a layered architecture for drivers. The following
sections discusstypes of WDM drivers, driver layers, and device objects:
 WDM Driver Types
The WDM Bus drivers are the standard WDM drivers that describe bus
capabilities and control the bus power management and Plug and Play. The
bus is referred by any drive from which other devices are listed. A bus driver
not only responds to new Plug and Play and power management IRPs but
can also be extended using filter drivers. Moreover, it enumerates the

device on its bus, reports dynamic events on its bus to the operating
system, responds to Plug and Play and Power Management IRPs, provides
several accesses to the bus, and generally administers the devices on its
bus.
There are three kinds of drivers in the context of Plug and Play. They are
bus drivers, function drivers and filter drivers.
Bus Driver: It services a bus controller, adapter, bridge, or any device that
has child devices. A Bus driveris an essential driver and is generally
provided by Microsoft.Every type of bus on a system has a bus driver each.
Function Driver: This is a main device driver toprovide the operational
interface for its deviceFunction driver is needed unless the device is used
raw in which case the I/O is done by the bus drivers and filter drivers. The
function driver for a device is typically implemented as a pair of class
driver/mini-driver. In such driver pairs, a class driver (usually written by
Microsoft) provides the functionality required by all devices of that type, and
a mini-driver (usually written by the device vendor) provides device-specific
functionality. The Plug and Play Manager loads one function driver for each
device.
Filter Driver: A filter driver which sorts I/O requests for a bus, a device, or a
class of devices is optional and can be present in any number, placed above
or below a function driver and above a bus driver. Usually, a filter driver is
supplied by system’s original equipment manufacturer (OEM) or
independent hardware vendor (IHV). In most cases, lower-level filter drivers
modify the behavior of device hardware. For example, a lower-level class
filter driver for mouse devices could provide acceleration, performing a non-
linear conversion of mouse movement data while Upper-level filter drivers
usually provide added-value features for a device. For example, an upper-
level device filter driver for a keyboard could enforce additional security
checks.
 Driver Layers
Every device will have two (one each for bus driver and function driver) or
three (including the optional filter driver) driver layers.

 Device Objects
The device objects which are the device to the driver created by the
corresponding driver are generally of three kinds: physical device objects
(PDOs), functional device objects (FDOs), and filter device objects. Physical
Device Objects (PDOs) represent a device on a bus. Every Plug and Play
API that refers to a device refers to the PDO. The Functional Device Objects
(FDOs) represent the functionality of a device to a function driver. The filter
device objects represent a filter driver as a hook to add value. These three
kinds of device objects are all of the type DEVICE_OBJECT, but are used
differently and can have different device extensions.
 Additional Windows NT (New Technology) Interfaces
The Plug and Play drivers in Windows 2000 are not limited to using the
WDM (Windows Device Manager) interfaces. These drivers can call other
interfaces to support legacy Windows NT drivers, detection, or other
Windows 2000-specific capabilities that are not provided under WDM. You
should keep in mind that a driver that supports features specific to
Windows 2000 is no longer compatible with Windows 98. However if you
want to use the same drivers in Windows 2000 and Windows 98, then you
should opt for WDM drivers only.
 User-Mode Plug and Play Components
The User-Mode APIs in Windows 2000 are 32-bit extended versions of
Windows 95 based Configuration Manager APIs and expose functionality
from the user-mode Plug and Play. The Windows 2000 Setup program
installs the drivers and so forth. The 32-bit device installer installation APIs
that Setup uses to install drivers are functionally a superset of the
Windows 95 SetupxDi (Windows 95 setup files) routines. Windows 2000
provides APIs that applications can use for customized hardware event
management and to create new hardware events.
 Plug and Play Device Tree
The Plug and Play Manager maintains a device tree for the devices which
can be viewed through the Device Manager, which keeps track of the active
devices in the system and information about those devices. The Plug and
Play Manager updates the device tree as devices are added and removed
or as resources are reallocated. Depicted like a family tree, the device tree
is hierarchical in nature with devices on a bus represented as children of the

