Anatomy of Domestic Animals, Systemic and Regional Approach, 5th Edition (VetBooks - Ir)

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Pasquini & Spurgeon
Anatomy of
Domestic Animals
Systemic and regional approach
5th edition
-------------------
Table of Contents
Regional
GENERAL
Descriptive Terms : · 16
Bones ,.:, ::::: .' v................ .. : 22
Joints.............................................................................................................. ..0~ 104
Mus~les _..................................................................... ;;;~·.(i.. .. 134
Fascia .. , o.··········--···················· ·································-·········'········· ..~'6'···· 221
Body Cavities :>"";~.i. . 224
Respiratory System ~~ 302
Circulatory System : :...................................... .. ·333
Veins - Body : 438
Lymphocenters - Body 440
Nervous System 444
Auto.nomic Nervous System : : 522
Common Integument.. .: 530
HEAD.
Skull Bones......................................................................................................................... 32
Joints of Skull : 127
Muscles of Head.............................................................................................................. 204
Arteries - Head 412
Brain & Cranial Nerves .-:: ~ 45f
Ventricles & Meninges ; : 473
Oral Cavity , j 234
Nose. :. :.. 302
Horn - Eye - Ear : ~ 545
NECK & BACK
Vertebrae : : .. ,................ 60
Joints - Back :.. .a : ~ 128
Muscles - Neck , , 210
Muscles - Back : 2i8
Arteries - Neck 411
Spinal Cord 470 ·
Spinal Meninges 476
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THORAX Table of Contents - Regional
B.ony Thorax .,. - _. .:....... 70
Muscles • Thorax u _,_, _ 2J6
Thoracic Cavity & Lungs _. 318
Heart 383
Arteries· Thorax 414
Nerves • Thorax _ 479
THORACIC LIMB
Bones • Thoracic imb _., ..-. 72
Foot 536
Joints • Thoracic Limb......................................... .. - J 10
MS uscAles• Thoracic Limb ~lfis 142
tay . ppaTra~us _. L : b................................................... .1.\'.s'-'C'~At : 196
A rterres • orac1c 1m . _ :.:_ 416
Nerves • Thoracic Limb - - 4&0
ABDOMEN
Muscles • Abdomen _ , .._ 200
Nerves • Abdomen -, .. ····- .49&
Stomach u,,, - •• 268
Arteries - Abdomen _ 422

Intestines , 274
Arteries· Intestines : 426
Serous Membranes • Abdomen 282
Kidneys - .. 32&
Spleen 442
PELVIS
Muscles • Perineum 220

Female Reproductive System 340
Mammary Gland 533
Male Reproductive System 356
Arteries • Pelvis 428
Nerves - Pelvis 520
PELVIC LIMB
Bones • Pelvic Limb 90

Joints· Pelvic Limb 118
Muscles • Pelvic Limb 168
Stay Apparatus - Pelvic Limb 198
Arteries • Pelvic Limb 432
Nerves • Pelvic Limb 500
Note to the Student
Thoracic limb-88
Thoracic limb-536
117-Thoracic limb-143
Regional headings are located in the upper right hand corner of each page, followed
by the next page which to turn. In most cases, the next page is the following one,
. indicated by a normally pr inted page number (c.g., Thoracic limb-88). When the next
page is somewhere else in the text, the page number is bold print (e.g., Thoracic
limb-536). 'Nhen a page follows another part of the text, the regional heading is
preceded by this page number in bold type (e.g., 117-Thoracic limb-143).
a. Crat or Uium I· Pubic tubercle

b. Tub.r ,acralt (ll-157) h. Gluteal surface or ilium (U-157)
e. Articulatt 1urface (U-156) i. Greater iachiatic notch
(1acropelvic l!lrface) j. lscbiatic spine
d. Body 0£ ilium k... Lesser iathiatic notch
e. Arcuate line I. Tschiatic table (11-159)
r. lliopubic eminence m. achiatic arc.h
Legends, like the above from pg. 95, refer to a number of drawings on 2 facing
pages (e.g., pages 94-95). The first structure in each legend refers to the first
drawing unless followed by a figure number (e.g., a). When a structure is found on
another figure, it is followed by the new figure's number (e.g., b. Tubersaorale (II-
157). All structures not followed by a figure change are found in the last figure
indicated (e.g., c.-g. in fig. II-156).
Petioles. 309a
Pcyer's patches, 440
Phalangeal joints, 114
Entries are followed by one of three types of page numbers. A bold page number
indicates the structure is found in the text and in an illustration (Phalangeal joints,
11.4). A normal page number indicates the structure is found only in the text
(Peycr's patches, 440). A normal page number followed by a letter indicates the term
is onJ.y found in an illustration labeled with that letter (Petiolus, 309a).
Table of Contents
Systemic
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 13
CHAPTER I. DESCRIPTIVE TERMS 15
Descriptive Terms 16
CHAPTER 11. BONES........................•..................... ,...................................................... 21,i,'
~!~~e;r0:c:s::;_~.".".".".".".".".".".·:::::::::::.·.·:::::::.~:::·::::.::::::::::::::·::::::::::::::::::::·:;~<?~
Divisions of the Skeleton
..:::::::::::::::::::::::::.".".".":.·:::.
···~·
;!26
Skull Bones.......................................................................... .,.._..::i"! 32
Para nasal Sinuses, /~· S6
Hyoid Apparatus :i'".L.................................... ....................... 58
Vertebrae.............................................................................................................................................. 60
Thorax................................................................................................................................................... 70
Bones • Thoracic Limb.................................................................................................................. 72
Bones • Pelvic Limb ....... -.............................................................................................................. 90
CHAPTER Ill. JOINTS 103
Articulations 104
Synovial Joints 106
Joints of the Thoracic Limb 110
Joints of the Pelvic Limb JI 8
Joints of the Skull&. Hyoid Apparatus - -·······················-·-· 127
Joints of the Vertebral Column................................................................................................ l 28
CHAPTER IV. MUSCLES •
133
Superficial Muscles of the Body 134

Muscle, general.................................................................................................................................. 140
Muscles • Thoracic Limb·-···-······························-·······················-·······-································ 142
M11scles • Pelvic Limb ..'. : 168
Stay Apparatus ·-·······························-····-·····-·························-······································ 196
Abdominal Muscles : 200
Facial Muscles - -·-··-··-···········~···-·····················.......................... 204
Muscles of the Neck - 210
Thoracic Muscles & Muscles of the Vertebral Column - 216
Table of Contents - Systemic
Muscles - Perineum 220
Cutaneous Muscles & Fascia 221
CHAPTER V. J>IG.ESTIVE SYSTEM 223
Body Cavities 224

Oral Cavity 234
Teeth - , 238
Aging by Teeth -··········-··· 248
Salivary Glands _ .. , 258
Pharynx 262
Stomach : - 268
Intestines 274
Serous Membranes 282
Liver _ 292
Pancreas 298
CHAPTER VI. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM .- 301
Nose 303
Nasal Cavity 304
Larynx . 308
Thoracic Cavity 318
Lungs 320
CHAPTER VII. URINARY SYSTEM 327
Kidneys , 328
Arteries : 335
Nephron 336.
Urinary Bladder 338
CHAPTER VIII. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 339
~~::!~~::::: : : : : : : ::::::::::::::: : ::::::::::: : ::::::: :::::::::::: :::::::::::::::: : : : :::::::··;(.Q~:: . :::::: :::::: : :::: : : : : ~:~
Vagina, Vulva & Vestibule ~"ft~· 346
Broad Ligament ,...,~~ 348
Eb
m ryoruc . membranes ~~· 352
Place_nta 7~~-
:~7 : 353
Ovaries & Estrus............................................................ . . 354
Testis :: : 356
Spermatic Cord 362
Accessory Sex Glands.: 364
Pen is - 366
Scrotum 376
CHAPTER IX. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 381
Arteries & Veins of the Body 382

Pericardium 383
Heart : 384
Fetal Circulation 386
Development of the Heart. 388
Heart Exterior and Interior 394
Valves of the Heart 403
Coronary Arteries 406
Table of Contents - Systemic
Aortic Arch : 408
Arter ies of the Head · 412
Arteries of the Thorax ,, : 414
·Arteries of the Thoracic Limb : 416
.. A bdomina I Aorta 422
. Arteries of the Pelvis : 428
Arteries of the Pelvic Limb 432
Veins of the Body : 438
Lymphocenters 440
Spleen 442
CHAPTER X. NERVOUS SYSTEM 443
Neurons , 446
Neuroglia ; ,; 448
Synapse ; 449
Reflex arc :.: ..: 450
Brain 452
Cran ia 1 · Nerves 460
Spinal Cord 470
Spinal Nerves.................................................. .. 472
Ven~ricles ~- 473
Meninges.................................................................... :t,"'1... . 474
Spinal plexuses ~~~:.:· 477
Thorax - Nerves......................................................................... . :.'-'It, "'"' , : . 479
Thoracic Limb Nerves : 480
Lumbosacral Plexus : 498
Pelvic Limb Nerves : 500
Pelvis - Nerves 520
Autono.mic Nervous System , .. 522
CHAPTER XI. COMMON INTEGUMENT - EYE - EAR : 529
Skin , 530
Mammary Gland 533
Foot 536
Hom., ,., : 545
Eye .- 546
Ear 551
Lacrimal apparatus 558
APPENDIX -·-····---······--·---·-···-···-------------·-·-------·· ..··- 559

Types of Nerves .. .. . .. . . ... . S60
Neuroanatomy :.................................................................................... S62
Nerve/Joint Blocks - Equine limbs..................................................................................... 584
R.ad..iology ··•·o•••-•·•········-·········-····································································-· .. ··············.......... 6()3
Ox - Exploratory Laparotomy .. .. .. . .. .. 632
Ox - F1an1c Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. .. . .. . . 640
INDEX ·-·······---···-----·············-··-··---·········---··--· ...·····-····-··-···-··-·····-·-········· 643

Introduction
Introduction to Fifth Edition

The last two and a half years of teaching Canine Anatomy, Comparative Anatomy, and Applied Anatomy at Ross
University have stimulated this fifth edition. The Anatomy of Domestic Animals was originally made for an undergraduate
veterinary anatomy class. Interest in it by Veterinary students bas stimulated additional editions. Toe goal was to add
information for Ille Veterinary student and still make it manageable for the undergraduate and veterinary technicians. This
is slill the goal for this edition. This book is still for the undergraduate and the future practising veterinarian, not for future
Pb.Dsinanatomy.AddedAppl.iedandClinicalAnatomyhavebeenplacedinshadedboxestoincreaseinterestinanatomy.
1be Appendix has been increased with applied anatomy topics that have been difficult for many students here to learn·
Nerve Blocks in the horse, Neuroanatomy, and ~bdominal Bxploration of the ox. These are probably to advanced for the
IOdagiaduate, but may stimulate their interest, The radiology section in the appendix should help both the veterinary
snden1 and the undergraduate. ·
Susan Pasquini has since the first edition been responsible for gi;tting this book put together. She bas typed, edited and
pasted up the pages. While taking Canine and Comparative anatomy at Ross University (soon to bea DVM) she has edited
and suggesied things for this edition. With out her this and all previous editions would not have been possible.
Mike Smith, from Colorado State University, came down to the Caribbean to take over may class and edited the text
while Iworked on this edition. Many anatomy discussions were held overlooking the Caribbean sipping a "cold one".
Dr. Charles Hutchison, the Head and other half of the Anatomy Department. through his encyclopedic knowledge and
great lectures was a constant stimulus to me and my text The Neuroanatomy in the appendix evolved from taking notes
of his lectures and then editing them from other sources. Dr. Hutchison then edited the final draft.
The radiology section was started by talclng notes of Dr. Charles Peugh's lectures when he was here. This was used In
DR. Bruhl-Day's radiology class and in Canine Anatomy and modified over the semesters. Dr. Barbee.from WashingtOn
State edited and changed it to come up with the final product
Lynn Lankes a second semester student at Ross edited the te,:t as she learned anatomy, and was invaluable.
Dr. Rudolfo Bruhl-Day and Dr. Sandra Mattoni are in the process of translating this book into Spanish.
I would also like to thank all the anatomist who did the work in anatomy and wrote texts on the subject. Their work
and my teaching veterinary students have resulted in this text that hhopes to simplify, not define anatomy.
Note to the Student
Illustratloas_-=-------------------------''-----
.. '
Illustrations are on the same page as the related text or on the facing page ..
.. ; .• , .. ...•. , ...... ( ,;(i
Labels _
1,2,3· or I,I,ll • Arabic numerals or Roman numerals preceding structures in the text
refer to numbers in the illustrations on the same or facing pages. These are
structures to be learned. Arabic numerals, followed by structure names on the
illustrations (usually the dog) allow identification· without consulting the
text. These are followed closely by illustrations (Usually the horse or ox) that
have numbers only, allowing you to test yourself.
A,B,C • Capital letter labels of the illustrations are important structures learned on
another page (where they usually were Arabic numerals).
a,b,c • Small letter labels in the illustrations are less important structures not needed
to be learned ·by the undergraduate student. In some Illustraticns, they are
important· structures (to be learned on another page) that help orient the
drawing.
Phonetic spellings foll(?W commonly mispronounced words.

Etymolo1y __.;. _
The etymology appears In brackets following some terms. The term's language, root
word and its meaning are given. The language is indicated by abreviations (e.g. L. =
Latin, ·G. • Greek, Fr. • French).
Textor1anlzatlon _
The text is organized into general information, species differences, and clinical
information. The general information comes first and is true for all the species
considered. Species differences follow, and then clinical applications to help give
"lif'e" to the facts. ·
Ar':.~t~;~.. ·~~!'?C~.; {·,•:.~~-: ( ~.:;.: ::~: :.::..:
ANATOn,, 1 vF DOMESTI<.; ANlM.ALS:
• Comparative systemic approach to the

domestic animals, including horse, ox,
sheep, pig, dog, cat, goat and llama
• Outline of essential anatomical structures
• Species differences
• Clinically significant anatomy
~ send the book(s) I have checked:

l Anatomy of Domestic Animals $ 44.95
...J Atlas of Equine Anatomy .....................•. $ 39..9S
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i Alias of Bovine Anatomy ............•....•... S 39..9S
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to Smal Alimal CMnics .••.•.. ·-········ $19.9$
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Phone (817) 686-9208
List of Abbreviations -
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
The plural of an abbreviation is indicated by the last

letter being duplicated. (E.g., plural for Hgaments is ligg.)
a. • artery It. • left

antebr.
eaud.
eran,
cu tan.
• ante brachia!
-
• caudal
•
cranial
cutaneous
m.
med.
n.
palm.
-
• muscle
medial
nerve
"' palmar
•
COMMON SINGULARS AND PLURALS
dist. • distal pl. slnaular plural

dors,
ext.
for.
•
•
•
donaI
external
foramcn
plant.
prox.
rostr .
--
• plural
•
plantar
proximal
rostral Greek DOIIDS
•
iJ.
iDL
-..
•
•
gland
internal
rt.
sin.
•
-- right
singular e.g.
-IS
testis
-es
testes
laL
lg.
lig.
ln.
-
•
lateral
large
ligament
lymph node
supf.
v.
ventr . -
•
superficial
vein
ventral e.g •
-on -a
spermatozoon spermatozoa
Latin GOUQ
-a -ae
PRONUNCIATIONS e.g. vtrtebra vertebrae
•
Phonetic pronunciations appear in parentheses
following
. . mispronounced terms.
commonly e.g.
-us
bumer~s -·
humeri
The most strongly accented syllable ls capitalized -um -a

(e.g., fob·RAY·men). e.g. septum septa
Secondary acc:ents arc given a single quote mark -01 -ossa

(') (e.s; tyoo'be·ROS-i·tce). ·
ay as ill make I as in sip Sl111ular and plural are the same

ee as in be o as in not
y as in eye u as in bud e.g. ductus duct us
oh as in pole a as in above ll)anus man us
yoo as in cute oo as in sue sinus sinus
e as in "bet oy as in oil
13
I WWW.ELIB4VET.COM I
Chapter I.
Descriptive Terms
15
DESCRIPTIVE TERMS - PLANES - SECTIONS Generat-I?
WWW.ELIB•VET. /
-! ..
0
.Q i
~·gf
DESCRIPTIVE TERMS: p-ecise descriptive tttrns.are used to !he nose (coeresponds ID cranial far the rest of tbe body). (The
describe the position of SlruCture., and relationships between nose is rosual to the ears). A partbehind 8DOlher panon tbe head
SIIUCtures in quadrupeds(four-fOOled animals). Forsuch terms to is called caudal as in the rest of the body.
have meaning, !he quadruped must be in the anatomical position,
standing on its four limbs. The anaromical position far humans is 6. Plllmar (palm.): the surface below the prox.imal ends of the
standing with lhearmsauhesideand thepalmspoinling forward. carpus directed caudally or towl!Jlh the ground, thus replacing
Some human ienninology is acceplable for use in cenain struC· caudal for this panof the limb. (Thedew claw of tbeoxisoolhe
tures of the animal head. palmar surface of the forelimb}. The opposite. aanially Cacillg
side is the dorsal side.
1. Dorsal (dors.): away from llieground. Also. the surfaces below
!he proximal (see below}endsof thecarpus(wristin humans} and 7. Plantar (planL): the surface below tbe proximal end of tbe
in humans}opposite the palmar and plantar surfaces
l31'SUS (ank1e wsusditectedcauclallyoriowardlheground.Asintheforelimb,
(see below). (The vertebrae are dorsal to the heart). the opposite side is the dorsal side.
2. Ventral (vcmr.): toward the ground (The tontue is ventral ID 8. Medial (med.}: towards the median plane (pg. 18). (The chest
!he nasal cavity). is medial to the thoracic limbs).
3. Cranial (cran.): towards lhe head. (The neck is cranial 10 the 9. Lateral (lat.): farther from the median plane. (The shoulder is
lail) Anterior is subslilUted for cranial in the eye. lateral to the ribs).
C. Caudal (caud.) (L. cauda, tail): towards the tail. (The hindlimb 10. Proximal (prox.) (L. proximus, next): nearest the uunlc or
is cauclal to lhe fo:cE:nb.)Posterior is subsuunedfor caudal in the po,::1 of origin of a limb, vessel, nerve or organ. (The elbow is
eye. prormal IO thedi~it).
..... °'>s•~if-,..•••'
r: l
__._ .. ~'·" ,•v....-; • ·.~ '-'"L)•
•.• r cslrutn,l.,'\;o.J\ .. aparton -'•l •• • ,·,
u'"·"·'f-- •' '.iSetlO L\. 3is1a1' (dist.) (l,, .-:: ·:311s, <fu::· .::): fartl::: !:mr:i L'1etrunk or
DESCRiPTIVE TERfviS Genera 1-18
point of origin of a limb, vessel, nerve or

organ. (The carpus is distal to the elbow).
12. Superficial (supf.): nearer the surface.

(The biceps brachii muscle is superficial to
the humerus).
13. Deep: farther from the surface. (The

femur is deep to the thigh muscles).
Peripheral (per-IF-er-al): distant from its

point of origin; near the surface of the body.
(nerves are peripheral kl the central nervous
system [brain and spinal cord]).
Axial and abuiat: indicaterelative position

to the longitudinal axis of the limb. These
terms are restricted to the digits where the
axis is considered to pass between the third
and fourth digits.
• Axial: closer to the longitudinal axis. (The

inside of a digit is the axial side). i---12. Superficial
• Abaxial: further from the longitudinal axis t--13. Deep

ofa limb. (The outside of a digit is theabaxial
side)
External (ext): closer to the outer surface of

a structure. (The capsule is external to the
kidney).
Internal (int): closer to the center of astruc- "\.

ture. (The medulla is internal to the cortex).
. .J
Supra (L. "above"): a J)Jefix signifying above
or over (supraspinatus, supraorbital). 8. Medial ·~ [] 9.L,,.ul
Infra (IN-frah)(L. i,ifra beneath): a prefix l
.--... ·~- ~
signifying below or beneath (infraspinatus, "'
infrall'OChlear). ~~
......
Human terms:
• Anlerior: toward the front This corresponds

to ventral and cranial on the limbs of animals,
aIJd rostral in bead (Anterior chamber, ante·
rior cruciate).
• Posterior: toward the back. Posterior corre-
sponds to dors;il and caudal aspect of the
limbs or animals and to caudal in the head
(posleriorchamber, caudal cruciate).
• Superior: higher. SomeJimes replaces dor·
sal for headSlrUC!UreS (levator labii superioris
muscle).
• Inferior: lower. Sometimesreplaces ventral
for sttuctures of the head ( inferior palpebra).
17
PLANES - SECTIONS
1 .J ,
.,, I
lI
-- l.. \
-. ..
1. Sa11ttal plaae
PLANF.S: 111 imaginary orn:al smfacooo whidl any two points 3. Tnu!svene plue: a plane papeodic:ular to the rnt4ieaplane,
can be a,nnecled by a suaight line. dividing the bodyiolOaanial and caudal pal1S, A 111111SYaseplaDe
also crosses an orgen or limb at a righl migJe ro its long axis.
I. Media• (mid·sagiual) pine (on midline): the plaoe dividing
!be body into equal right and left J)Mions. • 4. Frontal (dorsal) plane: a plane perpcadicular IO bodl median
and tzansvene planes, dividing body inlO dorsal Ind veolral
2. Saalt1al (pn.median or permagiaal) plallt (SAJ-i-1111) (off poniona.
midline): a plane dividiag die body into yneggal right and left
ponicm. It is paralJeJ IO die mediao pliDe.
JB
PLANES - SECTJONS General-22
......':---.
\ ~ . . .....
.' 4. Frontal plane
I
I .I
\... .
\
J. Transverse plaae
SECTIONS: cuts through various planes of the body 10 display long axis of an organ or limb. Longitudinal sections may be cut in
internal Strucwres. Therefore, sections through these different the median, sagittal or frontal planes.
planes have the same name (e.g., median section is through the
median plane).
Transversesection or cross section: a cut through the transverse
plane of a structure.
Longitudinal sedion (L. longitudc, length): a cut parallel to the
19
Chapter IT
Bones
21
SHAPES OF BONES 19-General-23
i ~., },
~
~- q.'j
l '
ii
;
f.
,,
·,r~.
',
Fla. 11-2 - Flat bone
·.-
Fig. 11-1 - Short bone

Fla. 11-3 - lrreaular bone
BONES or OSSEOUS TISSUE(G.osreon bone): the hard, semi- .
• 3. Metapbysis(me- T AF-i-sis): the joiningpointofthediaphysis
rigid, calcified connective tissue forming the skeleton. Bones are and the epiphysls in a mature bone.
classified as short, flat. irregular, sesamoid and long bones by
their shape. • 4 Periosteum (per'ee-OS-tee-wn): the fibrousco~around
the bone that is not covered by articular canilage. This layet is
Osteology (G. osteon bone+ logos study) is the study of bones. necessary for bone growth, repair, nutrition and attachment for
ligaments and tendons. . '
Short bone: a cube-shaped bone (e.g., carpal and small tarssJ
bones). • 5. Articular surface: the smooth Iayez of hyaline cartilage
covering theepiphysis where one bone forms a joint with snothet
Flat bone: two plates of compact bone, separated by cancellous bone.
bone (e.g., some bones of skull and ribs).
•6. Medullary(MED-yoo-lar'ee)cavity: the space in lhediaphy-
Irregular bone: a complex and irregularly-shaped bone (e.g., sis containing the marrow.
vertebrae and cenain facial bones).
• 7. Elidosteum (en-DOS-tee-um): the fibrous tissue lining the
Sesamoid (SES-ah-moid) bone: a small bone embedded in a medullary cavity of a bone.
tendon; resembling a sesame seed (e.g., patella, proximal and
distal sesamoid bones). • 8. Apopbysis (Gr. "an or.s.~~~")· 11nv outgrowth of a bone • a
process.
Lo"g bone: a bone longer than wide, consisting of a diaphysls
(body) and two epiphyses (extremities) with their anicular carti- • 9. Cortex: compact bone surrounding the medullary cavity.
lage (e.g., humerus.radius, femur, tibia, metacarpalsandmetatar·
sals) .. • 10. Epipbyseal cartilage, growth plate: the plate of cartilage
between the disphysis and epiphyses of immature long bones.
• l. Diaphysis (dy-AF-i-sis): the long shaft (body).of a long bone. This is where lengthening of long bones takes place. Synonyms
are· epiphyseaJ plate, physis, metaphyseal plate, growth plate and
• 2. Epiphysis (e-PIF-i-sis)(pl. = epiphyses [e·PIF-i-seez)): the growth cartilage.
two enlarged ends (proximal and distal extremities) of a long
bone.
22
PES OF BONES Genera1·24 ·
• Pbysis! (FY-sisXGr. phytin to grow): term
·commonly used by radiologistS f<r lheq>i·
'physeal groW1h pl.ale.
10. Growth plate s. Articular surface
Endocbondral c.silicatlon: the formation
of long bones in the f~ by tranSforming a
~model into bone. Bone replace·
mentwcesplacein lhree JWimary~ifi.cation
-2. Epiphysis ctntcfS ~ thediaphysis and the twoepiphyses.
This results in a bone capped with articular
cartilage and two cartilage discs (growth
plates) between the diaphysis and lhe two
epiphyses. Leagthening of bone occurs at the
1-o----3. Metaphysis ootet side of the grow1h plate (side next to the
epiphysis). Lengthening stops when the
growth plates are completely replace.d by
bone. Duririg growth, radiographically, the
epiphyseal cartilage appears asa radiolucent
line (dark line) separating the diaphysis from
:.l. Compact bone_....- the two epiphyses. The growth in diameter is
the resulrofbone deposited beneath the peri-
osteum (subperiosteal intramembranous os-
Pi- +:tt!Hary cavity·----4- sification).
Intramembranous ossification: fonns the flat

9. Cortex---' bones of the head and doesn't use a cartilagi-
nous model.
11. Compact bone: gross term for the part of

7. Endosteum -1. Diaphysis bone that looks solid.
12-. Cancellous bone: gross term for bone

with visible spaces in it, It has a uabecular
structure of strands of bone separated by
spacesandislocatedatlheepiphysealendsof
the marrow cavity .
./'
Woven bone: hi$tological name for imma-
4. PeriOste~ I ,/ ·~
ture bone that has been laid down but not
organized by secondary remodeling, this.can
be compact or cancelloes bone,
Haversian bone: histOlogical term for adult

bone !hat has been remodeled. This also can
be compact or cancellous bone.
IJ .. ,._.. ,· :.
:-......,etoocAL
·····.··./,
~::'. ;:,... .;,.:;(t
' •.
.-: ..:: :
'.>if.~~it ;iti gr.9)\iirigbonesis C3$il}fftaci;;;

.,,.... 2. Epiphysis (dist.) :- ~; .. :'. .. .-;-::. . . . ):, ..}' :·,:-,i
' :'CanciUb~6&ne.can be hiirvbiieif~it
:;fiiT~~;~~~
• Grea.itttub.¢ri:le of the huinef\is .. ·:.,,
·.:, e. oreaicl':ti&Mfuter:ot1futiemw. ·,;
s.. Articular surface . • wi"-gio{Qi(iteum.-
. ·: ·,.·. .. .. .
..• :.: :' . .-. .
. ,. . .
Fig. 11·4 - Long bone ,'. ', ·.;
..: ~.: ,:. ;
23
. .
BONE PROCESSES General-25
10. Head
11. Notch
-· 'I
14. Tubercle '.
,.·,
,;
r
WWW.ELIB.cV T. -,
'
J I
4. Epicondyle
I
- >1,,/;
O,J,/f/ J;
l,·
1'
Ij,
'I 9. Groove
Fig. Il·S - Femur & Humerus Fig. 11-6 - Radius & Ulna
MARKINGS ON BONES: lhe bumps.holes and depressions on 4. Epicondyle (G. epi, upon): a prominence just proximal to a
a· bone's surface. These markings can be either articular or condyle (e.g., lateral epicondyle of the humerus or femur).
nonarticular. The following list is in alphabetical order.
5.Facet(F.littlefaces):asmooth,flatsurface{e.g.,articularfacet
Canal: aumnet through one or more bones (e.g., vertebral canal). of a thoracic vertebra for attachment to a rib). Articular facets are
covered with by.dine cartilage.
1. Condyle (KON-dyl) (GJmuckle): a large articular prominence
(e.g., occipital condyles of the skull and the condyles of the F~ure (FISH-ur) (Fig. Il-33,h): a narrow, cleft-like opening
humerus, femur and tibia). between adjarent bones.
2. Cotyloid (KOT -i-loid) cavity: a deep articular depression (e.g., 6.Foramen (foh.-RA Y-men)(L.anapenure): anopeningthmugh
acetabulum of the hip joint). a bone (e.g., infraorbital foramen, obiurator foramen, foramen
magnum).'
3. Crest: a prominent border or edge (e.g., crest of the hipbone).
I 24
General-26
3. Crest
1"!!~ i--- 12. Spine
15. Tuberoslty
2. Cotylold cavity
6. Forameia .»
5. Facet
Fl1. 11-7 • Os eexae, sacrum

& caudal ,eitebrae
Ff1, 11-8 - Horse - 7th Cervical vertebra
• caud, view
7. Fossa (FOS·a) (L. pit) (pl. fossae): a small hollow (e.g., norch of the ulna, popliteal notch of the tibia).
mandibular fossa, olecranon and radial fossae of the humerus).
15 (l,3,4,5,10;12,13,14). Process: any prominent, roughened
8. Fovea (FOH-vee-a) (L. a pit): a shallow, nonarticular depres- projection from a bone (e.g., crest, spine, trochantet. tubercle,
sion (e.g., fovea capitis on the head of the femur). tu\>erosity, etc.).
9. Groove (L .. sulcus furrow): a long, narrow fwrow accommo- 12. Spine (L. spina .thorn):'a sharp, slendet process (e.g., spine of
dating a vessel, nerve or tendon (e.g., grooves on the dislal end of a vertebra, spine of the scapula).
the radius).
13. Trodlanter (troh·KAN-ter): a large, blunt process found only
10. Head: a rounded articular process (e.g., head of the femur or on the femur (e.g., greater trochanter of lhe femur).
humerus). !www.ELIB4VET.COMI
Trocblea (I'ROHK-Iee-a) (pg. 96,#7): a pulley shaped slrUCture
Line (Fig. 11-108,c): a ridge less prominent than a crest (e.g .• ttochlea of the femur).
Meatus(mee-AY·tus)(L.apassage)(pl.meatiormeatuses)(Fig . 14. Tubercle:-a small, rounded process (e.g., greater tubercle of
. 11-27,7): a tube-like canal throughabone(c.g.,extemalauditory the humerus).
meatus).
1.5. tu_!>e~JL or tuber: a large, usually roughened process(e.g.,
11. Notdl: a depression 81 the edge of a bone (e.g., semilunar ischial tiioeroSlty).
Z5
DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETON Gcnerat-27
THE SKELETON (G. dried): the skeleton is divided into the patella, bl>ia.fibuJa.tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, phalange.,and
axial skeleton, the appendicular skeleton and the visceral skel- their sesamoid bones.
eton. The subdivisions of the axial and appendicular divisions are
listed below with the bones that make them up. 15. Pelvic girdle: the two hip bones (ossa coxarum) (15)attached
' IO each other ventrally and to the sacrum (14) dorsally. They
AXIAL SKELETON: the bones and cartilages protecting the connect the ~Ivie limbs to the axial s]cele(OO. With the sacrum,
soft SIJ'UCtures of lhe head, neck and trunk; consisting of the skull. they formthe bony pelvis surrounding and proleeting the pelvic
hyoid apparatus, vertebral column and thorax. organs.
1. Skun: the bones of the face. and the cranium. These can be 16. Th!gb: the femur (16).
fu:t1ur subdivided into bones of the .cranium and bones of the
face .. 16, 17, 18 & 19. Stifle: thejoint between the thigh and crus, along
with its menisci and the patella (17).
2. Hyoid apparatus: the bones holding the larynx in place and
serving as a major attachment for the tongue, 18, 19. Leg or crus (I... leg): the tibia (18) and fibula (19).
. . ..
3, 14. Vertebral column or backbone: the variable number of 20, 21, 12, & 13. Pes (L. foot): the tarsus, metatarsus and digits.
irregular bones (vertebrae) joined by cartilaginous intervertebrat It is also called the hindpaw in carnivores.
discs. It helps maintain l)O$blre and participates in body move-
ments. It houses and protects the spinal cord. The vertebrae are 20. Tarsus or hock: the tarsal bones (20).
grouped into cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae, the sacrum
(fused sacral vertebrae) (14) and caudal vertebrae. The column 21. Metatarsus: the metatarsal bones (21).
forms the.central axis of the body and makes up the skeleton of the
tail. 12, 13. Digits: the same as the thoracic limb, consisting of the
phalanges (12) and associated sesamoid bones (13).
4, S. Thoracic: the ribs (4) and sternum (5) protecting the
thoracic organs'.
6. Thoracic girdle or shoulder girdle: lhe two scapulae (6) in

domestic animals. In man the clavicle is included and provides a
strut to hold the shoulder laterally. In the domestic animals, which
need their limbs under them, it is at best vestigial, with no
functional significance. The girdle connects the bones of the arm
to the axial skeleton by muscular attachments (syssarcosis), not
by a conventional articulation.
7. Arm or brachium: the humerus (7).
8, 9. Forearm or antebrachium: the radius (8) and ulna (9).
10·13. Manus: the carpus, metacarpus and digits. In the cami-

vores, it is also called the forepaw.
10. Carpus: the carpal bones (10).
t 1. Metacarpus: the metacarpal bones (11).
12, 13. Digits: the phalanges( t 2) andassociatcdsesameid bones

(13).
15-21. 12, 13. PeJvif: Jimb ("hindlimb"): the os coxae, femur,

r
26
OOG - SKElE"fOw\J
General-28
3. Vertebral 14. Sacrum (part of

column
vertebral column)
22.0s~
16. Femur
2. Hyold apparatus
17. Patella
7. Humerus
"'- S. Sternum
8 .. Radius-------~
10. Carpal bones 20. Tarsal bones ---
21. Metatarsal_ bones

... ...
• -
11. Metacarpal bones

12. Phalanges
13. Sesamoid bones
-13. Sesamoid bones
Fig. 11-9 - Dog Skeleton - lat. view
27
SKELETON. - HORSE
'
11--11-1
13
13
Fig. II-10 - Horse - Skeleton - Jat. view
28
OX - SKELETON Gcncral-30
Horn
15
14
1
··."'·.
;-;-Jf
Fie. 11-11 - Ox • Skeleton • lat. view
1. Skull ti. Scapula 12. Pbalaocu 1T. Patella.

. 2. Hyold apparM\11 7.Kumtl'UI 13. Setunoid. bonu 18. Tibia
(nol tboW11) a. It..diua 1,. Sacrum (pan of 19. Fibula
a, Verkbral column 9. Ulna vertebral column) 20. Tanal bon•
4. ltibe . 10. Carpal bones lS. Oteox.ae 11. Mel&lanal bonu
I. Sternum .11. Melacupal bon• 16. Femur
-.
29
PIG & CAT - SKELETON General-31
"Dew claw"
Ft1, 11-12 - Ple - Skeleton • lat. view
Flt, 11-13 • Cat - Skeleton • lat. view
16 l
Supracondylar roramen
18 •
19
12
L-~
t:.~'13
1. Skull 6. Scapula 1%. Phalllllies 11. Patella

2. Hyoid apparatus 7. Humeru, 13. Se..moid bonea 18. Tibia
(not 1hown in pi() 8. Radiua 14. Sacrum (pan of 19. Fibula
S. Vertebral column 9. Ulna vertebBI colurtUJ) 20. Tarsal bone,
4. Ribt 10. Carpal bone, 16. OtCOXM 21. Metatarsal bonet
5. Sternum 11. Metacarpal bones 16. F•mur
.-
SHEEP & LLAMA - SKELETON GeneraJ-104
13
Fig. 11-14 - Sheep - Skeleton • lat. view
3-----,-.-
l
I.Skull
2. Hyoid appvatua
(not abown)
3. Vertebral column
4. Riba
. 6. Stemum
6. Scapula
1. Humo:,.rue
8. Radbe
9. Ulna
10. Cc:i;;a,l :'>onea .
11. u~~:::~;::.-,~l bori ~·
12. Pl1al:..n:..,:t:1>
13. aeaamoiu bone,
14. Sacrum (part of
verteb:al column)
15. 01 coxae
· 16. Femur
17. Patella
18. Tibia
Fi:, 11-15 - Llama • lat. view 19. fibula
20. Tara:J bone,
21. ?.-l.li:atcna! bone,
31
.. '
SKULL BONES Begining-Head-33
CRA.NIUM (KRAY-nee-um): the bones surrounding the brain, of the face and the pan.oftbe hard palate holding the upper cheek
forming t)te cranial cavity. teeth.
Roof of the cranium: the paired frontal and parietal bones in 9. lncisive bone: the rostral bone holding the upper incisors (front
most domestic species. teeth). . ,,
·, t,· - .
Occipital region: the caudal aspect of the skull formed by the 10. Palatine (PAL-a-tyn) bone: forms the hard palate, along with
occipital bone. the maxillary _and incisive bones.
'
Temporal region: the lateral walls of the cranium formed by the 11. Zygomatic bone-or malar bone (L. ma/a cheeks): lhe cranial
temporal bones. part of the zygomairc arch.
The ftoor of the cranium: the ventral aspect of the cranium 12. LacrimaJ' (LAK·ri-mal) bone (lacrima tear): the medial
formed primarily by the unpaired sphenoid bone. surface of the orbit,
The rostral wan of the cranium: the rostral aspect of thecranium 13. Ventral nasal Concha (KONG-kab): a scroll of bone located
formed by lhe unpaired ethmoid bone. in lhe nasal cavity.
1. Occipital (ok-sip-i-tal) bone: the' caudal aspect of both the 14. pterygo·id (TER-i-goid) bones; the small.paired.bones in the
cranial cavity and the skull a~ a whole. caudal parrot the nasopharynx,
2. Temporal bone: the caudolateral wall of the cranial cavity. lS. Vomer (plowshare): the unpaired bone forming part of the
osseous nasal septum. ·
3. Parietal (pa-RY -i-tal) bone (L. paries wall): together with the
frontal bone fonns the roof of the cranial cavity in all domestic 16. Mandible (L·. mandere to masticate): the large bone articulat-
animals, except the ox and pig. · ing with the skull that supports all the lower teeth.
4. Frontal bone (L.frons forehead): the rostral pan of the roof of

the cranial cavity in most domestic species. In !he ox and pig, it
forms the entire roof.
.
5. Ethmoid bone: the unpaired bone forming the rostraJ wall of
the cranial cavity.
6. Sphenoid (SFEE-noyd) bone (G. sphen wedge): the unpaired SPECIES DIFFERENCES
bone forming the floor of the cranial cavity.
Interparietal bone (F'i.g. Il-20,a): the bone found only in the
FACIAL PART OF THE SKULL: the part enclosing lhe nasal horse and cat. between the. lwo parietal bones, rosual to the
and oral cavities. Among lhe species, this part can sbow variations occipital bone. ln other species. it is present in the fetus but
in length (e.g .. horse vs, cat). Toe dog shows great variation thenfuses with surrounding bones before birth.
within the -species whereas, it is fairly unifonn in the other
domestic species. The facial region is divided into oral, nasal and
Frontal bone: fonns lhe entire roof of the cranium in the ox
orbital regions.
and pig:
Oral region: the incisive, maxillary. and palatine bones~\
mandible surrounding the oral cavity.
· Rostral bone: unique bone found in the i'.wse of the pig.
1
Nasal region: lhe nual. maxillary, palatine, and incisive bones Doa: there are three typeS of skulls in dogs relative to the
surrounding the nasal cavi~y. proponions of the facial bones and the cranial vault.
Orbital region: the bony socket holding the eye, fonned by • Mesatu:ephalic: the average confonnatien (i.e., beagle)
portions of the frontal, lacrimal, palatine, sphenoid, and zygo-
matic bones. • Ddlichephalic (dai-i-hoh-se--FAL-ik): has a larger facial
component (i.e., collie)
7. Nasal bones: along with thecranial part of the frontal bone form
the osseous roof of the nasal cavity.
,, . facial component (i.e.,
• BrachlocephaUe:. has a shorter
Bomon Te-mer). r
it. Maxillary bone IJ!LAK-sil-ler' -ee) or maxilla: the !G~&ai part
.32
SKULL BONES - DOG Hcad-34 ·
12. Lacrtmal 3. Pari.etaJ
Fig. II-16. - Dog • Skull

• dots. v iew
2. Temporal
Fig. 11-17 - Dog - Skull

• lat. view
4. Frontal
1. Occipital
7. Nasal
11. Zygomatic--1
9·. Incisive bone
-.
5. Etbmold
13~ Ventral nasal concha
Fig. 11-18 - D9g • 'Skull

- ventr. view
15. Vomer
Fig; II-19 - Dog- Skull - sagitta l section
33
.
•
SKULL BONES - HORSE Head-35
Fla. U-20 - Horse :.. Skull
- dors. view
Fie. 11-21- Horse • Skull . ventr. view
12_....;
'
16 1. Incisive IO. Occipital

2. Maxillary 11. Sphenoid
Fig. ll-22 - Horse - Skull • lat. view 3. LacrimaJ 12. Vomer
4. Pterygoid 13. Palatine
S. Temporal 14:Btlunoid (not shown - horse)
6. Parietal' 15. Ventr; nasal concha
7. Zygomatic l&. Mandible
8 •. Frontal 17. lnterparietal (separate only in
9. Nas-1 hotse&cat)
34
SKULL BONES - OX Head-36
6
Fig. 11-23 - Ox - Skull - lat'. view
I s
10
8
--11
13
Fig. 11-25 - Ox - Skull

- dors. view
• v.cn tr. view
Fie. If-26 - Ox - Skull - sagittal section
SPECI~ DJFFE.RENCES
16
Frontal bone: forms the entire roof of the
cranium in the ox and pig
35
SKULL - LATERAL VIEW Head-37
l. Zygomatic arch
Fig. 11-27 - Dog • Skull
2. Orbit
H
4. Infraorbi~ foramen
I
....~ 8. Mastoid
t· #.-. -
.. 14
.' process
'
s. Occipital
eondyles
6. Paracondylar process
7. External acoustic meatus
A. Incisive bone H. Nuchal crest a. Zygom.atic process h. Retroarticular process

B. Maxillary bone (not shown in ox) b, Frontal process i. Angular process (carnivores)
C. Lacrimal bone L. Occipital bone. c. Ramus of mandible j. Angle of mandible (horse & ox)
. D. Zygomatic bone J. Tympanic bulla d. Cheek teeth le. Pterygopalatine fossa
E. Frontal bone K.Mandible e. Canine tooth
F. Parietal bone L. Coronoid process f. Incisor tooth
G. Temporal bone M. Mental foramen g. Articular process
1. Zygomatic afch: the bony arch fonning the lateral wall of the zygomatic arch where the external ear attaches. In life it is covered
orbit. It consists of the zygomatic bone and the zygomatic proc- by the ear drum (tympanic membrane) which separates the
esses of the temporal bone. · external and middle ear.
2. Orbit (F. circle): the bony socket holding lhe eye. ~ 8. Mastoid process; located caudal to the external acoustic
meatus. It is an auachment site for muscles.
3. Lacrimal fQSSa: the depression in the medial margins of;th'e
orbit. It collects tears and sends them through the lacrimafcanal · 9 External occipital protuberance: the caudal process of the
which opens into the nasal cavity. · occipital bone.
4. Infraorbital foramen: the rostral opening of the infraorbital SPECIES DIFFERENCES

canal, located in the maxillary bone.
Bony orbit: complete in the horse and ruminants, is incom-
S. <kclpitaicondyles: the paired structures lateral to the foramen plete in the carnivores but is completed by the orbital hgament,
magnum that articulate with the first cervical vertebra (atlas).
Faclal crest: in horses, the ridge on the lateral surface of the
6. Paracondylar (jugular) process: the ventral projection near face
the occipital condyles. Facial tuberostty: in rymlnants, the process on the lateral
7. Ext~rnaJ aCQu.stic mea.t~s: the large opening caudal to the· .... surface of the face. · · _..
SKULL - LATERAL VIEW Head-3S
I. Zygomatic arch
2. Orbit 7. Extern aI acou stiic meat
G us
3 Lac·
Fie. 11-28 • nmal fossa .
- Horse • Skull
4. Inf raorbital ~ Facial crest
roramen
A 5. Occipital
condyles
6. Paracondyl ar process
1
2
Facial tuberosity 3
7
. -~
K
Fl&. 11-29 - 0 x • Skull

37
SKULL - DORSAL VIEW I. Nuchal crest
t----- 2. Temporal fossa
A. Frontal bone
B. Parietal bone
C, Zygomatic bone
D. Orbit
B. Inf:raotbital foramen
F. Nasal bone
a. Incisive bone
a. Zygomllic process of
frontal bone
b. Sagittal crest
c, Facial tuber (ruminants)
d. Facial crest (horses &, pig}
e. Supiaorbital foramen (absent
in carnivores)
f. Frontomasal suture
g. ~temasal suture
3. Nasal aperture h. N ll&OffllSXillar IU!lft
i. Temporal line
'
DORSAL SURFACE OF THE SKULL
1. Nuchal crest (NQO..kal); the transverse ridge at the transition

from the dorsal to the caudal (nuchal) surfaces of the skull. · SPECIE.S DIFFERENCES
2. Temporal roua: the depression formed by the temporal and · 6. Cornual process: the process of the frontal bone of homed
parietal bones.
ruminants that is enclosed by the horn.
3. Nasal aperture: the rostral bony opening into the nasal cavity. Temporal Iossa (2): -in -ruminants has ~n pushed to the
lateral side of the skull by the 49ntal bone.
4. Median sagittal crest extr..nds. tostrally from the external
occipital protuberance on the midline (absentruminantS).
38
SKULL - DORSAL 'tJI EW Head·40
, . . .. .,
2
4. Cornual process
a
1. Nuchal ere-st
2. Temporal fossa
~---·c
...
3. Nasal opening
Fl&, 11-32 - Horse - Skull
39
SKULL - VENTRAL VIE,W Hcad·41
1. Foramen ma1oum.
2. Tympanlc bulla
' 4. Optic canal
5. Cboanae -~:-----l~~;l
(caudal narcs) . c
6. Hard palate
\
' -,
' ·~
t
~
.' 1
' h
Fig. 11-33 - Dog • Skull
VENTRAL SURFACE OF THE SKULL
l. Foramen magnum: the large opening into the cranial cavity S. Choanae (koh-AY-nee) (sin,;:: choana} or caudal nares: the
for continuity of the spinal cord and brain. two bony openings, at the caudal end of the hard palate, leading
from the nasal cavity into the pharynx.
2. Tympanic buUa (tim-PAN-ik): the smooth bulbous enlarge-
ment on the ventral side of the temporal bone housing the middle 6. Hard palate: the horizontal pans of the incisive, palatine and
ear. maxillary bones, separating the nasal and oral cavities.
3. Mandibular fossa: the area on the zygomatic arch for articu- SPECIF.s DIFFERENCES
lation with the articular process (condyle) of the mandible.
F9ramen orbitorotundum: found in ruminants and pigs, is
4. Optic canal: the passageway for !.he optic nerve from me ~ joining of the round and orbital foramina of other species.
eyeball to the bra.ir,. lt is rostral to many other foramina that allow
P~-~sa_l!e of mh~· -=,.:aJ nerves.
·~
.J
SKULL - VENTRAL VIE\rJ ----- I. Foramen magnum Head-42
)
..
I
-~-
l. ~andibular---i~-
f ossa
~1r,...-- S. Choanae
~=---f (caudal narcs)
1
Optic canal
6. Hard palate
:"J:i. 11-34 - Ox - Skull
5
A. O<cipital condyle
3. JucullU' proceu
Zy,omuic arch
::>. Vomer bone
"!... Palatine bone
.,• M.&xillary bone .
.... BypoJlottal canal

r,- Stylomutoid foramen
~ Ext. acouatic meatu1
.!. Foramen lacerum.
a. P..uycoid canal
! '.Eumulu1 of pterysoid bone
~ Major palatine foramen
ii. ?aatine .fiuure
!... O::bital fllaure
., ao.tr. allU' fonmen
L Oaud. ala.r foramen h
- On! foramen
R.ttroarticular procen
::i:::. Fig. II-35 - Horse - Skull
::.. Condyloid foua
::. '?ympano-occipital fiNure
{eam.lvore.)
4i
SKULL - SAGITTAL SECTION
8. Frontal sinus
1. Cranial cavity
6. Dorsal nasal concha ..
5. Ventral nasal concha
-~· N_!S&I ca,lty
2. Hypoph.yseal Iossa
3. Cribrif orm plate
of etbmoid bone
A. Foramen magnum a. Tentorium 011eum g. Palatine 1inus (ox)

-B. Tympauic bulla (absent in ox) h, Sphenopalatine alnua
(not shown in hone) b. TranaverH canal (horse)
C. Pterygoid bone (absent in ox) i. Mandibular foramen (not
D. Frontal bone e, Hypoglonal canal ,hown in dog)
E. Optic canal d. Jugular foramen j. Sphenoid ainus (ox &c camivoN1)
F. Oc:c:ipital bone e.. Int. acouatic: meatus (not ahown in, dog)
G. Vomer (not f. Entrance to maxillary
ahown in dog) rec:eH (canine)
SAGl1TAL SECTION OF THE SKULL
l. Cranial cavity: the space in the cranium containing the brain, bones.
its meninges and blood vessels.
S. Ventral nasal concba (KONG·b): a scroll of bone filling the-
2. Hypophyseal Iossa (hy'poh-FIZ-ee-al): the depression in the rostral part of the nasal cavity.
floor of the cranial cavity (sphenoid bone) holding the pituitary
gland (hypophysis). 6. Dorsal nasal coneha: the largest nasal turbjnate of the ethmoid
bone.
J, Cribrlform plate (L. crib um sieve): the rostral part of the wall
of the cranial cavity. M.any holes in this part of the ethmoid bone 7. Ethmoid bone: the bone in the caudal nasal cavity. It has many
allow lhe passage of the olfactory nerve (CN I). bony scrolls called ethmoturbinates and its cribriform plate fmns
the rostraJ wall of lhe cranial cavity.
4. Nasal cavity: the hollow space behind the nose, surrounded by •
the facial bones. It is divided in half longitudinally by the nasal 8. Frontal sinus: the cavity (pani.nasa,l sinus) within the frontal
septum and is filled by the ventral nasalconchae anct ethmOtcr4)inate bone. · ·
42
SKULL - SAGITTAL SECTION Head-44
3. Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone
L Cranial cavity
8. Frontal sinus 6. Dors, nasal concha
7. Ethmoid bone
c
A
:.. Hypophyseal
Cossa
S. Ventr. nasal concha
Fig. 11-37 - Horse - Skull
- ll-38 - Ox - Skull
43
MANDIBLE - DOG Head-45
Fig. 11-39 - Dog - Mandi~le - med. view
--3. Ramus
.-:,.ar,,,,., ,,f'(\
''"'utt~i
c
S. Mandibular foramen 1. Body
4. Articular (condyloid) process
a. Mandibular notch f. Cheek t"'h .

b. Coronoid pro- I· ~ar procee, (carnivores)
e, Mandibular eymphy,it h. Ans)e of jaw
d. Incitor ,eeth I. Maneteric {oua
•· Canine tooth (not shown-doc)
'
MANDmLE (L. mandere to masticate) or lower jaw bone: the 3. Ramus: the vertical pan of the mandible bearing no teeth.
largest and only mobile bone of the mammalian skull. It holds the
lower teeth and consists of a right and left half united at the 4. Articular (condylar) process (KON-di-lar): lhe smooth peoc-
mandibular symphysis (c).
ess whlcb articulates with the mandibular fossa of the teml)()m
bone to fonn the temporomandibular joint ·
1. Body: the horizontal part bearing the lower incisor, canine,
premolar and molar teeth.
s. Mandibular foramen: the opening on the medial side of the
rarnus leading into the mandibular canal.
2. Mental foramen (L. menium chin): the rostral opening of the •
mandibular canal. (Not visible in the dog illusttalion)
44
MANDIBLE Head-46
,.
Flg. 11-40 - Ox - mandible

• dor. view
4. Articular process
5. Mandibular foramen
d
r
d
1. Body
Fig. II-41 - Horse • Mandible • cran.iolat. view
45
SKULL - FLOOR - CRAN1urv1 Head-47
Fig. 11-42 - Dog

. Floor of cranium
Infraorbital f oramen
Fossa for
lacrimal sac
2. Optic canal Hypophyseal

fossa
3. Orbital fissure ---..!\
4. Round foramen ----.JL
6. Int. opening for ----Ji

f oramen lacerum
7. Int. acoustic ---lo~

meatus
8. Jugular foramen
9. Hypoglossal canal
10. Foramen magnum
1. Cribriform plate 6. Formen lacerum a. Palatine fiuure f. Petroaal cre1t

2. Optic canal 1. Int. acoustic meatua b. Sulcua chiaamatia g. Canal for trigeminal n.
$. Orbital n.. ure a. Jucular foramen c. Rostr. clinoid proeeta h. Canal for tramverae ainua
,. Round foramen 9. Hypoaloaaal canal d. Ca\ld. clinold proc:eta i. Condyloid canal
5. Oval forarnen 10. Foramen ma:inum fi, Donum aellae
46
SKULL - FLOOR - CRANIUM Head-48.
Il-43. Horse
-fl.oor of cranium
Frontal sinus
.2. Optic canal
u:...- 3. Orbital fissure

.11,...-4. Round foramen
6. Foramen lacerum
~~--7. Int. acoustic

meatus
·8. Jugular foramen
10. Foramen magnum
II-44 - Ox • Floor
of cranium
2
10 7
47
~KULL - VENTRAL VIEW Hcad-49
1. Foramen magnum
3. Tympano-occipital fissure
(carnivores) --~
4. Stylomastold
f'oramen'
S. Ext. acoustic
meatus
6. Foramen lacerum
·" 7. Oval foramen
8. Orbital fissure
9. Optic canal
10. Choanae
~
~·
• ~ (tt
~ /(,
b ~
'\\~
~,,
Fig. 11-45 - Dog -ventr. view

of caud. skull
1. Foramen magnum 7. Oval foramen

2. Hypo,;lo1tal canal a. Caud. alar fora.men t. Malltu1
8. Orbital rwure b. Major palatine foramen
3. Tympano·occipital fi11ure 1.stape.
9. Optic canal . e. Supraorbital canal (Il-47) h. lncua
(camivorea) 10. Choanae (caudal nara) d. Canal for facial n. (ll-46) i. Promontory~
4. Stylomaatoid forarnen 11. Ju,;ular foramen e. Cochlear window j. Rosu, &1111' fi
Ii. Ext. acou,tic meatu1 (*3 ext. openina in
6. Foramen lacerum earnivores] k, Hamaie pl'OQS
pterygoid bone.
SKULL - VENTRAL VIEW Head-SO
J. Foramen magnum
Fig. ll-46 - Horse - Vcntr. view
of caud. skull
· 2. Hypoglossal canal
11. Jugular foramen •
4. Stylomastoid foramen
~--5. Ext.
acoustic
meatus
1·. Oval notch (P.~rt

of f oramen la~eru_lll)
Recess for maxillary,

sphenopalatine, & caud.
palatine foramen
Ag. II-47 - Ox - Ventr.