bus adapter or controller. The registry is the central storehouse for static
hardware information. Plug and Play system components and drivers build,
maintain, and access new and existing sub-trees in the registry.
14.2.2 Enabling PnP under Linux
It is from mid-2004 that serious problems of Plug and Play technology in
Linux have been resolved. Although initially Linux did not support PnP
devices nowhowever if you require it to support PnP devices then all you
need to do is select certain options while compiling the kernel. The BIOS
may assign IRQs but Linux may also assign some of them or even reassign
what the BIOS did. The configuration part of ACPI (Advance Configuration
and Power Interface) is designed to make it easy for operating systems to
do their own configuring. Linux can use ACPI if it's selected when the kernel
is compiled.
In Linux, each device driver does its own low level configuration which
function was difficult to perform until Linux supplied software in the kernel
that the drivers could use to make it easier forthem. Today, in Linux, driver
simply calls the kernel function: pci_enable_device () and the device gets
configured by being enabled and having both an IRQ and addresses
assigned to the device. This assignment could be what was previously
assigned by the BIOS or what the kernel had previously reserved for it when
the PCI or isa PnP device was detected by the kernel. There is even an
ACPI option for Linux to assign all devices IRQs at boot-time.This is done
through a program called ‘setserial’ which allows you to tell the device driver
software the I/O address of the serial port, which IRQ is set in the port's
hardware, etc. Although the drivers are still doing the configuring they just
have to request Linux to do it. In effect it is the non-device-driver part of the
Linux kernel that does most of the configuring. Linux then could be
considered a PnP operating system, at least for common computer
architectures.
In Linux, when a device driver finds its device, it sees the addresses and
IRQs assigned by BIOS and/or Linux and normally accepts them. However
the driver is at liberty to change the addresses using the functions supplied
by the kernel. But the kernel will not accept addresses that conflict with
other devices or ones that the hardware can't support. When the PC starts
up, you may see messages on the screen mentioningthat some Linux

device drivers have found their hardware devices and what the IRQ and
address ranges are. Thus, the kernel provides the drivers with functions
(program code) that the drivers may use to find out if their device exists,
how it's been configured, and functions to modify the configuration if
needed. You can refer to the word document “kernel-doc” in the directory
/usr/src/linux/Documentation. In this directory, you can also see pci.txt
(“How to Write Linux PCI Drivers”). Also you can refer to the file ‘pci.h’ in the
location: /usr/include/linux/pci.h for more information about PCI drivers.
This section discusses troubleshooting techniques for some common PnP
devicesunder Windows OS.
Plug and Play USB Not Working
In spite of Windows OS being loaded with a lot of drivers to support Plug
and Play devices these devices may not function for various reasons. The
most common reason may be that Windows OS may not have the device
driver for that particular USB. An example of such a device would be your
USB wireless broadband stick or a locally manufactured cell phone. Such
devices need related drivers to be installed prior to their functioning on any
computer.
The other common reasons as to why sometimes Windows OS plug and
play devices do not work may include faulty devices, incorrectly configured
hardware, mismatched USB cables, outdated firmware and problems with
USB root hubs. If you find a plug and play device that should be detected
automatically but is not being recognized by Windows OS, you can
troubleshoot Windows OS, keeping in mind the above possibilities.
Sometimes the USB device may work in another computer having Windows
OS but not in your computer. If this is the case first download the latest
updates of Windows OS, including latest Service Pack. Use the Windows
Update option under Tools Menu of the Internet Explorer to get the latest
updates. If you are using another browser, you can use the Automatic
Updates icon in the Control Panel to get the Windows OS Updates.
Before you download and install any updates you may be missing, or before
installing the latest Service Pack, which is not on your computer, create a
system restore point. You can do this by using the System Restore option.

Click on Start  All Programs  Accessories  System Tools  System

Restore. Once you get the System Restore Window, select “Create a
Restore Point” and click on Next. The next page will ask you for a name to
identify the system restore point. Once you enter a unique name that you
can remember, click on “Create” button and finally on “Close”. All the current
settings of your computer will be saved so that if anything goes wrong, you
can use the system restore to undo the changes done to your computer.
Using System Restore to Fix the USB Plug and Play Issue
Sometimes a USB device which may have been working well
previously suddenly stops working. This may due to some fault in the
settings of the USB hub or with any system file associated with your device.
You can resolve this issue by resorting to system restore. Open the System
Restore Dialog Box and select “Restore my computer to an earlier time”.
This will present you with a list of restore points in a calendar format. You
need to recall the restore point prior to which the USB plug and play device
was working. Once you find it, click the restore point and then again click on
the “Next” button. This will restore the previous settings so that you can use
the USB plug and play device again. There is a possibility of losing any
custom settings software installed after the creation of the restore point you
selected to restore your computer.
Troubleshooting using Power Cycle and Cables Power Reset
In order to do this first, detach the USB device from the computer and turn
off the computer. Then unplug the power supply, wait for a minute and plug
the power cord back and turn on the computer. When Windows OS is
loaded fully insert the plug and play into the USB port. The power cycle will
make the data bus to reset which might help Windows OS to identify the
plug and play device. Generally, the problem is fixed at this stage however,
if Windows is still unable to detect the USB plug and play, go to the next
Windows OS troubleshooting steps.
Problems with Malfunctioning Cables
As some extension cables that come along with USB devices may have a
problem, it is advisable to connect the USB directly into the computer
without using cables and see whether the USB is working. You should keep
in mind that sometimes the problem may arise due to the use of
incompatible cables. Not every cable will work with all USB plug and play

devices as the USB cables are categorized based on the data transfer
speeds, which vary from cable to cable. You should checkif the cable is
compatible with your plug and play USB device. If you find that the cables
are ok and the problem persists then you should go in for advanced
Windows OS troubleshooting method for USB plug and play devices.
Advanced Windows Troubleshooting for Plug and Play Devices
As Windows OS has a certain power limit for each of its ports if any of the
ports attempts or starts consuming more power than the specified limit, the
operating system suspends the port temporarily. If this happens to the USB
ports, then the Windows OS plug and play device may not be recognized.
Updating the BIOS and USB Firmware to Restore the Settings of
Windows Ports:
Though the power settings are restored when you give a power cycle as
explained above, sometimes the problem lies with the firmware, meaning
the hardware itself. There could be several reasons why a port would draw
more power than allocated. If you found that the power cycle did not fix the
USB port, then now you may need to update the firmware. Moreover, you
can also update the system BIOS so that you can start afresh.For this you
could search the website of the manufacturer of your computer for the latest
version of USB firmware and any BIOS update for downloading them.
Reinstallation of USB Controllers:
Even after undertaking all checks for troubleshooting, your Windows OS
plug and play device does not work, and then you have to consider two
possibilities for this: either the USB controllers are corrupt or the USB ports
are bad. In the latter case, you will have to replace the USB ports. But
before that, check if the reinstallation of the USB controllers can solve your
problem with the Windows OS plug and play device not working.
To reinstall the USB controllers, you need to uninstall them first. To uninstall
the controllers, open the Device Manager by holding down the Windows key
and hitting the Break key. In the System Properties Dialog box that appears,
select the Hardware tab. Then click on the Device Manager Button (first one
from the top). In the dialog box, expand the Universal Serial Bus Controllers.
You will find it at the bottom of the window.

Once expanded, right click on each of the USB Controller and select
uninstall from the context menu. You may be presented with a message
saying something about system instability. Ignore the message and uninstall
all of them.
1. In Linux, the ‘pci.h’ header file is available in __________ directory.
2. ACPI stands for __________.
3. Every USB cable will work with all kinds USB plug and play devices.
(True / False)
14.3 Identification of Cables in Computers

Before you start assembling a PC, you should first know and identify various
cables that came packaged with your computer. This section provides a
visual guide for identifying various cables, starting with USB cables and
connectors.
USB Cables and Connectors
USB cables are not only used to connect most new devices to your
computer including flash memory sticks, portable media players, internet
modems and digital cameras but also computer accessories like mice,
keyboards, webcams, portable hard-drives, microphones, printers, scanners
and speakers through USB ports. USB cables can alsobe used for charging
a variety of gadgets including mobile phones or for transferring data from
one computer to another. Figure 14.2 shows a model of USB connector.
Figure 14.2: The USB connector
Although there are different types of USB cables a standard USB connector,
USB-A, is a rectangular connector. The USB-A end is present on every USB
cable as it is the end that connects to your computer. The other end of the
USB cable may have different connectors including USB-B (a square
connector commonly used with printers, external hard drives, and larger