T;_~w of c-aud skull
49
•
FORAMINA Head·Sl
OPENINGS · STRUCTURES PASSING FACTS

THROUGH
lnfraorbltal. foramen Infraorbital n, Cran. opening of inf raorbital canal

(derived from CN• V2)
Fossa for the lacrimaJ sac Leads to lacrimal foramcn & canal
Maxillary foramen lnfraorbital n. (CN V3) Caud. opening of infraorbital canal
Crlbriform foramloa Olfactory n. (CN I) Openings in er· if'orm plate of

ethmoid bon ~~
..
Optic ~anal Optic n, (CN II)
Orbital fissure CN III, IV, Ophthalmic div.

(carnivores & horse) of CN V & VI
Round foramen Maxillary division (CN V2) Ventral to orbital fissure in horse
Forameo orbitorotundum .CN Ill, IV, VI, VI & Combined orbital & round foramen
(ruminant & pig) Maxiltary division (CN V2) in ruminant & pig
Oval f oramen Mandibular division (CN V3) Part of forainen lacerum

(horse & pig) in horse & pig
Foramen Jacerum Int. carotid a. (mandibular

division [CN V3] • horse & pig)
Int. acoustic meatus CN VIII (vestibulocochlear n.)
Jugular foramen CN IX, X & XI
Tympano·occipital fissure CN IX, X & XI Ext. opening of jugular

(carnivores) foramen in carnivores
Stylomastoid forameo CN VII (Facial n.)
Maadlbular foramen Mandibular alveolar n, (CN V3) Prox. opening of mandibular canal
Mental foramen Mandibular alveolar n. (CN V3) Dist. opening of mandibular canal
'CN-.::: Cranial Nerve
;u
Head·S2
FORAMINA
2. Optic canal
J. Fossa for
· 1acrimal sac
3 Orbital fissure
4. Ext. acoustic
meatus
- --: ~--
--
S. Foramen lacerum
6. Stylomastold forameu
7. Maxillary foramen
Fig. II-49 - Horse· Cranial & orbital regions of skull · lat. view ~
4
..
8. Foramen otbitorotundum
Fig. II-SO - Ox - Skull (cranial & orbital regions) - lat. view
51
SKULL - PIG Head-SJ
8. Front11l bone
io----9. Ext. acoustic meatus
ii. Zyromatic arch
12. Lacrlmal canal
.:
Fi1, 11-51 - Pig • Skull • dors. view
7. Tusk (canine tooth)
10. Temporal fossa
3. Orblt
13. Nasal aperture
2. lafraorbltal foramen
1. Rostral bone
4. Occipl tal
condyle
,1
/ :
'/. • '
-- .'
/'
.1'
S. Jugular process
7. Tusk (canine tooth)
6. Mandible
Fig. ll-52 ~ Pig • Skull - lat. view
SKULL - CAT Head-54
S. Temporal fossa
- ' . ..
IL Infraorbital foramen
.
Fla. II-SJ - Cat - Skull
- lat. view 6. Jugular process
8. Ramus of mandible
9. Mental foramen 7. Ext. acoustic meatus
12. Tympanic bulla
·,
S. Optic canal
~.
14. Zygomatic arch
'
15. Hard palate
•
Fig. ll-54 - Cat - Skull - ventr. view
.. 53
SKULL -GOAT
Head-SS
10. Cornual process of

frontal bone .
Fi&, 11-55 - Goat • Skull • dors. view
84VET.coM
' I
3. Orbit
.'
1, lnfraorbital--
t ora~en . 10. Cornual process
11. NaiaJ
aperture
3. Orbit
2. Lacrlmal canal
.,,. --
6. Occipital
condyle
7. Jugular process
9. Mandibular fossa 8. Tympanic bu.lJa
Fig. 11-56 ~ Gsat - Skull - lat. view 5. Ext. acoustlc meatus
.-
SKULL :.. SHEEP Head-56
U. Horn around
cornual process
12. Zygomatic arch
..
n~ II-57 - Sheep • Skull

• dors. view
13. Nasal aperture

2. Temporal fossa
/ 4. Nuch.al line
L Infraorbitai
for amen
S. Occipital
condyle
6. Jugular process
7. Tympanic bulla
9. Body of mandible
8. Ramus of mandible
Fig. II-58 - Sheep - Skull - lat, view
55
PARANASAL SINUSES
. \
Head .. S7
l. Frontal sinus
3, Frontal maxillary opening
e
d
I
•
I
.• !
.
'•
' ~ ~ I
I~ l
/
Ii I
l
~
(}
.Fla. 11·60 • Horse - Paranasal sinuses

- dors. ~Jew
2". Caud. maxillary sinus
a. Dors. conchal sinus (home)
b. Lacrimal emal
2'. Rostr. Jnaxillary sinus Fig. II-59 • Horse • Paranasal sinuses e. Sphenopalatinissinus (hem)
cl. lnfraorliw caiW
• lat. view e. NasomaxiJ!ary opening <hmse)
t Palatine sinus (ruminants)
PARANASAL SINUSES (par'a-NAY·zal SY-nus-seez): the Conchotrontal sinus: in horses, the joined fronral and dorsal
.. air-filled cavities 'within some bones of the skull. They are lined conchal sinus.
by a ffil.lC-OW. membrane and communicate with the nasal cavity.
The frontal and maxillary sinuses are the beSt known, but several J. Frontomaxillary opening; in the borg. the large opening
others may be present, including the spbenoid, palatine, laerimal between the caudaJ .maxillary sinus and the frontal sinus.
and conchal sinuses.
4. Cornual diverlk:ulum: the direct continuation of the frontal
1. FRONT AL SINUS: the paranasal sinus found in the frontal sinus into the comuaJ precess in homed ruminants.
bones of all domestic species.
2, MAXILLARY SINUS: the paranasal sinus in the maxillary Dog: has a maxillary "r.ecm" (Fi' ll~36J) ~ bonesin
the area of the maxillary bcne, not mside &he maxillary bone.
bone. It o~s into lhe nasal cavity t.Jirough the nasomaxillary
opening (e).
------------------- ...... Horse: has two maxillary sinuses separated by a bony septum,
SPECIES DIFFERENCES
the rostral maxillary sinus (2" ) and the caudal maxillary
sinus (2").
Frontal sin us: in the dorsal part of the skull. between the orbits
in the horse> small ruminants and carnivores. In the ox and Pig and ruminants: have a single maxillary sinus.
pig the frontal sinus extends to the back of the skull. In the
ruminant it has a number of divenicula besides the comual Lacrimal bull.a: paper thin caudal extent'of I.he maxiilary sinus
diverticulum. in lhe ruminants.
-------------·---·-·~-- ------------:---·-----...!
ARANASAL SINUSES Head-58
Fig. Il-61 - Ox - Paranasal sinuses

- dors. view
., .. .
... .. .
4. Cornual diverticulum
(only horned ruminants)
1. Frontal sinus
Fig. 11-62 - Ox - Paranasal sinuses

- lat. view
1. Frontal sinus
4.
d
2. Maxillary si.nu.s
WWW.Et1s4vEr.
I
I
.f
. . · . i:·/'!:~r.:~:l ~/
.. ·;7,.•.1{;:.,·.~ ), '), ••. •..;:;;~.:.; .
:l:lNIC·*~:,I',.
";,,- ·,. /::. . ·'\, -: : :
~-:.:~.:~~- ..:._:·: .. -~ .. ·: ..
,,;.
··~-=~~::·: ~· •
'•
. -~ : ,
., .. ~:-( ~- : ·>;: -·. ·. . :. \ . '. . ·t- .
S. Trephinatio~ '(tree-FYN:::ay•shun): the drilling of holes Cornual diverticulum (4)of the frontal sinuses is often·~·ncllf:
T:pbioe holts)
. into the paranasal
.
Sinuses, . . ·'in ·dehom'ing·and thus il possible entrance for inflam~b(j~~-~-
•'•'•
. itis) • . . ·'
• . ••• • ··~·::;-.i • , -~ •
(SJDUSI . <.<,:;-,.
> se: ai~· but the last uppit"cheek tee~ can 'be removed . _\ . . ... ·': · ; ~.: ', ···1:::. ;·~-l~~~i
:::;x:Jlcd) througbtrephined holes'in the maxillary sinuses. The · Ox -Trepbination of the four compartment frontal sinus:~>:' ~;i
&.cheek'to!)lh is reached by trepbining the conchofrontalsinus • Rostral · compartmem ', between theeyes 1 inch from· ili-t ·
ixh off ni~ilJine between themedial canthi of the eyes), then midline · · .,· ·· · · · ·.,.. · · ·... ·
l:!le~ curved p~nch through thffrontomaxillary:·op~nitag. Care •''Postorl>itai'llive.rtie~lwn :.- 1 ~ 1,f/2 . Inches caudal ~·to·1aterid:. ~
. , '{-.
=:sl be takefr'to avoid the ~rbital canal'(d)·and the lacrimal ·canthus .

ofeylf
• .. ·,
··. ,.. . .: ~ .,
• ,, ; . ,: •
:, . . ,:: . ,·.·· ·t~:~.,$;.
· ;.,.,
2.B (b).. . •'·; .. •.· ': Nuchal div~cufum.caudally;halfway between midli~e'ari!J;\'
· base of the horn. · .. ~:~~-'
3i t> •iaries.for trephination of the maxillary sinus in the horse: ...,.
• • • .. .. • ·<;, "' • • • . ,.
• ~1 ·.:·line'from medialcanthus to infraorbital foramen. Sinusitis: inflammation of the paranasal sinuses. Trephi~uo'n'·~
• VentiaJ - Facial crest. r-Jay be use.a· to drain such infections. ' .·-' ·,:rf.",'· ~
,,
S7
HYOID APPARATUS Head-S9
Fig. 11-63 -· Dog - hyoid apparatus

-craniolat, view ·
b ---..1 '·
c_......._
.ELIB4\fET.co,..
A. Thyroid cartilage a. Tympanohyoid cartilaie

B. Epialottic cart1la1e b. Stylohyoid bone
C.-Crlcoid cartilage e, Eplhyoid bone
D. TrAChea d. Ceratohyoid bone Fig. 11-64 - Dog - Hyoid apparatus
e. Thyrohyoid bone - lat. view
f. Baaihyoid bone
HYOID APPARATUS (HY-oid) (G. byoedes u-shaped): a Memory aid: to the order of the hyoid bones in relationship to
number of connected bones suspending the larynx and tongue each other - Sick Elephants Can. Be T reared.
from the skull. The hyoid apparatus consists of the basihyoid.,
thyrohyoid, ceratohyoid, epihyoid, and stylohyoid bones and SPECIES Dll•'FERENCES
tympanohyoid cartilage.
1. Lingual process: the rostral projection of the basihyoid
Basihyoid bone: unpaired hyoid bone crossing lhe midline where bone into the tongue. Carnivores lack such a process, but the
it can be palpated. horse has a long one arid the ox a short one.
:
58
HYOID APPARATUS .) Head-127
... ; a
. . :~., ...
Fig. n-ss -Ox - Hyoid apparatus

J
-cranlolat. view
..
Fig. 11-66 - Horse - Hyoid apparatus

- craniolat. view
f
59
VERTEBRAE Beginning-Neck & Back-61
VERTEBRAL COLUMN, spine or backbone: protects the 4. Vertebraltoramen: the space formed by the vertebra] archand_
spinal cool, supports the head and serves as attachment for the the body. The vertebral foramina of all the vertebrae form the
muscles effecting body movements. It extends from the skull vertebral canal, housing the spinal cord.
through the tail and consists of irregular bones - vertebrae. The
vertebrae are firmly joined by slightly moveable joints. AU the Vertebral canal: formed in the live animal by all the vertebm
vertebral joints together allow a great amount of movement. forarnina.
VERTEBRAE (VER-te-bree) (sin.= vertebra): the irregularly- 5. Body: the thick, spool-shaped ventral portion of the vertebra.
shaped bones making up the spinal column. They are grouped by It is convex cranially and concave caudally to articulate with
location into cervical (neck), thoracic (cranial back), lumbar adjacent vertebrae,
(loin), sacral (croup) and caudal (tail) vertebrae, Each group is
represented by its first letter followed by the number representing The 7 processes of the vertebral arch: the spine and the two
how many are in each section. C7 Tl3 L 7 S3 Can is the vertebral transverse processes provide sites for muscle attachment The
formula of the dog. Tiie number of each type of vertebrae is four articular processes form synovjaj joints with adjacent verte-
constant except the caudal ones. Twenty can be used as a rough brae. .
estimate of the caudal vertebrae with some dogshaving 'more-and
some less. Common features of a typical vertebra are the body, 6. Spinous process or spine: the dorsal projection of the vertebral
vertebral arch, vertebral foramen and processes. arc11.
t. Intervertebral (O£amen: the opening between vertebrae 7. Transverse process: the lateral extension of the vertebral arch,
formed by caudal and cranial notches of adjacent vertebrae. These They divide the muscles of the back into dorsal (epaxial) and
openings allow passage of the spinal nerves. ventral (hypaxial) groups.
2. Intervertebral discs: the fibrocartilages connecting the bodies 8. Articular processes: the four articular processes, two cranial
,Jf adjacent vertebrae. and two caudal (8' and 8"), articulate respectively with the caud2a
and cranial articular processes of adjacent vertebrae. These fan:
3. Vertebral arch (VER-tee-bral): the dorsal pan of a vertebra synovial joints.
that arises from the body. It consists of two upright pedicles •
forming the walls of the vertebral forarnen. From the pedicles two VERTEBRAL FORMULA: \
lamina project to the midline and form the roof of the vertebral
forarnen. Carnivore C7 Tl3 L7 S3 Ca20-2~
Pig 7 11-15 6-7 4 20-23
Horse 7 '18 6 5 15-21
Ox 7 13 6 5 18-20
Sheep 7 13 6-7 4 16-18
1. Intervertebral foramen
A.Au ..
B.Axh
C. 1th c•rvict.1
vert•bra
D. Skull
2. Intervertebral discs
a. Caud. notch
b. Cran. notch
c. Pedlcl•
d.Lamlna
F:i. 11-67 - Ox • C~r'fkal vertebrae - lr.t. view . -
.-
60
VERTEBRAE Neck & Back-62
4. Vertebral foramen
6. Spine
5. Body
Fig, 11-68 - Dog· Cervical vertebra
8". Caud. articular process
'
Fig. 11-69 - Thoracic vertebrae • Dog
• cran. view
8'. Cran. articular·

process
' .
Fig. 11-70 - Lumbar vertebra - Dog

• dors. view
61
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
Neck & Back-63
Fla, 11-71 - Doa • Atlas - cran. view

l. Transverse foramen
2. Wlna
-
.o
3. Ventr. arch
c F-.....i..
l. Tranverse foramen
4. Dens
Fig. Il-73 Doa • Cervical vertebra

• craniolat. view
E
A.. Body a. Alar notch
B. Vutebral ~ orfwamen
C. Vertebral foramen b. Don. arch of atlu
D. Spine c, Ventr. tubercle
E. TranlVerH p~ of allu
F. Cran. ankularproc- d. Lat. vertebral fonme,,
Fia. ll-72 - Doa - Axis· cran, view G. Caud. t.nicular proceo (not ,hoYQ in do1)
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE (cervix neck): the seven venebrae

oftheneclcinallmammals,characteriudbyatransverseforamen Shtb cervical vertebra's transverse processes: large ventn[
(except C7). The 1st (allas) and 2nd (llltis) cervical vertebrae are projections which on a radlograph are used as landmarks an:
atypical. often calle4 lhe "sleds".
1. Transverse foranum: the hole through the transverse process Seventh cervical vertebra; has a higher spinous process, a
of Cl-C6, together fanning the transverse canal. This difteren- articular facet on the caudal end of its body forthe bead of the fiat
rib, and no iransverse foramen.
tiatcs the cervical venebrae from C7 and the remaining vertebrae.
Transverse process: of the cervi.cat vertebrae are divided into ATLAS (Cl): the first cervical vertebra, named for its support af
ventral and dorsal bl~rc:es. the head, It has a synoviararticulation with the occipital condyles
to form the atlanto-occipiral i,oinJ which allows Hexion u.
.·
62
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE Neck & Bac_k·64
a
3. W!ng
·'
4. Dens
1. Transverse foramen t , 1
1 ,, '
Flg. II-74 ~ Horse - Atlas j,\1~ Fig. II-67 - ~01·s.f~--fi.iis - lat. view
~· ct ors; vi ev-,
d a
4 ···~
Fig. 11-76 - Ox - Atlas· caudodors.'view F·ig. 11-71 -i~ A~fi -vcraniolat. view
;. 1,:. l~;,$1,.
:mmsioo(the "yes" joint). The atlas is atypical because it'iacks

uaoy and a spinous process.
~esse{ ;i-. .~~
~
·· . Al.l~C2): the long~o~~..walvertebra. It has a largeridge-
~ 'f"stral arch: the portion of the atlas replacing the body of Iife·spmous proces~~-· , dqos. _
tllia'-iebrae. .
4_.pens: tl!e peg·li~ran~ .·· ess forming a pivot articuluion
111""-.gs: the large lateral masses that are modified transverse w1iii the atlas, allo1itfl.Y · motion (lhe ..no" joint).
63
THORACIC VERTEBRAE Neck & Back-6S
THORACIC VERTEBRAE: the vertebrae of the tharax, char· , ....
acttti1.ed by arti91Jec flllom for the pair of ribs they bear. SPBC1ES OIFFERP.NCES
•
••...,
AnticUnal vertebra: the dKncic vertebra wilh the most verti- Species # of thomcic vertebrae AnliclinaJ vcrtd>ra
cally oriented spine, usually the eleventh (I'll) in the dog. All
.
spines aanial to lhis venebra arc inclined caudally, all spines
caudal ro it incline aanially. This is often used as a landrnarlc in Canivores 13 11
reading radiographs of lhe lhotax or back. Hane 18 16
Ox 13 13
1. Coml fllcds: the tw9.plane surfaces dial articulate with a rib's Sheep 13 13
head, located on the caudal and cranial end of the vertel;nl bodies Pig 14-15 10
of most of the thoracic vertebrae.
~
Chicken 7 -
· 2. Transverse costal facet the plane surface on the transverse
process that articulates with the tubercle of the same numbered
rib.
Fie. 11-79 - Doe - 7th thoracic vertebra
• craniolat. view
Fie. ll-78 - Doe· 10th thoracic vertebra

·lat.view ·
B 1. Cran. costal facet
3. Transverse costal facet

.•
64
Neck & Back-65
F'lg. 11-80 - Horse - 1st thoracic vertebra

- craniolat. view
Fig. 11-81 - Horse • 5th thoracic

vertebra - lat. view
3. Transverse costal facet
2. Caud. costal facet
Fia. ll-82 - Ox - 3rd thoracic ·

vertebra - craniolat.
F view
q,
,:.
-
a
I
"
B
c 3
1
G
A.Body
b
B. Vertebral adi !
C. Vertebral Conmen
D. Spine
E. Tnmvene proceu
F. Cran. uticular procera
G. Cmd. Sliculs procaa Fla. II-83 - Ox - Anticlinal
a:M..,.~7.r:a•
b. Lat. v Conmen(ox)
(Tu> vertebra -
lat. view
65
l.UMBAR VERTEBRAE Neck & Back-67
•..,UMBARVERTEBRAE (Fr. /umbus loin): the vertebrae of the

1umbar(lower back, loin) region, characteriz.ed by their large size
r
SPECIES DIFFERENCES "
.
Md long plate-ljlce transverse processes (1). They can be distin- Species # of lumbar venebrae
guished from the last throracic vettebrae by their lack of costal
fllCetS. Carnivores 7
Horse 6 (5 in some Arabians)
Accessory processes (d): are found from the midthoracic IO the Ox 6
lumbar vmebrae. These can be seen through the intervertebral Sheep fr?
forameninradiographsandshouldn'tbeconfusedwitharuptured Pig fr?
intervertebral disc. Chicken 14 (lumbrosacral)
'\c
..
Fig. 11-84 - Dog - 1st lumbar vertebra

• caud. view
.,
1. Transverse process (E)
.
Fig. 11-85 • Dog • 6th lumbar vertebra
a <;audolat. view
66
LUMBAR VERTEBRAE Neck & Back-61
1'11. 11·86 - Hone - 3rd lumbar vertebra

- caud. view
•
I. Trus,ene Jrocell (E)

.... · ..~
.
- --
A
B F
l. Transverse process (E)
-
Fie. 11-17 - Horse - 6th lumbar
vertebra - caudolat. view
A b
1,E
A.Body
B. Vertebral arch
C. Vertebral forll1'en
D.Spina
E. Tnmsvinoprocesa
F. Cnn. articuig process
0. c-t. articulv poceq
1.MM11roillvy pni c Ht
b. Arlic:ulw Mr.cc, for Willa of
lsnun (hone)
e, Articulu surftee for Sth lumbar
vcrtebrroe (hone
Fla. 11-88 - Ox - 4th lumbar vertebra - craniolat. view
67
• •
SACRUf\,1 . Neck & Back-69
SACRUM:lheboneformedbythefusion ofthesacralvertebrae. CAUDAL(coc:cygeal)VERTEBRAE: tbevertdxacofthelai

It anicnJares with the hip bones forming the sacroiliac joint The varying in number between the species and wi~ the spe- a
ponion of the vertebral canal through the saaum is called the ~y become progrcs&vely smaller distally.
sacral canal.
1. Dorsal and 2. ventral sacral roramina: the openings on the· ·

dorsal and ventral swfaces _of the bone for passage of spinal
nerves. -;_.':.~
~ ::.. .
3. Wings: the lateral parts of the sacrum articulating widi the hip . ··'
4. Spinous process.es (D)
bones IO fonn the sacroiliac joinL
SP~ DIFFERENC~:
4. Spinous processes: the unfused processes in the horse and
carniwres. -.
S. Median sacral crest the fused sacral spinal processes in G
the ruminants.
r
Species Differences
Species ·. Fused vertebrae
Carnivores 3
Horse .s
Ox . s
s~ . .
·4
4 Fig. 11-90 - Dog - Sacrum • lat. view
Pig.
Fie. 11-89 - Doe • Sacrum

• dorsocran. view
2. Ventr. sacral foramen
D
1. Dors. sacral foramen
F
-·-::.-:-~·. : - ·-- . ..
.'
--...-:. . . -·- . .
. - . .,::.,-----:
_ . ,•
....
Fig. J:l-91 - Do?,' - Sacrum - ventr. view

SACRUM Neck & Bact-128
ns- D-92 - Horse - Sacrum
• dorsolat. view
1, Dors. sacral foriamlna
A C
F
3
5. Medial sacral crest
b-++
l
,,Q'
Fl1, 11-93 - Ox - Sacrum - lat. view

c
A. Boct, L MlcuJar (Ml'icular) ,urt.ce

B. Vtrt..bnl udl forWum
0. Venebnl (-.I) b. W. lacnl cnlt Fla. 11-9, - Ox .• Sacrum - dors. view
cual' e,P: 111 aa'°'7
D.Spme d.hrfa:1for11th dtN..
··~pillllN wh!a tn uaw pra ol
P. Ona. •SI Jv pa ! .... ·, lf1NldDft0--}
a. OMld• .--tlvltt pc 111
69
THORAX Beginning· Thorax-71
... . ..
. . 1· ',• '\ ._··· . : ;
', ..•· (:_ ... ::····· 1.. • •• .
.. ... ·.
··~
·.
..
..
. ..
·,. .,. d
4. Intercostal space
r
c
6•. Costal arch

8. Manubrtum
S. Costa) carttlage
a 9. Xiphoid process
7. Sternebra
• •. ,., -· a:. True rib

.. ... b. False rib · ..
Fig. II~~?, - Dog - Thorax • lat. view e, l'.loa\ins rib (dos)
d. Thonclc vertebrae
e. Coatochondral junction
t. Angle of rib
THORAX: the bony cavity fonnea by the sternum, the ribs, the of adjacent thoracic vertebrae and the intervening intervertebral
costal cartilages, and the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae. The disc.
thorax encloses and protects the thoracic organs.
3. Tubercle of the rib: articulates with the articular facet on the
1. RIBS (L. costae): the long, curved bones forming the lateral transverse process of the same numbered vertebra.
wall of the thorax.
4. lntercostat space: the space between two adjacent ribs.
• True ribs (a) (sternal ribs): articulate by their costal cartilage
with the sternum. 5. COST AL CARTILAGE (L.- costa, rib): the bars of hyaline
cartilage either connecting the bony rib to the sternum or to the
• False ribs (b) (astemal ribs): theircostal cartilages unite to form costal arch or ending freely.
the costat arch, indirectly joinlng them to the sternum. . .
6. Costal arch: the curved structure formed by the costal .catti·
• Floating ribs (c): found in the dog and man, end in costal lages of the false ribs. ·
cartilages that do not join to the sternum or other costal cartilage.
7. STERNUM· or breastbone: the unpaired bones (stemebrae)
2. Head ofthe rib: articulates with caudal and cranial costal facets forming the floor of the thorax.
THORAX
Thorax-216,
1. Rib
3. Tubercle of rib
. f
.~--·
.... • v ,
...
·: ~
4. Iatercostal •P•ce
• ·1·
/1
J
7. Steroebra · ..
I 5. Costal cartllaee Fig. 11-97 ?·Rorie - Thorax·
"'•'.-J. !} •
... ,- •/ .-!lit. view

.
·4,."'
/..~;:7- .....
9. Xiphoid process
Fig. 11-96 • Horse - Rib . y.... ;,,/
,• .,.:;-
,
7 . - Ox - Thorax - lat. view
Fig. 11-98
1. \h:nubrium (ma-NOO-bri-um)(L. handle): the expanded first

~- SPECIES DIFFERENCES
i..Xipltoid process(ZY -foyd)(G.xiphds.sword): thelastsie.mebra
. ,. .... ""·
Floating ribs: last pair in dogs only.
"11.h is a thin, horizontal bone capped by the xipboid cartilage.
ll.. ""THORACICINLET" or cranial Cboracicopeoing: formed

Number of stemebrae: carnivores• 8, pig, horse and man-
6, ruminanL, - 7.
!!' Oe. last cervical vertebra, first pair of ribs and the sternum.
n '"THORACIC OUl'LET" or caudal thoracic opening: sealed ... : ..

~ ~ diaphragm.
71
DOG - SKELETON THORACIC LIMB '·P.eginning-T~oracic limb-73
1···'
l. Scapula
~- Scapula
Fig. 11-100 - Do1r a Thoracic

limb skeleton
- lat. view
i11:· .
2itfumerus
--B
4. Ulna
6. Dialt I
("dew claw")
7. Metacarpal bones----iri·\I
8. Prox. sesamoid bone / D
9. Prox. phalanx ----ii~~~/[
.,........F
10. Mldd•e ,~~~lanx ~
Fig. H-99 - Dog - Thoracic limb

skeleton • med. view
A. Shoulder joint
B, Elbow joint
C. "Carpal" articulatlona
D. Metacarpophalanseal articulation•
E. Peex. intorphalanseal articulation•
.,., F. Dist. interphalana:eal atticulation,
'"'
HORSE - SKELETON - THORACIC LIMB Thoracic limb- 74
1. Scapular· cartilage -~-..,·
~....._ 2. Scapula---------
Fig. 11-101 - Horse - Thoracic

limb skeleton - lat. view
Fig. 11-102 - Horse. - Thoracic limb
skeleton - med. view
~-----------S. Ulna-----------...:
------- 4. Radius ------1

ELIB4VET.COM
.--s. Metacarpal bones II & IV ..fl"t"'

(splint bones)
I
.Jl----- 7. MetacarpalIII------!!,11-1n
(Cannonbone)
.,..--9. Prox. sesamoid bones

\ .. · ..
o,---.i. 10. Prox, phalanx (Pl,

long pastern)
E . 11. Middle phalanx (PII,
<, short pastern)
F 13. Dist. sesamoidbone
(navicular)
-...,..:;:.~'--------12. Dist. phalanx (Pill,-------:!~
(coffin bone) ._,.....,,,..
A.. Shoulder joint
E. Prox. interphala.n1ea.l
a Elbow joint
aniculation (pastern joint)
- ~caipal" articulation D. Met~a.rpophala.n1eal
("knee") F. Diat. interpha.la.ngeal
articulation (fetlock joint) articulation (coffin joint}
73
OX - SKELETON - THORACIC LIMB Thoraciclimb-7S
~--- 1. Scapularcartilage---........_J
J,:..----- 2. Scapula-------..... ___
--
:
..
3.Humerus~~------------...-...x~-~·--1
I
l
I
.. ,..
--fD _
7, Large metacarpal bone

(Melli & MclV)
----..-..-...-..JL
--. 2. Prox, (palm.) sesamofd bones
9. Prox. (1st) phalanx (P I)
JO. Middle (2nd) phalanx (P II)
13. Dist. sesamold bones
Fig. 11-103 • Ox - Thoracic limb skeleton Fig. 11-104 - Ox - Thoracic limb skeleton
- lat. view - med. view
74
PIG - SKELETON - THORACIC LIMB Thoracic limb-76
Fie, 11-105 - Pie - Thoracic limb skeleton

• lat. view
·-·
-- --
. /r <, ,
, . WWW.-ELIB4VET .. COM .
•
_j[_-------2. Scapula --------.l._ ..
3. Humerus
i
j
-+-------- S. Ulna
'.
I
ll---~ 7. Metacarpal bones 11-V _ _..,...\
.i
8. Prox. sesamoid boots
9. Prox. (Ist) phalanx
Fig. 11-106 - Pig - Thoracic limb

skeleton • med. view
• n dr ioi.nt D. Metacarpophalan·geal joint Converging arrows
•
• m PID1 E. Prox. interpbalangeal joint indicate angle of
:. ..... - jot.at, F. Dist. interphalangeal joint flexio.n of joint
75
~'..iCAPULA Thoracic limb· 77
Fig. 11-107 - Dog - Lt. scapula - lat. view
<,
::.i. Supraspinous fossa Fig. 11-109 - Cat - Clavicle
4. Infraspinous fossa
:. Spine '-.......
8. Suprahamate process
W.ELIB4VET.COM
S. Subscapular fossa
·"';·
c
\ / 6. Glenoid cavity
~ Fig. 11-110 - Cat - Lt. scapula

l -
ventr. view
2. Acromion ~ a. Scapular notch

b.Neck
c. Supraglenoid tubercle
d. Dots. border
e, Fscies serrata
Fig. 11-108 - Dog - Lt. scapula f. lnfragtenoid tubercle
- med. view g. Coracoid process
h. Nutrient foramen
(Fig.Il-111)
i. Cran. angle
j. Ventr. angle
f g
........._./
J
CLAVICLE (KLA V-i-kul) (L. JiUle key) (collar bone): the bone 3. Supraspinous fossa (soo'-pra-SPY-nus}: the area cranial to
articulating with the shoulder and the sternum in man to maintain the spine providing auachmentfor the supraspinatus muscle.
the shoulder in a lateral position. The domestic animals need their
thoracic limb under their bodies. so the clavicle is absent or 4. Infraspinous fossa: the area caudal to lhe spine providing
rudimentary. anachment for the infraspinatus muscle.
SCAPULA (SCAP-yoo-la) ("shoulder blade"): the flat, triangu- 5. Subscapular f~: most of the medial (costal} swface of the
lar bone of the shoulder. The two scapulae make up the thoracic scapula providing attachment for the subscapular muscle. The
girdle. dorsal pan of the costal surface is the serrated surface (e) for the
attachment of the serrates ventralis muscle.
1. Spine of the scapula: the !ong projection dividing the scapula's
lateral surface and ending as the acromion. 6. Glenoid cavity: lhe shallow cavity articulating with the head of
the humerus to form the shoulder joint,
2. Acrom!On (a-KROH-mee-on): the expanded distal end of the
spine of the scapula. i. Scapular cartilage: the cartilaginous structure on the dorsal
border of the scapula.
76
SCAPULA Thoracic limb- 78
7. Scapular c~rtilage
\ 1
' ... ..
:'.
...
!
I
1
I
. 4
fwww.El1B4VET.COM,
Fig. 11-112 - OX -Scapula

9, Tuberoslty - med. view
(sp~nal tuber)
2
c
..
c----
g
Fla. U-111 - Horse -Rt, scapula
- lat. view 6
SPECI~ DIFFERENCES:
•
Clavicle: Cat - a separate, non-articulating bone, seen radio-
graphically. Dog - a rudimentary structure embedded in the
brachiocephalic muscle, rarely seen radiographicaUy. Horse
and <h - absent
Acromion (2): absent in the horse and pig.
.. 9. Spinal tuber: a bony enlargement of the scapular spine

foundinlhehorseandpig(poorlydevelopedinthecatandox). ·
Fig. 11-107 - Ox -: Rt. scapula - ventr. view
Scapular carti~e (7): a narrow band in the dog, while in the
horse, ruminants and pig it is a broad, thin structure. ·
Sapraglenoid tubercle: the process near the cranial aspect of the
g}enoid cavity, providing attachment for the biceps brachii mus-
de. ;ctINlCA~. . '. :: . . . .' \.f:~- : : .-:·\._':.' _-··i
...
·:~ndary ossiricatiq~fcenre.r~ - s~p·raglenoid.t~be{tl(ip,;
Coracoid Jn)CeSS (KOR-ah koid) (Gr. crowlike)(g): the small the carnivores fuses ~Y .e~gfit months of age. S1,1f,ragleilf)~ :
process on the medial side of the supraglenoid tubercle for the _tu~rc.l~_~d-cranial gI~a.ia 'CaV~ (fuse one year) and;~r-
aaachment of the coracobrachialis muscle. border ofthe scapula (fuses·at three years). . ., : .. ._;, ,
.. . . ;: . . . _· . .·-. :' ~ ;:.:t~ ::......~-.~
I. Suprahamate process: the caudal projection of the acroroion Clav~cle: inthecatcanben_ustakenforaboneinthe~~g~·:
foond only inthe cat. The distal end of the spine can be called the 01f}aiera1 h¥,iiographs.. :. ·.._ ,.- ..
acromion or haroate (L. hooked) process. ,...
77
HUMERUS Thoracic limb- 79
2~ lntertubercular groove 4. Lesser tubercle
' I
j
·. I
I
WW ET.COM
i
• J' ii
I
:!
II a
j
1 •. ,
I
• 6. Deltoid ,, Fig. 11-115 - Dog
tuberoslty 1: - Lt. humerus
- caud. view
\I
5. Body--1,._ l\'
:1
••jl
9. Medial 13. Supracondylar

eplcondyle 11. Radial fossa foramen
12. Supratrochlear-___,, Fig. 11-116 - Cat • Lt. humerus

for.amen . . • caud. view
•· Tricipital line
b. Brachia.I,roove
e, Lat. cpicondylar era,
d. Trochlea
e. Capitulum.
f. Neck
7. Humeral condyle ,. lnterlion or infrupino\14
tendon (II-118)
Fig: 11-114 - Dog-. Lt. Hume~hs
-- cran. view
HUMERUS (HYOO-mer-us) (ann orbrachial bone): the largest 4. Lesser {medial, minor) tilbercle: the process on the medial side
bone of the thoracic limb. It articulares proximally with the of the head.
scapula, fonning the shoulder joint; and distally with the radius
and ulna. fonning the elbow joint. S. Body (shaft, diaphysis): the cylindrical pan connecting the two
ends (epiphyses) of the bone.
1. Head: the rounded process articulating with the scapula's
gleneidcavity to form the shoulder joint 6. Deltoid tuberosity: the large mberosity on the lateral side of the
humerus.
2. lntertubercular (bicipital) groove: the sulcus between the
greater and lesser tubercles through which the tendon of the 7. Humeral condyle: the entire distal extremity of the humerus.
biceps brachii muscle runs. including the two articular areas (humeral capitulum and humeral
trochlea), the two fossae (three fossae in the cat) and the lateral and
3. Greater (lateral, major) tubercle: the large process crani- medial epicondyles.
olateral to the head to which many muscles attach. The point of
the shoulder is a surface feature formed by the greater tubercle. 8. Lateral epicondyle: the lateral side of the humeral condyle,
giving rise to the extensors of the forearm. Functionally it is
HUMERlJS Thoracic limb-80
Fig, II-117. - Ox - Lt. humerus Fig. II-119 - Horse -tr. humerus

- caud. view • cran. view
l~i." Intermediate
tubercle .
1. Head
.
' 1/
2 3
~ /'.
6. Deltoid tuberoslty WW ;ElfB~VET. OM
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I,/.
ii
l
'"
·; 6
J.J, 1
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'
.·1,fi.I' .
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.
'fl' '
•
·I
•.. I
'
I·, 9
t
I.
r
IO. Olecraaon Iossa

\ 11. Radial
fossa
7
Fig. 11-118 - Ox _: 11
• Lt. humerus
- cran. view 8.Lat. epicondyle
.
9. Med. eplcondyle
Fig. II-120 - Horse - Lt. humerus

- lat. view
blown as the extensor epicondyle. SPECIES DIFFERENCES

'
9. Medial epicondyle: the medial-most point of the humeral 12. Supratrochlear foramen: the hole between the ole-
a)[\dyle, functionally known as the Ilexor epicondyle because it cranon and the radial fossa found in the dog and sometimes the
;sovides auachment for the flexor muscles of the forearm. pig. Nothing passes through it
10. Oleeranon fossa (oh-LEK-ra-non): the caudal excavation 13. Supracondylar foramen: the opening in the medial
reeei ving the proximal end of the ulna on extension of the elbow. epicondyle present only in the cat. To remember which side
it is on. the mediajl nerve and brachia! vessels pass through it
ll. Radial fossa: the excavation opposite the olecranon fossa
recei ving the proximal end of the radius on flexion of the elbow. 14. Intermediate tubercle: a prominence in the horse's
Tbe ~ has a small coronoid fo~a medial to the radial fossa for intertubercular groove.
::ie medial coronoid process of the ulna on flexion of the elbow.
IS. Greater tubercle: is divided into cranial and caudal parts
in the ungulates.
79
ULNA & RADIUS
Thoracic Umb·81
J
J
5. Olecranon
6. Trochlear
notch 2
2. Head
Fig. 11-121 • Dog - Lt. ulna
& radius - lat. view
~! ~
1. Radius --i... , 1
~ ,f I J
Fig. 11-122 • Dog - Lt. ulna & radius

- caud. view
---4
'
~·
,.
,.,· '
•,
9. Interosseous space
.. . i
.
a•. Articlllar fovea of radiua (Il-122) I
b. Neck of radi111 I
e. Groove for common dlrital
VET.COM exten.aor t.ndon (Il·Ul)
d. Stylold proc.u o! radi111
•· Radial tubuoaity I
t. Coronoid proc:eu (ll-122) l
,. R:,.dial not¢h (not l
ahown - lg. animal,)
h, Body or radius
i. Bo<ly of ulna .'
j. Olec:ranon proc:ua \.
l
r
( tubaroeity) Vi \
3 d
8. Styloid process
3. Carpal articular surface
1. RADIUS (L. spoke of a wheel): the main weight-bearing bone providing a lever arm for the extensor muscles of the elbow. It
of the forearm, articulating with the humerus and ulna forming the forms the point of the elbow.
elbow joint and with the carpal bones and ulna forming the
antebrachiocarpa! joint. Three distal grooves on its cranial surface 6. Trochlear notch (TROHK-lee-ar) (semilunar notch): lhe
accommodate tendons. depression for articulation with the humerus and ending in the
anconeal process.
2. Head: the proximal part of the radius which articulates (fovea
capitis, a) with the h\lmerus (capitulum) and ulna. 7. Anconeal process: the proximal end of the ttocblear notch
which fits in the olecranon fossa of the humerus when the elbow
3. Carpal articularsurface: the articular surface on the distal end is extended.
of the radius (trochlea) which articulates with the carpal bones. .
·'· • Medial coronoid process (f): the large distal end of the uochlear
Styloid process of radius (d): distil end of the radius. notch.
4. ULNA (L. elbow): the long, thin bone serving mainly for 8. Styloid process of the ulna: the pointed, distal end of the ulna.
muscle attachment and formation of the elbow joint Proximally
itarticulat.eswith the humerus and radius, distally with the radius 9. Interosseous space: the space between the ulna and radius,
and the carpal bones.
readily sun in the carnivores and pig. The horse has a proximal
interosseous space and the ox has proximal and distal ones.
s. Olecranon (Oh-LEK-ra-non): the proximal part of the ulna
ULNA & RADIUS .
5. Olecranon Thoracic limb- 82
J \Fig. 11-123 - Horse - Rt. ulna
& radius - cran. view Fig. II-125 - Ox - Rt. ulna
<,l. ri'\ ..~; is - cran. view
J
\'"1 1. :;:o•c:l~::ocess
·,1Jr ! . notch
4. Ulna
e
9. Interosseous
space b
1
h
,,i,I·
h ,.I
www .. 18. 9
II·I ..
II . .!
I
mtit---- 1. Radius .)
\ I I
I
8'. Stylold process(ulna}

Fig. II-124 - Horse - Rt. ulna Fig. 11-126 - Ox - Rt. ulna
& radius - med. view & radius -. caud. view d
8
.. . .
SPECIES DIFFERENCES
Ulna: fuses with the radius in lhe horse and ruminant; there-
fore, these animals cannot supinateor pronate their forearm. It
is not fused in the carnivores and pig, allowing pronation and
supination. ·
81
CARPUS Thoracic limb·83
Ca. (Accessory) '

a
Cu. (Ulnar)
Cr. (Radial)
,
c· e
d
Fig. II·127 • Dog • Lt. carpus

- dors. view
Fig. II-128 - Dog - Lt. carpus • lat. view
MANUS: the distal part of the thoracic limb, consisting of the . ..

carpus, metacarpus, phalanges and their associated sesamoid Cr RMiial carpal bone a. Radius
Ci Intermediate carpal bone b. Ulna
. .is also called the forepaw in the carnivores.
bonesiJt Cu Ulnar carpal bone e. Met.carpal II
Ca Accea1<>ry carpal bone d. Metacarpal Ill
CARPUS (KAR-pus) (L. wrist): the carpal bones; also the c Fil'llt carpal e, Metacarpal IV
compoundjoint formed by these bones, or the region between the c! Second carpal
c3 Third carpal
r. Metacarpal V
forearm and metacarpus. C Fourth carpal
c• fused 2nd & Srd carpal (ruminant.)
:i+s
CARPAL BONES: the two rows of bones forming the carpus.
The number of carpal bones varies between species due to fusion
between bones or absence of one or more bones. The pig has the
generalized pattern of eight bones. The proximal row consists of SPECIES DIFFERENCES
the radial carpal, intermediate carpal, ulnar carpal and accessory
carpal bones. The distal row, from medial to lateral, consists of Pig (Fig. II-143-144): has the "generalized" carpus of ejght
carpal bones l-4. · bones.
'.
Proximal row: '
; . . Horse: conforms to thegeneralized pattern of eight bones
unless the 1st carpal bone is missing, or rarely if a fifth one is
• Cr. Radial: the largest carpal bone, medially located. presenL
, Ci. Intermediate: between the radial and ulnar carpal bones.
• Cu. Ulnar: laterally located bone in the proximal row. Dog and cat: have seven carpal bones due to fusion of lhe
• Ca. Acce~ry: projects behind (palmar) the carpus, articulating radial and intennediate carpal bones to form the dog's "radial"
with the ulnar carpal. (It is the only carpal bone to which muscles · carpal bone.
attach • flexor carpi ulnaris and extensor carpi ulnaris).
Ruminant: has six carpal bones. The 1st carpal bone is
Distal row: consists of the lst, 2nd, 3rd and 4th carpal bones (C1• missing and the 2nd and 3rd carpal bones are fused Conning
cl. c, & c~ in the generalized pattern. the .. fused 2nd and 3rd" carpal bone.
82
Thoracic limb-84
CARPUS
Fig. 11-129 - Horse • Lt. carpus • dors. view
ca--
__ c, .. ·'
.
.
1
. , .,'
; .
.I ; :
.
d
Fig. II-130 • Horse • Lt. carpus • palm. view
a b
'',
:! ·•.
'• . ..\ - .
•
~ I
......
/ --
:/·.
~
Ca
©
f
d,e
Fig. 11-131 - Ox • Lt. carpus· lat. view

Fig. 11-131 • Ox - Lt. carpus
• dors, view
CLINICAL
Sesamoid bone of the oblique carpal extensor (extensor

pollicus longus) tendon: is located on the medial side of the
carpus and shouldn't be mistaken for a chip fracture.
Valgus and varus: terms for deviation of the bones distal to a

joint, These can be caused by.premature closure of the distal
83
.P.
M.ETAC~PAL BON.E~ ·. Thoracic limb-85
....
.
b
Mel
( ..
\
Mel
Mc IV
----Mell
Mc IV \
Mell ---lfr-
McV
Melli
\'
eJO a°'
110 d.O
Prox. palm.
l
sesamoii:l bones
Flg. ll-134 - Dog - Lt. metacarpal bones

.,:·. - palm. view
Fig. 11-133 - Dog - Lt. metacarpal

bones - dors. view
Mel Metacarpal I a. Base
Mell Metacarpal 11 b. Carp.al articular aurface
McIIl Metacarpal Ill c. Metacarpal tubero1ity
MclV Metacarpal JV d. Body
McV Metacarpal V e. Head
f. Sagittal ridge
g. Condylu (med. & lat.)
MET ACARPUS: lhe region of the manus located between the CARNIVORE MET A.CARPAL BONES: the generalized pat·
carpus and digits. tern of five metacarpal bones. Metacarpal I (Mel) is much reduced
and bears no weight, it is part of the dew claw.
METACARPAL BONES: the generalized metacarpus has five
bones numbered 1- V from medial to lateral. The species differdue
to absence or fusion of bones. Each bone is composed of a base
articulating with the carpus, a head articulating with the proximal
phalanx of a digit, and a shaft connecting the two extremities, At
least one sesamoid bone ls associated with each metacarpal bone.
84
METACARPAL BONES
Thoracic limb-86
PIG METACARPAL BONES (Fig. 11-143 &. 144): has four . c b
metacarpal bones. The 1st metacarpal bone (Mel) is missing. McV (small
Metacarpal bones IIand V (Mell and MeV) are greatly reduced .metacarpal bone)
md don't bear wcighL The weight is borne by metacarpals Ill and
IV (Mcill and MclV).
HORSE MET A CARPAL BONES: has three metacarpal bones.