devices) or smaller connectors such as the Mini-USB and Micro-USB that

are commonly used with portable devices such as media players and
phones. Figure 14.3 shows different types of USB cables.
Figure 14.3: The USB connector
There are also connectors that have USB-A connectors at the end that
connect to the computer, and a device-specific connector at the other end
(e.g. the iPod). USB Male to Female connectors is also available for
extending the length of a USB cable. Many other non-USB cables can also
connect to your computer via a USB converter; these cables have the
standard USB-A connector on one end while the other end could have
connections for other ports such as Ethernet or audio.
Audio Cables and Connectors
The most common audio cable is the standard headphone jack which is also
referred to as TRS connector.Such connectors are available in several
sizes, but the most common ones used with computers are the 3.5 mm or
1/8" mini audio jack. Figure 14.4 shows the standard audio jack.
Figure 14.4: The standard audio jack

This standard audio jack can be used to connect most speakers and
microphones to the computer. The microphone port on your computer is
usually pink in color. The speaker port will be usually green. Some
computers have additional TSR audio ports colored black, grey, and gold;
these are for rear, front, and center/subwoofer output, respectively.
There is a bigger variety of the TSR connector which is called 1/4″ TRS.
This is commonly used in professional audio recording equipment and it can
be connected to a computer using a 1/4" to 1/8" converter as shown in
Figure 14.5.
Figure 14.5: The ¼ TRS

Video Cables
The VGA (Video Graphics Array) cable is one of the most common video
connectors for computer monitors and high-definition TVs. A standard VGA
connector has 15-pins. This is used to connect a monitor to a computer,
laptop to a TV screen or a projector. Figure 14.6 shows different types of
VGA cables and connectors.
Figure 14.6: Varieties of VGA cables
DVI (Digital Visual Interface) Monitor Port

While modern computers have DVI instead of VGA the new class of ‘slim’
laptops uses smaller variants of DVI like the Mini-DVI and Micro-DVI. A DVI
cable has 29 pins, though some connectors may have fewer pins depending
on their configuration. DVI’s video signal is compatible with HDMI (High-
Definition Multimedia Interface), so a simple converter can allow a DVI

monitor to receive input from an HDMI cable. Additionally, DVI to VGA

converters is also available for connecting your new graphics card to the old
monitor that supports only VGA mode. Figure 14.7 shows the DVI cable.
Figure 14.7: The DVI cables
S-Video
S-Video cables are also known as Separate Video or Super Video cables
carry analog video signals. They are commonly used for connecting DVD
players, camcorders, and older video consoles to the television. Standard
S-Video connectors are round in shape and usually have 4 to 9 pins. Figure
14.8 shows the S-Video cable.
Figure 14.7: The S-Video cables

Data Cables
A data cable is any media that allows baseband transmissions (binary
1s, 0s) from a transmitter to a receiver. Some of the examples include:
Ethernet cables, token ring cables, USB cables etc. Firewire is a faster
alternate to USB. They are used for connecting digital camcorders and
external hard drives to a computer. Firewire typically has 6 pins in its
connector, though a 4 pin variety is common as well. Figure 14.9 shows the
Firewire.

Figure 14.8: The Firewire
eSATA(External Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) Cables

eSATA cable is used internally for connecting the hard drive to the
computer’s motherboard. The eSATA cable is designed to connect portable
hard drives to the computerand can transfer data faster than USB or
FireWire. However, the eSATA cable cannot transmit power, so unlike USB,
you cannot power an external hard drive with eSATA. The eSATA cable has
more shielding, and contains a larger connector. Figure 14.9 shows the
eSATA cable.
Figure 14.9: The eSATA cable
Networking Related Cables

Phone RJ11 Cable
The telephone cable is also known as RJ11. It is used to connect the
Internet through DSL/ADSL modems. A standard phone cable has 4 wires
and the connector has four pins.The connector has a clip at the top to help
maintain a tight connection. Figure 14.10 shows the standard RJ11 cable.
Figure 14.10: The standard RJ11 cable

Ethernet Cable
The Ethernet cable, also known as RJ45 is based on Cat5 (Category 5)
twisted pair cable and is made from 8 individual wires.The Ethernet
connector, has 8 pins and looks similar to a phone plug, but is actually
thicker and wider. It too has a clip to help maintain a tight connection like a
phone connector. Figure 14.11 shows the Ethernet cable.
Figure 14.11: The standard Ethernet cable

4. The standard audio jack is __________ in size.
5. S-Video cable generally contains __________ pins.
6. The Ethernet cable is also known as __________.
14.4 Fitting of Cabinet

This section discuss how to fit various components such as switch mode
power supply (SMPS), floppy disk drive, hard disk drive, CD-ROM drive etc.
in the cabinet. The popular ATX cabinet is considered here as the model.
Attaching the Power Supply
Generally the computer cabinets come with SMPS (switch mode power
supply) but if your case does not have it you may have to buy one taking
care to see that you get a 250W power supply to support your monitor and
other devices. Mount the power supply into the cabinet with the help of
screws that come along with it. The power supply contains the power supply
connectors for other components such as floppy disk drive, hard disk drive,
CD-ROM drive, mother board etc.
Installing the Hard Disk
First you have to set the jumper on the drive (next to the connector at the
rear end) to select “Master”. If you use only one hard disk, it should be set to
Master. In future if you want to add one more hard disk, its jumper should be

set for Slave. Place the hard disk in the case and fasten with 4
screws.Connect one of the power supply cables to the hard drive.
Installing the CD-ROM Drive
First you need to set the jumper on the CD-ROM drive. You can configure
CD-ROM as either ‘Slave’ or ‘Master’. Here are the options:
 Attach the CD-ROM to IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) connector 1
and make the CD-ROM a slave. In this case, you will set the jumper on
the CD-ROM to "Slave" then attach the CD-ROM drive to the same IDE
cable as the hard drive. Or,
 Attach the CD-ROM to IDE connector (Integrated Drive Electronics) 2
and make the CD-ROM a master. In this case you will set the jumper on
the CD-ROM to "Master" and attach the CD-ROM drive with a separate
IDE cable. In order to use this method, you will need a second IDE
cable.
Connect one of the power supply cables to the CD-ROM drive.
Once you have mounted the above devices in the cabinet, your next step is
to fix the motherboard in the cabinet and connecting the above devices to
the motherboard.
14.5 Mounting Motherboard in Cabinet

The following are the guideline for installing memory before mounting the
motherboard in the cabinet:
Installing the Memory
There is a designated slot for inserting the memory in the
motherboard.Before inserting the memory, which can be done inonly one
way, make sure that the two latches are apart. As the memory is very static
sensitive, the usual precautions of earthing etc. should be taken. Start with
the lowest numbered slot on the motherboard (usually slot 0),as you push
the memory into the slot. While inserting the memory, the levers should start
to close. If the levers haven't fully closed then squeeze them both together
and they should latch the memory into place. To remove the memory, just
pull the levers apart and they will automatically eject the memory. Figure
14.12 shows the sockets for inserting the memory and figure 14.13 shows
the memory.

Figure 14.12: The sockets for inserting the memory
Figure 14.13: The memory chip
Once you install the memory, the next step is to mount the motherboard in
the case.
Installing the motherboard
It is essential to ensure that the motherboard you have purchased matches
your cabinet. Spacers, which come with the case, help you to mount the
motherboard on one side of the casewhere there is a metal plate that is
slightly bigger than the motherboard. You will find a number of plated screw
holes that you can match the spacers to and there should be at least a
couple of mounts on the case that you can fixa screw into. When you plug
cards into the PCI slots, they will point out through the slots at the back of
the PC cabinet. Also the ports (LAN, USB, PS/2, parallel etc.) will all have
to fit through the slot for the back-panel. It is recommended that you go
through the instruction manual that comes along with the case. It is
important to ensure that the motherboard does not touch the case at any
point otherwise it will result in short circuiting something making the
motherboard useless. Another vital point to consider is that no screws are
dropped or placed at the back of the motherboard as it might mean the