The 1st and Sth are missing.
l
SpUn t bones: the common name for the greatly reduced metacar-
pals II and IV (Mell and MclV). The splints usually end distally
m small swellings that are called the "buttons of the splints".
Cannon bone: the common name for the large metacarpal III l
CMcill). It is the only metacarpal to articulate with the digiL
Melli & 1v--ii.1-
d (lar1e
metacarpal
bone)
MclV (splint bone)----..
b J
a .
k
f
MclV Fig. 11-137 Fig. 11-138
(splint bone) Ox - Lt. metacarpal bones
- dors. view - palm. view
RUMINANT DIFFERENCES
h. Dore. long1tudinal croove k. Intertrocblear incisure
i. Prox.. metacarpal canal I. Palm. longitudinal groove
j. Diat. metacarpal canal
RUMINANTMET A CARP AL BONES: two metacarpal bones.

The lst and 2nd (Mel and Mell) are missing and the 3rd and 4th
Men are. fused.
(Cannon bone)
Large metacarpal bone (cannon bone): the common name for
fps¢ metacarpals III &. IV.
Buttons of splints Small metacarpal bone: the common name for the greatly
reduced metacarpal V (McV).
Fig. 11-135 Fi.g. 11-136

Horse - Lt. Metacarpal bone
- dors. view - palm. view
85
. Thoracic limb-87
.• ! •
g.
~-
Q ....
,.
·.g
t 'J ....
S. Palm. sesamoid
bone .
4. Ungual process
..· .
f
h
.
-t-
·. · 3. Dist. phalanx
Fig. ll-140 - Dog-> Lt. manus • palm. _view

Fig. 11-139 - Dog - Lt. digits • dors. view
DIG~T.S: the bones corresponding to the fingers and toes of man. digit.
There are five digits in the generalized digital pattern, numbered
from medial to lateral (1-V). Species differences are due to 3. Distal phalanx: the third phalanx carries the horny claw. The
reduction in the number of digits. The digits generally consist of flexor process (f) on the palmar side provides insertion for the
three phalanges
. . . and a number of sesamoid bones. deep·digital flexor tendon, The extensor process (e) located on
l -~: ,, ,
the dorsal proximal part of the four main digits provides insertion
Dew claw or paradigit: a digit not bearing weight for rhe tendons of the common digital extensor muscle (long
digital extensor muscle in the hindlimb).
C~NIVORE • DIGITS: four rr• ain weight-bearing digits (II-
V). . . . .
4. Ungual process: the tapered, cone-shaped process covered by
the horny claw.
Dew claw (i): the 1st digit and the 1st metacarpal bone. The 1st
digit is reduced in size having only two phalanges, the proximal Horny claw (b): the fingernail-like structure covering the ungual
and distal, and one proximal sesamoid bone. Some dog breeds process.
have double dew claws.
5. Palmar sesamoid bones: the nine small bones at the metacar-
1. Proximal phalanx (FA Y-Ianks): the first phalanx divided into pophalangeal joint; two for each of the four main digits and one
the base, body, and head. for the lst digit
2. Middle plialanx: the second phalanx with the same stmcwre Distal sesamoid bones: are represented by cartilage in the carni-
as the proximal phalanx, but shorter. It is not present in the first vores and rarely ossify.
86
DIGITAL BONES Thoracic limb-88
5. Prox. sesamold bone
a
1. Prox. phalanx
b--,~-
6. Dist. sesamold bone
Abaxial
.. .•
.. .. .
.,
·i
..
' .
• •f, ':
•,~•:I··,
. -
J.,• Fi&- 11-141 - Ox - Lt. digits - dors. view
·.~ Fla. 11-142 - Ox -Lt. di$it • palm .. view
a.Bue f. Flexor proceu

b.Body ,. Don. -amoid bone (doc)
c. Trochlea h. Horny daw (carnivores)
d. Un,ual crat i. n- claw (carnivores,
(camivoree) pie& ox)
•· Extemorproc-
OX· DIGITS: four digits, two weight-bearing and two non- 1. Proximal phalanx: the lsm& pastem as in the horse;
weight-bearing. The 1st digit is missing. The second and ftfth
digitsarevestiges(impobabletofind)extanallymanifestedas 2. Middle·pbalanx: the mmt pastern.
horny dew claws behind the fetlock.
3. Distal phalanx: the coffin bone,
Third and fourth digils: fully developed weight-bearing digits
consisting of three phalanges and three sesamoid bones each. Sesamoid bones: two proximal (5) at the metacaJpOphalan-
They ~ numbered m~ally to laterally. geal joint and one distal (6) at the distal interphalange.al joint
for each digit.
,, 87
PIG· DIGITS:fourdigilS.the lstismming. Tbesecondand HORSE. DIGfl"S: one digit per limb aq,pating Mc m.
fifth are reduced and do not bear weight and are called dew L Prwoieal phalanx: the loq pasten,
claws. They are fully formed except that they lack a distal
sesamoid bone. The main digits (3Jd and 4th) consist of three 2. Middle phaMJIX; the slaort putera.
phalanges, two proximal sesamoids and one distal sesamoid.
3.Distalphaus:tbecdnabolle.ltfilsintothehoofandhas
an exrensor process for thC' imertion of the digital extensor
'I
. I
.
e-
. J
tendon. .
• Parielal surface (a): surface next to the hoof wall
• • • • , k~
Fie. II'-143 - Pl'& • Lt. ma11us

- dors. view · • Sole sudace (b): surface facing the ground.
• Medial and lateral solar foramina (b): entrancesto the solar
~anal for the continuations of the digiaal arteries.
~VET.COM • Solar all81: the canal between the sols foramina for the
• v"
terminal
arch of the arteries. '
• Palmarproct$Ses, "angles".or "wings• (c): of the coffin bone.
• Parielal grooves: suki on the parielal surface.
Cl
Cu ·,~ Unpal cartilage (Fig. Ul-23): the morfill and lateral carti-
lages of the hoof attached to the CCXOIII[)' bonier (c) of the
dislal phalanx. J. .
· ,. Proximal sesamoid bones or .. sesaaoids": the two small

bones on the palmar side of the memcarpophalangeal {fet-
\
lock)joint The lateral one is taller radiographically than the
medial one. This bone is situated between the suspensory ~
ligament and the distal sesamoidean ligaments. Together
these make up the suspensory a~us of the fetlockjoint.
; i.
tt:
5. "Navicular bone" (L. little ship) or distal sesamoid bone:
unlikeothersesamoid bones it is not embedded in a tendon but
is between the deep digiiat flexor tendon and the middle and
distal phalanges. It has articular and Dexor surfaces and
Middle proximal and distal borders.
phalanx • . ·:$ • .. ···:· - -~---· ::· · ,· :.:;. ,,,_..:·.: ~i. .. :~:-~::~~r-i;"· ..· ~~(~-.~:~:
c,--- •
CLINICAL -·HORSE·
•••: • • ;• ~· a'• 0 '
.. • .. ,·
,~,:~~-, ' .. : ••~~ •
·, · ',,.~
::•:,::,,_.~:~;~~-~::
,· > .,.: · · · ';'·.·.·:·.,
',;.~.~-~~{~::) • .:=/ff:'.
·Quittor:.an inflai:nmalionpfllhe:·un~:¢tila'ges;.\·,"\ .: .:;::. t
~ :·- . , · ·-.-~·.·:·: ·-~· . ~~\·· .·:~· .: . {. _:· ~~·:c::
Sideb~~~-~:.m.~~i'fii~i~:::of)!:~:;#~tc~~:~i.~§
age. Thjs usuallyb~ ilQ'·c.liru¢al'sjgnifance. '. e : ·.: ··,.,~
• • • •. .; . .• ,: •• / '!._ ;: :: :~:~~·.
Ringbone: periosteal" bQne ..deP.9sitiQb ~n .~ :ph~J~n~~~:

oecuring near the pastern joint (prQ~aJ:·in'leq,~~r
joint) is a high ringbon~; near ~:t:Qffi,~:·)oint,{~WJ~~{
phalangeal joint) is .a· low ringbon.e,:. ·,:. ,::' ·. . . ;- ,: . ;:. ::·..,.;:~·
,· ih~ m~~·.::
Dist. phalanx Osselets;
. ringbone around
. ~ .. ,.P.', etata~:~~.,i~w
: ., : .·«··~~~"r:.·: -r , • :
geal joint (fetlock): · ::·• . . · •

.···':• ";,:,, :,.:·: · ...··:,:=;,-,'.1~:',::
Prox. sesamoid bone Buttr~ root (pyramidal

disease): ~e depositjoir al ~:;:
extensor process of the coffin bone.caused by a f~U.Jrepf the·.
extensor process or it may be a fonn of low ring bone.
Rotation or the coffin bone: the rotauoa of the toe of the distal
phalanx. towards the sole of the hoof, resulting from chronic
laminitis.
·~i•.ii:v1~
..... ..,.,..l.J.t.:ll
••.,, ........ ,.,,.,.,,,:,.," hm~n~~~ •·;- ~·v· ... l ~,..1-,,,•... n
~~! ... <..l r-· .. liu.ti.f...~~ v .. ~,-;.t:,;.·,.; t .1.,. •..:.·~u-,.oiil.i,':t
t . .'.': ...... - ~!
w··,a..
~; ;'·? ,t' ···f"-i r-...-.-'1~"'1-l ~··t•!"\-'" - 1 'r, . ,
... t-, . ~ ,"-.- ·.- .:~:~:,
,...,"! ~-·., -! •-·*· -~~;.,..o
-· .... ~!,..\'. A~·.t;t;..-:.~~ .... ,~..; l, ...,!;_..;_, _: u:. '-•• "'"""":1'"U-,,.::ab-~"):.:,.e- ......... ~....·:t.~~~,>....o~ I
I OYc: ilii.s bone. · l
..;:::..1- _.:~~:.; · ... ":.... !.:.:.:.·,·":···, ...... 1 ~lr·~.::.':;, f'f·.~;: ~--
·"
1 ...... - - •• "I'.'
.
,:
!1 Fig. II-145 - Horse

- Lt. digit .. ,
- dors. view
1. Prox. phalanx
(lone pastern)
.. -
"
k
2. Middle phalanx
.{short pastern)
4. Prox. sesamold
bone
3. Dist. phalanx
{coffin .bone)
Fig. ll-146 - Horse - Lt. digit

- lat. view
bone)
----..t.
S. Navlcular bone •
{dist. sesamoid
l g
a. Pari.etal {dort.) aurfaee f· Solar groove

., b. Solar 1ur!aee ot diet. phalanx h. Solar loramen
e. Proeeu of P m i. Semilunar line
d. Parietal 1ulcue J. Flexor surface
e. Coronary border k.Crua
'• f. Extemor PJ'OC4U l,Button of splint
~ Fi1, ·11-147 - Horse - Lt. manus ·palm.view
'
89
DOG - SKeLETON - PELVIC LIMB Beginning-Pelvic limb-91
;· .
·.·' ' '
Fie. 11 -148 - Doe - Lt. pelvic limb skeleton \
- lat. view
1. Os coxae
.. ,
Sesmoid bone in
popliteal muscle
....,~-·. ·· ..
.
S. Fibula ------A
.
I
' . . ... . .
7. Metatarsal bones 10. !\fiddle phalanx
11. Dist. phalanx----:
Fig. 11-149 - Dog - Lt. pelvic limb skeleton

- med. view
HORSE - SKELETON - PELVIC LIMB Pelvic limb-92
Fig. 1-150 - Horse - Lt. pelvic limb skeleton ; .;..
- lat. view 'f

Fig. 11-151 - Horse
Lt. pelvic limb
2. Femur
3. Patella ---
___ S. Fibula
f
4. Tibia
6. Tarsus----
7. Metatarsal
bone II )
iu~---s. Metatarsal
bone IV )
9. Metatarsal bone III --.r..
10. Prox. phalanx
11. Middle phalanx 13. Prox. sesamoid

bones
,,
12. Dist. phalanx ----i1 14. Dist. sesamoid
bone
A. Hip joint ( coxal articulation) D. Metatartopbalangell.l joints

B. Stifle joint (genual articulation) Converging arrows
E. Prox. interphalangeal joint indicate angle of
C. Hock (tanal) joint F. Diet. interphalangeal joint flex.ion of joint
91
OX - SKELETON - PELVIC LIMB Pelvic lim~-93
Fig. 11-152 - Ox - Lt. pelvic limb skeleton

• lat. view ·
1. Os coxae
2. Femur
I""""---- S. Fibula
8. Metatarsal sesamold bone

(metatarsal II)
I
-fl----- 7. Large metatarsal bone--~\
(metatarsal III & IV) '.
t'2. Prox. sesamold bones---.ir:I
"J,n ...
A'------ 9. Prox, phalanx
~--:...._---10. Middlephalanx
..~;..,t_::._:_:.::-:-:-:-:-:-::-::-21~3,.Dist. sesam old bones_.
11.Dist. phalanx · ·
Fig. 11-153 - Ox - Lt. pelvic limb
:s) A. Hip joint (coxal articulation) D. Metatareophalangeal joint•

B. Stifle joint ( genual articulation) E. Prox. interphalangeal joint
0. Hock ( tarsal) joint F. Di1t. interphalangeal joint
92
Pelvic limb-~4
PIG - SKELETON - PELVIC LIMB
Flg. 11-154 - Pig - Lt. pelvic limb skeleton
- lat. view ·
_ 1. Os coxae
.. -~
.. 4' • •
2. Femur
-------~--- 3.' Patella --....--.._::.-'"".'.~~.....:.-,rfy~ri.

,. . ;i
j·
L-------- 5. Fibula
6. Tarsus
7. Metatarsal bone II
8. Metatarsal bone IV
9. Metatarsal bone III
13. Prox. sesam9id bone

10. Prox, phalanx
14. Dist. sesamold bone
11. Middle phalanx.

12. Dist. phalanx
Fig. 11-155 - Pig - Lt. pelvic limb skeleton

· - med. view
PELVIC GIRDLE 2. Wing Pelvic limb-95
Fi&. 11·156 • Dog - Pelvic girdle

- cran. view
3.Tubercoxae---"'
1. Ilium
9. Pelvic sympbysis
6. Pubis
.
J 5. Ischlatic tuberosity
4. lschlum
3. Tuber coxae
Ftg, 11-157 • Horse - Lt. os coxae

• lat. view · ·
/
7. Acetabulum 8. Obturator foramen
PEL VIC GIRDLE or bony pelvis: consists of the joining oft.he Hip bones or ossa coxarum: the two hip bones. They are joined
two hip bones (ossa coxarum), sacrum and first few caudal at the pelvic symphysis.
vertebrae. It encloses the pelvic cavity. The "pelvic inlet" is the
cranial opening into the pelvic cavity. The "pelvic outlet" is the 1. ILIUM: the largest and most cranial part of the os coxae, It
caudal opening out of the pelvic cavity. The widest horizontal consists of a wing and a body. It forms the cranial pan of the
distance of the pelvic cavity is the transverse diameter. The acetabulum and articulates with the sacrum. The ischiatic spine (j)
vertical diameter from the pelvic symphysis to the sacrum (prom· separates the greater (i) and lesser (k.) ischiatic notches.
ontory).
2. Wing: the lateral masses of the ilium that articulate with the
HIP BONE or os cexae: the fused ilium, ischiurn, pubic and sacrum. The gluteal surface (h) is the lateral aspect of the wing
~c::.itruiar bones. The acetabular bone is in the center of the where the middle gluteal muscle arises. The auricular surface (c)
acetabulum and fuses early leaving no visible indication of its articulates with the sacrum fonning the sacroiliac joint. The iliac
presence. crest (a) is the cranial edge of the wing.
94
PELVIC GIRDLE Pelvic limb-96
c 2
b
Fig. 11-159 - Ox - Ossa coxarum

l - dors. view
3
2
Fig. 11-158 - Horse - Ossa coxarum S

- ventr. view
a. Crest of iliwn i. Greater ischiatic notch

b, Tuber sacrale (11-157) j. Ischiatic spine I
c. Auricular surface (11-156) k. Lesser ischiatic notch
(sacropelvic surface) I. Ischiatic table (11-159)
d. Body of ilium m. Ischiatic arch
e. Arcuate line n. Sacrum
f. lliopubic eminence o. Sacroiliac joint
g. Pubic tubercle p. Lunate surface
h. Gluteal surface of ilium (11-157) q. Acetabular notch s.
3. Tuber coxae: the palpable prominence on the lateral wing. In ramus forms part of the acetabulum and the caudal ramus is
the ox it is called the "hook". medial to the obmrator foramen. The pecten is the cranial border
of the two pubic bones (pubes). The pectineus muscle attaches to
Tuber sacrale (b): the medial process of the wing next to the the iliopubic eminence (f).
sacrum.
7. ACETABULUM (as'e-TAB-yoo-lum) (L. vinegar cup): the
4. ISCHIUM (G. hip): the caudal-most pan of the os coxae. The concavity articulating with the femoral head. It is formed by the
ischiatic table (1) is the horizontal part caudal to the obturator fusion of the ilium, ischium, pubic and acetabular bones. The
foramen. ligament of the femoral head attaches to the fossa in the acetabu-
lum. The lunate surface (p) articulates with the h~d of the femur.
5. Iscbiatic tuberosity ("pin bone" in the ox): the thick, caudal
part ofthe ischium providing anachment for the caudal thigh 8. OBTURATORFORAMEN(OB-too-ray'ter): large opening
muscles. . .. in the floor of the os coxae.
lscbiatic arch (m): the caudal indentation between the ischiatic 9. PELVIC SYMPHYSIS: the junction of the right and left os
tnberosities. coxae between the two pubic and two ischial bones.
~~·!~a~:=i=;:d = ~:a:~ 5(~0.·~ec:~ l~ll~tl~~!l!!{!~:~I~~-~~~~f11~1

95
FEMUR 1. Head Pelvic limb-97
FEMUR {thigh bone): tbe heaviest bone in 2. Greater trochanter ....
the body articulating proximally with the hip-
bone (forming the hip joint) and distally with
die tibia and patella (Conning the stifle joint).
a
1. Head: lbe smoodl process articulating with Fig. 11-160 - Dos • Lt. femur • eran. view
the acetabulum of lhe OS c:oxae, forming the
hipjoinLlthasadepn sskln(fovea)(h)forthe
round ligament of lhe femur. The ma (a)
joins the head IO tbe body of lhe femm. 4. Thi.rd· trochanter
\
2. Greater (major, larml) trocbanter (ll'Ob- WWW.E 18 4 T.COM

KAN-ter): the large pominmce lattnl to the
bead,
3. Lesser (minor, IDNfial) trochanter: the h

prominence distal,to lbe ht.ad. j
P•f.
b
Trochanteric f~ (j): depression on lbe
caudal aspect of the femur between the tro- f
chanrers.
_,__ 3. Lesser
4. Third trochanter: the prominence oo the
lateral side, distal to the greatet trochanter:_· tro_cbanter
g
5. Medial and 6. lattral CODdyles (G. knuck-
8. Patella
1~): the two large prominences articulating
with the tibia and the menisci (fibrocartilage
discs between femur and tibia).
\.
Extensor fos.u (e): depre.uion on the lateral
condyle for the attachment of the long digital 7. Patellar surf ace
extensor muscle.
• • .. I. • .'
, .
c \
7. Patellar surface or femoral trochlea (L. I I
· pulley): the groove articulating with the pa- e
tella, bounded by two ridges, the medial one
being the thicker in all species. I \
.
8.PA,:ELLA(pa-TEL-a)(L.liuJeplale)(knee I
cap): the largest, sesamoid bone of the body, .
articu1ating with the paldlar surface of the
\
femur. · Fig. II-161 • Dos - L~. f emue
• caud. view
SPECIES DIFFERENCES
a. Neck of femur
9. Trochlear tubercle: lbe large promi- . b. Body of femur
nence oo medial ridge of the patellar sur- · e, Med. epieondyle d
face in the horse.The patella locks overthis · . d. La*. epieondyle S. Med.
e.Ex~rfoe,a
structure when the stay apparatus is in use t. s... of pu.Ua condyle
(pg. 198). I· Apex of patella 6. Lat.
h. Fovea of femoral head condyle
I. Intertrochanterie creet
4. Third trochanter (4): absent in the j. Trochanterie fOM•
ruminants. Ji:. Med. It lat. 1upracondylar m
lubero.ltle1
l. Popliteal 1urda.ce
10. Fabellae (L. bean}: the two small sesa- m. lntel'(:ondyloid fou~
moid bones embedded in the heads of the a. Nutrient fore.men
gastrocnemius muscle of me carnivore. o. Supneondyloid foua
...•
p. Ariieulv 1urface
of si-tena (11-1~)
96
FEMUR Pel vie Ii m b-98
2. Greater tvcchanter
Fig. II-162 - Horse Fig. II-164 - Ox - Rt. Iemu:
- Lt. femur - caud. view - craa. view
. h
'
.
J
·'
J
h ,.
\
1;
/1
..
II ,.
c::::::-::-:--~--.f
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..
;
I
! b )
b i
I :j
i :1
I J
! J
I
i
./
4.Third
trochanter
i d
d
t
l e
m
7. Patellar surface
9. Trochlear tubercle
7
0
Fig. 11-165 - Ox· Rt. femur
- caod. view
S. Med. condyle
Fie, 11-163 - Horse - Rt. Patella

• cran. view • caud. view
6. Lat. condyle
Sesamoid bone of the popliteal tendon in carnivores: shouldn't

be mistaken for a chip fracture in radiographs. CL~NICAL._:,:· · . :'.~:: :::;.. · · /,.i·:i'l]'jfjfJ!fi'.1
, Mid: shaft· {ractures in.. c~J'nivi>f~'s:)'esult in· the ·~udJU::dfs'i) ·
f's.:£l!ar fibrocanilage: in the horse and ox attaches the medial ·placement·cfffi~distaI•fia~enl' 'iliepull du¢:to or~ ·~~*I
p.uellar ligament wi~ the patella. nemius ~~if:. . , ·-: ;; _~-?_:-.. . : . ~t?::::': . _' ,:·._~-~;\ j(~Ji f
1 ::;0'ilij1
97
TIBIA & FIBULA
Pelvic limb-99
3. Lat. condyle 4. Med. condyle
Fig. 11-167 --Dog - Rt tibia & fibula
- caud. view ;
'
4 3
r S. Tibial tuberosity k
fwww.ELIB4VET.COM,j
2. Tibia 2 1
1. Interosseous (
;
space
7. Fibula
g
. .
I 7 .
' g
h
\ .
\
'
8. Lat. --- 6. Dist. articular
malleolus surface
''
FJg. 11-166 - Dog - Rt. tibia & fibula
8
- cran. view 6
LEG SKELETON (L. crus): the tibia and fibula. 6. Distal articularsudaceorcocblea: the two grooves.separated
by a ridge, articulating with the trochlea of the tibial tarsal bone.
1. INTEROSSEOUS SPACE: separates the tibia and fibula.
7. FffiULA (L. pin or skewer) ("calf bone"): the long, thin bone
2. TIBIA ("shin bone''): the medially located long bone.
bearing little weight, serving mainly for muscle attachments. It
articulates distally with the tibia and the fibular tarsal bone. It is
3. Lateral and 4. medial condyles (G. knuckles): the two proc- the more lateral of the two bones of the leg
esses articulating with the corresponding femoral condyles and
fibrcx:artilage discs (menisci).
8. Lateral malleolus (mal-LEE-oh-lus): the distal end of the
fibula.
S. Tibial tubero~t,y: the large proximal cranial process where
lP!!,'.;:ies ar.~ the patellar ligarnent(s) attach.
TIBIA & FIBULA
Fie. 11-168 - Horse - Lt. tibia & fibula
- cran. view a
a b
I S. Tibial tuberosity
4. Med. ·condyle '·

3. Lat. condyle 7
i/
7. Fibula
I \ 5
h
~-
\ ~
.
space ~1 \ f
2. Tibia
c
.•
8. Lat. malleolus 8
Fig. 11-170 - Ox· tibia & fibula
6. Dist. articular surface • cran. view
I
Fie. 11-169 - Horse - Lt. tibia

& fibula - caud. view
a. lntercoadylar eminence r.
Head of fibula
b. Cran. intereond)1ar area C· Body of fibula
e. Cran. liordw h. Body of Ubia
d. Muacular ,roove I. Groove or lat. malleolua
(«xtenaor suku,) j. Popliteal notch (Il-167')
e. Med. malleolua •· k. Popliteal ..,amoid ,6
bone (carnivoru) Fie. 11-171 - Ox· tibia
& fibula - lat. view
SPECI~ DIFFERENCES
Horse: lhe fibula is a reduced bone that reaches only ltalf way
down lhe tibia. The true distal end of the fibula (lateral malleo-
Carnivores and pig: the tibia and fibula are not fused. lus) is fused with the tibia.
. .
Ranfmants: lhe lie.ad of the fibula fuses to the tibia. Most of the
body of the fibula fails to develop; therefore the proximal ·and
clmal fibula are notCOMectedand there is no interosseous space. c,':ticil
lbe distal end of the fibula (lateral malleolus) remains separate . Growth.pJares·in the dog: unite by one year of age. The'9~fgr{t.
:, }I
iRxn the tibia. --···
'the'tibial tuberosit can be mistakenfor a 'fracture in all' .. ,...,,.~:;,;,,q,
...., .·.·-- '· ~ ... y . . ··~p>-,+
'• v--: . • ·.<.:,',
.. .·..
. _,.
.
" : ,
·-._:'-
• ... • •
• ../
' . •• • . ··~:.::;., .«~~:·::.!.. ~:,.::
•• ,•,.":.::,·: ..: ~;:•::<,::-... ;;:
99
TARSUS. Pelvic limb-101
1-- __ 3. Calcanea.n tuberoslty
..• 1. Tibial tarsal bone

·:'"> ~
Fig. II-173 - Dog - Lt. tarsus

- meet. view
."
Fig. 11-172 - Dog - Lt. tarsus - dors. view :! ...
. ,1
-
TARSUS (G. torsos flat) or "hock": the two (or two and a half)
rows of-bones between the crus and the metatarsal region. The SPECIES DIFFERENCES
proximal row consists of the talus (tibial) and calcaneus (fibular)
tarsal bones. In the generalized pattern seen in the carnivores and· Carnivores and pigs: have seven tarsal bones.
pig, the distal row e:onsists of central, Ist, 2nd, 3rd. and 4th tarsal
bones. 'Ibe'central tarsal bone is actually between the proximal Ruminants: have five tarsal bones due to fusion of four bones
row and lhe numbered tarsaJ bones. It doesn't· span the whole to form two bones - centtoquartal bone (fused central and
tarsus because of the "~wo story" fourth tarsal bone. fourth) and fused second and third.
1. Talus (L. anklebone) or tibial tarsal bone: the largest bone of Horse: bas six tarsal bones due to fusion_of two bones - fused
the tarsus, located on its dorsomedial side. It articulates by its l$t and 2nd. .. -
trochlea (b) with the tibia (the tibia and fibula in the dog).
Ruminant and pig: have two trochJea to their ialus.
. .
2. Calcaneus (kal-KA Y-nee-us) (L. heel) or fibular tarsal bone:
the second bone of the proximal row, lateral to the tibial tarsal .,
bone. :"
. .. - .
. '·
:.:_.
3. C',a,kanean tuberosity: the large process of the fibular tarsal

bone serving as a lever ann for the common calcanean tendon.
Sustentaculum tali {a): the medial "shelf" of the calcanens, The

tendon of the lateral head of the deep •;1giml fle- 1r tender. cresses
1
iL
100
TARSUS
Pelvic limb-102
Fie. 11-174 - Horse - Rt. tarsus - med. view Fie, 11-175 - Horse - Rt. tarsus - plant. view
3. Calcanean tuberosity
;
. ....~
_,.. ~~-
-·,!..
....
•
,:. ..••• ,·.-;.
• ~7 t .. .., "t... .,•
.
.. .
'·
'-""-- I, Tibial tarsal bone
IV
I & II
Fig. 11-176 - Ox - Rt. tarsus

- dors. view
a. Susteruaculum tali
b.TrochJea
c. Central tarsal bone II & III
d, Groove for tlexor tendons
I - IV. Numbered tarsal & metatarsal bones I

I & II. Fused 1st & 2nd tarsal bones (horse)
IV & c. Centroquartal bone (fused central &
41h tarsal bone) (ox)
Il & ID. Fused 2nd & 3rd tarsal bones (ox)

- lat. view
101
METATARSAL BONES Pelvic limb-118
b
3. Metatarsal bone IV
METATARSAL BONES and DIGITS (met'a·TAR-sul): their
-~:i:f-:1.__ajMt IV) ("splint bone") pattern is the same as in the thoracic limb of the horse and pig.
,'
SPECIES DIF~RENCES
-"---,-j'-+-- 2;.Metatarsal bone II
~fMt II) ("splint bone") Carnivores: the first metat.arsal bone is even more reduced
g .. EQUINE METATARSALS than in the front limb and the first digit (dew claw) is often
absent
a.Bue
b, Tarsal articular
1urfac'•
Ruminants: the fifth metatarsal bone is absent A metatarsal
c. Body sesamoid' bone. is present
... ...
and is oft.en called the "small
: •. d. Head metatarsal" or metatarsalIl.
· , · ·· •· Saeitlal ridge
(. Condylea (med. & lat.)
· g. Nutrient for-amen · . .
i ~~-·a 'f·..
'1,
·,,· ~
~tat,rlai,,, ••.•
• .
bone• 1,11
': =-... . . .(Mt Ill) ("cannon bone")
. Fig.11-1.80 - Pig - Lt,' pes ·Fig. 11-181 - Pig • Lt.
-dors. view
'A
. -plant view
c ..
''f'
l
...
• ~
...... •• +
Fig. 11-178 - Horse

• Meta tar-vl bone
• plant. view
Tt
5. Meta.tarsal sesamoid bone
(Mt D - 'smatl meta tarsal bone)
b
e
4. Large metatarsal bone-~--2,· . •"

(Mt III & IV)
I
. ~;·. .. . :.
. ~.t'
BOVINE ~TATARSAL BONES

a. Baae , ..
b. Tanal articular 1urface
c. Prox. metatarsal canal
d. Diet. metatanal canal Ph3
e. Head
f. Intertrochlear' incisor d
g. Plant. longitudinal groove
h.Body
PORCINE MET.A.TARSALS
A Calca.nC111.r1 luberoaity
Tt Tibial tanal bone
Tf Fibular tarsal bone
e f Tc Central tarsal bone
T 1-t Tarsal bones 1·4
Fig. il-179 - Ox - Metatarsal bone Mt 2-6 Mebtanal bones 2-6
Ph 1·3 Prox., middle & dist.
- p:.;:nt. view ~halangee
102
Chapter III
Joints
.'
. '· ·:
; : •;(i
: '·
103
JOINTS
31-General·IOS
ARTICULATION(ar-tik'-yoo-LAY-shun)orJOINT:unionor (G. s,ntksmos, ligament): a fibrousjoint uniting two booes by a
junction between two or more· bones of the skeleton..
sheet of fibrous connective tissue (e.g., aaachments between the ~
~tal canilages in the COSl8l arch [pg. 71]' and the interosscous '
Arthrology(G.art/rros,joints+logos,study):tbestudyofjoints. ligament [pg. 111, e] between the radius and ulna in camiV<X'eS).
JOINT CLASSIFICATION: Joints can be clas.mied by several - Sympla,si.s (SIM-fi·sis): the llbrocartiJaginous (or possibly
criteria. ·
hyaline cartilaginous) joints thatoccur on themidlineof the body.
Aldiough they may or may not ouify with age, they always limit
SIMPLE OR COMPOUND JOINTS: classified by "number the motion of the joinL Examples ~ the pelvic symphysis (pg.
of bones articulating with each other.
118) and joints between Stanebrae (pg. 131,1) and vertebml
bodies (pg. 130). Flbrocanilage, a strong form of cartilage. is
• Simple joints; articulations with two articulating bones.
found when, bones need to be strongly bound logetber and SliU
allow some movement
• Compound joints: articulations with more than two bones
articulating (e.g., stifle). ·
• Fr~l7 movable joint or diarthrosis (dy'ar-THROH-sis)
(dianhroidal joint): synovialjoinls. The uniting medium may be
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION: classified by their unit- considered the joint capsule.
ing medium into fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial joints. .
• Synovial joint. disc.ussed on pg. 106.
• Fibrous joint: articulation united by fibrous tissue, allowing
little or no movement, as in a suture or syndesmosis. These are
often temporaryjoints that later ossify {synostosis).
• Cartilaginous joint articulation united by fihm;artj'au:, Ju'.£

Hnecartilage,orboth,asinasynchondrosisorasymphysis. These GOMPHOSIS (gom-FOH-sis): the name for the fibrous implan-
also can be slightly movable or immovable. tation of the teeth into thealveoJi of the jaw bone. This is not a true
joint because the teeth are not part of the skeleton. This peg-and-
• Synovialjoint: an ai;uculation united by a sypovjal jojntcapsgJe. socket joint is held together by fibrous ccnnecnve tissue, the
These are freely movable.
;~ periodontal ligament, that attaches each tooth in its socket
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
·'
OF JOINTS: indicates ..
1-.
,,
{·
the degree of motion possible.

Autlwrs note: The pioper terms for the different classification of joints
• Immovable joint or synanhrosis (sin'-ar-THROH-sis) (pl.= (synarlhrosis, synchondrosis, syndesmosis, synostosis, amphiarthrosis,
synarthroses) (synarthroidal joint) (syn, together; arthro, joint): you
no
the fixed tight union allowing little or movement and having
etc.) are confusing, easily forgotten, and probably won'l make
better veterinarian.
a
great strength (e.g., suture between two facial bones). ·
- Suture (SOO-chur): a fibrous joint between !heskull bones.

They may ossify with age. · · ·
- "Hyalinecartilagejolnt" orsynchondrosis (sin'kon-DROH-

sis): an immovable, temporary joint ofbyaUne cartilage, e.g., the
cartilaginous epiphyseat plate uniting the <liaphyses and epiphy-
ses (pg'. 22 of immature bones). The epiphyseaJ plate allows
growth of the bone and then ossifies with age. This process
eliminates the joint by fonning a synostosis (ossified joint). A few
syncbondroses persist through life, such as the costocbondral
junctions (pg. 131 ).
• Slightly movable joint or amphiarthrosis (am-fee-ar·THROH-

sis) (amphiarthroidal joint): a joint connected by either connec-
tive tissue or fibrocartilage (e.g., between the vertebral bodies).
Amphi, as in amphibian, implies both immovable and movable
(which it is), allowing only slight motion.
- "Ligamentous joint" or syndesmos.is (sin'-dez-MOH-sis) ..

,.
,,
104
JOINTS - FIBROUS &. CARTILAGINOUS General- I 06
Syndesmosis
Suture
FIBROUS
Symphysls
CARTILAGINOUS
Hyaline cartilaie joint
",·
.'
•'
·.:
Fig. 111-1 - Fibrous & cartilaginous Joints
105
SYNOVIAL JOINTS Generat-107
SYNOVIAL (sin-OH-vee-al) (dianhroidal) JOINT (movable different tissue that reduces friction between these tissues. Re-
joint): characterized by its mobility, joint cavity, articular cacti· sembling a synovial joint capsule, its walls consist of a fibrous t
lage, synovial membrane and fibrous capsule. This is the most layer lined by a synovial membrane. Bursae are located between ".:
common type of joint Functionally it is freely movable. skin and bones, tendons and bones, muscles and bones, and
ligaments and bones.
1. Joint capsule: the two-layered structure surrounding the joint,
made of an outer fibrous layer and an inner synovial membrane. 10. SYNOVIAL SHEATH: a stnicture_similar to a bursa that
wraps completely around a tendon. It reduces friction between the
2, Fibrous layer (capsular ligament): the white and yellow elastic tendon and underlying bones.
· fibrous part of the joint capsule. It attaches to the periosteum on
or near the margin of the articular cartilage. Its thickness varies.
from joint to joint and within each joint.
3. Synovial membrane: the inner lining of the fibrous layer. It is

highly vascular, nerve rich, and produces synovial fluid. The
membrane may extend outside the fibrous layer to communicate
wilh a synovial sheath or to form a bursa under a tendon or
ligament.
Synovial fluid: the viscous liquid produced by the synovial

membrane to lubricate the joint, supply nutrients, and remove
waste from the hyaline articular cartilage. It has the consistency
of raw egg white.
4. Articular cartilage (ar-TIK-yoo-Jar KAR-ll·Lij): the translu-

cent, bluish-tinged cartilage, usually hyaline, covering the articu-
lar ends of bones. It reduces the effects of concussion and friction
by its compressibility, elasticity and smoothness. Varying in
thickness between and within joints, the cartilage is thickest in
areas of highest pressure and friction. Having no vascular or nerve
supply, articular cartilage depends on synovial fluid to supply
nutrients and remove waste products.
Ligaments (5-6): strong bands of white fibrous connective tissue

uniting bones. They function to keep joint surfaces in apposition
and still allow movement They are usually inelastic and may be
intracapsular or extracapsular. e-
.~·· ...
S. Intracapsular tigaments; ligaments located within the joint
capsule. They are not within the joint space because the synovial
membrane reflects over them (e.g., cruciate ligaments of the
stifle).
6. Extracapsular ligaments: ligaments developing outside of or

as part of the joint capsule (e.g., the collateral ligaments on the
sides of all hinge joints). ·
7. Joint cavity: a unique feature of a synovial joint. Itis little more

than a potential space containing a trace of synovial fluid.
8. Meniscus or disc: a plate of fibrocartilage partially or com-

pletely dividing a joint cavity. It functions to allow a greater
variety of motion and alleviate concuss.ion. Discs are found only
in the stifle(pg. 120) and temporomandibular joints (pg.127). The
intervertebral discs do not divide a joint space.
9. BURSA (BUR-sa) (syre·.;ial): a sa£·Uke structure between
io6
SYNOVIAL JOINTS
General·l08
Fig. III-3 • Horse • Stifle

- caud. view
5. Intracapsular lig.
( caud, cruciate lig.)
~,·
Y/;
y
1 . ,. . .
y
\,%/ / ·:
%. .. . .
~~-1 .
.:, . :'/;~ ii:.·
~:{1~~1
•
1. Joint capsule
2. Fibrous layer 6. Extracapsular Ilg.
( coll a feral lig.)
3. Synovial membrane
-~
• '
• I :
9. Bursa .
Fig. 111-2 - Ox - Digit & dist. part of
metacarpus - sagittal section
10. Synovial sheath
~. III-4 - Ox • Digits, svnovra! sheaths & bursae

Fh~.
107
SVNOVIAL JOINTS - CLASSIFICATION G.eneral-109
CLASSIFICATION of SYNOVIAL JOINTS: Synovial joints MOVEMENT OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS: Synovial joints may
are freely movable joints classified in several ways - by the show one or more of the following movements, depending on (
number of articular surfaces, by the shape of the articular surfaces, their shape and where the muscles cross them. -~-
or by the particular function of the joint. "'
• Flexion (FLEK -shun): decreasing the angle between two bones.
NUMBER of.ARTICULAR SURFACES: a joint is either
simple or compound. • Extension (ek·STEN-shun): increasing the angle between two
bones.
• Simple joint: two articular surfaces enclosed in a joint capsule
(e.g., shoulder joint). • Dorsal and ventral flexion: bending the spinal column dorsally
or ventrally.
• Compound joint: more lhan two articular surfaces enclosed
within the same joint.~e (e.g., stifle). • A·B-duction (ab-DUK-shun): moving a part away from the
median plane, o~ a digit away from the axis of the limb.
CLASSIFICATION BY MOVEMENT: the contraction of '
muscles crossing a· joint and the shape of the joint produce its • A·D-duction (a'd-DUK--shun): moving apart toward the median
cfulracteristi~ movements. ' · plane .or a digit
·., . toward the axis of the limb.
.
.. . ' .. '
• Plane (arthrodial) joint (ar-THROH-dee-al): multiaxial articu- • Circumduction: movement circumscribing a cone shape, ac-
lations having flat articular surfaces allowing a simple gliding or complished by combining flexion, abduction, extension and ad·
sliding motion (e.g., carpal, small tarsal bones, cranial and caudal duction in order.
articulation between vertebrae).
• Rotation: movement around the long axis of a pan (e.g., radio-
• 3all,and-socket (spheroidal) joint: a multiar+al articulation ulnar joints in carnivores).
consisting of a spheroidal head fitting into a pit or socket allowing
. universal. movement • flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, • Universal: all the above movements (e.g., shoulder joint) .
. · medial and lateral rotation.and circumduction (e.g., shoulder and
· hip joints).
~ ..'
• Hinge (ginglymus) joint (JIN-gli-mus): a uniaxial joint allow-
ing movement at right angles to the bones involved (flexion and .•.
extension) (e.g .• elbow joint).
• Pivot (trochoid) Joint (TROH-koyd): a uniaxial joint allowing

rotation around a longitudinal axis of a bone (e.g., atlanto-axial
joint).
• Condylar joint: aimiaxial joint formed by two condyles of one

bone fitting into concavitiesof another bone. Flexion and exten-
sion and a Huie rotation' S!fe: permitted by such a joint (e.g.
femorotibial joint, the temp<>romandibular joints [both together
form a condylar joint]). ~-,
.,?~- .
• Ellipsoidal joint: a bia~i~ ;'joint formed by an ellipsoidal,

convex. surface fitting into a concavity. Movement in two planes
is allowed (flexion-extension; abduction-adduction) with a small
amount of rotation (e.g. radiocarpal joint).
• Saddle joint: a biaxial joint with the articular surface of the two
bones concave in one direction and convex in the other. These
surfaces fit together like two saddles. one rotated 90 degrees. A
saddle joint allows the same motions as the ellipsoid (flexion-
extension: .abduction-adduction) and some rotation (e.g., distal
· interphalangea1 joints).
..
<
'
108
-:~. ~. \
' .
SVNOVIAL JOINTS - CLA SSIFICATION 0
General-:134
'.
; .. .
..
;
'
.,
Plane Joints
Ball & Socket Joints
. ., ..
Hinge Jojnt
' .
Jtivot Joint
Fig. m.5 • Synovialjoints - Ox
109
JOINT - SHOULDER 544-Thoracic Iimb-I ; ,
Fig. 111-7 - Ox • Shoulder joint
- cran. view a I
-~
I J
Shoulder joint capsule

Fig. 111-6 - Horse - Shoulder joint
f d
6
Shoulder joint capsule
,Q,,
' a. Scapula
b. Humerus
c. Biceps brachli tendon
d. Fibrous band
e. Intertuberal bursa
{. Infraapinatus bursa
(inconstant}
g. Coracobrachiali.am.
h. Synovial bursa ...
i. Infraapinatua tendon
Fig. III-8 - Ox • Shoulder joint
- med. view
SHOULDER JOINT. glenohumeral or scapulohumeraljoint: a Inrrupinatus bursa: located between the tendon of inserticx:
ball-and-socket (spheroi~) type synovial joint between the gle- the infraspinatus muscle and the greater tubercle.
noid cavity aµ<f the humeral head. It has a loose joint capsule with
no true collateral ligaments. The muscles crossing this joint Transverse humeral ligament: attaches tp ~e greater and ksse:
provide enough support so shoulder luxation is rare in the dog. It tubercles and holds the biceps tendon iii the intenubero::'::r
is functionally a freely movable (diarthrodial) joint · (bicipital) groove.
Movement: capable of universal motion. but chiefly flexion and

extension in the domestic animals. ,,~ik,j?
blocks.~·tn
'~Joint
· .: ' : - ; 3;. \ . ' - : .f >,~, . ;
"the borse'tije"b1cipital ·bursa·and:~.&~OU 1<lel'
Synovial sheath or biceps brachii tendon: an extension of the
joint capsule around the tendon of the biceps brachii muscle as it '
mlist'be.
, .
blocked
-~
separately
.·· . . oecause·lhey
.
drin'iootiirri~~
-, .. ;·· ·.~·~···
passes in the bicipital (intertubercular) groove of lhe humerus. . . -, ·•.•. . . "' . . . . . . . ·.. : -, : ....~::"·
. Osteocliondtosis: a·failure of cartilage inatµratio~ •.-.~
Bicipital bursa: lor..:awd in the bicipital (intertubercular) groove
·on sucha d~f(i~ve· ciirti!age .wili ~ause it-:10-crilf.~:and lilZ1
: c~u~ a·p1ece"t'j:Jint mouse") to be separat~ and. ~at in :::t!-
of horses under the bicipiral tendon. Unlike ,h~· ":'novial sheath in ~ 'iYtibvial space (osteochondrosis dissecans). Thisjs most ,yo--
d~gs, it doesn't communicate with the shou!u.:-~· joint capsule.
L~?~ oii. 11_>:~; ~ead of the hume.rus in dogs.
-
110
OINT - ELBOW
Thoracic limb-112
:.. J.ted. collateral Ilg.
Fig. Jll-10 - Ox - Elbow joint ,,
I
L
1. Elbow joint capsule - lat. view •

• ' t .,
l.<, I
I\\
<.;z,\'
I
. \~ :--....:
'\ ~
a "''<, .
\
,, ·~f
~- '{•
-.'\ j'
3. J.,a t. co Ha tera I Hg.

e
...
-
c
:. 2. M~d. co Ila teral Jig.

f
f'"'q.. 111-9 - Horse • Elbow joint a
• craniolat. view
. .
·.)
;,
~ ~ braehii tendon
'b =·••eous lig.
- - -+ e. • brachii
-,..
racnn
:anon) buna
.. Fie. 111-11 - Ox - Elbow joint
·med.view
I s-rJ le.: the sac enclosing all three articular pans, .. ·
m.!IIS: lhe_ medial (2~ and lateral (3) collateral ligaments

sides of the JOinL
•-=i-11111~ioulnar Joint the joint between the proximal

;itw1roal ulna. This joint is fused in the horse and
'mt
~--- Aklog with the distal radioulnar joint. it allows 9()0
llllim.a ~paw.
111
. ;. ~~ ..
JOiNT - CARPUS . Thoracic limb-113
Fig. III-13 - Ox - Carpus,

capsule removed Fig. 111-14 - Horse - Lt. carpus f
- cran. view · • caudomed. view \.
2. Lat. collateral Ilg.
g Fig. 111-12 - Ox - Lt. carpus

•
• cran. view
h
·.~-.-m f
{'
d
-; .
a
. ..
"
\I
a. Radiue · ··.,
b. Radial carpal bone
e. Ulnar carpal bone·:,· ··
d. Metacarpal bone · ·
,. Intei.-.:arpal ligg. ·
f. Rediocarpal synoviiil ,ae
g. Middle carpal aynovial ,ac .
h. Carpometacarpal ay.nivial ,ac 1. Joint capsule
i, Intercarpal joini
j. Acceuol')' carpal bone
3. Med. collateral Jig. '
DISTAL RADIOULNARJOINT:betweenthedistalradiusand INTERMETACARPAL JOINTS: articulations between the

ulna. It is pan of the antebrachiocarpal joint with which it' s~ proximal ends of the metacarpal bones. · ·'
. .
a joint capsule. With the proximalradioulnar jointifis responsible • I •
for the rotation allowed in the forearm of ihe'camivores andpigs, Ligaments: consist-of two collateeal ligaments (2, 3) and many
It- is fused in the horse. and ruminants: / ·' r : intercarpal ligaments between individu·a1 carpal bones. The col-
. . - .
. ·.. . ,\.
lateral ligaments don't completely cross all three joints of the
CARPAL JOINTS:. a hinge' (ginglymus)'type' of synovial join~ .. carpus.
allowing flexion and extension with some lateral movement. It
consists of three main joints - antebrachiocarpal, middle carpal Palmar carpal ligament or fibrocanilage:' covers the palinar
. and carpometacarpal. ·· side of the carpus providing a smooth surface to rhe carpal canal.
,
•
. ,. .
Antebtachiocarpaljoiot:,betweenthedistalradiusandulnaand Flexor retinaculum; thickening of the deep fascia that connects
the proximal row of carpal bones. 'Illere is a lot of movement in to the medial side of the carpus and the accessory carpal bone.
lhisjoinL With the carpal bones it forms the carpal canal. · ·
Middle .carpal joint: between ·the two rows of carpal bones .. It Carpal eaaal; formed by the accessory carpal bone laterally, the
commu~itates.with the carpometaearpal joint Although less than other carpal bones dorsally and the t1exor retinaculum on the
the antebrachiocarpal joint, it also has a lot of movement
. . palmar side.
-r
Carpometacarpal joint: between the distal row of carpal boaes Structures passing through the carpal canal; • Tendons and
and the metacarpal bones. It communicates with the middle synovial sheaths of the superficial and deep digital flexors .. Ulnar
carpal joint. There is very little movement in this joint. and median nerve • Arteries and veins.
lntercarpal joints: plane joints between the individual carpal

bones.
112
JOINT - CARPUS Thoracic limb-114
Fig. 111-15 - 0· Synov ial sheaths of 0•
carpus - craniolat. view
Bursae
••
! .
'
. ',.. . ~ Fig. III-16 - Ox • Synovial sheaths of
carpus - med. view
· a. Extensor carpi radialia h. Lat. ulnar m, (III-15)
b. Oblique carpal extensor i. Flexor carpi ulnari1 (111-16)
e. Common digital extensor j. Acceuory carpal bone
d. Lat. digital extensor k. Fused metacarpal bones m & IV
e. Flexor carpi radialis (III-16) I. Metacarpal bone V
t. Deep digital flexor m. Radiua
g. Supf. digital flexor
,---------------------------------------------------------r. -·---~. ---------------------------------------------------,

.·! .,·,. •.• _ • • , • • •.. , . .. ' ~ • •• ; ••·•••• , r :.;- • .. •.
SPECI~ DIFFERENCES : ..: : ,tatus:, =nied.ial- devlatlon' tit •'Ute·. bones 'distal to. the. ;Joint. in .
; .:... ·~-: ·. ··.:·· . .· :: .·. .··· ·.... ,' :·.. •'• ... ~- . . '•
:,· ·, ·,.. ·~Uestibn'·
..,... : . t\~."..l'Jo· L., so·:·: mellial)."· . , . ·.... . . ·. · ·:;-: ;
"Knee": a popular term for the horse's carpus. ~-- . .. . . . . . ; ..
.: . .'=~,i~l5e(l ~nees or carpal va)giis: lateral deviation of jhe .
"Radiocarpal joint":· popular, though erroneous, term for · -io•n~ . . . dista! to· the carpus, .
I.he entire antebrachiocarpal joint ., .
'-
· ,:· -)f~w)fgged or··ca~p_al var~s: medial C,eyia~on o{ ~ ~qnes ..·

--------------,~-~.~
.. ~-~-----~,
.:, .. ~:;: .tal·:.·,:~;.;. ·m·
.. ~-. ~-- .e carpus.· .. . .. . ·. . . ·.··. . ....
CUNICAL . ,_ . . . ::. ·.:".· · .-....-, .. ·.~-: ·:·<}.;;·.,.·. . . . , . . . ... : . . ~.:·-: ::· . ·:.· :
· · . .· · · · · · · · ~.· ., ·:-.. :. · . _..;~. . . ..Carp~ .. .. .. ltygrQma:· subcutaneous .. bursa
. on the dorsa.( ~urfaceof .
Carpitisor"popped knees": traumalicatt,hritisC>f~e.·~ ···_:;,, ··t)ie~carpµs, caused·l:)y··uaupta/ . -- .·. -- . ...
in horses. . ·.; ·.,,,'. :\:\i·:· : :.\. · .·, . .,.:· , : :'.; .:_.};,::/:=-:- f._.. · · · . : ::: "( · · ·' ·: . ,: ... > ·: ·:· ·" ' · t e • ., .v.: , • •
,·.:· · t: _: :_=: ,::=-~ ·:.:':·····. ·<'}··.,· ·_-,-.(!~tpijl'joint bl~ks (~:pg.132)