same thing as the motherboard touching the case directly which is to be
avoided at any cost. Next connect the 20 pin standard ATX power cable in
the SMPS to the motherboard as shown in figure 14.14.
Figure 14.14: The 20 pin standard ATX power cable connected to motherboard
Next you have to connect various data cables from the devices such as
floppy drive, hard disk drive, CD-ROM drive into the motherboard. Figure
14.15 shows a schematic diagram of a motherboard. The diagram clearly
shows the respective slots to insert power cable, IDE cables, FDD (Floppy
Disk Drive) cable etc.

Figure 14.15: The schematic diagram of a motherboard
The modern motherboard / processor combinations, unlike the older ones,

require anauxiliary power connection in addition to the standard ATX power
supply. In the above figure you will observe that there is an ATX power
connector and a 12V ATX (Advanced Technology eXtended) connector.
Both should be plugged in using the corresponding leads from the power
supply.
After connecting all the cables, your next task is to insert various cards such
as AGP card, sound card, network card etc.

Fitting Cards
Fitting the sound and video cards is very easyas the PCI and AGP slots like
the memory slots are keyed meaning that the cards can only be inserted
one way. As usual you should take all the antistatic precautions. Next take
the graphics card from the antistatic bag and push it down into the AGP slot.
Look along the length of the slot to ensure that the card is not sitting up at
either end. Your motherboard may have a lot of PCI slots so try to place the
cards in those slots, such that enough space is available between them.
Sometimes your AGP card may develop heat; in that case try to avoid the
PCI slot next to it, just to ensurea cooling airflow around your case. Modern
AGP cards have cooling fans fitted in them.
Once you complete the above tasks, you can close the cabinet and then
connect the monitor, keyboard, mouse, speakers and microphone to the
computer. Now your computer is ready for installing the operating system.

7. SMPS stands for __________.
8. Hard disk can be used as either Master or Slave. (True / False)
9. Before you start assembling a PC, you should ensure proper earthing.
(True / False).
14.6 Summary
This unit has provided you with some important concepts like:
 Plug and Play (PnP) which is a combination of hardware and software
support that enables a computer system to recognize and adapt to
hardware configuration changes with little or no intervention by a user.
 The kernel-mode functionality in Windows 2000 Plug and Play
whichsupports boot-time Plug and Play activity and interfaces with the
HAL (Hardware Abstraction Layer), Executive, and device drivers.
 In Linux, each device driver does its own low level configuration.
 Before start assembling a PC, you should identify various cables such
as power cables, data cables etc. in the computer.
 USB cables are used to connect most new devices to your computer
including flash memory sticks, portable media players, internet modems
and digital cameras.

 Enough antistatic precautions to be taken before you start assembling a

PC.
 You can configure CD-ROM as either a Master or Slave depending upon
the IDE connectors and jumper settings.
 You need to plug sound and video cards into their respective PCI or
AGP slots.
14.7 Glossary
Term Description
PnP Plug and Play (PnP) is a combination of hardware and
software support that enables a computer system to
recognize and adapt to hardware configuration changes with
little or no intervention by a user.
ACPI Advanced Configuration and Power Interface Specification
(ACPI) defines a comprehensive, system-wide approach to
controlling system and device configuration and power
management. ACPI provides these services for all versions
of Windows later than Windows 95.
Device object The device object represents the device to the driver which
will be created by the corresponding driver. Generally there
will be three kinds of device objects.
USB Universal Serial Bus (USB) cables are used to connect most
new devices to your computer including flash memory sticks,
portable media players, internet modems and digital
cameras.
RJ11 RJ11 is the standard telephone cable. It is used to connect
the Internet through DSL/ADSL modems.
RJ45 RJ45 is the standard Ethernet cable. It is based on Cat5
twisted pair cable and is made from 8 individual wires.
APM APM stands for Advanced Power Management, which is an
Application Programming Interface developed by Intel and
Microsoft and released in 1992 which enables an operating
system running an IBM-compatible personal computer to
work with the BIOS (part of the computer's firmware) to
achieve power management.
TRS Connector A TRS connector (Tip-Ring-Sleeve) also called an audio
jack, phone jack, phone plug, jack plug, stereo plug, mini-
jack, mini-stereo, or headphone jack, is a common analog
audio connector. It is cylindrical in shape, typically with three
contacts, although sometimes with two (a TS connector) or
four (a TRRS connector).