VaLgus: -lateral deviation of the bones ~stal.; ~ J$(joi~t:@.::, x : : ". ·:, ·.·.-> . ·,. . . · , .:.· : _)=·: . . : . . . • .. :.. • . • .• -:.
question. Memc_ry aid: the L =:in valg~'°_i~~~~ · Ja.re~r _. . _;'::'!Sp~~ts'!: .inflarnmation··of:f:he nqrse'~ metacarpal ·jn~ .. :
deviation distal to the joint. · · · ':'. '.'.. ,····.:··.:~ :'. -'·· _. '. ·./·. ··,~i;is~igament ~tweeir~splirit~nes~uth·e~.~;·:
•• ../. :. • :::·-~-~- .. :.::..~::- ·. -~·: .: ~ :. ..· c , :.: ·.· • •....... ·.=·:;_:-.-:=-~-~:': : : ~}:. ". : . ::.. . .. ···. :- . ' . . . . ... ·:::::·.;~.::·.:·:. ; .. · ·..·.·
113
Thoracic limb-115
JOINTS - DIGITS
a
,1. Metacarpophalangeal joint
..
. ·' b
':·: ..
-.. .., ,,
2,. Prox: interphalangeal joint--
··~
: .
. •. . ;. .:
., :• .~t··.~ ..;;{
-, .-
•'.':
'
3. Dist. Interphalangeal joint
·4_~- Collateral ligg.
\
e
~· .:
· a. Metacarpal bone .
·f b. Prox. phalanx ..
e, Middle phalanx
·' ·d. Diat. phalanx
e. Horny claw
f. Ungual procesa
.•. I· Dora. elastic lig.
. ,;,
1. l\'fETACARPOPHALANGEAL (MP) JOINTS: the ar- abnormal separation of the two cligits. When removing one claw
ticulations between the metacarpal bones and the proximal it is wise to .leave the proximal inierdigital ligament to give
phalanges, including lh.~palmar sesamoid bones. It is a modified support to the remaining digit -~ ·
hinge (ginglymusfjoint allowing extension and flexion.
PHALANGEALJOINTS
''Fetlockjoint" (1): popular term used f~the metacarpophalen-
geal (front limb) and metatarsophalangeal (hind limb) joints in
-
the horse. and occasionally in ruminants.
2. Proximal interphalangeal (IP) joints: a saddle typ.e of
synovial joint between the proximal and middle phalanges. "Pastern joint" (2): popular term used for the proximal inter-
. - phalangeal joint in the horse and often in ruminants.
3. Distal interphalangeal (IP) joints: the saddle type of syno-
vial joint between the middle and distal phalanges. ''Coffin joint" (3): popular name used for the distal interphaJan-
geal joint in the horse and often in ruminants ..
4. LIGAMENTS: medial and lateral collateral ligaments stabi-
lize the sides of all metacarpophalangeal and pba)angeal joints. S~pensory apparat~: in the horse coosists ?f the~
Many ligaments auach to the sesamoid ~ne~:'.fhese sesamoi- ligament. the palmar sesamoid bone and the distal ~1dean
dean ligaments are imponant in the horse'sstay apparatus"(pg. ligaments, They act as a unit to support the fetlock joint Disrup-
196). tion in any one of the three components will result in the fetlock
----------------------" sinking. ,
SPECIES DIFFERENCES Distal sesam~n ligaments, X, Y, V ligaments· horse: an
unofficial term refening to the sttaight ()'},.oblique (V) ancl
Dorsal ligaments: paired ligaments found in carnivores. They cruciate (X) ligaments thatmw;bor the sesamoid bones distally to
are responsible for keeping the claw retracteci in thecaL Flexion Pl and P'2. They counteract the pull of the suspensory ligamenL
of the dis&a) intcrphalangeal joint by the deep digital flexor is
responsible for protrusion of the claw. Navicular (podouochlear) bursa: located between the navicu-
lar bone and the deep digital flexor tendon in the horse. Its
Declawiilg or onychectomy (Gr. on-yx nail): removal of the inflammation is mociated with navic:ular disease which is more
distal phalanges through the distal interphalangeal joint in cats. prevalent in the forelimbs. The pain causing lameness may ~
~~~==-==:!::~==~=~::.::::._
Proximal and di.al interdigltal ligaments in the ox: ps:event ~~----~---
elimiM~ by digital neurect0mies (culling the digital nerves).
114
JOINTS OF DIGITS Thoracic limb-116
Fig. 111-19 - Ox· Ligg. of digits,

J one.,digit removed
·med.view
4. Collateral Ilg.------~ I (
l
2. Prox. interphalangeal
(IP) joint 1. Me.tacarpophalangeal joint
f !
3. Dist. interphalangeal, ·
• . • 'J
(IP) joint :
.I
l. ' -:
. .· ;,...
,• •
J.
d ..
I •
. ..,;
,:<
'. ·J
Jj
j· I . •
• \
,. ~
,.
s- I. ~ .
·/. ; 1 •"'
I
, I '
•
> a
<
Fig. 111-18 - Ox - Ligg, of

digits .. lat. view .
'
2. Prox. interphalangeal . ....:

6-. Synevlal sheath (IP) joints : :,~i·
I I)
....
. ~···
.,
7. Joint capsule
d
n
3. Dist. interphalangeal (IP) joint
J
Fig. 111-22 - Ox - Digits - sagittal section

r
S.. Bursa Fig. 111-21 - Ox - Joint capsules
• dors. view
FJ&.111-20 - Ox· Synovial sheaths
& bursae - palm. view
a. Palm. anular lir, (lll-22) i. Deep (cruciate} diet. o. Dist. 1e1amoidean impar
b. Prox.. digital anular lig. eeaamoidean lig. (navicular) lig.(Ill-19,22)
c. Dist. clicital anular lig. j. Suspen-9ory lig. p. Suspensory navicular lig.(111-19)
d. Dist. phalanx k. Extensor br, of q. Middle br. of suspensory
e. Collateral sesamoidean lig.(III-18) suspensory lig.{111-18) lig. (absent in horse)
f. Interseaamoidean lig.(lll-19) l. Common digital ex~enaor r. Di,t. interdigital cruciate
g. Supf. (straight) diat. (tendon)(III-22) - lig.(III-20) (absent in hone)
"esamoidean lig. (absent in ox) m. Supf. digital fie:icir . . s. · Prox. interdigital eruciate
h. Middle {oblique) dist. (tendon) lig.{III-20,2l)(ab&ent in hone)
aesamoidean lig.(ill-19) n, Deep digital f!exor (tendon)
I 15
. '
JOINTS - DIGIT
Thoracic limb· J J 7
1. MP (fetlock) Joint
2. Prox. IP a
(pastern) Joint
D
Dist. IP
(coffin)
G
Joint
..
Fig. 111-23 - Herse»
., Digit - lat. view
Fig. 111-24 - Horse • Digit - palm. view
...
. ••• ,! .
l
k 1-
Fig. 111-26 - Horse - Fetlock

f
joint - palm. view
A g
F\V,. lll-15 - Rotse - Digit, supf.

& deep digital flexor
tendons removed
·--
J - palm. view
,..
.
•.1
- u
;;
. v
JOif\lTS · DiG!Y -h . s : b 1I • v;,
l oracic nm - Ji. :i~
11
.---n
A
1. Fetlock joint I
0
2. Pastern joint
g
3. Coffin joint
q
--s
---·t
Fia. 111-28 - Horse • Digit

.. - parasagittal section
.1
.. ..
. 'r... .
. ,-.
A. Suapt'aeory 111. a. Palm. anular lir.

B. Extensor br, of J. Dlat .... amoidean (navic:ular) bone
b. Prox. dicital anular lir. k. DNp {cruciate) cliri. ·
1Upehl0ry li1. c. Dilt. clicital anular lie. •••moidean lie, (lll-26) .
C. Common clicital ~r d. Dist. phalanx
(tendon) J. Collateral M!l&moidean Jic. (W-27)
•. lnknnamoidean n,.(m.2s} m. Don. pouch olf1tlock Joi.at (W-28)
D. Supt diciial flexor f. Supt (1trai1ht) dist. n, Palm.' pouch of fetlock joint
(tendon) . Mlamoidean liJ. (abtent o. l>iptal ahealb
E. Deep dicital flexor inox) p. Don. pouch ot puum joint
(tendon) r, Middle {oblique) dist. q. Palm. pql4Chot pariwn Joint
r. Lat.(unpal)eamlac• lll&DlOidean li1. r. Don. pouch of coffin Joint
G. Roof (W-24) b. Suapeuory oavicular lie, 1. Palm. pouch of coffin Joint
B. Dici'al cuahion i, Dilt. s..moidean impar t. Conn1cli•• wsue bridp
(navlcular} Iii,
•
111
JOINTS OF PELVIS 102.Pelvic limb-119
2. Sacrotuberous li
Fie. 111-29 - Doa • Ligg. of the pelvic girdle '\
• lat. view
Fie. 111-31 - Horse • Ligg. of the hip joint

- vcntr. view
'
\ 6. Acce.ssory Ila.
·.
4; Lia. or the head or tbe:f.emur
3. Pelvic symphysis -----+---1 f
. .: .
.;
. .
l.SACROILIACJOINT(Fig.Ill-33):therelativelyimmovable joint allowing universal movement (flexion-extension, abduc-

articulation between the wings of the sacrum and ilium. This is a tion-adduction, medial and lateral rotation and circumduction).
combined cartilaginous and synovial joint Fibrocartilage unites As in any joint. what is gained in freedom of movement is offset
the s·..riaces of the wings of the sacrum and ilium. forming a . by loss of stability.
•,\, .
sacroil iac synchondrosis. Tnerc is a tight joint capsule along the · ,:
margin of the joint reinforced' by dorsal and ventral sacroiliac 4. Ligament of the head of th~ femur: formerly the· round
ligaments. ligament of the femur, it.is the>short intracapsular ligament
extending from the acetabular cavity to the notch oo the head of
2. SACROTUBEROUS LIGAMENT: the connective tissue the femur (fovea capitis). · ·
extending from the sacrum and first caudal vertebrae to the
ischiatic tubcrosity, · Acetabular lip: the band of fibrocartilage around the rim of the
acetabulum increasing the depth of the acetabulum.
3. PELVIC SYMPHYSIS: the symphyseal, slightly movable
(fibrocart.ilaginous) jojnt between the two hip bones (os coxae). Acetabular notch: nonnal defect in the ventromedial aspect of
The bones are united by cartilage in the young animal; in the adult, the acetabulum. ·. <
the cartilage is gradually replaced by bone. The front part is
formcd by lhc pubic symphysis between the pubic bones. The Transverse acetabular ligament: crosses the acetabular notch
caudal part is fonried by the lschial symphysis between the ischii completing the acetabular cavity.
bones.
SPECIES DIFFERENCES
HIP JOINT, coxal (KOK-sal) or coxofemoral articulation: the
ball-and-socket (spheroidal) type synovialjoint between the head Sacrotubei'ous ligament Dog - a band of connective tissue
of lhc femur and the acetabulum of the hip bone. It has no (2). Absent in the cat.
collateral ligaments. Its in.tt:;grity depends on the'round ligament
of the femur. ~~ strong roomy joint capsule and the muscle mass
surr~·.rnciing it. Functionally, it is a freel;: :;~"' •able (diarthrodial) __________________
S. Broad sacrotuberous ligament of the horse and ox: ( sacro- 0
sciatic ligament"): a sheet of connective tissue attaching to the..... . . l
l 18
JOINTS OF PEL VIS Pelvic limb-120
Fig. 111-32 • Ox - Ligg. of the pelvic girdle

a
• lat. view
5 •
·,
)J. \ 1. Sacrolllac Joint
\:' ._.
0
..-:;::?)
f ,_;;,-;;;
a. Dorsal sacroiliac ligament (111-30) h. 1st caudal vertebra

~- Greater ischiatic foramen i. Acetabulum (111-30)
'absent in carnivores) j. Ischiatic mberosity
e, Lesser ischiatic foramen k. Sacral tuberosity
absent in carnivores) 1. Hea.doffernur-(111-31) d ~.
-d.. Cranial pubic ligament (111-18) m. Fovea capitis ..
e, Acetabular margin (lip) n. Transverse acetabular lieament
~loid ligament) o. Ventral sacroiliac li&ament (111-33) Fi1. 111-33 - Ox - Ligg. of the pelvic
!..Os coxse p. Joint capsule (hip) girdle - cran. view
1- Sacrum (111-29)
, . . .- . .
:.aum, ischiatic spine, and the ischiatic tuberosity, thereby Jhe hip bones and repositioning them.
:ompleting the lateral pelvic wall. Between the broad sacrotu-
:aous ligament and the greater and lesser ischiatic notches (Pg. :Hip luxat~n: more common in cattle than horses, The ox has:
:.5, i,k) of the hip bone are two openings: the greater and lesser -a weaker round Iigament, no accessory ligamentand'amore -,
s:biatic foramina (b,c). shallow acetabulum. . . .. .. .....·. ·'
Acce~ry ligament of the head of the femur: the ligament . ~~a~ioq~~~!.~i~·t~µ·~f(H,l: Js the~.Qs.~oommo~ ~du.~.h[ih,ip:·: ':
hmd only in the horse. It extends from the prepubic ligament Iuxates Jn:~t~i~S:.'T-0¢yaluate.Jnpluxation of the·qqg:j>1~ ..,.'.
1aough the acetabular notch under the transverse acetabular yout,.thwiib''iifthe·'
. .. . . s. . a{between'tlie
.~ , . ,g-,rea ter trocliante'r''
. ~... . .and~tile}>
·.;·· . ·
ApDent Itauaches with the round ligament of the femur to the . iscruaiic:.tii~W,'.:.nci(r<,i!atethe. .~mb outwax~'tf~~~~[i,y))if?:. .
A.; w'C3 capitis of the head of the femur. It stabilizes the hip and ~ hiP.fe..f.n..~=~:·D'l.tac~ihe,~~b wihJ,e·J~
o:utJ~'~;'~~~ ·.·
l'ltS) makes it harder for a horse to kick to the side (cow kick), remains, ·tnejoiiit'Js)ti~ted or the··n~ of the fem.~·i~'~r~eg.
•.. .... .. . ..•: ·.· =: . ,• : ,•
ooesn't prevent it.
Knock dow~./ii~p-: ·iric~~t term for a fractured gi:~~r ~·,.:·.
rocbanteric bursae in the horse: between the insertions of clianter'in \arge·ariimats. ... .
medial and the superficial gluteal and the greater trochanter · . · .. · ·
Dl the third trochanter respectively. Unilateral -trochanterlc bursitis: inflammation of either or
,-----------------------' both troch~teric bursae causing a .horse to favor the inJwed .
1.MCAL side by cocking' · the· tiip towards tht.good side. This cortfigu· ·
ration dunng movement i.~ called ".4og trotting". · ·
dysplasia: malformed hip joint resulting in a progressive ·· . ,. . .. .: ·
'I §xaerative disease, having a high incidencein somebreeds. Compression test~ horse: havea kick board in place, stand .
.s evaluated radiographically. This condition 'causes pain and behind the horse and palpate the third trochanter on both sides
reaied many ways; cutting the pectineus rh~cle (pectineal .r for heat; pairi.~d·evidence of swelling associated with bµrsitis.
,xny), cutting the neck and head of the femur off (head and Press maximally' with palms over both the greater trechanters
r::x osteotomy), or remodelling
. .. by cutting up a.t1 both tbir.~:tiochan~rs.
the acetabulum ···.
: ·
119
STIFLE Pelvic Iirnb- .. :
..----1. Patellar Ii(:.
A--... __ __,
8. Med. ridge
of trochlea
..
•
"
4. Med. collateral Jig.
S. Lat. collateral lig. 2. Med. meniscus

7. Caud, cruclate lig.
Fig. 111~·35 - Dog • Rt. stifle opened, dist. end
of femur & prox. end of tibia
STIFLE JOINT or genual articulation. (L. genu, knee): the S. Lateral (fibular) collateral ligament: the strong band coc:::.c::.--
compound joint between the femur and patella and the femur and ing the lateral epicondyle to the head of the fibula. It is sepa a, ,
tibia, It is a condy lar joint which acts like a hinge joint with a little from the lateral meniscus by the tendon of the popliteus m -
-r
rotation.
6,7. Cranial and caudal cruelate (L. resembling a cross)
Femoropatetlar joint: the articulation between the patella and men ts: two intra-articular ligaments named for their tibial at::a:J
trochlea of the femur. It has a spacious joint capsule. ment,
.
1. Patellar ligam~nf(s): the part of the tendon of insertion of the 6. Cranial cruciate ligament: inserts "ranialiy on the lilm.--
quadriceps muscle between the patella and the tibial tuberosity. arises from the caudolateral femur. It prevents cranial movem::a
(The patella is a sesamoid bone within the tendon of the quadri- of the tibia in relationship to the femur.
ceps muscle.)
7. Caudal cruciate ligament: inserts cautjally on the tibia.
Femorotibial joint: the articulation between the femoral con- arises from the craniome.dial distal femur. It prevents ca:, a
dyles and tibia (and the interposed menisci). movement of tpe tibia in relationship to the femur.
2,3.-·Medial and lateral menisci (G. crescents) or semilunar LAMP: memory aid for which side thecranial (anterior) Dt
cartilages: 1.he crcscentic fibrocartilaginous discs between the caudal (posterior) cruciate ligaments are on - lateral and moSt
tibia] and femoral articulating condyles which compensate for respectively.
incongruence of the articulating bones and act as shock absorbers.
Femoral ligament of the lateral meniscus or meniscof emi, e
4, 5. Medial'.{tibial) and tateral (fibular) collateral ligaments: ligament (d): connects the caudal part of the lateral meniscns .L.
strong stabilizing bands on the medial and lateral sides of the the femur. It is the only ligament connecting the mensici to
stifle. femur.
' Femoropatellar ligaments, medial and lateral (m): extend t:;:m;
4. Medial (tibial) collateral ligament: strong stabilizing band on
the medial side of the stifle. It fuses with the joint capsule and the the epicondyles to the patella.
medial meniscus.
120
... ,
~ '::-.· ,...-..,
• 7
~-j .. ".... ~.l .. D x
ft c1 •.·-:. I -
...
,..,_ .. :1tI 'fl e
f..,,i; ,1,, \"
& jvin;: capsule - lat. view

.
. l
k -,
;
I
l
i
"' ••.
c
•
4
.
i :
'·
.ILJ!!".SE.e::i, e. Transverse lig. (carnivores)

r....,.. .. -.. cl femur ' t. Tendon of popliteal m.
g. Long digital extenaor m.
h. Medial patellar Ug. {Ill-36}
~:cn.!1 :.cndy lea l, Middle patellar lig.
':=:::i ~ ::,..._:rosi ty j. Lat. patellar lig. (III-87) Fig. 111-38 - Ox - Rt. stifle
- ,dylea k. Joint capsule • caud. view
:.... 11111z:::.=::=oral Iig. l. Bursa
=zrrs DIFFERENCES
ridge (trochlear tubercle) of the femoral trochlea

~~-=~
IL.111!.e:l:!1
I): the enlarged process in the horse that is con-
lCEi:s.~. forced between the medial and middle patellar liga-
~:i::: ..... v1use the "patellar lock" of the stay apparatus (pg.
i2J
STIFLE - HORSE Pelvic limb-_:_:
... . e
. .~~~;··.
~:;:·.
1. Patellar tf1g: \
:.'- '!!;:
••
~-s. Lat. collatera;
li-E
. c
Flg. 111-40 - Horse - Lt. stifle - lat. view

Fig. III-39 -· Horse - Lt. stifle
- cran. view ·1\
8. Med. ridge
of trochlea ·
(trochlear tubercle)
6. Cran,
•
cruciate
lig .
....
.
,
B (
.
. . ' ..
4·~ Med. colJateral-~ f
llg,
3. Lat.
• • 2. Med.
memsci
• •
memsct
7. Caud. cruciate Jig.

Fig. 111-41 - Horse - Lt. stifle Fig. 111-42 - Horse w Lt. stifle
- med. view - caud. view
a. Femoral c:ondylea (111--40}

• e, Tendon of insertion of g. Long digital exten1or m.
A. Patella
8. Trochlea b. Tibial tuberosity quadriceps mm. (III-39) h. Med. patellar Jig. {lll-39)
o!fem.uc e, Tibial condyles f. Tendon of popliteua m. (Ill-40, i. Middle patellar Us.
C. Tibi~ d, Meniaco!emoral lig. (IJI-42) removed in 111-39) j. Lat. patellar Jig.
122
Pelvic limb-I 24
~-
Tfbiotarsal joint---- .....
7. Long
plant.
.. ..
'•
lig .
~1·
Dist, Inteetarsal joint
Tarsometatarsal joint
E. Calcanean tuberosity
tuaal bone F. Central tarsal bone
tl!L?lal bone
C..::i~~ G. Metatarsal bone
e:::.a~ulwn tali
Fig. IV-43 - Ox • Tarsus - sagittal section
-----,:..&1.BULAR JOINT: between the lateral condyle of Lhe Distal Intertarsal joint: articulation between the central t~rsal .
.:>e head of the fibula. They differ between the species and tarsal bones I, II and II. The distal intertarsal joint doesn't
-,..;.,lions in fibular development Its joint capsule is an cross the whole tarsus because the f ow-th tarsal bone crosses it on
:::::::=::::~ cf the lateral sac of the femoroubial sac of the stifle the lateral side.
Tarsometatarsal joint: articulation between the distal row of

~---~__:, JOINT or "hock" (TAR-sul)(G. tarsos, flat): a com- tarsal bones and the metatarsal bones I IO V.
'x.~ ™ ~ (g.inglymus) ty~ of synovial joint. It is a composite,
::c;.::::.. .:c;=:1 articulation like the carpal joint , allowing flexion Intertarsal joint: the plane articulations between the individual
tarsal bones, as apposed to the proximal and distal intenarsal
joints which are between the rows of tarsal bones.
C'tlbtotarsat") joint: articulation between the
-x:=::.. -._7 of tarsal boees (talus and calcaneus) and the tibia Tarsal joint capsule: as in all synovial joints, consists of fibrous
---- Tze trochlear ridges of the talus fit into the cochlea of and synovial pans. The fibrous part extends from the distal end
---- :r ridges and grooves are off the sagittal plane so that of the tibia and fibula to the proximal end of the metatarsal bones.
:l:':t:::::~::.-'i ;l3sses lateral to the forepaw in a gallop .. This is the Its plantar surf ace is thickened to smooth the deep wall of the
:.:x of the tarsal joints. Its synovial sac communicates tarsal canal. The synovial part encloses the individual tarsal
:x iinaJ intertarsal sac and the synovial sheath around joints and these are called synovial sacs - talocrural sac, proxi-
t::?::::t:i. : !1:e lateral digital flexor. mal intertarsal sac, distal intertarsal sac and tarsometatarsal
sac. The intercommunication between the different joints of the
·:rtarsa.1 joint: articulation between the proximal tarsus is important clinically in horses for intra-articular injec-
;;:::::::::~ calcaneus) and the central and fourth tarsal bones. tions in lameness diagnosis (see appendix).
_.:=a::::::i::::.:aes with the ta1ocrural sac.
TARSUS Pelvic limb-125
1,2. Medial and lateral collateral ligaments: the strong bands oo

either side of the tarsus. Both have Jong and short parts.
Intertarsal ligaments: numerous connective tissue bands holding

the tarsal bones together. · C --
Proximal extensor retinaculum: the transverse ligament.across

the distal end of the tibia holding down the tendons of the long
digital extensor and cranial tibial muscles.
b
Distal extensor retinaculum: the transverse loop that holds the
tendon of the long digital extensor muscle.
3. Long plantar ligament: the well developed ligament on the '

. plantar side of the fibular tarsal bone (calcaneus) connecting the
fibular tarsal bone to the metatarsus. 3. Long plan tar
Jig.
Tarsal canal: passage formed by the tarsal bones and the flexor
retinaculum. It contains: 2• •
• Tendon and sheath of long digital extensor Lat. collateral hg. c
• Plantar branch of saphenous artery and vein ·
• Medial and lateral plantar nerves '
!NTERMETATARSAL, METATARSOPHALANGEAL
AND INTERPHALANGEAL JOINTS: resemble the analo-
gous joims of the thoracic limb.
- lat. view
SPECIES DIFFERENCES A. Tibia
I B. Tibial tarsal bone (III-45)
'
'I Proximal til>iofibular joint: C. Fibular tarsal bone
D .. Suatentaculwn tali (III-46)
r • Carnivore, horse and pig: the head of the fibula articulates E. Calcanean tuberoaity
with the tibia by a plane type of synovial joint F. C•ntral tarul bone
• Ruminant: the head of the fibula is fused to the tibia. G. Metataraal bone
.
Distal tibiofibular joint:
a. Interianal u,,.(111-45)
b. Short lat. ·collateral u,.
h. Tanometatanal ,synovial 1ae
i. Tendon of third fibular m.(Ill-461
• Carnivore, ruminant and pig: the distal fibula (lateral malleo- e, Lon, lat. collateral lie. j. Tendon or cran. tibial m.
k. Tendon of 1upf. digital flexor m.
j lus) forms a synovial joint. with tf:te distal tibia Its joint capsule
d. Joint eapaule (111~4)
e. Tibiotanal aynovial aac (W-•s) J. Tendon of deep digital n~or m.
is a continuation of the talocrural joint. f. Prox. interta.nial 1ynovial 1ac m. Tendon of Jone digital
• Horse: the distal fibula (lateral malleolus) fuses with and I· Di,t. interianal 1ynovial aac ·' . exten1or m. (111-47)
n. Tendon of long fibular m.
becomes a part of the tibia.
..
} CLINICAL ~one spavin, true spavin or jack sp·avin:''osteoat:tti.Qtis,apd\
periostitis Qf tl)e hock. Th~ distal intertarsal",. tarsometat~f/
j "Curb,': an enlargement of the horse's long plantar ligament and sometimes the proximal intertarsal joints are involved:111¢?
l .disease usually begins on the dorsomedial aspect of thesejqilits:.-·'.:
Horse's tarsal pouches: the pan of the joint capsule not tied !>eriosteal reactions result in bone formation that can bridge ap¢;:
down by bones or ligaments, The horse has three pouches cf the even fuse the joint (ankylosis). Ankylosis may cure the.lam'~·.,·
talocrural joint named for their locations - dorscmedialpouch, ness. Early lesions or osteoarthritis or the h~ are on µ{e"';:
mcdioplant.ar pouch and lateroplantar pouch. : .. ·. · · . dorsomedial hock in the area of the cunean tendon. The radjo-'·...
1 . •
graphs will show lesions of the lips or edges of the third and·
I Arthrocentesis (ar'throh-sen-Tfili-sis): the puncture and aspi-
central tarsal bones or the third metatarsal bones. When viewed·
.} ration of a joint (see appendix). · ·
from the rear there is an asymmetrical gluteal rise. The horse
t Spavin: the common term for problems oft.he tarses. This is a raises the sound limb's hip, thus, lowering the other so the
i common clinical entity that may become progressively worse. affected hock flexes less. This iscalled "hiking". "Jack spavin"
l is an especially large form of bone spavin. l
\ Bog spavin: the distension of the tarsal syn<;vriJ pv~~:he~ with 1·
! excess synovial fluid. J .. "-"
....__ --
' . .. _._ ... _ .. . . ... - .. .. ,--···-···- .... ··· . \" . ~,, ----·---j<.-···'"- ----~·..,qo-~·-:. . ."'- .,. . . - _...._. __ ~ ~---------------'
....... i
~ It
..... RSUS Pelvic Iirnb-j ?f
Synovial sheath
Fig. 111-46 - Ox· Tarsus & synovial Fig. IIl-47 - Ox - Tarsus & synovial
sheaths - med. view sheaths • lat. view
.'
1 2 S
Pelvic limb-168
TARSUS - HORSE
.
I
i
I\ A
., J v
.,
1. Tibiotarsal--:---L
c Joint
'. ,• ·..
2. Prox. intertarsa,l --++~~
joint --F
a--
---a 3. Dist. intertarsal:·~-
joint
4. Tarsometatarsal\ -.
joint
G
Med. collateral Ilg.
Fig. 111-49 - Horse - Lt. tarsus
- cran. view
Fig. 111-48 - Horse - Lt. tarsus
- med. view
\,.
(---Lat. collateral Ilg.
Cuneaa. tendon
. (med. tendon of cran.
tibial m.)
Fia. 111-50 - Horse - Lt. tarsus - lat. view

·... ~.;;
.~ ,,.. :.
A. Tibia a. Ihtertarsal u,. (111-•8) c
B. Tibial tanal bone (talus) b. Tendon of third fibular
C. Fibular tarsal (peroneus tertius) m. (Ul-51)
bone (calcaneue) c. Lat. tendon of cran.
D.. Su,tentaculum tali tibial m,
E. Calcanean tubero11ity d. Short lat. collateral lig. (Ill-50)
F. Central tarsal bot, e {!ll-49) e, Long lat. collateral lig. Fit,L 111-51 - Horse - Tendons
G. Metatarsal bone f. Cranial tibial m. {III-51) · - dorsal view
~-
126
JOINTS OF SKULL & HVOID APPARATUS 59-Head-204
1. Temporomandibular Joint •
.
·I
h~ '·
~~-"\ ~~~~-,$\-k-.
... ~.,-
<-.._,,,.._
·I
- lat. view
2. Suture
3. Symphysis of mandible
Fig. IIl-53 - Ox - Hyo id.

apparatus &
laryngeal cartilages
Fig. 111-54 - Ox • Mandible - dors. view
4. Joints of the Hyoid Appal-:.:ius
a. Skull f. Ceratohyoid bone

b, Mandible g. Baeihyoid bone
e, Tympanohyoid c:anilace · h. Tbyrohyoid bone
d. Stylobyoid bone i. Thyroid c:arllla,;e
•· Epihyoid bone
•+ ••
L TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT: a condylar joint be- JOINTS OF THE AUDITORY OSSICLES: the ear bones
tween the condyles of the mandible and the mandibular fossae of articulate with each other via synovial joints. The stapes articu-
the temporal bones. It has a loose joint capsule whose lateral side lates with the vestibular window by a fibrous joint (syndesmosis).
is strengthened to fonn a lateral ligament Tue auditory ossicles are held in place by a number of ligaments
(See Ch. vnn
Articular disc: a thin meniscus lying between the two articular
surfaces of the joint. · 4. JOINTS OF THE HYOID APPARATUS: the synovial
articulations between the bones of the hyoid apparatus and be-
2. SUTURES OF THE SKULL: the immovable, fibrous joints tween the thyrohyoid bone and the cranial comu of the thyroid
bet ween the skull bones. cartilage. The tympanobyoid · cartilage forms a fibrous
(syndesmosis) articulation with the skull.
3. SYMPHYSIS OF THE MANDfflLE: the canilaginous joint
joining the right and left mandibular bodies.
127
.JOINTS - VERTEBRAL COLUMN 69-Ncck & Back-129
Temporomandibular joint
4. Nuchal lig.
A
S. Supraspinous
Joint capsule,..--. lig.
1. Atlanto-occipital
joint
~int 2. Atlanto-axial joint

capsule
3. Joints of the vertebral

articular process
Fig. III~S6 - Dog - Cervical region • lat. view
Fig. III-SS - Ox - Cran. cervical region

• dors. view
..
~,t)IN1'S of the VERTEBRAL COLUMN: typical interverte- yellow-elastic connective tissue connecting the upper cervical -..
~)ira! articulations consist of two types of joints - cartilaginous vertebrae or skull with the spinous processes of the tnorscic
..;~id synovial. Symphyseal (cartilaginous) joints are formed by vertebrae. It helps support the head ..
·.r,tcrvcrtebral discs joining adjacent vertebral bodies. Synovial
;,1-ints are formed by caudal and cranial articular processes of S. Supraspinous ligament: the heavy band of connective tissue
<1djacenL vertebrae. The atlanto-occipital and atlanto-axial joints running over the tops of the spinous processes from the first
'<f~ atypical intervertebral articulations. thoracicvertebra to the caudaJ vertebrae. It prevents abnormal
separation of the vertebral spines during flexion of the vertebral
'. ~ TLANTO-OCCIPIT AL JOINT (the "yes" joint}: the con- column. It is the direct continuation of the funicular part of the
(~yl2r joint acting as a modified hinge type of synovial joint nuchal ligament
;,ctween the occipital condyles and the cranial articular surfaces
~·1· th.:! atlas. It has a spacious joi,1t capsule strengthened ·~y three
r.iembranes (dorsal, ventral, and lateral atlanto-occipirai). I
!
~Pli'.C.IES DIFFE;;;~CES I
'. A TLA NTO·AXIAL JOINT (the "no" joint): the pivot type of Nuchal ligai;),eiit in the dog, a paired band of connective
synovial joint between the dens and cranial articular surface of the tissue extending from the spinous process of the axis to the
: '.c,ias and axis. It has a loose joint capsule. The apical ugamen: of spinous process of the !st thoracic vertebra. It is absent in the
$--<. dens connects the apex cf i.he dens to the occipital bone. The eat. In the horse, o:t and pig it consists of two paired parts, The
1;1~1~verse atlantal lig~mentconne~ts to tile two arches of theatlas, funkul:)r (cord) para sesembles that oft.~ dog. but is pa.ireo (
~ csses over the dens of the axis, thus holding t~e dens against the
, ;;nlral arch of the alias.
l and arises from w'te skull and i~1s~rts on spines or the thoracic
, vertebraeof d1e withers, The ~~mP~!ar (sheet) part (b) consists
I of two sheets of connective tls~'Je arising from the second and
.;. Joints of tbe vertehrat articular precesses: the syn0via1 l 1;hird thoracic srir.~~ ~nd the funicular pm, and inserung on
.............J& lations
• <"1 ;r .. .. v ...... !...
t,,Ai~ .... .,. ''.·1e
~· IJ,fi'I".!'\ \A "au,\-:., c,n,~ crania'1,1l !)t,,;,..n\"y
"' ......~ ... ~·~ '\,, ... .:.vv ... , .. ,... of
...:.... ",t ..... -... P"'~~J>,(,"O(' ~ l cervical spmce C2-C6. I
,i-'!jnccnt vertebrae, I l
. N.,,.1,a1 ,.,o,.,..,,.,.,, \:il~-..,,
, '·a
j nursas of the n\.c~_8.~Hg~ro:«tn!in ho~~: pvs.~tion~.tetween ·,:
i bony processes anc tne funicular pan. l tic .1~1~...,,~;;i1 i)if·r::;1t
U,,J:,
.;, l] \#i;')Q;.~llvr.t(.
j
~-- -- ,.~ - ,.._ ,_ .,_ - ·-·. .. .. ,..... " '--
·-
JOINTS - VERTEBRAL COLUf\.JJN Neck & Back-130
). Joints of the vertebral

Temporomandibular joint articular process
---;~~.L 4. Nuchal lie.
b/\ a
5. Suprasplnous Ilg.
1. Atlanto-occipital joint
2. Atlanto-axlal joint - ::-=:

-
Fig. 111-57 - Horse • Cervical region - lat. view
3
5
,I
Temporomandibular
joint .~
I
•
j
Joint capsule ;
Fl1. 111-58 - Ox - Cervical region • lat. view

Interspinous lig.
A. Skull a. Funicular part.of 1. Atlante-occipital joint
, B. Atlu the nucltal lig.'. · 2. Atlanto-axial joint
C.Axil b. Lamellar parl of 3. JointB of Vertebral processes
D. 2nd ihoracic the nuchal lig. 4. Nochal lig.
,vertebra S. Supraspinous lig.
I
: .. ·· ·.·.....
(cranial nuchal bursa) is constantly found over the atlas. An ...
inconstant bursa (caudal nuchal bursa) is sometimes found over
lhe axis. A constant supraspinous bursa is over the most
prominent spines of the withers.
"Fisttilo·uswithers": inflammauon·o(die s .... , 'inO.us.i_biu:sa{';'
Dorsal scapular ligament: the thickening of the thoracolum- spee •,. . . ·.. •.. . . . . . . P.I!..: .:-··: 'WffieiT.s'
·,: -·ial. ·c~. .shouter.be taken··tiecauSt;kfk:fi~ =?
,.,.,., ·.·.-:
bar fascia in the withers region. It interdigitates with the origin transmissible to humans {zoonosis);'.have'·been·'isbJat~'=R~:,q:
of the scrratus ventralis muscle on the deep surface of the tore· ·of · :mis inflamed 'bursa m~yfuigi:ale - do~_\the·' l@.~iji;f
scapula, . · scapular li~~-nent and be ~~-~:.to.the~~.. '.:'.:fa\i:·.=-'.£~::,;::
129
...
,
JOINTS - VERTEBRAL COLUMN Neck & Bac_k- :
11. Sternocostal joint
Supraspinous lig.
9. Intersnlnous lig.
7. Dors.
longitudinal lig.
10. Costovertebral joint

I . i
I;
.. ·?})
{);.~J\V
. ,\t.v' \
12. Costochondral joiat
8. Intervertebral disc Fig. 111-60 - Ox - Floor of thorax - dors. vie

6. Ventr. longitudinal lig. 1-5. pg. 129 9. lnterspinous lig.
6. Ventral longitudinal lig. 10. Costovertebral joint
Fig. III·S9 - Horse - 3rd & 4th thoracic 7. Dorsal longitudinal lig. 11. Sternocostal joints
· · vertebrae - craniolat. view 8. Intervertebral discs 12. Costochondral joints
OTHER JOINTS and LIGAMENTS of the VERTEBRAL • Nucleus pulposus (pulpy nucleus); the semi-fluid remll3Dlti
COLUMN: the notochord surrounded by the fibrous ring. It serves to absa,;
shock.
6. Ventral longitudinal ligament: the tendinous band lying on • •
the ventral surfaces of the vertebrae from the axis to the sacrum. 9. lntcrsphious ligament: .the .fibers connecting the spines d
It prevents over-extension of the spine. adjacent vertebrae along the entire length of tne vertebral col, 11,w
. .
7. Dorsal longitudinal ligament: the tendinousband on the floor . lnterarcuate lig~ments or yellow ligaments (Fig. ID-&): die
of tbe vertebral canal from the axis to the sacrum. It prevents elastic ligaments filling the dorsal spaces between the arches rL.
hypertlexion of the spine. ·. adjacent vertebrae.
8. Intervertebral discs: the layers of fibrocartilage between the 10. Costovertebraljoints: the two distinct articulations betwee&
bodies of adjacent vertebrae, each consisting of an outer fibrous most ribs and the vertebral column. The head of each no fon:m a.
ring and an inner pulpy nucleus. • ball-and-socket type of synovial joint with the caudal and ciaum
costal facets of adjacent vertebrae. The tubercle of eachrib fui a
• Anulus tibrosus (fibrous ring): consists of bands of parallel a plane type of synovial joint with the transverse process of t!le
fibers connecting adjacent vertebral bodies. It is thin dorsally and corresponding vertebra. Each articulation has a joint capsule a
thick ventrally. ' correspondingligaments (radiate ligament of the head, interc.api&e
130
'
• ;J NTS - VERTEBRAL COlU\\~N Neck & Back-210
Interarcuate ligament
10
Fig. III-62 - Ox - 1st & 2nd lumbar

vertebrae - dors. view
------ g. Transverse process

a. Costotransverse lig.
h. Vertebral canal
b. Radiate lig. of
head of rib i. Spine
j. Joint capsule (in-en
c. lntercapital lig.
k. Intertransvene Jig. (III-62)
d. Rib i. Symphysis (Ill-60)
e. Head of rib
f. Tubercle of rib
Fig. 111-61 - ()s: ~ Sth & 9th costovertebral

articulation - craniolat. view
o:e:... ::ostotranSverse ligament, and ligament of the neck).
.-~cil:il ligament: connects the heads of a pair of opposite

.....,.__..SS:Sthrough the intervertebral foramen and over the
~2::::.cf the vertebral disc. They are not present between the
-""°--, _: last two pairs of ribs.
~~"'JCli.:ns'tal joints: the pivot type of synovial articulations

JD11:: =e first eight costal cartilages and the sternum. Each has
·: s.. s k and Ligaments (dorsal and ventral stemocostal
- 1 _ -,J;Ots, costoxiphoid ligaments and sternal ligament) .
..11::::::::ic::a:b::" joiru of the astemal ribs 'of the costal arch is a

~ fibrousjoint (synchondrosis).lnterstemal joints
_.l!e::::,: ::e srernebrae are . immovable cartilaginous joints
- ).
~=-m:::~d:raljunction or joints: the fibrous (syndesmosis)
t::il::::P'::lil lhe ribs and the costal cartilages. They have no
Wn::llf::..1r•i::..:es:i:·
:s since f:hey are not synovial joints.
131
••
'
.,
•
Chapter IV
Muscles
I
I
133
SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES -·BODY - DOG 109·General-135
Brachiocephalicus
Trapezius
Latissimus dorsi
Ext. intercostal
Middle gluteal·,
Serratus ventralis
Tensor fasciae
latae
Ext. abdominal
oblique Supf. gluteal
Semitendinosus
-, N
Sternocephalicus ··\
Infraspinatus '
Deltoid--...~
Extensor carpi radialis --.

Deep pectoral
Common digital extensor --,,+:,;
Lat. digital extensor -~ Lat. ulnar

Gastrocnemius ·
Oblique carpal extensor Long digital extensor-;----.;.-..-..:. \ \
r:
:l~. .:
·.,
IL
Interosseous
..
Fig. IV-1 - Dog - Muscles (cutaneous mm. removed) - lat view
134
General-136
SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES - BODY - HORSE
,.- •
v
~1.asseter
\/
Rhomboldeus
./v•' Tensor f asciae latae
Trapezius
'
Supf. gluteal
Ext. abdominal oblique
Biceps f emoris ·
.Ext. Semitendinosus -t
intercostal
S ~ernocephalicus
Sirratus ventralis
3ra.c hiocephallcus
Supraspinatus
Deltoid
Triceps bracbii
Brachlalis
Gastrocnemius ·
::::. ,; tensor carpi radialis Inf raspinatus
- : :::1mon digital extensor
Lat. ulnar-. --ittP Deep pectoral .
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Deep digital flexor
:.at. digital extensor -.
.I . )
Long digital extensor

Lat. dlgltal extensor
Suspensory lig.
(lnterosseous m.)
Fig. IV-2 - Horse - Muscles (cutaneous mm. removed) - lat. view
135
SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES - BODY - OX General-13 7
Tensor fasclae latae

Serratus ventralls
Brachiocephalicus Latissfmus dorsl Middle 1luteal
'
Int. abdominal oblique Vastus lateralls

Ext. abdominal oblique Biceps f emoris ·./
. ;· · · Semitendlnosas
Ext. intercostal
Sr. ernocephatlcus
' .. ~.
Infraspinatus
Deltoid __.,
Triceps brachll
Brachialis ---...;,~
Supf. pectoral--..--,;:~"
.. ,.
Extensor carpi radialis Deep pectoral

Common digital extensor ..........;:;-e Gastrocnemius
Lat. digital extensor Third fibular
Lat. ulnar Long fibular
Oblique carpal extensor Lat. digital extensor
Deep digital flexor
Interosseous
.'
Supf. digital flexor
... ..:
Fig. IV-3 - Ox - Muscles (cutaneous mm. removed) - lat. view

SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES - BODY - PIG Gcneral·l38
. .. . ...
•
.
Triceps brachii Ext. abdominal oblique
Trapezius
Ml«:fdle 1~uteal
·'
Brachia I is Deep pectoral

Extensor carpi """h-:.i~ Common digital extensor
radialls
Lat. digital extensor
Oblique carpal
extensor
Long digital extensor Gastrocnemius

(tendon)
Fie. IV-4 - Pi& - Muscles (cutaneous mm. removed) - lat. view
13'7
SUPE~FICIAL MUSCLES - BODY - CAT & SHEEP General-139
Fig. IV-5 - Cat - Muscles (cutaneous mm. removed)· lat. view
•
•
24
1. Masar ~er
~. Brachioco:,,halicut
8. 'Trapezius
4. Stemocephalicua
o. Supf. pectoral {not
ahown Ia ::.:beep)
6. DNp pectoral
7. Infraspina~u•
8. Deltoid -i.....14
9. Tricer.s braehi!
10. Brachiali11
11. Exten11or (:arpi radialis
12. Oemmon digital extensor Fig. IV - Sheep • Muscles, 31--n Hi.;.-;--JJ
13. Lat. dicital extensor Cutaneous mm. removed
lf. Lat. ulnar
15. Oblique carpal extensor - lat. view
16. Flexor carpi radiali• {not
~ho wn in sheep]
17. Fle."':ur carpi ulnam (not
1bown in eheep]
18. Lati1simut doni 2S. Supt. giuteal (absent 27. Semltendinosus 81. Lone digital extensor
tf}.Serratu, ven.tralie in ruminants) 28. Gaatrocnemiu, 32. Deep di,ital nexor
~v. Int. abdominal oblique 24. Tensor faaciae latae 29. Third fibular (absent 33. Sup(. digital nexor
21.Ext.abdorninelobligue 25. Vaatua lateralia in carnivores) (tendon)
221 Middle glut~al 26. Biceps femoris SO. Cran. tibial m.
SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES - BODY - LLAMA General-140
Ext • .abdominal oblique

Int. abdominal oblique
. Tensor fasclal Iatae
'Trapezius Middle aluteal
,.
Latlssinius dorsi Biceps femoris
Serratus ventralis · · Semitendinosus

Gastrocnemlus
;:;-;:?:· -~
~ ·,,
Deltoid
htemor carpl radialis
Carmon digital extensor t .
Deep pectoral t • , •
leL 41iaital extensor/ · Third fibular

Lat. ulnar
muque carpal extensor
Long digital extensor Lat. digital cxtenser
Fig IV-7 - Llama - Supf. muscles
139
MUSCLE General-l . e -
MUSCLES: the contractile organs responsible for movement in I.'i:li§CLEACTIONS:dependonhowtheycrossap:x n11nD1111iilc'

311 animal. The two varieties of muscle are striated (striped). of joints crossed and the shape of the joinis.Tberesul~ no&-,J
which includes skeletal and cardiac muscle, and unstriated or ments (muscle actions) are extension, flexion, rota.tia:.. .ra::&...,J
smooth muscle. Muscles are either involuntary or voluntary. tion, adduction and circumduction. When vis11atizin2 J na+ e
·1Hvoluntary smooth and eardiac muscles are responsible for imagine what happens to the bones of the joint when the nn-=iit
breathing, heart beat, peristaltic movements of the intestines. contracts (shortens). For most joints (hinge) there is a 6e = ,
constriction of blood vessels and many other vital functions. and an extensor side. Note the side of the joint the musce .:::.:::i.cm-.
Voluntary or skeletal muscles are of primary concern in this Those crossing the flexor surface will cause flexion of :rr -~•'•
section. They allow movement from one place to another (loca- upon contraction.
tion), movement of one part of the body in relation to another.and
m.c maintenance of body posture. S. Extension: an increase in the angle between bones ..:JCll!Sl
bones further apart).
ORIGIN and INSERTION: the attachments of a muscle, usu·
ally to bones. 6. Flexion: a decrease in the angle between bones (bring! ·x:,
:iimm·
closer together).
1. Origin (Ok-i-jm): them movable of the two attachments. In
J1:t limbs this is usually the more proximal attachment. 7. Adduction (spelled with a "d", it "adds" to the bo...~: .ra
movement of a limb or structure toward the median plane ( :..=--=.:.
2. Insertlon: the m2re movable of the two attachments. In the the body) or, in the digits. toward the limb's axis.
limbs this is usually the more distal attachment.
8. Abduction (spelled with a "b"): the movement of a limb Darr
MUSCLE ATTACHMENTS: from the body { or median plane), or in the digits, away f:roa
axis of the limb. ·
Fleshy attachments: the apparent direct attachment of muscles to
bone, e.g., scapular muscles. In reality, they attach to the periosteum 9. Rotation: the movement of a pan around its long axis,
of the bone by very short tendons.
10. Circumduction: the movement of an extremity that des 1 + :
Tendinous attachments: the dense connective tissue connecting the surface of a cone. This is produced by successive r\ 1 ,
spindle-shaped or pennate muscles to bone. abduction, extension, and adduction.
Aponeurotic attachments: the flat, tendinous sheets associated s,rpination: the movement of the forearm so the palmar sri: _
with flat muscles such as those of the abdominal wall. rotated upward or iorv.erd (as when a cat laps milk from its!""'-~
MUSCLE CONTRACTION: shortening of a muscle. causing a Pronation: the movement of. the palmar sid~ of the paw er m
change in the alignments of bones around a joint downward or backward.
Muscle function: lhe movement of parts of the body. For each MUSCULAR ARRANGEMENTS: the muscle fibers (eel:;
movement a number of muscles contract to produce a smooth are grouped together into fascicles (bundles) that in tum a:
controlled movement. Muscles are grouped into prime movers, grouped together to form the muscle.
antagonists, synergists, or fixators. The same muscle may be any
of the above, depending on the movement produced. Parallel muscle: the muscle bundles "(fascicles) run para.lld
each other the entire length of the muscle (e.g., sartorius BE
3. Prime mover or agonist (AG-o-nist) (G. agon, a contest): abdominal muscles). This allows greatest shortening of the e:-:l!!--
produces the characteristic movement at a joint The biceps cle, but less strength of contraction.
brachii muscle is the prime mover for fle~ion of the elbow joint.
Pennate muscle (penna, feather): the muscle bundles con"'o!=
4. Antagonist: opposes the movement of a prime mover. It aids on a tendon at an angle. This arrangement allows more bundb..
the prime mover by slowly relaxing so the movement produced is thus. stronger contractions, but less shortening because of :z
smooth and controlled. The triceps brachii muscle, the prime shorter length of the muscle bundles (e.g., gastrocnemius ~
mover for ~~tension of the elbow joint, is the antagonist tO the cle),
biceps brachii muscle during flexion of the elbow.
• Unipennate muscle: a pennate muscle whose tendon runs ak:q
Synergist (G. syn, together + ergon, work): a muscle that indi- one side.
rectly aids the action of a prime mover.
• Bipennate muscle: a pennate muscle whose muscle bundl:::l
Fixator·: a muscle that stabilizes the proximal end of a limb while converge on a tendon from two directions.
the distal end moves.
140
USC LE .
Gener::1-221
Fig. Vl-8 - Dog- Muscle functions and

attachments - thoracic limb
4. Antagonist (opposes
flexion of 'elbow) • •
5. Synergist (stabilizes
shoulder)
:. -\ ronis t ( r Or
.. _e:rion of elbow)
7 •. Flexion
6. Extension
...
I
,I
9• A -• ~
f"<.;,.,;O.UC t•100
..
! • • •
.
:: •
.
• ••
.
• t
• l .. :· • .;. ". • ' •• ' • ' ... •
. .. ; ... .. . .. .
'
. .. .
8. Abduc.tion-' 10. Rotation 11. Circumductlon
' . . Fig. IV .9 - Cartoons of muscle actions

4 ... muscle: a penna~ muscle whose tendons branch - inked by Barrett Pasquini
miit.lle xx;-;s-:ie. ·
. . .
--~-ter): a muscle whose fibers encircle an open-
-;*" w ri:J, of its fibers close the opening. This type of
... .: i w-j at the-entrance and exit of apassageway (e.g .•
.. ~:..t =» aive systems). · ·
l4l
EXTRINSIC Ivi'USCLES of tne ri i-iORACiC L!"M~ (rhoracic EX'fR!l"J§]C haUSCLES of tir-.e TIJOR.ACIC IT
girdle muscles): ,he rtlu~.cles that suaca to the thoracic limb ana
some other part o~ :.h?. body, i.e., to the head, neck, or trunk. The Superficial layer
brachiocephalicus (5), trspezius (2), omotransveisarius (a), latis- e Bracreocepbalicus (5)
simus dorsi (9) and superficial pectoral ( 11 ) muscles form the • Trapezius (2)
e Omotransversarius (a)
superficial layer of the extrinsic muscles. The rhomboid (4),
serratus ventralis (8) and deep pectoral (13) muscles fcnn the • Latissirnus dnrsi (9)
• O Superficial pectoral ( 11 )
dee:;> layer.
Deep layer
Syssarcesis (.,is'sar-KOH-sis): the muscle connection, as op- • Rhomboid (4)
posed to a bone to bone joint, between the thoracic Hm~ and the ., Serratus ventralis (8)
body. • Deep pectoral ( 13)
INTRINSIC MUSCLES: 'the muscles having both attachments INTRINSIC MUSCLES:
(origin and insertion)
. on the thoracic limb bones.
.
Intrinsic muscles of the shoulder:
INTRINSIC MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER: act primarily • Deltoid (7)
on the shoulder - the deltoid (7), supraspinatus (1), infraspinatus • Supraspinatus (1)
(3), teres major.(c), teresminor (b), subscapularis (6) coracobra- • Infraspinatus (3)
chialis (d) and biceps brachii (14} muscles. • Teres major (c)
• Teres minor (b)
INTRINSIC MUSCLES OF THE ARM: act primarily on the • Subscapularis (6)
elbow joint. and are divided into flexor and extensor groups. The • Coracobrachialis (d)
flex or group consists of the biceps brachii (14) and brachialis (12) • Biceps brachii (14)
muscles. They are located cranially and innervated by the muscu- • Triceps brachii, long head
locutaneous nerve. The extensor group. triceps brachii (10),
tensor fasciae antebrachii (e) and anconeus (f) muscles, are all Intrinsic muse Jes of the arm: flexors and extensors of the•,--
located caudally and innervated by the radial nerve.
Flexer group - musculocutaneous nerve
CRANIOLA TERALFOREARM (ANTEBRACHIAL) MUS· • Biceps brachii (14)
CLES: extend the digits and carpus, and supinate the paw - • Brachialis (12)
extensor carpi radialis ( 15), common digital extensor ( 16), lateral Extensor group - radial nerve
digital extensor(l 7), lateral ulnar (18) (actually a flexor), oblique • Triceps brachii (10)
carpalextensor(l9),andsupinator(pg.160 [#20]) muscles. Most • Tensor fasciae antebrachii (e)
arise directly or indirectly from the lateral {exwnsor) epicondyle • Anconeus (f)
of the humerus and ~e innervated by the radial nerve. Craniolateral forearm muscles - extend the digits and cz:.
and supinate the paw - radial nerve-lateral {extensor) epjro :;
CAUDAL ANTEBRACHIAL MUSCLES: the flexors of the
• Extensor carpi raclialis (15)
carpus and digits and pronators of the forearm. Most of them
• Common digital extensor (16)
originate on or around the medial (flexo[) epicondyle of the
• Lateral digital extensorG'i)
•
humerus and are innervated by the median and ulnar nerves. They O Lateral ulnar (18) (actually a flexor)
include the flexor carpi radialis (22), flexor carpi ulnaris (20), O Oblique carpal extensor (19)
superficial digital flexor (23), and deep digital flexor (25) mus-
• Supinator (pg. 160 [#20])
cles. The pronators include the pronator teres (21) and pronator
quadr?~~~ muscles in carnivores. Supination and pronation occur
r • \• ,• • •
Caudal forearm muscles;' flexors of the carpus & digizr
in carnivores and pigs, but not other domestic species due to pronators of the forearm - mediDU & ulnar nerves - Plr2
fusion of the ulna and radius and loss of the pronator muscles. <Oexor} epicondyJ.e
• Plexor carpi radialis (22)
INTRINSIC MUSCL~ OF THE MANUS: except for the .. Flexor carpi ulnaris (20)
interesseous muscle (24) which supports the metacarpopbalan- • Superficial digital flexor (23)
geal joint, the rest are relatively insignificant. O Deep digital flexor (25)
• Pronator teres (21)
• Pronator quadratus
•
Intrinsic muscles of the manus:
• Interosseous muscle (24)
142
Thoracic limb-144
- -=:i.::i pr asp J na tus Fig. IV-11 - Dog - Mus{·~~s of the thoracic ht·- ·
- med. view
3. Infrasplnatus
S. Brachlocenhallcus
4. R homboldeus
7. Deltoid
8. Serratus -----,,,
ventralls
6. Subscapularts --,..,:.iiT
c -Rffll'(\
9. Latlsslmus dorsl
10. Triceps brachil

~ pi:· lOa. Long head
• :-.:,al ..---10b. Lat. head d
1 Oc. Med. head
11. Supf.
pectoral
13. Deep
-:.rnmon digital.· pectoral
n:'rE:ls-0 r
i4. Bleeps brachll
18. Lat. ulnar . .
Oblique carpal r-- 20. Flexor carpi

extensor ulnaris
'. /
iiii---22. Flexor carpi radialis
t---13. Supf. digital flexor

. 24. In terosseous
\ .
•;
~-l---25. Deep dleital

,; flexor
;
-Fig. IV-10 - Doe • Muscles of
the thoracic limb • lat. view
d. Coracobrachlalia · . ·
e. Tenaor fudae ankbrachii
t. Anconeus
143
.'
'
... . \;'
.
·:' ... '
MUSCLES - THORACIC LIMB - HORSE . . •, .. Thoracic limb-

. ';.1.~ "*'I
Fie. IV-12 - Horse· thoracic limb

- lat. view
f
8
s 9
lOb
16--
15
22
;
24
-- 25
Fig. IV-13 - Horse· thoracic limb

- med. view
1. Suprupinatut
2. Tral)4!ziws
S. Infraaplnatua
12. Brachia.lit (IV-12) ··.·is:·:supf. di;ital nexor
•· R.homboicleu, (IV-18) :·24. lnteroueoue
5. Brachiocephalicws (IV-12) ts. Deep pectoral (1V-1S}
14. Bice~ bra.c:hii 26. Deep diptal ~exor
6. Subaeapularit (IV-lS)
1. Deltoid;·(IV-12) 16. Ex\en11or carpi radiaUa
8. Serratws ventralia 16. Common digital extensor (IV-12} a. Omotran1ver1ariu1 (not
17. Lat. digital extenaor 1hown in hone)
9. Latiuimua dorsl
18. Lat. ulnar b. Teret minor
10. Triceps brachii e, Terea major (IV-1S)
10a. Long head 19. Oblique carpal extensor
20. Flexor carpi ulnarie (IV-1S) d. Coracobrachiali1
lOb. Lat. head e. Tenaor fuciae antebn.w
lOc. Med. head (lV-lS) 21. Pronator terea (abeen\ - hone)
22. Flexor cupi radialia f. Subclaviu1
11. Supf. pectoral
144
USCLES - THORACIC LIMB - OX Thoracic limb-146
2. Tr apezlus
S praspluatus 3. lnfraspinatus
4. Rhomboideus
6. Subscapularis
ventralis
7. Deltold.
10. Triceps brachii
~11pf. d
1 Oa. Long head ---
illf!': tara I -- 10b. Lat. head
b
3n1.chio!. 9. Latissimus
:zphalicus dorsi
:_ Brachlalls:
lOc. Med. head 13. Deep
Cammon digital pectoral
a:tensor
14. Biceps
l.at. digital ---.: brachii
exteusor 15. Extensor carpi 21. Pronator
U. Lat. ulnar -........;.- radialis teres
- Oblique carpal 20. Flexor carpi

extensor ulnaris
22. Flexer carpi
radialis
Ii lV-14 - Ox - thoracic limb Fi&. IV-15 - Ox - thoracic limb

- lat. view - med. view
145
Thoracic lb:-
EXTR!NStC l\1USCLES - SHOULDER . . . .. • - • !
. . \, ....·:·\,·
··'. . .
Omotransversaqus·(a}: extends from the shoolder .:a:;ca
EX.TRINSIC lViUS.Cl,ES: connect the thoracic limb to t.'1e body
cervical vertebrae. In the horse it is fused with the ma-XI:.--.
(he ad, neck, and trunk).
cus and doesn't.attach to the scapular spine, possibly •
1. Trapezius (G. trapezion, an irregular, four-sided· figure): the no acromion. ; ·. . ·
triangular muscle extending from the dorsomedial neck and ..•
thorax to the spine-of the scapula. It elevates the scapula, thus, the
forelimb. It has two beads- the cervical part (trapezius cervicis) SPECIES DIFFERENG~S
\
and the thoracic part (trapezius thoracis).

Brachiocephaiicus: all ~tsheads are named for tber 11 -
ments. The value of.·uiemoriz.ing the species diffa:tli s
2. Latissimas dorsl (L. widest of the back): the broad, flat, fan-
shaped muscle ex rending from the dorsal thoracolumbarregion to doubtful. '. .·, -
'.•
the medial side of the humerus. It flexes the shoulder. • Cleidobr~hialis and cleidocephalicus are piesa e .n
i ' species .. :. -, ·
3. Brachiocepha1icus (brak' ee-oh-se-F AL-ik-us): the wide mus-
cle extending from the head and neck to the arm. The clavicular • Cleidocephalicus is further divided in all, but the h, w
intersection divides this muscle into the cleidocephalicus (b} and Ruminant & pig Cleidobrachialis Cleidocept •'i::w
the cleidobrachiatis (c). muscle. The cleidocephalicus is further Cleiddoir:,c:.-z:111111•
Cleidoc- -Jd
divided in all species, except the horse. where it is called the
cleidomastoideus. The brachiocephalicus acts to advance the Carnivores Cleidobrachialis Cleidocepha!cw
'. ....--
Cleida
limb or draw the head laterally. Clei<3oc:::a~·,m11,
...
. •
Cleidoceph'S:a
Clavicular (klah-VIK-yoo-lar} (tendon) intersection (d): the Horse Cleidobrachialis
fibrous remnant of the clavicle located cranial to the shoulder, Cleidi:xr;me11:m-
transversing the brachiocephalicus muscle.
INSERTION ACTION NERVE

MUSCLE ORIGINS
Spine of scapula Elevate shoulder Accessory

Trapezius & draw it
forward
Cervical fibrous Median fibrous
raphe of neck or backward
Thoracic part Spines of

vertebrae T s-s or 9
Dist. scapular Draw limb Accessory

Omotransversarius Wing of atlas & cervical
spine forward
Humerus (teres Flex -shoulder Thora co·

Latissimus dorsi Thoracolumbar · dorsal
~ • I,
major tubercle) or advance body

fascia
Pull limb forward Accessory

Bracbiocephalicus Cla vicular & axillary
.or flex neckr
intersection
laterally
Cleidocephalicus Skull (neck &
sk u 11/ mastoid
process •m
carnivores)
Cleidobrachialis Humerus
146
-A.... ,horaclc Ii
Serr a tus vcn tr al is
Inf raspina tus

•
ssrmus dorsl ,
Serratus
ventralis
I
-- '-
---=-: .:. .~-· . ~Jar intersection
,.., avicul ·
- . ~ Ac p ha li~t:::=-C-.C
:e.__
i .
Triceps brachii
Long head
--·
'
<, Lat. head
·~ Deep pectoral .!
----
Brachialis ':· '~--~-~
- Fig. IV-16 _ Dog • Lt. shoulder - extrinsic mm. • lat .. view

.
l47
Thoracic limb- !i;
EXTRINSIC MUSCLES - SHOULDER
4. Rhomboid (ROM-boid) orrhomboideus: the extrinsic muscle - .. ·-.
lyin[ deep to the trapezius. It extends from the median raphe of / ··-
the nect, the thoracic vertebral spines, and the skull to the dorsal ( . Supf. "'\ }
border of the scapula and scapular cartilage. It is divided into · pectoral I
cervical and thoracic parts in all species; the carnivores and l2i&
have a small capjtaj part. It elevates the forelimb.
5. Serratus ventralis (ser-RAY-tus) (L. serratus, a saw): the

serrated, fan-shaped muscle extending from the last five cervical
vertebrae and first seven or eight ribs to the medial surface of the
scapula.1.t supports the trunk.
6. Superfi~ial pectoral: the flat muscle extending from the
sternum to the cranial surface of the humerus. Itisdividedintotwo
parts, a superficial descending pectoral and a deeper transverse
pectoral, based on their fiber direction. It adducts and advances
the limb. ._,..
. .
7. Deep (ascending) pectoral: the broad muscle extending from
the sternum to the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus. It - ------ '· -"' .
functions to draw the limb caudally and adduct it. Deep pectoral\ .·
SPECIES DIFFERENCES ----- ,___./ '
Subclavius (Fig. IV·23. c): pectoral muscle over the cranial

Fig. IV-17 - Dog Thorax - ventr. view
border of the supraspinatus muscle in the horse and goat It is '
small in the ox and absent in the carnivores.
ACTION NERVE
ORIGINS INSERTION
MUSCLE
Ora w shoulder Dors. br. of
Rhomboideus Dors. neck and Dors. border spina] nn. (cerv,
·thorax , of scapula & dorsocranially
Cervical part & thoracic)
Thoracic pa-rt ~;· · ..·. scapular cartilage.
Capital part · Nuchal crest of skull
...•'
(carnivores)
Scapula Raise thorax (both), Long

Serratus ventralis shift weight to thoracic
(serrated face)
Vertebrae Cs-7 contra lateral
Cervical part limb (singly),
(transverse "
support trunk (both)
processes)
Thoracic part Ribs 1-7 or 8
Adduct & Pectoral

Supf, pectoral Sternum Cran. surf ace
of humerus advance limb -,
(extend shoulder)
Descending " " .
Transverse " "
•
Adduct & retract Pectoral &

Deep pectoral Sternum Humerus (lesser
limb (flex lat. thoracic
(ascending) tubercle}
shoulder)
148
:...t. TRINSIC MUSCLES - SHOULDER Thoracic limb-150
4. Rhomboideus
.,._,..,... . .. -· . ···--·~ ..... \
/
__....subscapulari~
:
"- ·--.. ---. . ..... ~.:

.. .
~·· . .. •,
: ~·c!'ra tus ventralis ~·
---,/Supraspinatus / ~ :: '
' ... ····· -·~··.../,r.:::; .
-=>;
,
' a---1-
·~·-_.../
La tissimus dorsi --
Tric::~-~~==~~
Long head I
Med. head
6. Supf. pectoral
.,
~--- Brachiocephalicus
Fig. IV ·18 - Dog • Lt. shoulder

Extrinsic mm. • med. view
=-.mr ~._ i.::~brachii

149
INT~INS!C
~.1 1. ,.·~·.·-,~.,.. .
, ..... , .. ~,..,,
... . -
1 .. __
-
U·~TRINSJ.C MU§CLES: arise an:I in:::ert on t\:~ !\icracic l;1r.!1
bones.
MUSCLES of the saotn.usa and AR!'-1:
8. Sup.r~pjn.atus (soop-ra-Sf'Yvnayt-us): a shoulder extensor, it

originates from ~Hd fills the supraspinous fossa, Curving over the
shoulder joins, it inserts on the greater tubercle of tile humerus. It Teres minor (d): the rillall muscle ventral to the
acts as the sh0r!rlcr':; lateral collateral ligament, insertion of the infr~-spinams muscle. It crosses the 12:.:"L · -~:C:
ofine shoulder.
9. Deltoid (G leuer delta) (Fig. IV -16): extends £.:om the scapular
spine over the shoulder joint to the deltoid tuberosity of the Anconeus (c): crosses the lateral aspect of the elbow j.)=- _.;;i-.
humerus. Its aponcezosis covers the infraspinatus muscle. It acts the triceps brachii muscle. A lateral approach to the e:..- _
to flex the snoclder. through this muscle.
10. Infraspin2tS2s: Hes dee? to the aponeurosis of the deltoicl r

SPECIES IfJ:Ff.'ERENCES~
muscle, origmatiag' from and filling the Infraspinous fossa. !~s
strong tendon crosses the shoulder joint to insert on the greater Dcit(3fd (9): divided into aeromial and spinous part; ::: ~
tubercle of lf\e humerus. It flexes".ilie. shoulder joint act actswith . i
jnmc3tic animals, except the horse ~,.n<ipig. The ho~-:~: -
tte supraspinatus muscle as the joiat 's lateral collateral ligament. j ', .. i1'.,;ck ""
~I .~\,.,!.::..,._..,,&.}\
.. ,,_,, ..~ )fi •
There is an inft~~~ between the tendon of insertion
and the greater tubercle.
·,~-'.
MUSCLE ORIGINS INSERTION AC'fION NEI{VE
Deltold Deltoid tuberosity Flex shoulder Axillary
Scapular part Spine of scapula
Acromial part Acromion process

(absent in
horse & pig)
Suprasplnatus Suprasp inous Humerus (greater Stabilize & Supra-

fossa of scapula & lesser tubercles) ex tend shoulder scapular
Inf raspina tus Infraspinous Humerus (greater Stabilize, flex Supra-

fossa of scapula tubercle) ; & ex tend shoulder. scapular
'
..
: !.
Teresminor Caud. border Teres minor . : 'Elex shoulder Axillary

of scapula tuberosity of hllinerns.
Brachiatis Brachial groove Radius Flex elbow Musculo-

of humerus cutaneous
Anconeus Olecranon f ossa Olecranon Extend elbow Radial
150
R\NSIC MUSCLES - SHOULDER&. ARM Thoracic Ii b-152
\.-
, 10. Infrasplnatus
. '
-· ..~
..
Triceps brachii
Lat. head
11. Brachialis
Triceps brachii
. Long head
Deep pectoral
Biceps brachii. c
Fig. IV-19 - Do&· Lt. shoulder & arm - Intrinsic mm.· lat view
e, Scapula
t. Humeru1 < '
g. Olecranon (ulna)
l.Sl
!N1.RiNSIC I\AUSCLES - SHOULDER & ARM Thoracic Ii=..:-
12. Su.'!>scagru!2rE~: the large muscle originating from the coidprocess over the shoulder ro the humerus on n- ::C::::il..:111
subscapular fossa It crosses the shoulder joint and inserts on the of the axilla,
lesser tubercle of the humerus. It adducts the shoulder and serves
as the shoulder's medial collateral ligament. Teres major (a): arises from the caudal border of itlle s:::..:=-::11
. . inserts with the latissimus dorsi muscle on the memz -~-----
13. Tricr:ps bracbii (L. tri, three+ ceps, heads): composed of humerus.
three or four heads. Its long head crosses the shoulder, and all
heads cross the elbow joint to insert on the olecranon, It extends Tensor fasciae antebrachii (Fig. IV-18.c): ttie thin. ~-~:atr;.
the elbow and its long head flexes the shoulder. muscle arising from the latissimus dorsi muscle and c::"'=:l:l!L'l;
medial surface of die triceps brachii muscle.
14 • n:ceps :')rachii (L. bi, two + ceps, head): arises from the
supraglenoid tubercle, crosses the shoulder and elbow. and inserts SPECIES DIFFERENCES:
on the radial tuberosity of the radius. It extends the shoulder. and
more importantly. with the brachialis muscle, flexes the elbow
Triceps bracbfl (13): the long, lateral. and medial ~
joint, ... · ··
found in illspecies. An accesscrybead occurs in ail.:;r.:::c..,_
except the horse.
Coracobrachialis (b): the small muscle extending from !he cora-
.», '
< • i;.
MUSCLE ORIGINS . INSERTION ACTION NERVE
Biceps brachii Supraglenold , Radial tuberosity ·Flex elbow & Musculo-

tubercle of scapula extend shoulder cutaneous
.
Coracobrachial'is .Coracoid process Lesser tubercle .. Flex shoulder Musculo-
cutaneous
. scaoula
·,of: :~ - of humerus
Ca ud. border Teres major Flex shoulder Axillary

Teres major I•,)' ....
.o( scapula tuberosity of ·,,.,._
...... .
- - ' '
r • I .,; • ....
humerus
.· . :
Subscapularls Subscapular Lesser tubercle Adduct & extend Subscapular

fossa of humerus shoulder joint
Triceps brachii Olecranon Extend elbow Raoial

Long head Caud. edge of . ... ., "
scapula
Lat. head Humerus "
n·
Med. head "
II ' . ~
Accessory head "
(absent in horse)
Tensor f asciae Latissimus dorsi Olecranon & Extend elbow Radial

antebrachii antebrachial
(Fig. rv-is.ci fascia
152
Thoracic limb-154
INTRINSIC MUSCLES - SHOULDER & ARM
..
.... . .
... .
~-~------···.._-. -- .. '•.
. .. . . . . . ~ 12. Subscapularis
'
~--·--' ./
-------.. . . . , ,
...
Supraspinatus \
I
I
;
13a. Lone head .
13. Triceps brachii )

~-- _.//
~
14. Biceps brachii /
- .--·
--. .. -·--- ' :
..
·· Fig. IV-20 - Dog - Lt. shoulder & arm
- Intrinsic mm. - med, view
a. Teres major .
b. Coracobrachialia
153
Thoracic lie.;-,- __
MUSCLES - SHOULDER
2. Latissimus dorsi
13. Triceps bracdhii

13a. Long hea
13c. Lat. head

9. Deltoid ---~~M"~
11. Brachialls
6. Supf. pectoral 7. D.eep pectoral

...
L boulder, .
Fig. IV- 21 - Ox - t '. s mm. - lat. view
extrinsic
1.Tt=dorsi
,:,.2. Laachiocephalicus
3.
4 Br boid (IV-23) l)
Rhom al"
• Serraws ventr IS (IV-2
s.
6. Sup{.
pectoral
toral
7. Deep~ rus (IV-23)
8.~-21)
9. inatus
1O. Infraspa1is
11. Brachi laris (following pg
12. S~apu brachii
13.ikkn~d
13c. Lat. ..
14. Biceps brachii ·
· ,tar cart ilaoe
S....... ...., . (IV-23)
A.~
B. fibrosus
. antebrac hi'i
a. OrnottmsY ersarius
b. Tensor ~ISCl~ in
c, Subcl~1us () (IV-23) F. Lt shoulder,
canuvores - . c mm. - lat. view
d. Tm:sminor · ig. IV -22 - Horse.
extrmsi
....
154
INTRINSIC MUSCLES - SHOULDER & ARN'v1
Thoracic limb-l56
.. ! . : . '
8. Suprasplnatus Fig. IV-23 · Horse - Lt. shoulder & arm

- Intrinsic mm. - lat. view
c
10. Jnfraspinatus
. ..
rr----- 9. Deltoid
13. Triceps brachii

13a. Long head
~- 13c. Lat; head
14. Biceps brachH
11. Brachialis
..
.Fig.. IV-24 • Ox -· Lt. shoulder & arm

· - Intrinsic mm., deltoid removed
-Iat.view
....•
155
Thoracic limb-I 57
MUSCLES - SHOULDER
4. Rhomboideus
Fig. IV ·26 • Horse - Lt. shoulder & ann
- Extrinsic mm. - med. view
5. Serratus yeatrall1
d.
-- ,. Supra1plaat111.:: .:
- 12. Subscapularls
2. Latlsslmus -,
dorsl .
7. Deep pectoral
<
.... 4
13. Triceps ":\
brachil ·,·
. . .
13a. Long head. 6. Supf. pectoral
13b. Med. head
14.Biceps brachii
' .
: 2
'·' Fig. IV ·25 • Ox - LL shoulder & arm

'·
- Extrinsic mm.
- med. view
•
".
156
TRINSIC MUSCLES - SHOULDER&. ARM Thoracic limb-!~:-
Fig. IV -27 • Horse· - Lt. shoulder & arm

A
.: / - Intrinsic mm. - med. view
r
,•
.,
/ ,/ .·.
.
I •
8 -, Supraspinatus
..
•
. ; ·-
- =-~s brachii
;, long head
-:. ~fed. head ---;nm-im~~
A
c . ·---
14. Biceps
bracbii
13a-
13b
-> A.. Scapular cartilage

B. Lacertus fibrosus {IV-27}
&..Te.res major
b, Cor~obrachialia (IV-27)
e, Tcm-0r !asciae antebrachil
d, Sulxlavius {absent in carnivores) (IV-25)
Fig. IV· 28 - Ox - Lt. shoulder & ann

- Intrinsic mm. • med. view
157
MUSCLES - FOREARM Thoracic 1imb-1s9
DORSOLA TERAL ll'OREARM (antebrachial) MUSCLES: metacarpal bone and die accessory carpal bone. Grouped with me
extensorsof thedigitsandcarpus.andsupinatorsoftbepaw. MOR eueosars. inreality it flexes the carpus in most positions. 'Ibis ir
arise on or near the wcraJ (extensor) epicondyle of the humenJS an interem.ng anatomical point. but clinically of no imporcance
and are innervaled by the racJial nerve.
SPECHS DD'FERENCES
15.ExtensorcarplracHald:tbelargestextensormuscle,itinsens
on the metacarpal subeaosity. It cxlends the carpus and flexes the CGIIIIDOII di&italexteesor (16): in the horse, ithasonctendoo
elbow. ofinsertiooforiasooedigit; in lbeocbezdomestic species lheie
ia a ttDdon of insertion for each digit (carnivores have S,
16. Common dilbl mew: lhc long muscle ir.scting on the n,m;nent., 2 llld pigs 4).
cum,a, prooess of the dlinl pbalar.x (phala1gcs). It extends the
digit(s) and carpus. Med$eJ digital me..,. (pg. 166): the mme medial muscle
bead of the common digilal extensor that goes to 1he medial
17. Lateral digital extensor: originating from die proximal end digit of me nmriaa,.us. It bl lances the Jatera1 digital extensor.
of lberadiusandinsertingon lhe lateral digits. It extends tbedigiss
and carpus. Lateral dlaJbl exteusor (11): bas Cllly one tendon of insez.
lion on digit IV in the nninantsand on the lateral sideof digit
18. Ulnarls lateralis (lateral ulnar. exlensor carpi ulnaris): the min the horse. It insetts on digits 3, 4 ands in the dog and on
most caudal extensor muscle. It inserts on the proximal part of a digits 2, 3, 4 and S in the cat.
.. ..v .. : .... , ..
... ,...;. ·:
··\':....' : .
j~·: ...?- :'"'"
.,
MUSCLE ORIGINS INSERTION ACTION NERVE
Extensor carpi Lat. cpicondyle Metacarpus Extend carpal Radial

radlalls of humerus joint. flex elbow
- -. . ... :
•• . <
Common dl&ltal Lat. epicondyle Dors. portion Extend . digits

. RadiaJ
extensor ~r, humerus
..
of dist. phalanges
•
Lateral digital On ornear lat. Middle phalanges Extend digits Radial

extensor, epiccndyle
;
Lateral ulnar Lat. epicondyle • end of

Prox. Flex carpal joint Radial
(extensor carpi of humerus Metacarpal V
ulnaris)
158
MUSCLES - FOREARM Thoracic Hmb-160
Fla. IV-29 - Doa ·Lt.forearm

·lat.view
Brachialis .
Biceps bttchii
o-
~/-
~·· "-::'..,,---'
15. Extensor· carpi radlalls -- -· --
16. Common cllaltal extensor --r. 18. Lat. ulnar 111.
Flexor carpi ulnaris
,,...___, 17~ Lat. digital extensor --

-0 .
U u
/ ,-,..,2.,,IN__:::,
II ~:
l
t
...__ . ~ .......
'
In terosseous
Supf', digital flex or
Deep digital flexor

-
159
Thoracic limb· 161
MUSCLES - FOREARM
19. Pronator teres (PROH-nayt-or TEE-reci,. [most people say Oblique carpal extensor (b): also known as the abductor JX)llicis
. 1ER eezj) (L, teres, round): the small muscle in carnivores (digiti l) longus. (Pollicis refers to thumb, which none of the J
extending from the medial epicondyle of the humerus.obliquely domestic animals have.) The carnivores have digit I, but none of I
,.
·('
to the radius. It pronates the paw (rotates lhe palmar side down- the other species do. For comparative purposes, we use the
ward). In other domestic species, whose capacity to pronate the anglicization of the NAV permitted extensor carpi obliquus. Ia
forelimb is lost or reduced because of fusion of· the ulna and the carnivores it has a small sesamoid bone in its tendon on the
radius. t.'le pronator teres is at best vestigial. ·. ··· medial side of the carpus.
' Pronator quadratus: a wide. short muscle bridging the length of
10. 3upinator (SYOO-pi-nayt-or, SOO-pi-nayt-or): -present in
carnivores and occasionally in the pig. It extends from ~.lateral the interosseous space between the ulna and radius. It is deep to
(extensor) epicondyle to the radius under ··the ex~sor carpi the deep digital flexor muscle.
radialis muscle. It ~ the paw (rotates the palmar side
upward, as when the cat drinks milk with its paw). -It is absent
from the other domestic species, because ·their radius and ulna
fuse; negating the possibility of supination. ·
Bracbiorad.ialis (d): the small muscle in the superficial fascia-over·

the extensor carpi radialis ·muscle in carnivores.' ' . '
. . .~ - .
.
'
..
Pronator teres Med. epicondyle Med. surf ace · Pronates paw Median
of humerus of radius
Supina~or Lat. epicondvle Radius · Supinates paw Radial

(carnivores) of humerus
Obtique carpal Cran. surf ace of Prox. metacarpus

. ... ,,
.. \ .'
··.
·· ': -,Extend
'
carpus & Radial
extensor (long forearm ·· . ·. . ·,abduct \ . . carnivore's
digital I abductor) :._} ,lst-xtigit
; ·. . . . · . . ..
(abductor digiti I - . '\. ·, '\
..
\,. .:-~ ·: : •• -, '1 ·~-. •
[pollicis) longus)
. .·:. -· .'... .
~-·' ....
·... ·.....
~,.. . .
\
...
Extensor pollicis Ulna Metacarpals I & II. · -Extend
~ /...-~ . .Radial
longus et indicis digits I. &.'.1\ .,·.,. ··.
. ' .,
proprius .- .
(carnivores)
Pronator quadratus Dist. ulna Dist.' radius Pronates paw Median

(carnivores)
Brachioradialis Lat. condyloid Cran. surf ace Supinates Radial

; (long supinator) crest of humerus of radius paw
(carnivores) •
\
160
USCLES - FOREARM Thoracic Iimb-162
flt_. IV-30 - Do1- Lt. forearm - cran. view
Biceps brachii
19. Proaator teres
20. S11plnator---
--Extensor carpi radialis
- Common digital extensor

-- Lat. digital extensor
Flcxor carpi radialis
. .
Fl1.1v ...31 • Doa ~ Lt. forcar~ deep

dissection - cran. view
L Bxknlor pollic:ia
loqu1 el lDdlci. propri• .
.,
b. Oblique cupal m-,or '·
e, Ulna
d. Bncbforadl.U.
-~ .•
161
. .· .....
4 •• ' •
MUSCLES - FOREARM .
·:-,,
~
.
allows the deep digital flexor tendon to pass eta, _;
CAUDAL ANTEQRACHIAL MUSCLF.S: the flexors of-the distally to the attachment of the superficial ~ '°e aw
carpus and digits, and pron~tQrs of the paw. They originate from . . . . . ..
or near the medial (flex~r)·epicondyle of the humerus, and are
innervated by the mediair~ot ulnar nerves. They include the SPECIES DIFFERENCES :. --~
••
flexor carpi radialis (21), flexor carpi ulnaris (22), superficial
digital flexor(23),deep digital flexor (24) and pronatorteres (19). Superficial digital flexor .(24): has tendons r e.lC2:
(camivore-5;horse- l;ruminants,2).~,cceptintbe?J·••
21. Flexor carpi radia,is: the long muscle inserting on the has only 2 for its 4 digits. Infth.ehorse it inserts on ~-:,w:a-
proximal metacarpus. It flexes the carpus. end of the middle phalanx apd the distal end at ttJe)Wll-
phalanx. These two insertions may prey~ .dorsal
22. Flexor carpi ulnarls; a two-headed muscle inserting on the (hyperflexion) of the rpro~imal interphalangeal ):jlK.
accessory carpal bone. Ithas an ulnar and a humeral head and ruminant has two tendons, lhe deep one passing liar, a
flexes the carpus. The humeral head can be mistaken for the carpal canal and the superficial one passing throop •a:1111r
:
superficial digital flexor. To differentiate them, follow them to retinaculum. ·
their terminations.
Acce~ory ligament of the. superfici;il digital IIDFemr:
23. Superficial digital nexor: arises from the medial (flexor) tendinous band that connects~· the lendon of the s+ • is .
epicondyle of the humerus and inserts on the middle phalanx. It digital flexor to the radius; µhis plays a part in a
flexes the carpus and digits; apparatus (pg. 1%). It is also known as the ·raw ••=mi:
~\·
,..·.,;
"proximal check ligament". "superior check liga,, w·
Manica nexoria: the sleeve .of the superficial digital flexor "radial check ligamem".
tendon· located al the metacarpophalangeal joints in all species. It
,,
' . .
,. - .
.'. . ,,.
•.
.,
ACTION NERVE
ORIGINS INSERTION
l\lUSCLE -, ~
Flex carpus Median n,

Meet (f lexor) Prox. metacarpus
Fle,cor. carpi
radialis ·epicondyle of
humerus
Flex carpus QlJ1ar n.

Accessory
Flexor carpi carpal bone \
ulnar is
Ulnar head Olecranon

Humeral head Med. epicondyte·
of humerus
. ·- Palm. surface of Flex digits Median n,

'Supf. digital Med. epicondyle & carpus
of humerus middle phalanges
flexor
162
.(
USCLES - FOREARM Thoracic limb-164
Bicepsbrachii
~.:::~ ..'!i~lis
. . \
------/)
. /
----Pronator teres
22. Flexor carpi ulnaris
-
I
-: .--
-~1-
\
21. Flexor carpi radlalls
..--- -- ------------------,,., _.-....:,;
~~pf. digital flexor ~-
»>: _... --~-------~ ............

~.':!,
--- --
~eep digital flexor , '·,
--------
--· b
Interosseous
Common digital
extensor tendon
IV-ll - Do1- Lt. forearm· med. view
a re
ffl I aw CU"pal aieneor
c. I ; :t I' br. of IDHrO!IMOUI m.
= •
• l I
I
~-·e!!:,
«·IOJ-- m..
163
MIJSCLES - FOREARM Thoracic licr:.~- •
24. Deep digital flexoi: the i.hree-headed muscle arising from the.
hum ems, radius and ulna and inserting on the distil phalanx 'CLINICAL
(phelanges). It flexes the carpus and digits.
.. . Bowed tendons (tendosynovitis): a tom tenooe i:. .:a::•c::
25. Interosseous (in 'ter-Os-ee-us) (L. inierosseus, inter be· . usuaily resulting from racing stress. The s~ -
tween + os bone): a muscle of the manus, arising from the-. . fle~<>r of the thoracic limb and the suspensory I iga,. ** --
proximal palmar surface of the metacarpal bones. It extends hi#}d limb are most commonly affected. Depending a:,...-=
dist illy and splits into two tendons. One tendon inserts on; the they are in the metacarpal region they are classifed z
sesimoid bones of the respective metacarpophalangeal jo).nts. middle or high.
The other tendon, the extensor branch, joins the common digital
extensor muscle' s tendon of insertion. FJexoiial limb deformities or contracted tend.om: .r_ :.--
genital oracquired defect in foals involving the flexar e+ ;
SPECIES DIFFERENCES of the front or hind limb. Often the accessory (", iF ?'
'i ~ ' ligaments are resected (cut) to help straighten out er:::·..:
J'
·-,
Aceessory ligament of the deep digital ftexo~-: -a tendinous' : · limb;
band from the palmar carpal '.ligament to the tendon ofthe deep Plexorial limb defonnities are a beuername because s::a:amr
digital flexor, ll can be reached from the lateral side:Itplays a · can't contract (A. Simon Turner) ..
part in rne stay apparatus (pg. 196). Popular synonyrniare.> :·. ""--------------------
"distat check ligament", "carpal check ligament". and "inferior· -I • :
check ligament". ·
·.•·· ; .i ..
lnteros.,rous (25): horse -3 muscles; dog and cat - 4; in the

ruminants the 2· interosseous muscles are fused. ••
Suspensory ligament(Fig. IV-35): anothertenn for the inter-

osseous muscle in the horse. It is completely tendinous upon
maturity and plays a role in the stay apparatus anq locomo~on.,
~ . . .....~ .
. ;
.....' ..
MUSCLE ORIGINS INSERTION ACTION: NERVE
• .
Deep digital Humerus, radius Tuberosities of Flex digits Median &
flex or & ulna dist. pha-taP.ges & carpus ~ ulnar nn.
.J
Humeral head
Radial head
Ulnar head
lnterosseous Prox. end of Sesarnoid bones Deep br.

metacarpals II, of respective of ulnar
III. IV & V meta car pophala ngeal
joints
164
Thoracic limb-166
USCLES - FOREARM
Fii. IV-33 - Doa - Lt. forearm - caud. view
23. Supf. digital flexor
Lat. ulnar ---
24. Deep dial tat flexor

Flexer carpi ulnaris -·---+-
.. . ..
....-·.
. :.
• .
.·-·... .
·-:....·: .:
..·:-. .:··.. .:.":·....

.. : ; •~~--Flexorcarpi radialis--------l r-:··~····":I.-Wi!-1
---C
25.Interosseous-----
*
•a
Fia. IV-34 ·.Doa ·Lt.forearm.
deep dissection· caud. view
165
.., ...
Thoracic limb-167
MUSCLES - FOREARM 13
Ffa. IV-35 - Horse - Lt. forearm - lat. view
I,
13
A
. 15-.....,."1
15. Extensor carpi
radialis
'
24. Deep dieltal

: ..~,\·: flex or
·~\ ;)\!,
16. Commoij\'d.igital
extenso't :' 16
17. Lat. digital extensor·
b --18. Lat. ulnar
-,
•,1 •
Medial digital extensor '
., • '
~
23. Supf. dlsltal flexor

23
. ~; . ,:..
25. lnterosseous
· · .(suspens<?rY lig.)
'24. Deep digital flexor
....
11. Bnchialis A. Lacerlu.1.fibroau1 (JV-37)

lS. Triceps brachli B. Acceuory lig. of the
l!a. Lon1hud deep di,ital nexor ·
. . l!b. Med. head
ise, Lu. head a. AnconeUA ·
14.Bi~p, bncbil b. Oblique carpal extemor
15. Exknsor carpi radialia
' 16. Common diptal ext.Mor
I
17. Lat. dllital extemor
".
18.
~ Lat.
.. ulnar
19. Pronator t1N1 (absent in horse) ;Fig. IV ·36 - Ox - Lt. forearm
20. Supinator (camivoret)
21. Flexor'Carpi radialil - lat. view
22.Flexorcarpiulnaria
23. Supf. dilital fl.xor
2•. Dffp dliltal Oexor
25. lnkrolMOua (1u1p~~~ory
n,. - hom)
166
MUSCLES - FOREARM Thoracic limb-196
Fig. IV-37 - Horse - Lt. forearm· med. view
13
' .. •.
;,
--1s._Extensor carpi.
radlalls .: · 21 --
·"=!
-ts
v-.
22
22. Flexor carpi .
ulnarls
. . . .. .. .
•
21. Flexor carpi radlalls
- \
t
I I
.. I
\~\ . 25
.\
13. Supf. dl&ftal
\'.
1
flexor 26
•
'
25. Interosseous
24. Deep dleltal
flexor \
Fig. IV -38 • Ox • LL. fo~ann

. ·
-med.vlew
167
126-Pclvic limb-1~9
MUSCLES - PEL vie LIMB
MUSCLES or the LOIN, HIP and TfflGH: The hip is the MUSCLES of the CRUS:. the true leg, shank, or gaslcin is
region between the crest of the ilium and greater trochanter of the covered with muscles on lhe craniolaterai and caudal surfaces. .-
femur. The thi.gh is the region between the greater trochanter and There are no muscles on the medial surface. ihe tibia being
the stifle. The loin i~ the proximal craniomedial region of the directly under the skin. The muscle groups of the crus are not
thigh. The rump (gluteal region) is the prominence formed by the grouped as in the·· thoracic limb because the angles of the tarsal
gluteal muscles ... joint and the digits are opposite. The muscles either extend the
digit and flex lhe ~. or flex the digit and extend lhe tarsus.
.' :. ;_:;..·...
• Li-Jin and hip muscles: divided into dlree groups: sublumbar,
rump, and inner pelvic muscles. · • Craniolater~ iii~: extensors of the digits and Oexorsof the.
tarsus, innervated by the peroneal (fibular) nerve. They are the
• Subluamba; muscles: inc11ide the~ minor. iliopsoas {psoas cranial tibial, peroneus longus (long fibulai*), long digilal exten-
sor, lateral digital extensor, and peroneus tertius (third fibular*)
major and iliacus) and quadm,~ l~borum muscles. They origi-
nate from -the ventral surfa~.of the caudal thoracic and lumbar muscles. Located on the craniolateral side of the leg, they mgi-
~ ... ~.
vertebrae and inserton theoscoxaeand femur. These muscles flex nate from the pro*"nal pan of dle tibia and fibula, except the long
i~ .
the hip and lumbar venebf~li,'oJumn and fix the lumbar vertebral digital extensor and peroneus tertius (third fibular) muscles which
column. The ventral bran~ttetofthe lumbar nerves innervate the originate from the extensor fossa of the femur (96, J).
sublumbar muscles. ·i· : ~'
1.'
• Caudal muscles: flexorsof dledigitsandextensorsof the tarsus,
• Rump muscles: the superficial ghneal, medial gluteal, deep innervated by the tibial nerve. They are the gastrocnemius, caudal
gluteal, and tensor fasciae latae muscles. all originating from the tibial, popliteus, and superficial and deep digital flexor muscles,
ilium and inserting on the femur. The rump muscles mainly originating from the caudal surfaces of the femur and· tibia.
extend the hip joint, except the tensor fasciae latae which, by
tensing the fascia of lhe thigh (fasciae latae), flexes the hip joint MUSCLES of the PES: There is little difference between the
and extends the stifle. The cranial and caudal gluteal nerves muscles of the pes and the manus of the forelimb and they are of
the same significance in all the different species, · except the
innervate the rump muscles.
interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament) of the horse •
.
" Inner pelvic muscles: the internal obmrator, gemelli, and
quadratus femoris muscles, all originating caudomedial to the hip * Fibular may. be used instead of peroneal to aid learning by associating
joint and insening on or near the proximal caudal side of the · muscles with the fibular side of the leg. This option is allowed by the
humerus (trochanteric Iossa, pg. 96, j). Their action is mainly N.A.V.
outward rotation of the hip joint They are innervated by the
ischiatic nerve.
LOIN & HIP MUSCLES:
• Sublumbar musejes; - ventr.
.
. Adductor
-
Pectineus
.• br. of lumbar nn . ~xtemal,obturator
• Thigh muscles: divided according to their position: cranial, Psoas minor
Iliopsoas • Caudal muscJes'(hamslringmm.)
caudal, and medial: . '. : :
\.
. I Psoas major . - ischiatic n.
. '\ " . Iliacus r Biceps femoris
• Cranial thigh muscles; The extensors of the stifle, inner- Oluteobiceps (ium.)
vated by the femoral nerve. they are the four-headed quadriceps • Rump muscles: cran, & caud. Caud. aural abductor (cam.)
femoris and the sartorius muscles. They cover the cranial, lateral, gluteal nn. Semitendinosus
Superficial gluteal Semimembranosus
and medial surfaces of the femur. originating from the os coxae Middle gluteal
and femur and inserting on the tibial tuberosity. They extend the Deep gluteal MUSCLES OF THE CRUS:
stifle joint and flex the hip. Tensor fasciae latse
•Cranlolateral muscles: uxesors
• Inner pelvic muscles: ischiatic c:i the digits & flexors of lhe iarsus
• Medial thigh muscles ·{adductor group): They are the nerve - peroneal n.
· sartorius, gracilis, adductor, pectineus, and external obturator Internal obturaror Ctanial tioial
muscles. They originate from the oscoxae and insert on the bones Oemelli ·--. Peroneuslongus(cam.& tum.)
Quadrams femoris Lo11& digital extensor
of the limb. They are innervated by the obturator nerve.
Lateral digital extensor
TfilGH MUSCLES: Peroneus tertius (eq. & rum.)
• Caudal muscles ol the thigh (hamstring muscles): inner- •
•Cranial thigh muscles: ~ten- • Caudal muscles: fkxon of digits
vated by the ischiatic nerve. the biceps femoris, caudal crural sors of the stifle - femoral n, & extenson of unus • tibial n,
abductor, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus muscles arise Quadriceps femoris Oast:rocnemius
from the ischiatic tuberosity and u,~q on the medial and lateral Sartorius Soleus (eq. &. cat)
sides of the s~fle joint. The caudal thigh muscles have varied • MedlaJ thigh muscles (adduc· Caooal tibial
. actions on lhe hip, stifle, and' tarsus. • tor group) - oblurator n. Popliteus
Sartorius Superficial digital flexor
Oracilis Deep digital flexor
-~·----·-·-~--...!.-----------' ...
168
.'USCLES - PELVIC LIMB Pelvic limb-170
.. . .. ·-1,, ! .
Psoas major
Middle gluteal
,,
u:~ ob turator Supt'. gluteal
'Tensor f asclae latae
Vastus medialis
Vastus lateralis
r----Adductor
Biceps femoris
(cut)
Caud. crural
abductor
:~~--:.::
em bra nos us :..--- Gastrocnemius
:.
~----- Cran. tibial ,.J....---Supf. digita!

f'lexor
Peroneus longus
(Long fibular)
...:- •t
Deep digit~~ i~~:;~or · \,• ..

'•
Lat, digital extensor---...:;
Fie. IV-39·- Dog Pelvic limb «
·med.view
Interosseous
. .·
.- ;
, . ,-
. •a
~
Fig. IV-40 - Dog - Pelvic limb
- lat. view
< >
Pelvic limb-171
MUSCLES - PELVIC LIMR
1
!
Fig. IY-41 - Horse
- Pelvic limb - lat. view
r-:2s
Nr-24
ii"ri--23
Fig. IV-42 - Horse

- Pelvic limb - med. view
10. Adductor 19. Lone digital extensor

1, Middle cluteal 20. Lat. digital extentor (IV-o&l)
I. Supf. glut.al (abaent-ox) 11. Sartoriua
12. Vaat:ua medialis 21. Third fibular (peroneU tcrtius)
a. TeDIOl' fueiae latae
• 22. Gaatrocnemiua
4. Rec"1t femoril 13. Pectineu.t
14. Iliopsoas 2$. Intero11eoua
6. Vut:U1 lateralla 2.(. Deep digital flexor
&. Biceps femorb 15. Paoaa minor
te. Psoas major 25. Supf. digital nexor
T. Semitendinoeua
8. Semimembrano1ua l '1. Iliacus
9. Graclllt (IV ·42) 18. Cran. tibial m.
MUSCLES··- PELVIC LIMB Pelvic limb-172
Int. obturator
SemlmembranO$US Hlacus
Psoas minor
Psoas major
Fig. IV-44 • Ox - pelvic limb

- lat. view
Middle gluteal
Tensor fasciae latae
Gluteobkeps
Semi tendi nos us
Sartorius
Gastrocoemius Vastus medialis
Deep digital f lexor
In terosseous --~
Third fibular m. ----
(peroneus tertius)
Long fibular m.
(peroneus longus)
Lat. digital extensor
Supf. digital flexor

Fla. IV-43 ·Ox· Pelvic limb Io• ' •"

·- .~
- med. view
171
.
SUBLUMBAR MUSCLES Pelvic limb-173
SUBLUMBARMUSCL~: th~ psoas minor, psoas maja, ili· the chief ~xors of the hip joint.
acua, and quadratus ltimborum muscles arising on the ventral
surfaces of the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae and inserts on the os 2. Psoas major (G. psoas, muscle of the loin): the strongestflexcr
coxaeand the femur. They are innervated by ventral branches of of the hip, extending from the lumbar vertebrae caudoventrall~
the lumbar spinal nerves. with the 'Iliacus muscle to the lesser trochanter of th.e femur
Butchers refer. to
. .. me psoas muscle as the "tenderloin" •
. . ..
1. Psoas (SOH-as) m·inor: a Jong, thin muscle extending from lhe
lumbar vertebral bodies to the ilium. It flexes Oi' stabilizes the 3. Dis~~ (Il-ee-ak-us): A short muscle arising from the ilium; i;
.. lumbar. vertebral column. joins dle psoas major to insert on the lesser trcchanter of the
femur. .' ·
lliopsoas: the fused psoas major and iliacus muscles which act as ~· . ~
.... i
... t• ••• .. -
.•.., .
' .
'
-~
'
.
. . . ...
s:
. . j
•• ,l'·
'
.
•...• '.i
·.-.: ·.. \ :·
·'
...
•
... '
MUSCLE. ORIGINS INSERTION ACTION NERVE
Psoas minor Vertebrae T 13L5 Hip bone Stabilize back Ventr. brs. of
(body of ilium) thoracic &
·
. ' ···-lumbar nn .
Psoas major Lumbar vertebrae Lesser trochanter Flex hip & 'Ventr. brs. of
.. '
·:
of femur outwardly thoracic &
I
..
" \.
·~ '
\ . \"•. rotate thigh lumbar nn. &

. ·.·. \
f emoral I) •
'·
.. .. •.
·-
Wing_ Lesser trochanter Flex hip & Ventr. brs. of
Iliacus .. ·.. .of . ilium lumbar n. &
':
··. of femur outwardly

.... ' .... ,
• rotate thigh femoral n.
Quadratus Transverse Wklg of sacrum· Stabilizes Ventr. brs. of

' lumborum processes of & ilium lumbar vertebrae lumbar n. &
lumbar vertebrae femoral n,
172
SUBLUMBAR MUSCLES Pelvic limb-174
....
Psoas minor ./
:::___/.
/'-. -.
--~2.
( )
Psoas maidr __
_/
.Fla. IV...i6 - Do&· Sublumbar mm., deep

dissection • ventr. view
.
Fla. IV-45 - Do& • Su.blumbar
- ventr. view
. mm.
a. Crua of diaphracm
b. Co.hi pan or diapbra,m
e, L rrer troc:hanw
d. Quadratu, Jombonun
•· Ext;, obtura&or
t. Jt.ctu abdon,Jn;,
173
PELVIC MUSCLES Pelvic limb· 175
PELVIC MUSCI...FS: the internal obturator, gemelli and quad- causes outward rotation of the femur. ltis grouped with the medial
ratus femoris muscles. The gemelli and quadratus femoris are thigh muscles (adductors), buthas the same function as the pelvic {
fairly insignificant muscles. muscles. .; ·
. '
4. Internal obturator (Ols-tyoo-ray'tor): a fan-shaped muscle SPECIES DIFFERENCES
arising medially from the pelvic floor and covering the obturator
foramen. Its tendon travels over the lesser ischiatic notch to insert Internal obturator: only in the horse and carnivores. Its
in the trochanteric fossa, tendon passes over the lesser ischiatic notch to reach the
trochanteric Iossa, In the pig and ruminants the similarly·
S. EX"ll'ERNAL OBTURATOR: a fan-shaped muscle arising placed muscle is known as the inmpe1yjc part of the exroa!
from the ventral surface.of the os coxae, covering the obturator Ql>turator muscJ~. Its tendon passes through the obturator
foramen externally. It inserts in. the trochanteric fossa . (96, j) and foramen to reach the trochanteric fossa. -,"-:. (:·ir,'-
' ..
~: ii
.' -r,•
'
':" .
·, ...,,,·
. ,. .
...
. ..
-
.
. .·
e,
~· ···....
•• :::·
~:·:. ~ f
..' ':t
,·.
ORIGINS INSERTION ACTION · · . NERVE

MUSCLE
Internal obturator Interior of Caud. surface of Rotate femur Ischlatic .

pelvis femur (trochanteric laterally
fossa)
Gemelli lschium Caud. surface of Rotate femur Ischiatic

femur (trochanteric laterally
fossa)
Quadratus Ischium Caud. surface Extend hip & Ischiatic

femoris of femur adduct thigh
•
Ext. obturator Ventr. surface of Caud. surface of Adduct thigh Obturator
pubis & ischium femur (trochanteric .
Fossa)
174
Pelvic limb-176
PELVIC MUSCLES
Deep gluteal
::. .
F}g. IV-47 - Dog· Pelvic mm. - dors. view
\
:
J
'
B
Fig. IV-48 - Ox - Pelvic mm.

• dors. view
. !
- 4. Int. obturator
Deep gluteal m.
4. Int. obturator
'
J A.Ilium
B. Femur
C. Ischiwn
D. Sacrotuberou l lig.
E. Rectua abdominia m.
F. Levator ani m,
S. Ext. obturator . G. Cocc;ygeus m .
. H. Peoaa minor in.
I. Psoaa major m. ·
; . '
J. Iliacua m.
K. Sacrum
L. Lumbar vertebrae
a. Trochanteric f'ona
.~ . . b. Gemelli m •.
Fig. IV-49 - Ox· Pelvic mm.· ventr. view c. Quadratua femoria m, (IV-49)
. . .' ~
' 175
..
: .. r ,
MUSCLES - HIP & THIGH Pelvic limb-177
6a. Superf"1Cial gluteal (GLOO·tee·al): thecaudally·localed glu-

teal muscle arising above the hip joint and inserting on the third SPECIF.s DIFFERENCES t.
.•
trochanter. It acts to abduct the limb. '

Gluteobiceps muscle: thefmion of die supedicialgluteal and ·-
the biceps femoris in ruminants.~ore. the superficial
6b. Middle gluteal: the largest gluteal muscle arising from the
gluteal muscle and third trocharuer ~ absenL
entire wing of the ilium. It runs ova the deep gluteal m~IC: ~ '
hip joint to insert on the greater ttochanter. It extends the hip .)01nt
Accessory gluteal muscles: part of the middle gluteal in the
and abducts the limb.
ungulates (hoofed animals-.~ts, pigs, and borst$).
6c. Deep gluteal (Fig. IV 47): the muscle extending from the
Pirifonnis muscle: only in carnivores, deep and caudal to the
shaft of the ilium over the hip joint to the greater trochanter. It
middle gluteal muscle. FmeJ wilb the ~ gluteal. until
extends the hip joint and abducts the limb. ..
'recently, it WU considered part of this m~le.
..
\ s,
. . . ....,... .,. ...::- .. ~ .
\
. ~ . ~.
·. . ......':·.:· ''. :. . -: .
. . . ~ ~.~·. _.:~ .. :. . . ·,.· ~.
• ·. ·. .. .·.'.·; . . .. . . .
' .. . . ,..
•• t"
.. . . . ...· ..
:
.
. ...· .
:,:... ··:. :_:.;. . ·.
~
::··.·:.~: :'::.
.. ··: .
:-·· .,
t,
'
.. .. ·· . . .;.•
.
. . ~. ..
·.

.: . . ....·
,
Supf. gluteal Dors. to hip joint Third trochanter Abduct limb Gluteal nn.
(absent in ruminants) or femur
,•
..
!•
.
. . .• a'
Middle gluteal . Wing·.of,ilium Greater trochantcr Extend limb, '·Gluteal nn.

..
of femur abduct limb
. . .. . .
Deep 1luteal Body or ilium On or near greater Extend limb, Gluteal nn.
trochanter abduct limb
Bleeps f emorls Ischiatic tuberosity Patella, tibia & Extend hip, Ischiatic
calcanean stifle & tarsus,
tuberosity flex stifle
116 .
Pelvi
6b. Supr. eluteaf IIL
~ddJe
teaJ JJI.
r. Biceps.I ern
:-ensor fasciae
:arae
Sartorius
r -~..._..__ Semitendinosu
I .' I
I I .. i
;· I
I
Caud. cruraJ abducto
r
.
// ,I
/
c
'
\ \
Flt. IV-so - Do,· liip - lat. view
177
MUSCLES - HIP & THIGH Pel vie limb-179
.
8. Tensor faseiae latae: the triangular muscle. originating from thus,.crosses the hip,stifle and tarsal joints. It extends the hip.
the tuber coxae and inserting on the lateral femoral fascia (fascia stifle and tarsal joints and flexes the stifle when the limb is noc ...
t
lata) and, thus, the patella. Its action is.to tense ~ . fascia lata, bearing weight, · .. ·
flexing the hip and extending the stifle. ·· · ... ,.~
SPECIAL
9. Caudal crural abductor (KROOYR-al): the· strap-like "fire
hydrant" muscle located deep to the biceps femoris muscle in Tendon strand (tarsal tendon)::afascial slip from the caudal.edge
carnlvores. It has little clinical significance besides humor value. of the semitendinosus muscle joining the calcanean tendon to
insert on the calcanean tuber.
10. Semltendinoses: the long "hamstring" muscle forming the
caudal border of the thigh. It extends from. the ischiatic tuberosity' :.. Fascia lata (L. broad band) (h): the~p fascia of the thigh, tense=:
to the tibia and on the calcanean tuber by the calcanean tendon, wtien the tensor fasciae latae·muscle contracts.
'
,'
! ;·
·-
'
ORIGINS INSERTION ACTION NERVE
MUSCLE
Tensor f asciae Tuber coxae ·Lat. femoral fascia Tense lat. femoral Gluteal
latae fascia and thus ·
.f'lex hip joint & '
extend stifle
Ischiatic tubercsity Tibia & calcanean Extend hip & Ischiatic

. .
Semltendlnosus
tuberosity tarsus, flex stifle .. ~ ,, ~ ·~ .. .
Caudal crural Crural fascia Abduct leg Ischiatic
___ ·--·----------------------
abductor
..
178
MUSCLES - HIP & THIGH Pelvic limb· 180
A
Middle
gluteal m. --~~
~-d
~-----Internal obturator
10. Semitendinosus
Biceps femoris (cut)
Adductor
Semimembranosus
Tensor fasciae latae
9. Caud; urural abductor

. (carnivores only)
Vastus lateralis I
r i
h
'
A. Sacrotuberous lig.
B. Coccygeusm.
C. PaseUar lig.
D. Lat. collaleral lig. of stifle
E. LeY11m w m.
L Tubet C:OMe
b. Gemelli m.
c, Qmdnilua femoris m.
d. £'gL anal sphincter Fig. IV -51 - Doe • Hip, deep dissection - lat. view
e, Tendon scram
f. Popliteusm.
g. Extensor fossa ·
h. Fudalata
179
~~lUSCLES - THIGH Pelvic limb-181
i1. Gracilis (L. slender): the broad. superlicial muscular sheet

<;~tending from the pelvic symphysis down the medial thigh to
"-<'..sett medially on the ubia. It adducts the femur and is the-only
SPECIF.$ DIFFERENCES I
·~{iductor to cross the stifle. Sartorim (13): divided proximally in the ruminants and pig;
it has two bellies in the dog. It flexes the hip and stifle joints,
7 2.Pectineus (L. pecten comb): a long, spindle-shaped muscle and in the dog also extends the stifle (craniaJ belly). It is
er.tending from the pubis to the medial side of the femur. undivided in the horse and caL ·. .
•• i
....
-l .3·• Sartorius (L• sartor
..., a tailor)•• the stran.. 1;1,,. muscle --
I:' ~ ansing ,,,,•,rv...• , . .,w.·.·.
.-.v •• w.· •. w.·.-
,,;·,.·. ·,,,, ..•• ,.·.·.·.w,•..··.·.·..·.,·. ·.•.• •.·,•.•,,•,..·,,-: ·.•.·.·.-.•..,..· ,•.·.•.•.M·,•>.·«··,·~<·.·,.·,···············«····:
--.: ············.·...................... · · ;,.-0:
0 0
······
:·:·>;•.•:·.•:·:·:;·:··<·<·····
.· :'i Ai.~,•tffte1,<•:iil,<,'~- fit-,.·•1~~-·, .. 2,,,
.: :. •· t1a~~1r,111t•
·. ; : ':'·Pedineat'lfenffllf_,·_·,:_ wcmfilf ,-.,1,f'ffie.~~un!u~kmuscte'.,,•,~,-,.,~&-
. f
, .-.,~- ._ ~;.. ~~v~~1~g~i,t~r.1.~~-~~!e.iit;~:;,:~:; ~~;~;~f~i~~'.t:~\~:~11{r~:;~:W
..
. ,• . ' ..
.-.' ''
-,
::,
... ·
'<
Sartorlus Ilium Med. side of Flex hip Femoral

stifle &stifle .. (saphenous n.)
,-,...
•
~ ·_ '
i}racills Pelvic symphysis Med. side of Adduct limb Obturator

stifle
P'ecUneus Pubis (prepubic Femur Adduct limb Obturator

tendon) & flex hip
l ,;, )..,
.. ~\o.,·
MUSCLES - THIGH
Pl
.e .
VJC 1~~mvJ.._j,?.'j
- ., .,
...
•
..· 'i /
Rectus f emoris
12. Pectineus
.
Adductor
13. Sartorius
11. Gracilis
-. •\
- ~·J
Fig.· IV-52 - Dog Thigh • med. view
'
..
A. Oalcanean. tendon
B. Patellar lie. {carnivores}
a. Crural faaciae
b. Tendon at~d ·
e. Symphyaeal tendon
d. Popliteua
-
:r..
e. Tibia
181
MUSCLES - HIP & THIGH Pelvic limb-18)
14. Quadriceps remoris (L. quadri four+ captu head): the large "Hamstring muscles": consist of the biceps femoris. semitendi-
muscle covering the lateral. medial and cranial surfaces of the nosus and semimembranosus muscles. The distal ends of these (-
femur. Composed of four heads joining in a common tendon that muscles feel like strings. hence the name. ~
contains the patella it inserts on the tibial tuberosity. All heads
extend the stifle. The recms femoris also flexes the hip. Symphyseal tendon (c): the tendon of origin of the adducur and
gracilis muscles at the pelvic symphysis.
• 14a. Rectm remoris(L. rectus straight): crosses both the hip and
stifle joints.
SPECIF$ DIFFERENCES
• 14b. Vastus lateraJis (L. vastus large). Patellar ligament (d): the tendon extending from the patella
.. to the tibial tuberosity. It is singular in all domestic species,
• 14c. Vastus medialis. except the horse and ox where it is divided into three pans.
' The patellar ligament is partof the tendon of insertion of the
. 14d. Vastus intermedius: surrounded by the other three heads quadriceps femoris muscle distal to the patella.
·· and the femur. It is fused to the medial and lateral heads.
ts. Adductor: largest of the adductors, it lies deep to the gracllis

muscle. extending. from the pelvic symphysis to the caudal
surface of the femur. It adducts the limb and flexes the hip joint.
16.-Semimembranosus: one of the "hamstring" muscles arising

with the semitendinosus muscle from the ischiatic tuberosity. It
splits into two bellies which arch medislt;, to insert on the stifle;
one belly on the femur, one on the tibia. It extends the hip, adducts
the limb and has variable action on the stifle.
SPECIAL
Memory aid: the semiMembranot,tsus is Medial and the

semiTendinous is laTeral.
Femoral n.
Quadriceps femorls
Rectus f emoris Ilium Patella and th us to Flex hip &

tibial tuberosity extend stifle
Vastus lateralis Prox. femur " Extend stifle .. '
Vastus medialis " " "

·v astus intermedius "
11
"
Ventr. surface Femur Adduct limb Obturator n.

Adductor
of hip bones
Semlmembrano5us Ischiatic tuberosity Femur & tibia Extend hip, flex Ischia tic n.
or ex tend stifle
182
MUSCLES - THIGH Pelvic Iimb-l Sc
Fl1. lV-53 - Doe - Thigh, deep dissection • med. view
Psoas minor
-----Tensor fasciae Iatae
15. Adductor 14a. Rectus femorts
< •
16. Semimembranosus -------
14c. Vastus medialis.

Semitendinosus ---
.. .. . . b
~ · ..
c
A. Pelvic aymphyaia
B. Levator ani
d 0. Patellar lie. (carnivores)
D. Med. collateral Jig. of atifie
a. Sacnun
b. Tendon 1trand
e. Symphpeal tendon
d, Popliteua
•· Tibia
t. Patella
183
Pelvic limb-185
'\~USCLES~ HIP
.,-
Fig. IV -54 - Horse - Hip - lat. view L
6b. Middle gluteal m.
6a. Su pf. gluteal m.
--.
..'
7. Biceps f emoris
_____ ,... 16. Semlmembrauosus
r---10. Semitendinosus
-, Tensor f asciae Gluteooiceps (biceps femoris & supf. gluteal)

Iatae
•. 1\b. Vastus lateralis
,
' ;I
I \ ' ,I
_,.:,, ~-
\:
14p
Fig. IV-55 - Ox - Thigh - lat. view

l\llUSCLES - Hi P
Pelvic limb-186
,.... . Fig. IV ·56 ~ ±;...:,ic - Thigh mm., deep dissection - lat. view
• I
.;
6c. Deep g!uteah m.
--~~'
~~~~··--
l 0. Semltendinosus
14d. Vastus
intermedius
.: 6c
b
I. Psoas minor (next pg.) · a. Gemelli (IV-56)
2, 3. lliacus . b, Quadratus femoris
2. Psoas major (IV-56) ' c. Soleus .
3. Iliacus d. Broad sacrotuberous Jig.
4. Imcmal obmrator (next pg.)
5. External obturator (next pg.)
6. Gluteal (IV-54)
....
6a. Supf. gluteal (not present in ruminant) ·
6b. Middle gluteal
6c. Deep gluteal {IV-56)
7. Biceps femoris (IV-54)
8. Tensor fasciae latae i •.•
9. Caud. crural abductor (carnivores) . •':
10. Semitendinosus
11. Oracilis (next pg.)
12. Pectineus (neitt pg.)
13. Sanorius (next pg.)
14. Ouadrkcps femoris {IV-56)
14a. k~ femoris .
14d. Vastus intcrmediiis
15. Adductor ·
16. Semimembranosus Fig. IV-57 - Ox - Thigh, deep
· ·;, dissection - lat. view
..
185
Pelvic limb-187
MUSCLES - THIGH
Fig. I\' -58 - Horse - Thigh - med. view

--
4. Int. obturator
,..,. . ....
'·': •• t
.. ·-·:....· .
_,,,...···
1. Psoas ·minor
l. Psoas major
3. lllacus
'
13. Sartorius
12. Pectineus --
8. Tensor f asciae latae
11. Gracllls ·
--------14c. Vastus medialis
3
10. Semttendtnosus -.
. :
. .....
.:
., ... . .. .
. ...;·"'·:. ~·.. ......
',•
:
·(
.· .
..--~.··
':-.
. "' ,,
.r
.,
~.
~· '.,,:
• . ,•.
• Ii
. ..;,·-- t~..:
...,-
'·· ••
..
: •••
..., ...,•
.--·
Intrapelvic part of external obturator m.
16
11
Fig. IV-59 - Ox - Thigh

- med. view
186
MUSCLES - THIGH Pelvic lim·b-188
4. Int. obturato.r
6. Semlmembranosus Fia. IV-60 - Horse • Thigh, deep
.
c,.
•
. -. ....
,·.
..
.
•
view
..
v
1. Psoas minor
13. Sartorius
2. Psoas major
3. Iliacus
8. Tensor fasciae latae
14a. Rectus f emoris
15. Adductor
f : .. •.•• r:,t
• r , •
..
,.._·.,.
. /. '· .:.
, c ... •·• .• ·!:.;:i .... ,•. -:'-.-r.
- -
·.,:~
~- --~·
. :· ,;"·"~. . ~--~~~·
. -·-·-·-·
.. -····
. -·-
~
. ,, .
- .. - ", "! •• • : • ·• () '·
10. Semltendinosus
..,.,,
3
· . Psoas minor · a. Symphyseal tendon {IV-59)

:.2. Iliopsoas b, Recms abdominis Q.V -58)
2. Psoas major c, Int, abdominal oblique
3.. ffiacus d. Levator ani
hu. obturalor e. Coccygeus
5. Ext ob&urator (IV-59, not f. Broad sacroruberous lig.
shown in horse) 15
5..Glureal {IV-61) -14c
•• Biceps femoris
I. Tensor fasciae latae (l'v -58)
C1nd crural abductor (carnivores)
:0.. Semitendinosus
u, Gracilis
!2. Pectineus
?3. Sartorius
~- Quadriceps fanoris
1~ Rectusfennis
l-4c. V utus medialis Fla. IV-61 - Ox - Thigh,
:.5. Adductor
• :6.. Sernimem~ deep dissection - med. view
j87
' .
MUSCLES - cR·us ·.:.;Pelvic limb-189
MUSCLES OF THE CRUS: muscles covering the craniolateral "Cunean tendon": tpe common name for the horse's medial
and caudal surfaces of the leg (between the stifle and hock). The insertion' of the cranial tibial muscle (Fig. II-51, Fig. IV-69).
craniolateral group of muscles extends the digits and flexes the
tarsus and are innervated by the common peroneal (fibular) nerve. Cunean bursa: associated with the medial insertion of the
This is different from the similarly placed craniolateral group of cranial tibial muscle in the horse. .-· · ·
the fore limb which extends the digits and the next most proximal ~·· ~
joint, the carpus. The caudal group of muscles in the hindlimb Reciprocal apparatus in _the horse: consists of two ten~-
!kr&a the digits and s,xtends the tarsus. The caudal group in the n?~ cords crossing the stifle and the tarsus; the superfi~tal
forelimb flexes the digits and the next proximal joint, the tarsus. . digital flexor on ~-e caudal ~t, and the ~roneus teruus
,. • 1 '
muscle on the cranial aspect, Flexion or extension of the stifle
';._ ,. • • •
~7 ~ CrarJ~I tibial muscle: a tarsal joint flexor extending from the.:.,: ·?r. ~us causes a .similar (reciprocal) movement in the other
tibial crest and tuberosity distally to insert on the metatarsus. · ''; Joint cue i:O these two cords. · ,
' :
18. P-eroneus longus muscle (per' oh-NEE-us)(long fibular [FIB- Peroneus longus muscle (18):-ah.~~t ill the horse.
-:. '."'
yoo-Jar)}:-the spindle-Shaped muscle on the lateral side of the crus.
Peroneus tertius muscle (19): a~~rit in carnivores, fleshy in
19. Peroneus tertius (third fibular) muscle: arises with the long. \\. the ox, and ~tirely_ tendinous in .the'horse where it passively
digital extensor muscle from the extensor fossa of the femur and ';\\1;- flexes the tarsal joint whenever the stifle joint is flexed (pan
crosses the stifle and tarsal joints to insert on the metatarsal bones;t · ~ of the reciprocal apparatus). The cranial tibial muscle passes
It ex~nds lhe stifle and flexes the tarsus. 1
'1 through the peroneus tertius at the tarsus.
20. Long digital extensor muscle: the spindle-shaped muscle ' ': .Lateral digital exten~r (21) insertions: carnivores - digit
extending from the extensor fossa to the extensor process of the V;_,ox - digit IV; and horse - unites with the long digital
dist.al phalanges (phalanx). It extends the digits and flexes the extensor muscle. ·
tarsus.
SPECIES DIFFERENCES
Long digital extensor tendon (s) of insertion (20): one in the

horse; one to each digit in the other species; the same is true of
the common digital extensor in the thoracic limb.
~IUSCLE . ' ORIGINS INS·ERTION ACTION NERVE

..
.. ~~. - • .
Cranial tibial m, Prox. tibia Prox: meta tarsus Flex tarsus Fibular n.
(peroneal n.)
.::. :..
Long digital·· . Ex tensor. f ossa Extensor processes Extend stifle & Fibular n.
extensor of f'emur.
. ' . ,•
'. :.•/:~~:~
.;-. of dist. phalanges digits, flex. tarsus (peroneal n.)
. . . ... - .
<
Long fibular m. Lat. collateral Tarsal and/or Flex tarsus
(peroneus longus) lig. of stifle
Fibularn.
: -. ~
meta tarsal bones (peroneal n.)
(absent in horse) .
,,
" ~. ".
Third fibular m. Extensor f ossa Nfeta-tarsal bones Extend stifle &

(peroneus tertius) .- Fibularn.
of femur -~
flex tarsus (peroneal n.)
(absent in carnivores) .-v..·- ' \. . '.
,!"'!".}
.. ·;1 •
Lat. digital Fibula Lat. digit Extend digits, Fibular n.

(peroneal n.)
..
flex tarsus
188
MUSCLES - CRUS Pcivi~ lir!1b-190
Gastrocnemius
20. Tendon of long digital extensor- _ __,,
17. Cranial tibial m.
18. Lone fibular m.

(absent in horse)
(peroneus longus)
20. Long digital extensor----
Deep digital f'lexor

Supf.
digital
flexor
Fla. IV .. 62 -· Doa • Lt. crus & pes • lat. view

• l .•:
.. ·. .
. ....
.. ·20. Tendon of long
.I
. . .
digital extensor
.,
\,'
Inter~~seous ·_/
A. Caleanun tendon
B. Patellar li1. (eamivorea)
C. Lat. collateral He. of stifle
-. } I
~~------ Extensor br. .... J
a. Femur.
b. Popliteut·m. j
e. Tibia
d. Calcanean tuberosity
J
,.I
•· Ext.mer fooa J
f. Patella •
g.Prox.extensarretinaculwn
h. Dist. extaisor retin.aculum
i. Peroneus brevii 1'89
-MUSCLES - CRUS Pelvic Iimb-I 91
CAUDAL CR URAL MUSCLES: extend the tarsus and flex the digits and extends the tarsus,
digits. They are innervated by the tibial nerve. c=
(·
24. Superficial digital flexor: a thin muscle arising from the 1:;_"""
22. Gastrocnemius (gas•trok-NEE-mee-us): the large. twe-bel- caudal aspect of the distal femur. deep to the heads of the
lied muscle arising from the disrocaudal surface of the femw-. Its gasttocnemius muscle. Extending distally, its tendon wraps ~
heads enclose the proximal end of the superficial digital flexor. dially around the pstrocnemius tendon and attaches superficially
Distally, it inserts en the· calcanean wberosity as part of the to the caJcanean wberosity. It then continues on the plantar aspect
calcanean tendon. It extends the tarsal joint and flexes the stifle of the limb to the middle phalanges. It flexes the digits and extends
joinL the tarsus.
Soleus (Fig. IV-64, g): an insignificant muscle, except in the pig • Calcanean tendon: dle tendon bmed by the gaslroenemius
andman.ltisabsentinlhedog.butpresentinthecat.Itarisesfrom and superficial digital flexorm\JSClesandslips from othumuscles
the fibula and joins the)at.eral head of the gastrocnemius muscle. (biceps femoris. semitcndinosus, and. in the carnivores. the gra-
The two heads of the gastrocnemius and the soleus are collee- cilis).
lively called the triceps surae.
• Calcanean bursa: an extensive bursa lying between the super-
23. Deep digital flexor: a large muscle composed of two a three f1Cial digital flexor tendon and the calcanean tuberosity.
muscle bellies (species dependent) extending from the caudal
surface of the tibia and fibula to the distal phalanx. It flexes the 25. lntero&1ieOUS (interossei) (suspensory ligament in the horse):
;
similar to the muscle in the front limb.
••v
Gastrocnemlus Distocaud. surface Calcanean Extend tarsus Tibial

of femur tuberosity & flex stifle
Popliteus Dist. end e>f femur Prox. tibia Flex stifle Tibial
Deep digital flexor Tibia & fibula Dist. Phalanges Tibial

·.. ..:
Supf. digital flexor Femur Calcanean Flex stifle & Tibial

tuberosity & digits. extend
middle phalanges tarsus
Interesseous ··'' ·Prox. metatarsal, Prox: sesamoid &. Tibial n,

med. metacarpals digital extensor tendon
•
Sole us Head of fibula Tendon of lat. head Extends tarsus Tibial

(absent in dogs) ((emur in pigs) of gastrocnemius i -
190
MUSCLES - CRU§ Pelvic iimb-192
22. Gastrocnemius
------
... B
23. Deep dlgltal flex~r -- ...... . . . , .,,,,, ,,____ Cranial tibial m.
24. Supf. digital flex or .
Fig. IV-63 - Dog - Lt. hindlimb

·med.view
Long digital extensor tendon

..
,·.·~
25. In terosseous
•
A. Patellar He. (caniivora}
B. Med. collateral Jic. of stifle
a. Femur
b.Popllteu.
e. Tibia
d. Oalc:anean tubvotity
e.Puella
19I
tv1USCLES ~. CRUS Pelvic limb·l93
Fig. IV-65 - Ox - Lt. hindlimb - lat. view
22. Gastrocnemius
19. Third
fibular m. .j .~··
,·.
Peroneus lo .
(Long fibular)
t1. Cranial
t~biai m.
\mwTi'++--. 23. Deep digital
20. Long digital flexor
~xtensor
21. Lat. dlgita1----1ml
·extensor
24. Supf. dlgltal flexor
1.-16. See Pl· 185

18. Lons fibular (peroneua
lonpa) m. (absent in hon.)
19. Third fibular m. (fibularu C. Lat. patellar li1.
tertiu1) (abMnt in D. Middle patellar lia,
25. Interosseous camivorea) E. Med. pateUar Ii,.
(Suspensory lig.) 20. Loni digital extenaor F. Hoof
21, L'at. diptal extensor
' 22. Gutrocnemiu1 a. Femur
23. Deep diaital nexor b. Popliteal m.
24. Supf. dicital flexor e. Tibia
25. lntel'OlffOUI d. Calcanean tuberoeity
e. Extensor foa1a
1o·1a. IV-64 ·Horse· Crus -Ta tv icw A. Calcanean tendon f. Patella
B. Lat. collateral lia, or 1tifle ,:soteua m.
192
MUSCLES - CRUS Pelvic limb·l94
Fla. IV-66 ... Horse • Lt. hindlimb - med. view
22. Gastrocnemius
23. Deep. B
digital~~
flexor
20. Long digital

extensor
19. Third fibular m.

(peroneus tertius)
24
20
\
l5. Interosseous
(Suspensory Iig.) 25
\\ .
.
Fig. IV -67 - Ox - Lt. hindlimb - med. view
193
Pelvic limb-195
MUSCLES - CRUS
!
Fig. IV -68 - Horse
- Lt. hindlimb ...
- cran. view
--22
,.
-·
---21
E
17. Cr~nial tibial m. ----.Lif
19. Third fibular m. __ ......;-

f
,..._-24
Cunean tendon
25
Fig. IV-69 - Horse - Lt. hindlimb, deep

dissectioi'l - cran. view
USCLES - CRUS Pelvic limb-198
Fig. IV-70 -'Ox· Lt. hindlimb - cran. view

' .
-,, ..
' ••
\I
,,
q
I .....
18. Long fibular m. . ..

(peroneus longus)
19. Third fibular m.

(peroneus tertlus) . ,
=.. :. . ..
----20
Fig. IV-71 - Ox
Lt. forearm, deep
dissection. - Cran. view
17
1.-16. See pg. 185 A. Lat. collateral lig. or stiff•

17. Cranial tibial m. B. Lat. patellar Ilg,
18. Lone fibular m, (abaent C. Middle patellar Hg.
in hone} D. Med. patellar lir.
19. Third fibular m, (fibularis · E. Calcanean tendon (not shown in ox)
tertiua) (absent in a. Femur
cvnivorea) b. Popliteua m.
20. Long digital extenaor e, Tibia
11. Lat. di1ital •x'41nsor d. Extensor foaaa
22. Gaatrocnemius m. e. PateUa
23. Deep dicllal flexor f. Calcanean tu~rosity
U. Supf. digital flexor C· Soleua m. (not abown in ox)
h, Trochlear tubucle (hone)
195
STAV APPARATUS 167-Thoracic limb-197
The stay apparatus allows a horse to rest while standing with ~. Lacertus fibrosus: the tendinous band connecting the tendon
littk: muscular activity or fatigue. This ability allows instant of the biceps brachii muscle to the tendon of the extensor carpi. {--
action when danger threatens. The horse can then use its evolu- radialis muscle, creating an unbroken• line of force from shoulder ,
tionary speed to move away from the threat. to metacarpus. When the tendon of 'the biceps brachii is pulled
tight, it pulls on the lacenus flbrosus, which in tum directs the
Mechanically, the structures of the stay apparatus bypass tension tension past the fleshy part to the tendon of insertion of the
from the muscle bellies over "non-tiring" connective tissue ele- extensor carpi radialis muscle.
ments, tendons and ligaments, to bones. This overcomes the
tendency of the joints to collapse with minimal energy expendi- S. Tendon of-the extensor carpi radialis muscle: crosses the
ture. carpus and inserts on the proximal metacarpus. When pulled by
the lacertus fibrosus, it maintains the carpus in extension.
In the thoracic limb, the ~y weight is suspended from the two
scapulae by tendinous tlssue in the serratus ventralis muscles. Superficial and deep digital flexor tendons and their acces-
The body weight pulls down on the scapula, flexing the shoulder sory ligaments: pull on the caudal aspect above and below the
until the tendons running through the biceps bracbii stretch taut. carpus to help hold it in extension.
The lacerms fibrosus (4), connecting the tendons of the biceps
brachii (2) and extensor carpi radialis (5), transmits the rigidity CARPUS HYPEREXTENSION - . prevented by the block
from shoulder to carpi in an unbroken line (of force). The elbow shape of the carpal bones and the palmar carpal ligament.
is locked in extension by the collateral ligaments' placement
behind the joint's rotational axis. The suspensory apparatus and Block shape of the carpal bones: prevents the. carpal joints from
the ~µperficial and deep gi,giw, flex or tendons and their accessory hyperextension. .. ·!~
;,, .
,:
li&aments prevent hyperextension of the fetlock and digital joints.
Palmar carpal ligament: holds the palmar aspect of the carpal
To understand the stay apparatus, first understand how the ani- bones together, preventing hy.perextension of the carpal joints.
mars weight would collapse each joint. Then determine what
prevents this from happening at each joint. The shoulder would FETLOCK HYPEREXTENSION -prevented by the suspen-
tend to flex. elbow .: flex;. carpus - flex or extend, fetlock - sory apparatus, the extensor branches of the suspensory ligament,
hyperextend, and pastern - hyperflex or buckle. and the flexor tendons and their accessory ligaments.
STAY APPARATUS of the THORACIC LIMB 6,7,8. Suspensory apparatus: consists of the suspensory liga-
ment, proximal palmar sesamoid bones, and the· sesamoidean
SHOULDER FLEXION-prevented by the tendon of the biceps ligaments. These three subunits act as one structure, preventing
hyperextension of the fetlock joint at rest. Interruption of any of
brachii muscle.
these three components will result in dropping of the-fetlockjoint
1. Serrates ventralis: Fibrous tissue in this muscle suspends the
pody from the scapulae, like a sling, when the horse is at rest. This • 6. Suspensory ligament (interosseous muscle): the entirely
tendinous muscle extending from the proximal metacarpus to the
causes the shoulder to flex.
proximal sesamoid bones. The suspensory ligament has extensor
2. Tendon of the biceps brachii: runs the entire length of the branches (12) crossing either side ofthe fetlock to join the
biceps brachii muscle. Flexion of the shoulder ceases when this extensor (common) tendon. This junction transfers the tension of
tendon is stretched taut. The· molded tendon of the biceps brachii the extensor tendon to the suspensory ligament
over the intennediate tubercle plays a part in stabilizing the
• 7. Proximal pal mar sesamoid bones: located in the middle of
shoulder joint
the suspensory apparatus.
ELBOW FLEXION - 'prevented by placement of collateral
ligaments behind (caudal to) theaxis of the joint. • 8. Sesamoidean ligaments: a number of ligaments running
between the sesamoid bones and· the proximal and middle
3. Collateral ligaments of the elbow: the two ligaments on either phalanges. These counteract the proximal pull of the suspensory
side of the elbow joint located caudal to the axis of rotation. Once ligament and stabilize the fetlock joint as part of the suspensory
the triceps brachii extends the elbow. an active counterforce is apparatus. They consist of "X. Y, V" ligaments: the straight (Y),
required to stretch the ligaments before flexion can occur. This oblique (V), and cruciate (X) sesamoidean ligaments.
..
passively maintains the elbow in extension.
9, 11. Superrtcial. and deep nexor tendons and the common
CARPUS FLEXION - prevented by the combination of the digital extensor muscle (long digital extensor muscle in the rear
tendon of the biceps brachii, the lacertus fibrosus, and the tendon limb) (13): support the digital joints. and with the suspensory
of the extensor carpi radialis cranially, and by the flexor tendons · apparatus, support the fetlock in the resting animal.
and their accessory ligaments caudally.
196
STAY APPARATUS Thoracic limb-416
10. Accessory ligarn:~-': 'JC the su-
perficial digital ftex.;:,1. the short
·· tendon arising from the distal radius
-
· and joining the tendon of the super-
ficial digital flexor. During rest, this
ligament transfers tension in the ten-
don to the radius before it reaches
the muscle belly. Other names for
this ligament are the "radial check
ligament", "superiorcheckligament"
, "proximal check ligament" or "ra-
dial head" of the superficial digital
flexor muscle. 1. Serratus ventralis
12. Accessory check ligament of

the deep digital ftexor: a short ten-
don arising from the palmar carpal
ligament (the ligament covering the
palmar side of the carpus) and join-
ing the tendon of the deep digital
flexor. It transfers the tension in the
deep digital flexortendon to the can-
non bone before the tension reaches
its muscle belly. It is also called the 2. Tendon of
"distal check ligament" or "inferior Biceps bracbii
check ligament".
4. Lacertus fibrosis
PASTERN JOINT HYPEREX-
TE~SION - prevented by palmar
ligaments, the straight sesamoidean
ligament, and the flexortendons and
their accessory ligaments.
Palmar ligaments: short ligaments

on tlte palmar aspect of-the pastern. 9. S~pf.digital ne:xor
Hyperextension is prevented when S. Tendonofextensor---~' I
they are maximally extended. · carpi radialis l
Straight sesamoidean ligament;

passes from the proximal sesamoid
bones across the pastern joint to the · 12 •. Accessory lig. (DDF)
middle phalanx. Tendon of common
Digital extensor
PASTERN JOINT-"DORSAL 6. Suspensory lig.
BUCKLING" (FLEXION)- pre·
vented by the double attachment of ·
the superficial digital tlexor tendon. Extensor br. of mterosseous
'
Insertion of the superficial digital
f1exor tendon: attaches to the distal 7.Prox.palmar
part of the proximal phalanx as well sesamoid bones
as the proximal part of the middle 3. Sesmoidean ligg.
Jm}anx. This double attachment on
either side of the joint prevents flex-
ial or "dorsal buckling':'-9f thisjoinl .
Fig. IV-72 - Horse - Stay apparatus of thoracic limb (schematic)
19'i"
~ ;
CS.TAY APPARATUS . :, . 195-Pclvic·lim~-,J99.