1. Explain the term PnP.
2. How will you identify different cables in the computer?
3. How will you fit various peripherals into the computer cabinet?
4. Explain the steps to install the motherboard into the cabinet.
14.9 Answers
1. /usr/include/linux
2. Advanced Configuration and Power Interface Specification
3. False
4. 3.5 mm
5. 4 to 9
6. RJ45
7. Switch Mode Power Supply
8. True
9. True
Terminal questions
1. Refer section 14.2: Plug and Play Devices
2. Refer section 14.3: Identification of Cables in Computers
3. Refer section 14.4: Fitting of Cabinet
4. Refer section 14.5: Mounting Motherboard in Cabinet
References:
Bigelow, TMH
 Inside the IBM PC by Peter Norton, PHI
E-References:
 http://www.build-your-own-computer.org/pc-assembly.html
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Understanding PC and Troubleshooting Unit 1

Unit 1 The CPU

Manipal University Jaipur B1416 Page No.: 1

1.2 CPU Essentials

Figure 1.1: Block Diagram of CPU

1.2.1 The BUSes:

Manipal University Jaipur B1416 Page No.: 3

Data BUS Address BUS Control BUS

1.2.2 Processor Modes

 Protected Mode: This mode used in modern multitasking operating

Manipal University Jaipur B1416 Page No.: 4

o It supports multitasking facility that manages the operating

Self Assessment Questions

1.3 Modern CPU concepts

Table 1.2: comparisons of CISC and RISC CPUs

Manipal University Jaipur B1416 Page No.: 6

Manipal University Jaipur B1416 Page No.: 7

Manipal University Jaipur B1416 Page No.: 8

6-7 clock cycles to complete its execution. Therefore pipelining helps in

Manipal University Jaipur B1416 Page No.: 9

someplace until they can be stored in the memory locations. Write

Self Assessment Questions

Manipal University Jaipur B1416 Page No.: 10

Table 1.4 (b) Speed Specifications

Memory BUS speed (MHz) 4.77 / 8 / 10

Table 1.4 (c) Benchmarks

Table 1.4 (d) Physical Characteristics CMOS: Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor

Table 1.4 (e) Voltage Power and Cooling

External or I/O Voltage (V) 5

Manipal University Jaipur B1416 Page No.: 11

Table 1.4 (f) Packaging

Packaging style 40-Pin DIP DIP: Dual In-line Package

Table 1.4 (g) External Architecture

Data BUS width (bits) 16

Table 1.4 (h) Internal Architecture

Instruction set 8088

Register size (bits) 16

1.4.2 Intel 80386

Manipal University Jaipur B1416 Page No.: 12

The tables below give details of the processor.

Manufacturer Intel/ Intel, AMD, Cyrix/ AMD, Cyrix

Table 1.5 (b) Speed Specifications

Memory BUS speed (MHz) 16/20/25/33/40

Table 1.5 (c) Benchmarks

Table 1.5 (d) Physical Characteristics

Process Technology CMOS CMOS: Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor

Table 1.5 (e) Voltage Power and Cooling

External or I/O Voltage (V) 5

Manipal University Jaipur B1416 Page No.: 13

Table 1.5 (f) Packaging

Packaging style 132-Pin PGA Pin Grid Array

Table 1.5 (g) External Architecture

Data BUS width (bits) 32

Table 1.5 (h) Internal Architecture

Instruction set x86

Table 1.5 (i) Internal Components

Register size (bits) 32

1.4.3 Intel Pentium P5

Manipal University Jaipur B1416 Page No.: 14

Manipal University Jaipur B1416 Page No.: 15

1.4.4 Intel Pentium with MMX Technology

Manipal University Jaipur B1416 Page No.: 16

 Superior Branch Prediction Unit helps in the branch target buffer to

1.4.6 Intel Pentium II