•if:.... • •
the rested limb; shift its weighttotheopposite tiring limb.andlock

limb, the stifle is stabHited by )suiDK of the rnUQllA
· ~~l\W'le pelvic the patella. . ,;•,,;·
nvcr the troehlear tubercle of the femur. This patellar lock also
icdirecdy stabilizes the hip joint. The tarsus is held in extension
IUP FLEXION - prevented by the "patellar lock".
by the connection of the tendinoussyperficial di&jla) flexor to the
semur ~ caJcanean tuberosity. The digi~ are supporr.w by Once the pat!lhi is locked, the weight9f die animal flexes the hip
rs,:!ucwres similar to those of the thoracic limb. and stifle join~ U,'ltil the medial patellar li~ent Stops ihese
ff.T1Ul?LE FLEXION - prevented by the "patellar lock".· acuoes. Thss. r.,~ stifle and hip joints are stabilized.
....
!';;,• •
ii' AR§US FLEXION-preventedby the superficial digital flexor,
;;~~e[31r lock: a meclt.anisin,thatpassively irnmo.bilizes the st~¥~~
:.:11nt. Extension, of the s.illle ~d contracuon of la~ muscles
·:.~~ 1he t3~rella (A)~,.! medial parelli\r:rend-On tQ meve over £M. Nu;;~rlicvd d~z~~R @etsr. \5): Largely soodir.t~. its pro~nial
~:~~.ffllnhr,~l>:.(me1ia\ ndge of the p~ll& ~urf'ace) (B} of t:.~J ilart is a fGbn-o~~~~1d(3) connected between the dist31. . end
. . . ofthe
i.:tn~. Theti'OChieartubercleprojects between the medial (C) a~d femura.,dtr..~o:clmeantuba'O&ty.With thep.a!:3lla '4locKed", fue
:i~.:-:r•,nnediate (rr.i~ille) pateUa.r ligaments (D). The weight of the fibrous ooud is pulled taut by fiexion of .the tarsss, keeping the
R;t.imal then flex~~ the stifle µntil the medial patellar tendon is · uu:sus .
in exf.'ension. .'.'
·
...-ei.ched to its Hrrut This· l~~s the patella over the trochlw Ti;~·In~~~ jo5n~:~ s~bilizedby sin1Ui'I~ struc~~~~:, ro ihose in
~,;.:;rcle, &1d hn,~u!>Hi:res the stifle. The ra,tel!ar le-::~.. can be the ft~·~l~~b. The attr~hments of the superficial digital flexor to
: Jmplished ,;:,;;./!,y ii.,.~ne limb ~ta time. The ~te~ must unlock the ~c::meus eliminates the need-for a.fl accessory ligament.
..: . .-: .... .
}
:
. ·~·. . ·.
. •\\\ ~1::
;,.
. .'
•'l • • • •••
Fla. IV·73 • Horse,~ 'Dist/sesainoid~ail ligg.,

tendons or sup()~f:decp . 1 •• / ·•
digital flexor m. removed'.· ·'.. _..

• ca ud. view . ·
•·.
". '
Fla. IV-74 - Horse
• P~tellar ~igg..
•
.. cran. view
' ,.
a. Middle (oblique) dist sesamoidem lig. A. Palella
b. Supf. (straight) disL sesmoidean lig. B. Trochltar lubtrcl•
e. 3rd phalanx O. Med. patellar u,.
d. Supf. digital flexcs: tendon D. Middl• patellar u,.
E. Lal. paleUar U1.
e. Suspensory lig. 1.'. M•nl1eu1
f. Palrnar ligg.
!98
, . ..
STAY APPARATUS Pelvic ·limb-432
,. . ._
1. Patellar 1111. ---~ "-Wtff
••• i
..
<.,
-s.,
3. Fibrous band
, 5. Tendon or supr. dlaltal flexor m.
11--- 6. Tendoa of deep ~laital llexor m •
.C. Accessory Ila. (dist. check 111.) of

...
- deep dlaltal flexor m•
I. Tendon of Ion.a dialtal "
extensor m.
9. Exteasor br. of lateros1eou1 m.-.-~
.
Pia. IV-75 - Horse· Stay apparatus of the pelvic limb (schematic)
199
Beginning-Abdomen-20!
ABDOMINAL MUSCLES
'·
1. Ext. abdominal oblique ----
~-7. Linea alba
; ·' ~ ..
4. Rectus abdominis
la. Aponeurosi-;, of the .;..·--·---
ext. abdominal oblique
2a. Aponeurosis of the

int. abdominal oblique-
2. Int. abdominal oblique

Fig. IV-76 - Dog - Abdominal mm.,
supf. dissection - ventr. view
a. Vaginal process
b. Sarloriua m.
e. Graeili1 m.
d. Rib•
e. Diaphraim (IV-17)
.. .
Abdominal muscles: four muscles forming the venttolateral 2. Internal abdominal oblique: the sheet-like layer deep
abdominal wall. Three are flat muscles (external .abdominal external abdominal oblique muscle, arising from the tuber
oblique, internal abdominal oblique. and transversus abdoininis) . and thoraoolumbar fascia. Most of its fibers pass obbilll
ending in aponeurotic tendons inserting on the linea alba (white. cranioventrally, crossing the fibers of the external a1bdo•
line). These aponeurotic tendons fonn a sheath around the fourth . oblique muscle at approximately right angles. It inserts on
strap-like muscle, the rectus abdominis. All are innervated by no and the linea alba by an aponeurosis (2a).
ventral branches of the caudal intercostal and lumbar nerves. ·
Cremaster muscle (male): the caudal slip of the internal ablil
nal oblique muscle. It passes, along widl the spermatic \,Ullllo,l
1. External abdominal oblique: the sheet-like muscle extending the inguinal canal (pg. 202) and auaches to the vaginal
from the ribs and thoracolumbar fascia obliquely, caudoventpl)y
to the ventral midline (lin_ea alba); by a wide aponeurosis.(ap.'.oh-
around the spermatic oord and testicle.
nyoo-ROH·sis) (la). · · 3. Transversus abdominis (trans-VERS-us ab-DOM-1-nm.
. deepest abdominal muscle; arising from the costal arch, .L..-
Inguinal ligament: the caudal free edge of the aponeurosisof the by an aponeurosis, from the thoracolumbar fascia. Its
external abdominal oblique tbat extends from the tuber coxae fibers run transversely (dorsoventtally). htermina~in an
around the iliopsoas muscle to the prepubic tendon. rosis (3a) on the linea alba. Its muscular part does not
200
Abdomen-202
3. Transversus
abdominis
.. , .·;i-"":.. 3a. Aponeurosis of the

'''· .
:.. llt>dominal oblique ........ r,-
..· trans-versus abdominis
4. Rectus abdominls
--- 6. Transverse fascia
7. Linea alba
·.'
~----- Dv~ - .A. bdominal mm.,

.::eep dissection
- ·, e :::i tr. v 1 e w
'
the transversus abdominis and the rectus abdominis muscles. It
extends beyond the cauoal edge of the transversus abdominis
-~llcE:.lx:m:::·:::ri's (REK-tus): the two long, straight muscles muscle to form the medial wall of the inguinal canal.
:allf::;p:::m=. ::e stemurn along the ventral abdomen on either
£:::::~~= ~ :o i.be prepubic tendon (5). The aponeuroses 7. Linea alba; the fibrous cord formed by the joining of the
ilt::lti:::::z::-:o:=.:_,...,~ muscles ensheath the recuis abdominis on aponeuroses of the abdominal muscles from both sides. Itis on the
· vearral surfaces (external and internal rectus ventral rnidline, extending from the xiphoid cartilage to the pelvic
symphysis.
s.ra::~ teodinous connective tissue mass across

m.t~~-d :z ;nbic bones serving as the insenion of the
* > .es.
-!Oliis:t~ia (Fig. IV-83): covers the inner surface of
\
ABDOMINAL MUSCLES Abdomen-203
Fie. IV-78 - Horse - Abdominal mm.

- lat. view
3
Fig. IV -79- Horse - Abdominal mm.
I - med. view
2
). Eict. abdominal oblique

la. Apcneurcais of the
ext. abdominal oblique
2. Int. abdominal oblique
2a. Aponeurosia of the 4
int. abdominal oblique
S. Tran11verau1 abdominis
Sa. Aponeurosis of the
tranaveraus abdominis
4. Rectus abdominis
5. Prepubie tendon
6. Transverse fascia Inguinal
1. Linea alba canal
8. Deep inguinal ring
9. Supf. inguinal rlng
a. Iliop1ou m.
"b. Fascia of the med. thi,h
'
'iNGUINAL CANAL (ING-gwi-nal) : the passageway for ab- oblique muscle.

dominal strucwres out of the abdomen. It is a collapsed canal
between the deep and superficial inguinal rings. The testicle Lateral wall or the inguinal canal: the aponeurosis of the.
descends through lhe inguinal canal just before or after binh external abdominal oblique muscle.
(d~pending on the species) to reach the scrotum. ·
Medial wall of the inguinal canal: lhe tranSVersalis fascia and I
''8. Deep inguinal ring: the internal opening of the inguinal canal. little of the internal abdominal oblique muscle.
Its boundaries:
•.Cranially - caudal border of the internal abdominal oblique Structures passing in/out of the inguinal canal:
• Caudolaterally - inguinal ligament · • External pudenda! artery and vein
• Medially - lateral border of the rectus abdominis muscle • Genitofemoral nerve
• Vaginal process (female)
9. Superficial iQguinal ring: the external opening of the inguinal • Spennatic cord (male)
canal. It is a slit in the aponeurosis of the external abdominal • Cremaster muscle (male).
?.02
ABDOMINAL MUSCLES .i\.bdomen-498
Fig. IV-80 - Ox,.-:. Abdominal mm. - lat. view,.

i~ :
3
2
\--6
2a
.Fig. [~r ~81 - Ox - Abdominal mm.,
ext. abdominal oblique m. removed
Fig. IV-83 - Ox - Cross section
through 4th lumbar vertebra
..
1. Ext. abdominal oblique S. Tran,veraus abdominit
la. Aponeurosi, !or the 3a. Aponeuroeia for the
5 ext. abdominal oblique tra.navenus abdominia
2. Int. abdominal oblique 4. Rectu1 abdominia
2a. Aponeuroai, for the 5. Prepubic tendon
int. abdominal oblique 6. Tran,veraalit fascia
7. Linea alba ·
3 3a .
;'
CLINICAL. .. ABDOMINAL SURGICAL APPROACHES: '.

. ·-:. ; . .. . . . :. •. . ··, . :'
llemia: a protrusion of part of

--11 , ··~!£· ,t,"
an organ throuih lhe·abdom~: . V~n~l-midll~.e 'incwion·: through the a~asc~·iinea ijba.·· .·
• •••
W-ctll.. '·.. , • . . ·. . . . . .•
. ,: .: . :. . . ' ~amedian mci4;ion: made lateral and parallel to the midline .

.. :··. . . '.. : ... =...
~nal ber~jas: the inguinal canal. a perfoiatim:i~·~ 'the ~gti·the rectos abdominis m. .. ·,:-: . · <·:,
abdominal wall, is a weak spot and possible: ~ite for fienjias. .. · ,.. · · ·
These are common in the horse and pig.
•j I
= · • : Paracostal·incision: made caudal to the last riband costal arch. · ·
v. ~:
,: ..
Umbilical
. hernias: common iri young animal$.. . 'tiaralumbar incision: made in the paralumbar fossa ... .. ... . .
. -c-
,, .
.
FACIAL MUSCLES 127-Head-205
' . '
'
.
Fig. IV-84 - Dog • Supf', facial mm.

- lat. view
v(_ Caninus g. Frontali1 (absent in hone)

V
"c.b. Levator labii maxillaris
Levator naaolabialia
V,d. Orbicularia oculi
e. Levator anauli ocull rnedialit
h. Mwicle• of the ext. ear
i. Parotidoauricularis
j. Buccinator
k. Orbicularit oris
V" f. Zygomatieu. ··
MUSCLES of the HEAD: few are of any clinical significance. 1. Masseter (mas-SEE-ter, mas-SE-ter) (G. maseter masticara
Some of interest are given below in the different subdivisions of or chewer): the most powerful muscle closing the jaw. coverin;
the muscles of the head. the ramus of the mandible.
MUSCLES o~FACIAL EXPRESSION: innervated by motor EXTRINSIC MUSCL~ of EYE: innervatedby theoculomoez
fibers in the facial nerve (Cn VII). These muscles are mentioned (Cn III). trochlear (Cn IV) and abducent (Cn VI) nerves. (Seep;
in passing because of their relative clinical insignificance. If the 550)
(acjat nerve (motor nerve) is ~yzed these muscles will be
affectedandcausedistortiontotheface. Themusclesofthecheek MUSCLES of the TONGUE: innervated by the hyJxnilQSSb
. and the lips include the orbjcuiaris oris. caninus, Ievator nerve (Cn XII) .. They are the styloglossus, genioglossus ~
· nasolabialis, buccinator. m~~~is and zygomaticus. The muscles hyoglossus.
of the orbit, forehead and rostral portion of ear can be considered · '·. . .
: a muscle.complex (orbicularis oculi, frontalis, retractor anguli · MUSCLES of the PHARYNX and SOf'T PA.LATE: inNr-
·. oeuli lateralis et medialis, levator nasolabialis) and are of little vated by ilosgharyn&eal {Cn IX) and vawis (Cn X) nerves,
· clinacaJ significance, The muscles of the external ear are divided These include the muscles· in the pharyngeal wall and the tr:
into four groups~1rosttal, dorsal, caudal and ventral. Also of small muscles to the soft palate.
passing interest isihe scutulwn to which many ear muscles attach.
The parotidoauricutar muscle (i) of the ventral group is noticeable MUSCLES of the HYOID APPARATUS and LARYJ\1
· in all lateral views of the head musculature. most of intrinsic muscles of the larynx ate innervated by the va,g::s
(Cn X) nerve. The strap muscles of the neck (pg. 210) c
MUSCLES of MASTICATION: muscles receiving motor in· innervated by the ventral branches of the cervical nerves.
, nervation from the·mandibuJprbranchoflhe W&eroinaJ nme (CN
· ·. V). They are responsible for chewing (masseter, temporans, and Dorsal cricoarytenoideus {FIG. VI-26, 4): the muscle open; t
medial and lateral pterygoid muscles close the jaw; digasuicus the cleft between the vocal folds is innervated by the~
opens the mouth). of the recurrent laryngeal nerve {a branch of the vagus nerve,.
204
FAC!Al MUSCl.ES Head-206
-=:-\I
- .·
.j
' -
e h
2. Steruohyoideus'
}•' r
·si;~:~othyroideus
/
Fig. IV-85 - Horse -. Facial mm., lt. mandible removed
.J
1
h -.
j7
n4 3. Sternothyroldeus
Fig. IV-86 - Ox .• Facial mm .• deep dissection 2. Sternohyoideus
a. Caninua I. Lat: i>tery,oid

b. Levator labii tuperioris j7. Cricopharyngeus n. Hyoid 'appvatue mm.
j. Ph~geal mm. (IV -86) k. Levator veli palatini
e, Levator nuolabiali1 j 1. 'Pkrygopharyngeue nl. Geniohyoid
d. Frontalia (absent in horse) I. Tensor veli P.alatini n2. Thyrohyoid
j2: Palatopharynge~• m, Tongue mm. nS. Stylobyoid
~-
e. Orbicularis orit 'j,~.::Stylopharyngeu, roetralia
.,.. f. Tempo~. ' f,,!!!t' ml. Geniocloaua n4. Mylohyoid
j-t, Stylopbaryngeua eaudalia m2. S.tyJoclouus nS. Oc:cipitobyoid
~ ,. Dipatricua ~r · jS: Hyopharynceua
..
;;.- ·-~ h. Med. ptery,oid . j6. Tbryopharynreua
mS. Hyo.gJoiau11 o. Loncu• capitil
205
. ... .....
. . ' .
- ...
'
~ .. .
·.:- . : :, . .
. :~ .
MUSCLES - HORSE ~ HEAD '- ·. . \:· ·= Head-207
.,
.. .
- . '
. .,
/ '. ' '
Brach iocephalicus
15
·6 l\lasseter
: ....
.' ,•
-~ ' .. .
Sternehyoldeus & Omohyoideus
Sternocephalicus
(sterncmandibular is)
Fig. IV-87 - Horse - Supf. muscles of head
1. Levator labii s~ris 13. Zygomaticoauricularis 24. Stylohyoi~ (IV-89) a. Sculifonn cartil• (IV-17)
2. le'lator nasolabialis 14. Scutuloauricularis superficialis 25. Longus capitis 'b, Auricular c:artilage
f.\ 3. Caninus 15. Parotidauricularis 26. Styloglossus c. Stylohyoid bone (IV-88)
Oi' 4. Orbicularis eris 16. Cervicoauricullri.sprofundus 27. denioglossus d. Tndtea (IV-89)
??s. Zygomaticus 17. Splenius 28. Hyoglossus e.esophagus
'!'6. Buccina&or. buccal part .18. Oceipitohyoideus (IV-88) 29. Geniohyoideus f. Tongue
(supf. pct) .19. Digutricus m., caud. belly, lat. part 30. Tensor veli palatini g. Nall cllrtilage 211
6° Molar part (deep put) (IV-88) (occipitomandibular) . 31. Levator vcli palatini
7. Oepaessor labii inferiori.s (IV-87) 19'. Caud. belly, med. part 32. Pterygophcyngeus
Y.8. Malaris · 19'.'. Rostr•. belly {IV-89) 33. Palatophcyn1eus
v-.. 9. Orbi<:ularisoculi 20. Thyropharyngeus 34. Sty=geus caudalis
10. Levatcr anguli oculi medialis 21. Thyrohyoideus 35. Hyo geus
11. Frontoscutularis 22. Mylohyoideus 36. Cricopharyngeus
12. lntencutularis ~23. Te,nporalis (IV-88)
-...._
206
MUSCLES - HORSE - HEAD .ffead-208 ·
23
. .
7 Sternohyoideus
Sternocephallcus
(sternomandlbularis}
Fig. IV-88 - Horse· Muscles of the head,
second layer
.. ~ . .
~-19
--19..',
.. 25 . :.,..
-.... ;,
:
28
20
27
Sternothyroideus
Sternohyoideus I • :
Fl,i. IV-89 - Horse - Muscles of head ..

· .' deep dissection
207
. .
·.
MUSCLES - OX - HEAD Head-209

J3 .
. ,
Brachiocephalicus
• r:
. ... 12
8 Masseter
Sternocephaltcus
(Sternoma ndibularis)
Fig. VI-90 - Ox • Supf. muscles of head - lat. view ,.......Brachiocephalicus

19 \
20
Sternohyoideus
...
• ,•
8
21·
Fig. IV-91 - Ox - Supf. muscles of head· ventr. view • <
,
. ..
1. Levator nuolabialla 12. Frontalia . 21' Dipatricia, eran. belly (1V-9S) SS; Reetua eapitfa latuam
2. Lev.tor labil superiorbi lS. Frontoacutulari• 22. Stylohyoideua s.t. Obliquua caplt&. cranialla
S. Canlnua · 1-t. Zygomaticoauricularia 2S. Omohyoideua {IV-92) 35. Lonpimua capitia
4. Depreetor Jabil auperiorit 15. SeutuloauricuJaria 24. Spleniua SG. Semiaplnalis
5. Orbiewaris oria auperficialia 25. Cricopharynpua (IV-9S)
6. Zyeomaticua 16. Scutuloauricularil 26. ThJropharynpus a. Parotid Alivary al. (IV-9C.,
T. Depreuor labii in!eriom profundua ' 27. Lonps capitil b. Mandibular salivary p.
8. Mylohyoideua 17. Cuvicoacutulari1 28, Thryohyoideua e, Scu&ifonn canila,.
0. Bucclnator, buccal parl 18. Parotidoauriculw 29. Temporali. d. l'aclal tulMroeity {IV-91)
9' Molar pan (IV-92) 19. Cleidomaatoideua SO. tat. pterygoideua •· Stylohyoid bone (IV-i3)
10. Malaria (IV-W} 20. Cleidoocclpitalie Sl.Med.pterygoideua f. Trachea
11. Orbicularia ocuU 21. Diautricua, caud. belly 82. Ocdpitoh1oideua c. Wins of attu
(IV-02)
208
- - .. . . . -. .it
,.'"....
MUSCLES - OX - HEAD Head-412
• • i. :·;
:.. . ' ··: ..

.'
:·, Masseter
-----......._
·:~ Sternocephalicus
(Sternomandibularis, cut)
. ...
Fig. IV-92-0x -Supf. musclesof'.head, second Sternocephallcus
layer • lat. vlew.'. . (Sternomastoideus)
' ·.'· I"";!
.
.. . ... . .
·
.... .i.
...'·-, 34
36
I; o \
:·· ..
.....
_.,. .'· . ~~-;:.
. . ·,
' " ..
-· ,5.
". : •r
. ..
,•
.. .. . : ..
\.
• j -.
... ·./: ~:·· .... . .:··2·2 ·
(-. \ -· - .~ .' Sternocephallcus ·
. •,:·~",!.( ;, . • .. · (Sternomastoideus)
•.
..,. '
Fia. IV-93 - Ox - Supf ... muscles of head, third layer· lat. vlew
209
. .·
. , . ,.
•';
MUSCLES - NECK 131·-Neck· & Back-211
•
F!g. I:V:·94 - Dog - Supf. mm. of neck - lat. view
.
I,
• •?
A .
.·
Sternohyoideus
Sternothyroideus
1 b. Sternomastoideus
. \ ~la. Sternooccipitalls
1. Sternocephallcus ,..--- ·
MUSCLES OF THE NECK: consist of a number of superficial Strap .iuscl~ of the neck: consist of the ventrally located
muscles (platysma, stemcthyroid, stemohy_oid, trapezius, stemohyoid and stemothyroid muscles. They cover the venlral
omotransversarius, serratus ventralis, and bracbiocephalicns)and swface of the trachea and are separated in an emergency ~
a number of deep muscles (rhomboid.longus colli, longuscapitis. ostomy approach.
recms capitis, scalenus, semispinalis, longissimus, splenius, and .: t
intcrtransversarii and the omohyoideus in the Horse and rumi- 2. Sternohy.oid: the strap-like muscle extending from tJie first
nants). · stemebra (manubrium) and first costal cartilage up the neck to
insert on the hyoid apparatus (basihyoid bo~).
1. Sternocephalicus: extends from lhe sternum to the head. IL is
divided in the carnivores, ox artd goat; undivided in lhe pig, Sternothyroid: arises with the stemohyoid and inclines laterally
sheep, and horse. In each species they are named for "'tl)eir to.insert on the thyroid cartilage of the larynx.
cephalic (head) attachment. In the goat the ster9o~ndibular·h~
attaches lo the zygomatic arch and is sometimes called Omohyoideu.s (Fig. IV-101, 110): a thin muscle found in the
sternozygomaticus. cranial neck of the horse and ox. It is absent in the carnivores. In
the horse it separates the.external jugular vein from the common
carotid artery in the cranial neck, but probably doesn't protect the
Carnivores - stemomastoid (lb) common carotid from unskilled venipuncture.
sternooccipitalis (la)
CLINICAL
Ox and goat· stemomastoid (lb) .
stemomaridibufani(lc) l ' . Jugular 'groove: between the brachiocephalicus and
stemocephalicus muscles in the horse and ruminants. The deep
Pig and sheep - stemomastoid (lb) wall of thejugular groove is formed by the stemomastoid in lhe
ruminants and the omohyoideus in the cranial partofthe oed
Horse - stemomandibutaris (le) in horses.
210
MUSCLES - NECK Neck & Back-212
Fig. JV-95 - Horse - Neck mm., brach ioccphal icus

& on1otransversarius removed .: ....
1. SternocephaJicus
(le. Sternomandibularis)
.
. 1
J h
211
A. Brachiocephalicus
B. Trapezius
C.Massew
D. Deltoid
E. Jlhomboideus (l'-.i'-95)
F. Setrafus 'lentralis cervicis k
G. 'l..ongissimus CU'licis (IV-96)
H. Dliocostalis cervicis
. · .. ........ . .
: ~:
Sternol1yol'deus ·~:-·. ·. ·
.. ·, ~~ : i,,•'
=··:··.- .. ·;·::: -, I
• ,.. •1,•• ~ :., t
L Omotransvenarius . .. '->.:--:-<--t~·;
·>-...
.... : -·
.. •
b. Trachea (I_V-95) 2~ Sternot~j'ro~eus .
e, Splenius
d. !-onlus cepilis
e. Scalenus
f. (l)mo.b.yoideus (absent in cmnivora)
&- ltuenransverslrii
IL Semilpinalis c:apitis (IV-96)
i.~111 'Iii .'
. l' . :. : . . .. : ...~. . . ...
:'*llllis ... •
:
· ~us • r
t~lboncia
L lniocottatis thorlCil
• . <) ,. . . l. •. ~.
. ' . ."."96 - Ox • Neck .D.)m., brachiocephali~~s, .ometranaversarfus,

.. sternomaitoldeas, sternomandlbularls, omohyoid,
splenius, serratus
. ventralis
. & forelimb removed.
... ~ ..
:
v' ••
.·, ..... . ,~...
:r -
... .. . ·.: ·. . . ~ .
.' .. : : . ··:
;
211
· .
;
MUSCLES - NECK·
Neck & Back-213
Rh~mboideus
Trapezlus
•.
Sternohyoldeus
& Sternothyroldeus
s
Fig. IV-97 - Horse.· Fascia & muscles of neck

cross section (C,)
A-C. Supt. fascia a. Nuchal lie. h. Trachea o. lntertramvenarii m.

A. Supt. layer b. Lamina nuch~ i. Eaoph~· p. Omotranaveraariua m.
B. Deep layer e. Vertebra C ;.: Semi1pinal11 m. q. Lonaua colli m.
C. Fibroua raphe 4
d. Common carotid a. lt. Spleniua m. r. Omohyoideu, m.
D~F. DMp fucia •· Recurrent larynaeal n. l. Multifidua m. 1. Cutaneu, colll m.
D. Supt. layer f. Vagoeympathetic trunk m. Lonais1imu1 capitia m.
E. Deep layer ,. Ext. juculv v. n. Lonci11imu1 atlantia m.
F. Caro"d sheath
212
MUSCLES - NECK Neck & Back-214
Fig. IV-98 - Horse · Supf. muscles of neck

. .
? ........
l
Serratus ventralis
Brachiocephalicus
• ! ,·. • '! . : .. .
3--__..; ----Deltoid
5
.. .. ."
Longissimus
lliocostalis
. ·:·: .. ·.'
t ;i. IV .99 - Horse • Neck muscles, ..
deep dissection ' .
:.Splenius Sternothyrohyoideus
- Oei~halicus
(cladomasloideus)
.:. Cleidomachialis
_._ Omotransversarius (formerly
·.... ,,
dcidollans'\'.«sarius) ...
~ 9o{iquus capilis av -99) ·
i.. l.oQius capiti, . ,~· · a. Nochal lig.
- Sr:'ea:usmedius.don.& venll'. b. Win& of ad.as
, e~Mmdihle
-~ ,, . .
~ ~cap1US
--.
..
.
d. Trcbea
.. e.~ . . .
, , nstnunus IIIIIWI ~- f. Pint rib
- rsa:c- istai·is cervical
• put . g.Mmuhrium
213
MUSCLES -·NECK . .· Neck & Back-215
.Trapezius
. ' ..
. '
.
=-.._ -,.'
......
.....
...
Sternocepbalicus,
(stcrnomandibularis) .. :":z/:.
··
.
.. .
Brachiocephalic~·;~.2 ·
Fig. IV-100 - Ox - Supf. muscles of neck,

first layer - lat. view .. .. :..
. ..
'
~· ..:. ,•
:,' ..
...:
..
;
~-
.......
,•
40'• .....
,. ~-·~~'".;·: ·····,I!\,< • ..
. . '•
.·
' ..
Sternoth).'roldeus
Sternohyoldeu~, , <
Sternocephalicus
(5. Stcrnomasroidcus)
Fig. IY·lOl - Ox - Muscles of neck, •· ; .

second layer - lat. view
214
USCLES - NECK Neck & Back-218
16
9 14 i9
15
18
Sternohyoideus
22
20
21
21' ,
Fl1. IV-l02 - Ox - Muscles of neck, deep layer

• lat. view ..
. i: .. ..
... . . ...
. . .: . ' ..
• .- • !
. ....
.! . • . " ..
-.:..:;-.11;
IIDCC=:il'p.?i'~ 9. Ob.liquus capitb craniw
ET I loideua 17. Obllquu, capilia caudalia, , .. · --~
10. Longua capni, 18. Spinal.it et Nmt.pinali, doni
.. _
.-.- • I•
I cni1Jl1
L
11. Omohyoideu,
••JR.. _•Ddibulaiia " .19. Multi1idut cenicia
12. Scalen.ut 20. Dora. & ventr. inkrtransveraarii
.,. __ ._,~(IV-101)" 11. R.ctu. ·capitia laterali~ 21. Lonsus c:olli, Cff\'ical part
.._.._im.rf'lt.wa:wius (IV ·100} 14. Rec:tus capitia doraalii minor
....... (IV.101) 21'. Thoracic part
15. Reetu. capitia doraalia major
...
·... 16. Rectu, ca.pitia ventrati.
:: -. ... ~ ... .. . . ......

• • .. r .. ; ;:': :-,"
• 1..
215
' •• f
..
•
. .: . i .
71-Thoru-'!I
MUSCLES - THORAX
1. Ext. intercostal m.
Fie. IV-103 - Do1 - Supf. mm. of thorax

- lat. view
. •·....
MUSCL~ of the THORAX: the muscles associated with the 2. Iaternal intercostal: the muscles deep IO the external 11:.1 m·
ribs, concerned with breathing. They are the internal and external tal muscles. extending cranioventrallY between adjacenc
interCOStals, levatoreS costarum, subcostal. recms thoracis, re- roughly perpendicular to the fibers of the external le:ra in"
uactor cosee, transversus thoracis, serratu.s dorsalis, scalenus muscles. They pull the preceding rib ~Jly. reducing
muscles, and mostimportandy the muscles of die diaphragm (see ttansVerse diameter of the thorax- (expiration). ,
pg. 224). Transvmus lhoracis muscle: located on the floor of the
dorsal to the sternum. It can be considered morphologically
Breathing: continuatioo of the uansversus abd9minis muscle in the
Inspiration: incttasing the volume of the thorax. allowing ex-
pansion of the lungs. This is facilitated by pulling the n"bs forward Rectus tboracis muscle (t): localed on dle lateral thorax fun
and displacing the diaphragm ca,vtaJly into die abdomen. The lhird to the first rib. It is the direct continuation of the
external intcreostals, levatoreS c~. rectm thoracis, cranial abdominis muscle.
serratusdorsalis, scalenus and the diaphragm wort in inspiration.
Senatus dorsalis cranialis muscle (b): an insigoiracant m
Expiration: opposite from inspiration, lh:e ribs are drawn cau- over the dorsal part of the ribs. It pulls • ribs forward
dally, decreasing the tranSVerse diameter. and volume of lhe inspiration.
thorax. The internal intercoslals, caudal sertatus dotsalis and the
SefflllUS dorsalis caudaJis muscle(d): loc8ICd over the dasal
diaphragm work in expiration.
of the caudal most ribs. this insignificant muscle pulls the
Muscles:
caudally during expiration.
1.External intercostal muscles: located in the intcrcostal spaces, Scalenus muscle (c): extends from dle cervical vertebrae to
their fibers run caydoyenqally between adjacent ribs. They act ID first ribs. It is an inspiratory muscle.
expand the thorax (inspiration) by pulling the ribs forward.
216
MUSCLES - THORAX Neck & Back-313
I. Ext. intercostal m.
2. Int. intercostal m.
H
b
....
' --- .---.
-- ' ·--"- '~
.··. ,._.
. :··. "1
.:' .' ~
,~,:{#'
: .
f
Fig. IV-104 - Ox - Supf. mm. of the thorax - lat. view
Fig. IV-105 - Horse - Thoracic mm., serratus dorsalis removed &

ext. abdominal oblique cut ·
.: -- · 1 .. Ext. intercostal m. -
·. - . ·.··
. I.
h
'
... ·..
... . .. .
A. Rhomboideaa
r
B. kni;uimul ceme11
a. SP.l~ua 2. Int. intercostal nt·
., ,
b. Serratua donalit cranialia
C. DiocOA.U. thoracu c. Spinalia .
D. Serratua Yentralla d. Serratua donalia c:audalia
E.Pec~mm. •· Scalenua
F. Rectua abdomlnt. f. Rectustho~
C. Ext. abdominal oblique I· Spinalit (IV-105)
R. IJlt. abdomiul oblique (JV-104) h. Multiftdua
I. Trwune abdomfnf1 (IV-105)
r-: l- ~ :..
I
.·
~- 217
MUSCLE&- VERTEBRAL COLUMN 215-Ncck &
' j j
------1. lliocJ~lalis~
Fig. IV-10(> - Horse - Muscles of the back

:
... .k <,
Fla. IV-107 - Ox - Muscies or the... pack> iliocos
'
· & longissimus removed
. .' . .
.. '
·'
·. '•
MUSCLES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN (back): flex together to fix or extend ~ vertebral column. Alonet lheJ
(bend forward), extend (bend -~kward), abduct (bend to the the column laterally. They also aid 'in inspiration by
side), adduct (return to midJine). and rotate (twist) the backbone. ribs cauqaUy.
.,
Back muscles can be divide4 into epaxial and hypaxial muscles. . -<-
2. Longmimm (loo-JIS~i-mus) (L. long~): the inl.~
Epaxial muscles: muscles· of the back dorsal to the transverse column of epaxial muscles extending iii ove.rlapping
processes of the vertebrae. · from the iliac crest to the head. It is dividm into dlOlaccj•
cervical. atlantal and capital pans. It extends the back lllld
Hypa"ial muscles: muscles below the transverse processes of the· and the allantooccipital joint. Alone. they move the back.
vertebrae. · and head laterally.
'
. .
Flexors or the spine: the rectus abdominis and the hypaxial 3. TninSv~rsospinalis system: the mostmedypl column ol
muscles (the major and minor psoas and iliacus) flex the spine. iaJ muscles, Its muscle bundles span one or t~ vettebrae
. down the ~inal column .
Extensors of the spine: the epaxial muscles, including the
iliocostalis, longissimus, spinalis et semispinalis, spinalis capitis, CLINICAL
multifidi, and intertransvcrsarius muscles. \ . . .
Dorsal lamin~omies: removal of the dorsal part· ol
1. lliocostalis: the most lateral column of the epaxial muscles, vertebral arch (laminae) to increase room for the spinal
extending in overlapping bundles from the crest of the ilium to the To reach the vertebral arch understanding of the COii
transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae, the ribs (L. costae) muscles is important.
and the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae. They act
218
MUSCLES - VERTEBRAL COLUMN Neck & Back-470
Fig. IV-108 - Ox - Supf'. back mm.

- dors. view
/ ...
a--
,·.
. . .
J~-
2. Longlsslmus
. . Fie. IY,··109 - Ox • Deep back mm., dors. view ·

- . . ..
... ,..
·a. Semiapinalil c~i'11 a, Lon,mimu.t lumborum m. Multifidi dloracil
b. Longiuimua·capltia h. µiocottalu cemci1 a, Multifidi lwnborum
e. Loqiaaimua atlan'11 L Iliocostalis lboracia o. Intertranr.renarii cervici1
d. Spinalla : '· J. niOCOlllidil lumborum -.-p. lntertransversarii thoracil
e. Lonciuimus.c:ervicis k. Levaiorea coatarum ·. q. lntertraunraarii lumborum
t. Loncwimua thoracis 1. Mullifidi c.nicil (IV-109)
••! •
. ..
\. I ::.. ~
... :_:·.,.·
', 219
... . ''
,.,',
' .'
MUSCLES ~ PERINEUM Beginning-Pelvis-
1. Coccygeu
'
G
Retractor penis m..
. .
Fig. IV-110 .. Ox - Male genitalia
& pelvic diaphragm> ·lat. view
. '
a. Pelvic S7C;i191111
b.Rectum
e, Srd c.ud. ~--
PERINEUM (pen-NEE-um); the-wall and associated Sb,1l~tu.res 3~ Extemal analsphinc~ the striated ~mcleunder
closing the pelvic outlet ~d sutrounding the anal and urogenital control encircling the anai canal. · · · .;:
canals. The~ bQundart~ are the same as those for the pelvic
oudec dcrsal-3rdor4dlcaudalvertebrae,lateral-sacrotuberous
. . Perineal body (pei.'i-NEE-al): the aggregate of
ligament. ventral - ischiatic tuberosity and ischiatic arch. muscular tissue between the anus and die vulva <r the
penis. .
Superficial ~dmics of the perineum:
• Donal - base of tail' Ischioi'ectal fcma: the space on eithtt side of the anm
• Lateral - sacrotuberous ligament the pelvicdiaphragm and the sacrotuberous lipncnl h
• Ventral-below vulva (base of udder in ruminants) or base of filled with fat. .
scrotum (in cats and pigs the scrotum, which is below the anus, is
it.:luded in the perineum) •
. .
Pelvic diaphragm: the main muscular component of the peri-
neum for containing the pelvic viscera. It consists of coc:cygeus
and levaur ani muscles, Perinea I h~rnia: _prottusi~ oran ~ oi ~~ tmJ1
· ~neum. This can be caused ~Y rents in the mu·sc1ea
1. Coccygeus muscle (kok~SO-ee-us): extends from the ischiatic . . pelvic diaphragm. ,
spineofthehipbonetothetail.Along.withthelevatorani,itpulls. ·' · · : · .: ·
the ·tail between the rear legs. · ·· · -. · · Prolap~ of the rectum or ot the vagina and 1ltenllE
protrusion of the rectal mucosa through the anus; er rL
2. Levator ani muscles: two muscles arising from the floor of the vagina and/or uterus through the vulva.
· ·· pelvic cavity and inserting on che root of the tail to form a sling
around the rectum. They act to compress the rectum. ini~ Perineallaceration:thetearingoftheperineum(.wru·cu
defecation. ~ ~.._m_a_y_in_c_lude
__ th_e_pe_ri__
neal_· bod_y_)_d_unn_· _g_ti_oal_in_g. _
220
• I.•
• •• .. ,,# ··~.
~ • . -.i~ -~11.
CUTANEOUS MUSCLES
' ..
Cutaneous omobrachialis
•
. . . :-:.
CulaMOUS ~lli
Cutaneous tronci
Fig. IV-lli·- Horse. Cutaneous trunci mm.

· - lat. view
; .
. -.. '...- .
- . ,_ •
. ..,.
- ,-!' .,~
• :'!:: •
·- -
Preputial muscle
------
.----.iEOUS MUSCLU: lhe thin interrupted shee&s spread external jugular vein. It is absent in the dog •
..... • body in the superficial fasciae (p1atysma, cuumeous
b·alis, cutaneous trunci, and the ptcputiaJ muscles). Cutaneous trUDci: covers the side of the trunk and is present in
IR'tms::lcs twirch die skin (to ranove flies). all domestic species, but absent in man,
-= the cu~ muscle overthe neck and.face. · Cutaneousomobrachialis: acontinuatimof tbecutmlleOIIStmnc

muscle over the shoulder and arm of horses and DPDioao§.
found in man. ruminants. and pigs. over the frontal •.
Preputial mmcles: cutaneous muscles found in camivlRS, ru-
minantsandpigs.Allhavecranialpreputialmmclesontbevenuat
-• colli: Best developed in the horse, it arises from the midline connecting to the prepuce. The bull also ha., caudal
mid spreads up the neck over the caudal part of the preputial muscles.
22
,
MUSCLES - PERINEUM
2. Supf. fasclae
'
·,!-
\
i
'~
\" . . . . '
l
'
~
)'
\ I
\..,;_ ;
. : . :1
.:;,.
t
~Hi\\
1. Deep f asciae
Fig. IV-113 - Ox - Prox. forearm, deep fascia

• cross section
FASCIA (FASH-ee-ah) (pl-fasciae [FASH-ee-eeJ): a sheet or

layer of fibrous connective' tissue that Iies deep to "the skin or
around muscles and various organs of the body.
.... . . S~~u~n~.~~~ll!~tf~~j~~ee2~~c:'{an··:·~~
1. Superficial fascia or. ·subcutis: ·the loose· connective tissue c~·t.ascia.·· ~u~.P ,1~~~-~-~·..~·-· ..~1. ... ·,;:.,_.::~l))u.i>!.11:19.-
,,w .r~.·the.'
···'.,ri···'w:
"'·. J)'r ... :'b.:·..cx1· · .· ·a'ilie~u{ectihn?
· -:..:Y·,,&$! ,. ,., ,.1., ,,, . .,:g~ve:if\\:· .:·:'\~-.'
1 ., ·.····.,·.,. ::·. ~
lying deep to the skin covering the entire body. Functionally, it
provides a storehouse of water'and fat, and insulates and protects ~a~~i~:
.
· -~~e~~;~~-~~-:-';~~;~P~:·~}t~~-
. p .· . . . ·.·.·. -, !J
~~~<i:~uscn
·.. - .· .. ··.. . . '
the body.It anows-suucteres to move easily against each other.
~ij-d.i~_tatewhicl{way:J>~.:~ftltiid),y.il('ftow.. ~in'*
• re,gion can mi~te·dow~ Qfe·f~cial planes.~(,.~ 001&
2. Deep fascia: the dense connective tissue underthe superficial a di.Stant.site, ~.g_.• an infection in_qie deep~n~krunning
fascia, investing most of the body. Sepia; ex tensions of the deep
fascia, extend between muscles to bones, thus, compartmentalize
along the fascial ptanes to 'enter ~ thorax.
. .
muscles or groups of muscles. Surgery: fascial planes can be used as cleavage planes -
reach deep structures rel~tively free of blood.
• lt.etinaculum (rel'i-NAK-yoo-lum) pl. retinacula (L. "a rope,
cable"]: local thickenings 0f the deep fascia that hold tendons in
r,~ace.
_______ _._.,,,_, _ · ·--------------
222
•
Chapter V ..
-, Digestive System
. .. .. .....
.. . .
·.:· I •
. .
. ..... (
, ,,.... . . ..... . .
•'
"..
. .
;
' ..·.
.
'
.. . ..
•
...
. ·'1•. . •
,· ...
.. '. .
: • • : f ••
223
.'
221-General-22S
BODY CAVITIES
. .
4~-Lumbar part
' 13. Pelvic cavity
7. Tendlnous center
3. Diaphracm 12. Femoral canal
1. Thoracic cavity
d" f
. ,;'
11. External inguinal ring

2~ Abdominal cavity
, (;. Sternal part . a. lat rib h. hc:hium
i. Pelvic:1ymphy1i1
· · · \S. Costal part b. Int. intercoatal m.
j. Cran. thoracic: openinc
' '.
..
e, Sternum
d, lat lumbar vertebra
e. Transverse abdominal m .
k. Aorta (V-2)
I. Caud:vena c:ava
-
m. E1ophap1
Fig. V-1 - Ox· Median 'scct"i~~ ·or body. f. Ptoaa major rn.
,. Ilium n. Rt. c:rua
viscera & serosa removed o. Lt. ctUI
BODY CAVITIF.$: the ~parunen~ -dtoracic•.

of the body tbor,ix. 'J'bcrefore,tbecaudalbonydtoraxisfilledwithabdominal
abdominal. and pelvic·: The diaphragm·~ lhe thoracic . viscera. The diaphragm bas three major openings between she
cavity from the abdominal and pelvic (abckxninopelvk:) cavities. ddaxand the abdomen: the aortic hiatus. the esophageal hiatus,
and the caval foramen.
l. THORACIC CAVITY (thoh-RAS-ik): die space within the -. . .
thorax containing lhe thoracic organs. the pJema and pleuml .. , ~~- Crura or lumbar part: the dorsal part of the diaphragm
cavities, the pericardium and pericardial cavity. The craaW ·~g of the right and left crura (sing.= crus). The aura
thoracic opening (thoracic inlet) (j) is the entrance into ahe connecttothevcntralsideoflhelumbarvettebralbodiesandfonn
thoracic cavity. It is formed by the first pair of nl>s and the the aortic hiatus.
v~ and stemebrae to which they connect,The diaptuagln
closes the caudal thoracic opening. 5. CCJStal part: the lateral muscular part of the diaphragm,
extending between the thoracic (costal) wall and the tendinous
2. ABDOMINAL CAVITY: the space widtin the ttunk between center.
the diaphragm and the pelvic cavity.
6. Sternal part the ventral muscular part.
3. DIAPHRAGM (DY -a-fram) (G. phren): the dome-shaped
muscle separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities. inner- 7. Tendinous center: the V-shaped aponeurotic (cendinous)
vated by the phrenic nerve. It is the principal muscle concemt.d center or the diaphragm.
with respiration. Moving cranially or caudally decreases or in-
creases the volume of the thorax during expiration or inspiration, Copula: the cranial part of the dome of the diaphragm.
respectively. The diaphragm projects~ a dome into the bony
224
BODY CAVITIES
Gen-226
4. Lumbar
part
.:.--7. Tendinous
center .
rr---9. ;Esophageal
hiatus
5. Costal
part
10. Foramen for

the caud.
vena cava
6. Sternal
part
Fig. V -2 - Horse - Diaphragm
Fig. V-3 - Ox - Diaphragm
- thoracic view
- abdominal view
OPENINGS INTO THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY:

340). In the male the abdominal cavity is closed.
I. Aortic hiatus (hy~~ Y-tus) (L. general tenn for.a gap. cleft or ' 11.-lnguina) aanai; the cleft ~gb the abdominal wall that
opening): the opening in the dorsal part of lbc diaphragm f~ the allows blood VC§Cls, nerves, and ·ihe spermatic cord to pass
?KSage of die abdominal aorta (alsoihe azygos vein and the tlvough the abdominal wall
dDaclc duct). It is formed between the aura and the lumbar
~. 12. Femoral anal: the opening out of the abdominal cavity to lhe
pelvic limb for pas.qge of nerves and vessels.
,. Fa,pbageal hiatus: loc.ated ventral to the aortic hian,s through
die aura. The esophagm, the ventral and dolsal vagal
dlecsopbagemvegelsentertheabdomenhere.
ttunks.. . boundedbythetwobipbo~s.thesacrum,andthefirsttwocaudal
13. PELVIC CAVITY (PEL-vile) pelvis or basin): the space
(L.
vMebrae. It contains the 'rectum, the anal canal, and the pelvic
U. Caval foramen: the opening in the center of the diaphragm pans of the teproductive and urinary viscera.
t::odinous center) for the caudal vena csva,
. , Peritoneal part of the pelvic cavity: the cranial portion lined by
Pelvic inlet: the communication between the abdominal and · pouches of the abdominal peritoneum.
;,dvic cavities. · · ·
Retroperitoneal part: the caudal portion not lined by abdominal
4.Wominal opening or the
uterine tube: the opening to the peritoneum.
cmide of the abdominal (peritoneal) cavity in the female (pg.
225
.. ..
TOPOGRAPHY - DOG - LEFT SIDE~·
... Gen-227
Lt. Jung Lt. kidney Ovary Ampulla of rectum
Liver
Supf. leaf of greater omen tum
'·•
Fie. V-4 - Dog - Topography of the thoracic & abdominal viscera - It. view
Ovary
Trachea Lt. kiclney Detcendlng colon Rectum
'.
·."·
Coils of jejunum
Spleen
Stomach
Urinary bladder
Liver
Fig. V-5 - Dog· Topography of the deep thoracic & abdominal viscera· It. view
226
'
:··
,.
.. · ,..
TOPOGRAPHY - DOG - RiGJ,IT. SIDE ,• Gen·228
. .
Duodenum
Mesod-uodenum Rt. lung
Prepuce Heart
Diaphragm
Cardiac notch
/ Supf. wall of greater omen tum
. .
Fig. V..:6 - Dog .. Topography of the thoracic & abdominal viscera - rt. view
Prostate gland Rt. kidney .. Aorta Esophagus

. •
. ...... . .
• ' 1
Jejunum
Cecum
Trachea
Stc»mach
.• Heart
'\ ••
Fig. V-7 - Do&· Topography of the thoracic & abdominal viscera,

deep dissection - rt. view
227
-·· ~· -
.... : ... ..,_ -; ;-

TOPOGRAPHY - HORSE Gcn-229
Descendina colon
Stomach Rectum
.. '
,,~-~
,...,
Spleen .r-
Labia
Vagina
Pelvic Urinary
Lt. ventr. colon flexure bladder
I Coils of jejunum '·•

Lt. dorsal colon
Sternal flexure
.. .
Fig. V-8 - Horse - Topography

. of the· . thoracfc·• .& abdominal
- . .. viscera - lt. view •
•.
. .
......
.'
•'
... .. ' -~
· Base of cecum Liv~r ,Esophagus
Rectum··· ··
Coils of
jejunum
Rt. ventr, colon

Penis Rt. clors. colon Dlaphracmatlc flexure
Sternal flexure ..
t ..
.• !
Fig. V-9 - Horse· Topography of the thoracic & abdominal viscera· rt. view '·...
228
Gen-230
TOPOGRAPHY - OX - LEFT SIDE
,.
Lt. lung Rumen Descending colon
Cecum
Jejunum
Diapbra1m
Supf. wall of areater omen tum
Flg. V-10 - Ox - Topography of the thoracic & abdominal viscera,

skin & mm. of the body wall removed - It. view
Rectum
Aorta Caud. vena cava
Ovary
Uterus
,•
,.
.»
.
: • t. ~.;;· •
Gastric aro6~e
..
· ~ Reticulum
'•.
Heart
. ,··
Fla. V-11- Ox - Topography of the thoracic & abdominal viscera, lungs &
diaphragm removed, rumen & reticulum opened· lt. view
229
..
•
TOPOGRAPHY - .OX. - ·.R. IGHT SIDE ~ Gen-231
Lung
Rectum Cecum . 1:lt:· kidney
, I
Diapbra1m . ! •
.
..
Bladder
Jejunum . .
,.,;
Greater omentum
Cardiac notch
f.i&. V-12 - Ox· Topography oft-he thoracic & abdominal viscera,
· .. . . skin & mm. of the body wall removed - rt. view
.•.
.
·~· "·
' .... Cecum· · · · .. Duodenum

Medlastinum
Rt. kidney.
JejtJnum
Gall bladder Heart
Ileum ...
'
Abomasum ·Lesser omentum
Fig. V-13 - Ox - Topography of the thoracic & abdominal viscera, lungs,

diaphragm, greater omentum & mcsoduodenum removed • rt. view
230
TOPOGRAPHY - OX - RIGHT SIDE
Gen-232
Dist. loop of ascending colon Aorta
s..... Esophagus
-. Descending colon Transverse colon
, . •• r
Ileum
Prox. loop of ascending colon

·.
Fig. V-14 - Ox~ Topography of the thoracic & abdominal viscera, mediastinum, liver, lesser
omentum, rt. kidney, jejunum & reproductive tract removed - rt. view
t:
Lt. kidney
Spiral ~9op of _colon
Fig. V-15 - Ox • Topography of the thoracic & abdominal viscera, ileum,

cecum, prox, & dist. ansae of large colon, transverse
colon & descending colon & rectum removed - rt. view
231
.
- . . ..
TOPOGRAPHY - LLAMA - LEFT SIDE Gen-233
'
; •v ,
.,
.-
.,
t- •••
~-:;;::;:p·' . ~,.. .
~ ~
. · . : JJ
'
••
' . First compartment {rumen)
-
•
Lt. luaa
, Gastric
r
~
pouches
·,
\
: Greater omentu~ · _;1
Se~~Dd compartment ' . ·.)
.
I
\.
!·
__ ....,
,. .
•
Fla. V-16 - Llama - Topography of the thoracic & abdominal viscera - lt. view
232
•
TOPOGRAPHY - LLAMA - RIGHT SIDE Gen-382
-. •
0Ji.~ . . · : .
... ....,...-'
r :\;. Ji .
Third compartment ..,.,,,._\ .
Rt. h1111
Rt. kldaey .·
Jejunum
Greater· ' ..
'•
omen tum I "\._1
'
.. , .; .,
;. .
. . . ..
. ~.·•• '?,; .. ,.,~ ·v.11 ·Llama· Topography·!of the thoracic & abdominal viscera· rt. view
.,. .-,.-_....... ~.
.,, .
t. ' f)1'\ ..:,

• , .....
..•
233
ORAL CAVITY 475--Head-235
3. Upper lip 4. Lower lip
...
1. Subllngual caruncle~-
2. Interdental space
·'
.·
{
}
' ~.
•
1
8. Soft palate
Fig. V-18 - Dog .. Roof of oral cavity
.
a. Philtrum (camivorea & t. PaJatopharrnpal arch (V-19) (not
•mall ruminanla) · ·ahown in ho~ or ox) -... ·
b. Buccal vestibule {V-19) ,. Labia.I vestibule
c. Angle of mouth b. PalatoslouaJ arch (not
d. Pa.I.tine ridpa (V-18) •hown in hone or ox)
e. Pa.rotid duct openinc i. Pa.tatine tomll Fig. V-19 - Dog - Floor of oral cavity
(not ahown in hone or ox) j. Frenwwn
lc. lncisi\'e paJ)illa
MOUTH (os): a term designating either the opening between the Buccal vestibule (b): the space between the cheek teeth and the
lips (oral fissure, cleft) or the whole oral cavity. cheeks.
ORAL CAVITY: the space extending· from the lips to the Frenulum (J): the central fold of mucous membrane connecting
pharynx, bounded laterally by the checks. It is divided into the the floor of the oral cavity and the ventral surface of the tongue.
oral cavity proper and the vestibule.
1. Sub lingual caruncles: the mucow elevations on the floor of
Labial vestibule (g): the space between the incisors and lhe lips. the oral cavity. under the tongue just caudal to the incisors. The :
234
,
ORAL CAVITY Head-236
3
4
g 9. Dental pad
6
3 J.
Fig. V-22 - Horse

- Sublmgual floor . ·' .,.
1·· .. ,.
Fla. V-20 - Ox . .. b
- Sublingual floor
. .
-..11!--b
Fig. V -21 - Ox • Roof of

oral cavity
·Fie. V-13 - Horse· roof
of oral cavity
mndtbular and sublingual salivary ducts open on the caruncles the respiratory and the digestive passages in the head.
pg. 259).
7. Hard palate (L. palatum dwum): the osseous plate and its
l. Intenlental spaces (~ta. sin. = diastema): the spaces highly vascular mucosal covering that separates the oral and nasal
between the teeth. cavities. The osseous plate is formed by processes of the palaaine,
maxillary and incisive bones. The hard palate isboundedromally
3, 4. UPS (L. labi11m, sin.= labia): the structures bounding the and laterally by the upper dental arch and continues caudally as
aal fi~. They possess long. tactile hair, and regular hair. the soft palate. Just ~~ind the incisors is the incisive papilla (k)
onto which the incisive ducts open. The ducts connect the nasal
i?dtrum(a): the median cleft of the upper lip in carnivores and and oral cavity, absent in the horse.
~,w•I ruminants. · - .. · · . .
· _. · . · . .. . ''.·. Palatine ridges: six to ten paired elevations crossing the hard
4Jlgle rlthe mouth (c):·w~re the upper anc1 lower lips unite. · palate transversely. ·
S. CHEEK (L. mala, buccdy: the caudolateral wall of the oral 8. Soft palate (L. palasummolley; the caudal extension of the bard
:zvity. . palaae, dividing the rostral region of lhe pharynx into oral and
nasal parts.
6. GUMS or gingivae (jin-Jl-vee): the oral mucosa over the jaws,
ewclosing the necks of th_e teeth. SPECIF.s DIFFERENCES
PALA TE: the roof of the oral cavity and oropharynx composed 9. Dental pad: replaces the upper incisors and canines in
of. a rostral bony part (the . hard palate), and ' a .caudal · ruminants. It provides a heavily comified epithelium against
.
:IID;Ulomembranous part (the soft palate).~ palate separates which the lower incisors grind food.
., . . . . ..·
235
. .. ..
-'• • I
. ... ••
.. . .:~ .
. . . '·
:
TONGUE H.ead-237
Fig. V-24 - Doa - Tongue & opened

._ pharynx • dors. view
a I
•:
·.
'
-· :
I
'
.
.,
c
-~.,.
;
.. ..-·
e'
..
'•
'·'
.
i
. . . ..
3. Root .
\
•
):
h r'
2. Body Fig. V-25 -· Horse • Extrinsic mm. of the tongue

.... '
a.F.lophasu- i, Tonaillar fotaa (ox)

b, Laryriceal openin1 j. Filiform papillae
c. EpicloUit k. Conical papillae
. . . . .. . d. Soft pal•*• 1. Funciform papillae
... •· Palatine tonail : m. Foliate papillae ·
. :. .
'
(camiV'ONII) (absent in ruminant.)
f. Styl<>slostalm. n. V allat. papillae
. ·I • • •
,. Hygloaal m . o. Lenticular papillM
h. Genios}o.tal m. (ruminant,) .,,,
t
"·'
.. 1! 1. Apex
.'
TONGUE (L. l.i(lg11a, G. glossa); ;me muscular-organ-filling the changes from·iniJk to solids: The papillae/afihough interescing,
oral cavity. The.many. papillae.~.P-IL:-ee) on its dorsal surface· are of little clinical significance (Doc, my dog can't taste sweets
are named according to &heir shape.. The& papillae have a me- anymore!). They, especially the'vallate papillae;.~'t be
chanical or gustatory (GUS-ta-tob=ree) (taste) function, or both. mistaken f« palhology. The tongue, especially in the·oog.aids in
Filifonn (Fil..-i-form)papillae (j), covering the tongue' s dorswn, temperature control through heat loss by panting. The ox's~
are them-shaped structures setving the mechanical function .. of is a prehensile structure for gaiheting giass'.
directing food caudally. In the ox and cat they are heavily
comified. Conical (le) and lenticular papillae (o), cone-shaped 1. Apex: the rostral free-emi of the tongue.
papillae located on~ caudal third of the tongue's·dorsum also
have a mechanical function. The mushroom-shaped fungifonn 2. Body: the major part of the tongue attaching to the mandible.
(FUN-ji- fonn) papillae (l), scatleied among the more numerous • ' . .
filiform papillae, have taste buds and are therefore gustatory· as 3. Root the caudal end of the tongue, attaching to the hyoid
well as mechanical. Foliate papillae (m), a series of leaf-shaped appararus.
ridges separated by furrows (crypts) on the lateral border"of the
tongue, are .gustatory (absent in the ox). Vallate papillae (n); the INNERVATION OF THE TONGUE:··,· -
largest and least numerous of lhe papillae; are rostral to the root . -· , -·,: ' ·
of the tongue. They are circled by a cleft filled with taste buds. Taste (special sense): the sense of taste to the rostral two thirds of
Marginal papiUae along the edge of the rostral half of lhe newborn the tongue is carried over lhe chorda tympani nerve, a branch of
pilppy' s tongue function in suckling, helping to prevent milk from the facial nerve (Cn VII). Taste from I.he caudal third of the tongµe
spilling over lhe tongue's sides. They disappear when the diet passesbythegtossopharyngeal(CnIX)andvagus(CnX)nerves.
236
TONGUE a--
Head·338
Fig. V-26 - Horse - Tongue
- dors. view
3. Root
•
3--
d--
2. Body-w--
,
~---i;:--j
~-ii--)~ .. l
• . . . .. r,
.. f
~'
·, f
.r
,~. •
'\· ,,
~
.l~,;~.~-
~~
\
\ • 1.
•
·~
•
1. Apex J
'
~
1'
•
Fie. Y·27 - Ox - Tongue & opened
· pharynx - dors. view
1
Smsetioa (pain, 1empera1me andaactile ): carriedo'1er the lingual . .
btauch of the ~nerve (Cn V). SPECI~ Dll'FERENCES.
. . : . .. . • "?
. ...
...... ·... . . - .. . (. . : '
Metor in~:~~ bypogloml nerve (Cn Xll). 4. Torus linguae (L.- torus swelling): a round swelling of'the
caudodorsal surf~_of 11\e ox's tongue._ ..
MUSCJ ,FS al tbe TONGUE can
be divided into intrinsic and
t • ; •
5. Linpal fOllla'or.fossa linguae: <lepl'ession in front of lbe

e:urinsic lingual muscles. The intrinsic muscb of dlc. ~gue or
Ille ·lffipil mlifelca.pope.r me the many mmculs bundles nm- ox's taros linguae. This is a site 'of penetration of fomip
liag hi cliveasc directions to form the bulk of the tongue. They objeas.
c • 9C subde changes in 1bc shape of the tongue during swalJow-
Tongue cartilage: the dog has a bar· of cartilage (ly~)
il& cbewmg, and vocatiution. The extrinsic muscles of_ the
ICDgue,anchoringittotheskeleton,arelhepairedstyloglossaJ(O. embedded in the ventral surface of the apex. The horse hM a
k.N,tlossal (g)and genioglossaJ (h) muscles; they are respoJ1S1bJe similar structure embedded in the median plane of the dorsal
smface. ''
b its 8IOSS ~vements.
In addili~. because the tongue is
e:ecbedto lheliyoidapparatus, lhemusclesauaching to lhe hyoid
kec- (-hyoidem) abo move the tongue.
. -
' .
237
. _,. ,., .
.~ ..
,.. ... '
.....,··
TEETH Hcad·239
....
6. Enamel
Fig. V-28 - Doi • Canine, low crowned
tooth - sagittal section
7. Dentin
9. Pulp cal'lty
:..-: . (·
' -·<
..{
I,=•
,.
J.
. . ,•·
';.
' .
TEETH or dentes(sin. = dens): perform the principle function of 4.Body: different from low-crownedteedl becanscoflbeabsencc
mastication, but also aid in food gathering (prehensioo) and are of a neck. Same anatomists divide die body into a cn,wn (the
formidable weapons in some species. exposed pan of the lOOlh above the gum line) and a body (the
embedded part below the gum line).
Dental arches: arrangement of teedt into two opposing superior
(upper) and inferior (lower) arches. The domestic species have S. Root: the short. JWOXimal part of 1he tooeh.
· two types of teeth - brachydont and hypsodont
STRUCTURE" 'l'EE'IH: composed of three substances from
Low-crowned or brachydont teeth (Gr. brachysshort+ odous outward in - cementum. enamel. and denlin.
. IOOth): the simple teeth of man, carnivores, pig, ruminant's .
incisors and horse's deciduom incisors. They consist of a crown, 6. Enamel (ee-NAM-el): the bardc3t sut-slance in the body.
: neck and.moL · • Low-aowned (brachydont) teem~ the enamel coven only die
crown.
1. Crow•: the part projecting above the gum line covered with • Higb-crowncd (bypsocblt) acelh: enamel envelops the body
enamel · (crown & body). but not die root.
..
2. Neck:.. the constriction.between the crown and the root at the 7. Deatiil (ivmy): a bard subllance similar to booe t'o11rona die
gumli~. .. . bulk of the~ and sunounding the pulp cavity.
....
3. Root: the part below lhe gum line embedded in the alveoli 8. Cementum (sec-MEN-tum): a thin. boat,-lite covaing •
,,,{bony sock~) of the incisive, mandible or maxillary bones• • Low-crowned (brachyclont) teeth: thccemelUUm~ the root
..
only.
Hip..aowned ~ hypsoclont teeth (JIIP-so-clont)(Gr; Jaypsos • High-crowned (bypsodon.t)tu.di: covers tbeenme tooth. s11pr,-
height+ odoiu tooth) {evergrowing): the teeth having no distinct ficial to the enamel.
neck, as seen in Ill permanent horse teeth, the ruminant cheek
teelhandlhetusJrsofpigs. Withthecxceptionoftheborse'scanine 9. Pulp cavity: the cenual space of the tooth ccotaining the pulp.
teeth, they continue to erupt throughout life.
238 . .. .,
'>··· ..
TEETH
Head-240
1. Crown
- 2. Neck
Fia. V-29 - Ox - Incisor, low crowned tooth
- sagittal section
. 6. Enamel
~-9,.,..-~·ulp cavity
,._":·
,-:-
-·
7. Den!fn
.:.c;-.·
-~
!::'.:
......
... .:~
. .. .
.... f ...
8. Cementum ·,
..,.. ..
.'
Fla. V-31 • Horse - Incisor (high crowned)

• sagittal section
1. Crown 8. Enamel ·
J. Nec:Jt f.Dentin
Fla. V-30 .. Ox • 4th lower check a. Root (bnchJdolat) 8.Cemenhun
tooth, high crowned '-Bod, · 0. Pulp ca.tty
tooth· saaittal section S 5. Kool (h)'JISOdont)
.
.
-~-. ) :
'
.
/ . . .·.•
.
.
PULP: the soft tissue· fillirig

tbe·pulp cavity, including sensory lamina dum indica~ problems.
nerves, 8l'teriest ve~ lymphatics. and primitive connective
l1ftJue.
10. PERIODONTAL MDfBRANE (pez-ee-oh-DON-cal): the
dense fibrous connective tissue connecting die wall of die alveoli
CUSPS (L. point$);_dle individual bwnp.1 on the occlusal (cbew- and die c:emen111m covering the t.eedl.
i:ag) swface of teetb.
GOMPHOSIS (gom-R>H·sis): ~ ptopunamefarlhe implan-
ALVEOLI (al-VEB-oh-ly) (sin.c alveolus hollow): lhe bony tation of teer.h in 1hc alveoli. This is not a 1rue joint because die
IC'ckelS of the incmve, ~'ble. and maxillary bones in wbkh teeth are nat pan ex the skeleton.
die roocs of tce&b are embedded. · ' .
"OVERSHOT" (prognarbia): an elongated jaw (mandible).
• Lamina dun: dle thin sbell or de me bone lining the alveoli. It
*>ws up radio~ separated 6omthetoodl roots by die "IJNDERSHOT" (brachygnathia [brak-ig-NAY-tbee-ahD: a
radiolucent periodoocal membrane. Radiogiapldc loss of the sbonened jaw (mandible).
!
239
TEETH Hcad-241
1. Occlusal surface M.Molars

2. Carnassial teeth
/
)
• -
'
.P. ·pr~molars
I.Incisors
I '
C.Canine . · { . ..
.:
c
·:~.
i
....,. ... .
Fig. V-32 - Dog - Skull - lat. view 't: •.
..i'
:~· ....
C.Canlne
' , .
a. Lingual aul'Cace '·~ =..,.
b. Vestibular 1urf'ace
c. Contact 1urf~
...
·«'!..;_
Fl1. V-33 - Dog - Upper arcade I.Incisors
INCISORS, CANINES, PREMOLARS and P49LARS: The DECIDUOUS and PERMANENT TEETH: the lW9 sets of
teeth are divided into groups by their location and function: teeth in all the domestic species. The eruption of both groups is
incisors. canines, premolars and molars. Each tooth has a number orderly anci may be used to estimate the animal's age.
of surfaces. The vestibular surface (b) faces the lips or cheeks.
The lingual surface (a) faces the tongue. The contact surface (c) Deciduous dentition: the "baby teeth" ("milk teeth") developing
is the side adjacent to the next tooth. The mesial contact surface early in life, giving the young animal a fwtctional set of tNtb
faces the median plane on the incisors, and rostrally on the canine They are smaller and fewer in number than the permanent denti-
and cheek teeth. The distal contact surface faces away from the tion.
median plane on the incisors, and caudally on the canine and
cheek teeth.
Permanent dentition; the second set of teeth iepiacing lfJC
deciduous dentition as the jaw lengthens. They must last the life
1.·Qulusal or masticatory surface (L. occlusia to close up): of the animal. «,
face.s the opposite dental arch and is where ~·chewing" takes place.
I. Inci.iors (I) (cutters): the rosttal-most teeth embedded.in the SPECI~ DIFFERENCES
incisive bone (upptt) and the mandible's incisive part (lower). -c-, <
2. CarDIJSSial (sectorial) teeth! the large, shearing teetfl of

C. Canine (C) (L. canis dog) (piercers): the large toodt between both tbeclog and cat.11tey are the upper4th premolar(P4) md
the incisors and die cheek teeth. the lower 1st molar (Ml).
Cheek teeth (grinders): a general term for the teeth caudal to the Tuslrs(Fig. V-43):thecanineteetbofthepig. Thelowertusts
canine and incisors in the maxillary are larger lhan the upper. and the boar's are larger' than the
SIJW'S. .
P. Premolars (P): the rostta1 cheek teeth.
3."Wolf'teetb": thehorse'srudimentary upperfirst~
M. Molars (M): the caudal cheek teeth. Tbey are usually absent.
240
TEETH Head·242
Fia. V-34 - Ox • Skull of 6 mo. old
F Dp4 animal • lat. view
Dp3
Dp2
'
~.
t
'·
l
P M
Fig. V-35 - Ox - Skull of mature animal
- lat. view
3. "\Volf 'toeth" (Pl)

•''
I
. .
..,:.,·
I Incisors
M·Molars
Fl1. V-36 .. Horse • Skull
• lat view
P Premolars '
24J
TEETH Head-243
a .
_,___ Carnasslal tooth
Ps
,___p2
Is
Is
.. 12
11
11
Fig. V-37 - Dog - Upper arcade Fla. V-38 - Dog - Lower arcade
DENT AL FORMULA: a shorthand representation indicating

the number of teeth of an animal. Due to bilateral symmetry, only upper incisors and canines. If premolars are missing. the more
half of each dental arcade is numbered in the formula's parenthe- rostral ones are affected; if molars, the more caudal ones are
sis. The 1ooll number in the parentheses multiplied by the ..2" affected (P4 ~ always next to Ml).
gives the IOfal number of teeth. The permanent teeth are repre-
sented by capital leltel'S (IncisorS=I, Canines=C, Premolars=PM Pig: has a full mouth of 44 permanent teeth.
or P an<:1.M~lars=M). In the fraction following each leuer, the . .
numerates represents half the number of upper jaw teeth and the Dog: missing upper M3 and therefore. bu 42 teeth. Brachio.
· denominator half those in the lower jaw. cephalic breeds may be missing more teeth, so the dental
formula for dogs is not constant, as it is in cats.
DECIDUOUS DENT ~i, FORMULA: identical to the perma-
nent formula except the premolar one (Pm 1) and the molars have Horse: usually missing the upper Pl (~If tooth) and always
no predecessors. Deciduous teeth are represented by lower case missing lowt:r Pl. In the mare, the canines often are small and
leuers foilowing a "D". · may noteruP,hWithalJ these variations, the horse may possess
lfrom 36 to 42 permanent. teeth. There are no deciduous
.----------------------'- canines, lhus, only 24 deciduous teeth.
SPECI~ DIFFERENCES: The generalized pauern of 44
permanent ieeth is seen only in the pig. The other domestic Ruminants: missing the upper incisors and canines; replaced
species have fewer teeth due to reduction in the number of by a dental pad. They also lack upper and lower Pl.giving them
cheek teeth, except the ruminants which are also missing the 32 permanent teeth.
242
TEETH Hcad-244
Fig. V-41 - Ox - Upper arcade of
3 yr. old animal
l l M2
(\ I
Mt_::~
p4-~.6,1 I
•
P3-~.~, t ·~--
._---"\Volf tooth it (P 1)
\
Canine (C) . M3
I
\
0
M2---.
13 MI---..
11 P4-'""-'
P3--l
Fig. V-39 - Horse
• Upper arcade
. \
Fig. V -42 - Ox - Lower

arcade - 7 yr. old
Fig. V-40 -· Horse
- Lower arcade
. 11
; . \ :
. ' ..
13 12
-· 11
Species Permanent Deciduous
PIG 2(13/3 C 1/1 P 4/4 M 3/3) = 44 2(13/3 C 1/1 P 3/3) = 28
DOG 2(13/3 c 1/1 P 4/4 M 2/3) = 42 2(13/3 C 1/1 P 3/3) = 28

HORSE 2(13/3 C 1(0)/1(0) P 3(4)/3 M) = 3642 2(13/3 C 0/0 P 3/3) = 24
RUMINANT 2(1 0/4 P 3/3 M 3/3) = 32 2(1 0/4 P 3/3) =20
CAT 2(13/3 P 3/2 M 1/1) ::30 2(13/3 C 1/1 P 3/2) = 26
243
I
•
TEETH -~......... Head-245
Different diets of the domestic species have resulted in evoiution -,.

of different forms of teeth. The camivores tear and ·1).oit their Pig • aging teeth Eruption .
.
..
fleshy food with liuJe chewing. Theit teeth reflect this_:in being
sharp, tearing sb'UCtures. The molars of the dog, which do more Di3 Berore·.h1rt•
.. '
chewing than the cat, have a flattened 'occlusal surface. For the De Before _bJrth '
horse and ruminant's: giazing diet (herbivores). the cheek teeth Remaining deciduous teeth 4days· 7wk.
have enlarged and merged into. a.coetineous occlusal surface, Pennanent
This accommodates the continuous grinding mastication. with Pl Smo.
considerable wear. · Ml 4-6mo.
~ ... -8-20mo .
R~ning pennanent teeth
. .
Fig. V-4~. - Pig - Upper arcade
M3
I M3
!!
~ . M2
:W.t.2 I 1>'
'-"
Ml
Ml '
P4
p4,
P3 P3
c .·
P2 P2
Pl
Pl
c
13
13
12
. II Fla. V-44 - Pie • Lower arcade
244
TEETH
Hcad-246
Dog - Aging teeth Age CANINE DECIDUOUS DEN'l1'1'10N: For the first 3 weeks of
life, the puppy has no teeth. By 6 ~ an its deciduous teeth
Dedcloous teeth erupt By6weeb have erupted. As the puppy'sjaw grows the pennanent teeth begin
Peffllanent teeth erupt By6months lo ,eplace the deciduous teeth and have all erupted by 6-7 months.
Cusps worn of incisors This is useful i~(onnationbecause.puppy shots are usually given
around·6 weeks and ~d 6 months dogs are spayed. There are
Lower Ii 1 '1(1. ~: • no ·deciduous premolars for Pl and the molars.
Lower"l2 ·21(1.
. yrs. .
Upper II 3 "1(1. yrs.
Upper12 4 1(1. yrs. Ffg. V-46 - Cat • Lower. arcade
Lowerl3 6yrs.
Incisors absent 16yrs.
. . .~.
Canines absent 10yrs.
Ml
···~ ..
Carnasslal
teeth
P4--;.
..• ..
__j
'
_____,
. ".
rr i2 . 13. : ~
. : .
13
. 12 If
Fla. V~S - Cat· Upper arcade
: . · ,.:· ._- · 0og:. ·This.=~ ~~~tili:'.~·-ei~UtJM~J~i·;=:.":-.:. :{ ~~'.:
·.
0 t
. ;_: ···•· . ·.
I ·. . . . : -~~t
I ~:~t··. ~;;;~}:: ::. ·.:i.:;{:·t\.::. ~G\L
;~~;'._. .' .: ,{,,.=-.··.:./·
~ !:
._;:~>:.:· .: ·. >;~:·
Cat· Aging Teelh
~ Deciduoas teetJI eru~t , wa. c2 . a. ,. wks.) .. .:, ....· ····...·,.~

:,h.:..,·. , .::·uu~
:..-i."~· ~;,;., ,,, ... ·=·&';·- ;:a:,·m:""t'Y-
.. --are.·,ou11u ·,"''·~ ... ..... \ n,;,i.<'cami'wr- -,. - ~.
· .:·. :··.
I Pernaanent teeth erupt . .. .

: .
,~ _6mo. ..
·.
; t,.';~''et~t~~~t!t~; ::.'~)~ilt!i.
.. ·.., . . . • •.•••{. :····· ,·-··:••.:~.:"
•••••••• · •·•
•. ·· -~ ::: .. : :.~.,..,:!•
··: • •:•:·:·
• • ··.:·:::·
:,.·::,. .. ;.;;•..•,._••••
.. !\,, :_.;•• -;·~;-:!;
:·:
•• -,. •
,-::.
·.,··.·=.·:,··',·.,.
•• •. •
.•:•.·..··•·.·•.•~.,- ·~-~·~--·.'-,=·.·
,....:~.-·.
·;.,. "': •. :.·,h·.
-;,",·,=
••·,'..=.·
•.:·
'
... .....
. . .. . . .
. '
,. I : : s : .•; : •, ~ •
HORSE TEETH
-, -.. Head-247
..
'
HORSE TEETH (adult): typically herbivorcus (grass eap~g) inside (lingual edge) of the upper teeth and on the outside (labial
dentition with high crowned (hypsodont) teeth that, except for the edge) of the ,lower teeth resulting in "points" on the outside edge
canines. grow throughout life. of the UJJP«?f ~th and inside edge of lower teeth. The oeclnsal
surface s~is ..down and out (ventrobuccally).
HORSE INCISORS: are numbered Il, 12 and 13 or central. •• 1- .. .
,····1•
intermPAUare, and comer incisors respectively .. F.ach incisor is
curved with the concavity on its lingual side.
Hard palate
11. C~ntral incisor:-the 1st incisor, closest to the ~ piane.
Oral cavity Sth
12. Intermediate incisor: the 2nd incisor.
13. Corner. incisor:

. the 3rd, most lateral incisor ...
Tongue
STRUCTURE: the horse's incisors are composed ofJhree sub- 6th
stances • dentin, enamel and cementum. With wear, the different
structures on the occlusal surface of the teeth ~.giving clues
to the age of the animal. \ ·
;
Eruption: the emergence of a tooth through the gum line. Fla. V -47 ', Horse • Cross section through
-: .\ . Sth upper cheek tooth & 6th
1. Cup, infundibuluni 01' "mark''; the deep depression in the lower cheek tooth
occlusal surface, lined by cementum and enamel. The cup is
usually filled with black decaying material.
Horse - Cbeek teeth
2.Enamelspot:lheenamelatthebottomofthecup.Whenthecup .
is worn away, the spot remains for a while. Harder than the Teeth Eruption
surrounding dentin, it is .raised above the dentin. <
Pt· Umo.
3. Dental star: lhedarket, secondary dentin filling the pulp cavity P2 2·2112 yrs.
as the occlusal surface nears it The scar fmtappearsrostral to the P3 Jyrs.
enamel spot. As the spot~. the star becomes centrally_ P4 4yrs.
l~te<I. . ... Ml lyrs.
M2 2yrs.
In wear: the removal .of enamel due to contact of opposing teeih.. M3 . J 1/2-4 yrs.
..
A. small . surrounded by whireenamelresults.
. area of yellow.denti.n
Level: the flauening of the occlusal surface, showing the forma-
tion of two enamel rings separated by dentin. The outer enamel
ringsurroundslbeentiretooth.~theiMerringlheinfundibulum
(cup). . .
SHAPE OF THE OCCLUSAL SURFACE· INCISORS:

changes with age due to 1he Jong, curved, pyramidal shape of the
incisors. The distal end is flattened rosnocaudally. The base is ,
flattened flom side to side. As the teeth wear, the shape of the
· occlnsal surface changes. The young animal 11&1 a transverse oval
swface. With wear it becanes round, then triangular, and finally
JongilUdinaJJy oval or icctangular.
CHEEK TEETH: plCIUOJar and rn$r ~th. They are reetangu-

lar with infotdings of eiiainel on· their occlusal surface. Together .
they form a continuous grinding surface. They continue to grow.
after they come into wear. Isolated cheek reeth are indistinguish-
able from each other, except for the wolf tooth, P2 and M3. The
upper arcade is wider than the lower causing wear to occur on th~,
246
HORSE INCISOR
~ Fig. V-48 - Horse - 1st incisor • sagittal section 1. lnfundlbulum

• & occlusal surface (cup)·.
Erupted
... ~
•
~.
l- .
In wear
Cementum·
Level
1. Cup Enamel
Cup &One Body
2. Enamel spot Dentin
3. Dental star
..,. .;..\.........~
··'::
.....::: .
~,";:·
.
Dental cavity
Trianaular
....
Root
Longitudinally
Ol'&I
I.: . ·
.
: .. ·. ...
247
.• ·• • <·
-· ...
·Head-249
AGING - HORSE
Fi1. V-49 - Horse - Incisors • rostr. view
A. Two year old, deciduous incisors

B. Five year old, permanent incisors
.. ff,.~
.J
A
B
I
,.
.'
2. Galvayne•s arooYe
2
c . .
D· ,)·. ;...:. .,.,:: ·._
Fi1. V-51 - Horse - Incisors • lat. view
C. Five year old

D. Twenty ...five year old.
Fla. V -50 - Horse • Incisors of 11 yr.,
· old anima] ·lat.view
:~.'ROUGH ESTIMATE·or a ·uotiSE*S AGE::· ~ri'~c~:. '. '·iriciS()t~sn'l'~~~~~o&id~I~~-~~.~~~

. :nues· and appearances·~ give'an'e.sµmate o(tbe.'boise' s age..... The hc)(>k'.'°is'sajd'U):aj,peir:at 7:ycars. "di~~:it(~-y~'.~
:'They are unreliable arid ~ould·-t,e·'used i~·cooj~ with· .. reapptM'at it yem ofage. lt'~f ...6r .~y··nor~~t:'-if
eruption and wear tim~. . ": /}.:.:-,-: : . ·. . . presenli·allthat cart be.said is diaf:~ ~''ls'~)I-ofder
· ... · · ·. · ·.· ..... , ::..··.;.·.;-._,.. . . ,. ", · -, . .. 'Ulilll
~11...-7 Y-""
...:..-·(unreu;.i;;,1e)
U4U •
. · -, ·.· . · ..'-'.:~:,:·, ': -,.,·.:,' ·.,·. ':· .. ·:,,,,·.···f:
, -._ ...,.;-~'.·.,... ·.· ... ,...... '
. .-Anale of the permanent incisors: lhe angle.tfie··upper and '. · ·. . .r.>: · '. ':···, · .:.:·,:· . : ~: . ,~ :::·( ·
. ·iowerincisors meet when viewed from the side:· ~use of the · ·2. Galvayne's aionggr{;oveon the mi{ldl~ ~fifie groovi: aw«
· incisor's curved shape~· more pronounced on iis proximal end,.: :comer 'incisor.'s labial surface. Wear from the lips remo~ me
tscr
. =the "angle· fonned by opposing iriCISOTS. is roughlyin 8 cementum of thetooth, except in the grt?()V~; leaving t!ie wtiile
· yom1ganimal. With age, wearmakesthisangtemoreandmore enamel'surrounding the darker cemeamm 'in'the'grodye. 'lbe
. 'acute (< 180°). groove'is said to appear under the gum line at 10:years of~
halfway down the tooth at 1s; reaches tbe·occlil.sal swfac:e •
1. Seven year (incisive} book: the bulge on the caudal end of 20, and disappeMS at 30. If present. the horse is probably 0'9el'
the upper comer incisor. ll forms because tbe bottom caner 10 years old. (Vert subjective and unreliable.)
-60
--c
DECIDUOUS INCISORS - HORSE
Head-250
F:
8 Days
(
8 Wks.
: : . \
..
8 Mos.
1 Yr.
Dit
Fig. V-52 - Horse • Deciduous incisors

• occlusal surface
·...
DECIDUOUS INCISORS . ... .. '... ~: .
Dl2 Di3
(intum.dlate)
. . . (~i:nv)
Erupts 8 days 8 weeks .: .. _. 8-. inonths
In Wear
-.
I year 1 y~ar • • I•
2 years
.. , . . ·~~=.:.. . . ,~·
. .. .
!
-
249
AGING - HORSE - TEETH Head-251
2SO
ERUPTION - HORSE - INCISORS
Head-252
Second deciduous incisor

Neck
•
Crown
1. First incisor
Fig. V-53 - Horse - Incisors of 2 I /2 yr. old ..
Third deciduous incisor
2. Second incisor
Fig~ V-54 • Horse - Incisors of 3 1 /2 yr. old
Io wear 3. Third incisor
~area11~stil1_liltes ip.orderor lhe,rreliability. When you are . .

of a horse between 11 and t 6). I have !llY. students count 01,JJ~gud
..
~:stoppedby any weat~ata;do not check Jater·ag:eindicators,
An..e~ple; If l3 )s' not in wear (not 5 'years y~fl?utthe c·upJs · as they go ~iotigh ~e a~g indicators. Though you .11@.-}'.:-,~1-::
silly, the numbers wjil $taft 10·0011.'. inorder and repeuqt)~l'°will ·
gooe'i'~If(6y~).theh~~is.nqtyet5y~o)d.much·Ie$S make it·~~· ~;,:·As~ ·practiti_9~ when a teenitgt..'iJ~··
6. ~pststudents ~ant 19)ocik·at~~ (or a minuteand'co~
ap "1th.~ n~mbei".(~;g.,'fj yrs, 5 mo. 4 dyi 2 his .. ~;min. .3se.c.).
own~~.t'asks.wha~yoo ~ counting, exp)ain·and ~mpt:to==-11·':
tf)enil}le ~~lhoctTh~5'-WJi1appreciare. youie.ffortari<f~~:~·:}
.g over 10 is rrmly an artand ~~uldbe givenin ranges (e.g.,
dad callyou bscknext time "Flicq~_.has a problem. .:\\:: :;·,: '.>:·
a bone with all cups gone but !JO lriang'uJar ~ has the mouth . . ; . : .
. ·)::,: ", -, : ··::;_ .,. :
::'.i( :,:~·:: :.::;:]t:~·::·{
,,,,:·:·.·.·.·:·;:·:•.... ·•·.
251
AGING HORSE INCISORS Head-2S3
.....
··- .
Di3
1. lnfundibulum
Dil ·
Fig. V-56 - llorse - 2 yrs.
- all deciduous inwear
Fi&. V -57 - Horse • 2 1 /2 _yr,s.

- 11 erupted ··
.-
Dentin
Fig. V -58 - Horse - 3 1 / 2 yrs. ,/'\
• 12 erupted 13
Fig. V-59 - Horse - 4 l /2 yrs.

- I3 erupted
3. Enamel spot
2. Cup "
In wear
Enamel
Fla. V-60 • Horse • S yrs.

- 13-in wear
Fla. V-61 - Horse - 6 yrs.

- 11 cup gone · ,.
. t:
.. •
. .. .. ..
.• .
..
' ,
2S2
. .
AGING HORSE INCISORS Head-254
..... .....
<; ~ ··- .....
Fig. V-62 - Horse - 7 yrs.

- 12 cup gone
Fig. V-63 - Horse - 9 yrs.

- 11 round
...__ .. _._.
:1
Fig. V-64 - Horse • I 0- I I yrs.

- 12 round
Fig. V -65 - Horse - 16 yrs.
The Aae Of A Hone - 11 triangular
To tell the age or any hone,
lrupect the lower jaw, of course;
The lot front teeth the tale will tell,
And every doubt and fear dispel,
-----
:::::::- .. __
--·--. ..
Two middle nipJ)4!n you behold

Before the foal iJ eiiht day, old;
Before eight week,, two more will come.
Eight months the comers cut the gum.
The outside enamel will di1ap1>4tar

From the middle two in juat one year;
Alao one year for the aecond pair - F.ig•. V-66 - Horse - 18 yrs. - rectangular ·
In two yean comen too will wear.
At two and a half the middle nippers drop;
At three and a half the aecond pair can't ,top; '.:':.·:i.:t· :H6RSE ~ AGJN(} PERMANENT 1:~
. .:. :.• . ·, , ,, .. . . : :,,' .. "'. ,:: ··.:: .. . •
INC~ORS'
'·Co .. ,,·
When four and a half the tbhd pair ioa, , . :,·. ·. · .: · ·.· ,.. · .· ... ·. ·, , ···.. ·Center M.1ddle · mer
At fiye a new wom Ht he lhowa. : : ::, ~ •' • • :._ ·::i·::· •, ·, •: ,·, • • • ·,~,•incisor '
0' incisor O
U\cisoi 1 I
. . . . . -:,:,. : . . .·. .
The deep black 1pob will pua from view · ·Erii tibia : :·: · :·2112 3V2 {
4:if2
.. ·
At lot yean, from the middle hro;
The MCODd pair at aeven yean, ,.....iii:: •.,.'. . . . <:. . . ·. ,. 3'·
'• 4 . · ..s .
.U elpt the apot each corner dean.
6
. .-.-.,;,.,.:. .
From middle nippen upper jaw• 7 . ·...... -, :
.U nine the black 1pob will withdraw;
The MCOUd pair at left _,. bript, 9 .· ·.· ',10'
!leven finda th. eornen llcht.
. . . . . .•
10 : · 11·
As time ,oee on the honemen know
The tfflb Ulree-lided pow;
: . .. : :
OYaJ .13 - 16 :···: ·
They Jonaer set, project before,
Till twenty - when we know no more. 17 . . -..r~r1
. . . .·
19 ;::~21·:.:
ANONYMOUS (modified) . .. ~ ::·.~~;~1~I_.. .... _.::,:·:
253
OX INCISORS Head-255
RUiWNANT INCISORS (low crowned [brachydont] teeth): SUMMARY: To roughly estimate the age of ruminants {cartJe.
There are four lower incisors (the canine being considered an sheep and goats) count the number of erupted permanent incisors
incisor). The upper incisors are absent. replaced by the dental pad. forage in years. To be more correct with cattle. add one year to the
first incisor- 11- 2, 12-2, 13-3 and 14 - 4 years. If all incisors ha\le
14. Canine: looks like and located with the incisors, is considered erupted and are in wear, say 5 years. (see chart pg. 257)
the 4th incisor (14).
Dental pad: a comified connective tissue elevation replacing the RUMINANT - AGING PERMANENT INciSORS
upper incisors. h serves to oppose the lower incisors.
11 lyr.
SHAPE: The incisors have a crown with a distinct neck and a .
round root {low-crowned {brachydontJ teeth). I2 2yrs.
SURFACES:
.. 13 3yrs.
'.
1. Longitudinal ridges: serrations marking the lingual surface, 14 4 yrs.

2. Occlusal surface: contacting the dental pad, and appearing
when the teeth come into wear. Its lingual border is at first wavy
due to longitudinal ridges.
•• f
LEVEL: when the occlusal surface is not wavy, due to wear past
the longitudinal ridges, .. '·•
AGING the OX by its INCISORS: All of the ox's deciduous

incisors have erupted by birth. They may still be covered by a thin
pinkmembrane.Bytwoweeks,thegumshaverecededtotbeneck
of Dil. At one month, all the incisors' crowns are exposed.
Eruption of the permanent incisors 11, 12, 13 and 14 occurs by 1
1/2 - 2, 2 - 2 lfl. 3, and 4 years, respectively. All the incisors are
in wear by 5 years. I I, 12, 13 and 14 become level at 6, 7. 8 • and
9 years, respectively. By 15 years of age the crowns of those
incisors remaining are worn off, leaving round "pegs" .
•
"Pegs": the 'roots of the incisors when the crowns have been
~pletely worn away.
"Broken mouth": when the crownsor the incisors are worn off
leaving the pegs {roots) or some incisors are missing. This reduces
the caute's grazing efficiency, and often result in their being
culled (removal from the herd).
"~~rls": the roots of the incisors worn down to the gums.
ERUP'l'ION or the LOWER INCISORS or the ox

..
;
Birth: All deciduous incisors have erupted at birth.
2 weeks: The crown is exposed on Dil.
1 month: All the incisor crowns are exposed.
SHEEP and GOAT: the eruption of the numbered permanent

incisors roughly corresponds to their age. 11 - 1 to 1 1/2 yrs.; 12
- I 1/2 to 2 yrs.; 13 - 2 lll. to 3 yrs.; 14 - 3 to 4 yrs.
254
OX INCISORS Head-256
Incisive part of mandible
De
Di3 12
Di2
Fig. V -68 - Ox
Fla. V -67 - Ox Permanent incisors
- Deciduous incisors
Crown
Erupted
Neck
1. Longitudinal
ride es
Dental cavity
In wear
' . .
••• # ~
'
7: Root
2. Occlusal
surface '11
l. Level
t •I• ;
•
!
-,
Fie. V-69 - Ox • 4th lower cheek tooth - sagittal section & occlusal surf ace
255
Head-2S7
AGING OX INC!SORS
Incisive part of mandible
I
Intermandibular symphysis
··'.
/
~:
\
\
.
'
'
.. Di2
11
Fla •. V-70 - Qx - I 1/2-2 yrs. - 11 erupted

.. .
· In wear
Fl&. v-11·- Ox - 2-2 1/2 yrs.

• 12 erupted
Alveolus
Sublingual cariaocle
'
13 \
-~. •. ,,- \~J ,·.
. 'o ,·. 1/
.
\
',, .......... ,.
. ·,\··.·
·, '-:'.~_; //"
.
. ~· .,.. _
. . Fig. V - 72 - Ox - 3 yrs.
- Is erupted
h
/'.
33 "'
::--.....
-;::s..
f ~ ~. ~ .....
·· ·--:,,--""--'
14
/. . .
•I
A. •.
Root
",
'
. \
I Fla. V-73 - Ox .. 4 yrs.

Neck - 1, erupted ••• <(
Crown
•
Fig. V-74 - Ox· S yrs.· all in wear
256
AGING OX INCISORS Head-258
. .
• ',I • Ir ;\. \~ •'
. . '\ . . .
• ·, .. I I
'
Fig. V-75 - Ox - 6 yrs. - Ii level
Fig. V-76 - Ox - 7 yrs. - I2 level
, ' \
.•
?
,,~' \ . .
-'/
Fig. V - 77 - Ox,· 8 yrs. - I~ level

.
;
·1.,
} l ~
['. I
j.' .' j
i
~~
,. I
,. : I:.
,/I! . •'
('
Fig. V- 78 - Ox • 9 yrs. - J4 level
Fig. V- 79 • Ox • 15 yrs. - missing or pegs
Teeth Eruption In wear Level & N.eck Incisors. Not

' ·. Emerged from Missing
Gum Reduced to
Pegs
First IncJsor: (11) 1 1/2 - 2 yrs. 6 yrs.
Second Incisor (12) 2 - 2 1/2 yrs. 7 yrs.
All at 5 yrs. 15 yrs.
Third .In.clsor (13) 3 yrs.
• ,.r•.:.,
8 yrs.
Fourth"'lncisor. ( canine )(14) 3 1/2 - 4 yrs. ..
. f• l 9 yrs. '.
~~ ~ r '.
• "• f
.. ~I •
'
... - . :.
257
''
SALIVARY GLANDS Head-259
1. Parotld salivary gland
Fig. V-80 - Dog - Head - lat. view

.'
2. Parotid duct
7. Mandibular Inn. 3. Mandibular salivary gland
SALIVARY GLANDS: the extramural glands (glands outside lage.

the wall of the digestive system) emptying into the digestive
system via ducts. The preparation of food (ingesta) for swallow- 2. Parotid duct: pierces the cheek mucosa to drain its seroos flmt
ing begins with lubrication arid wetting by salivary secretions, into the buccal vestibule.
saliva (sa-LY -va). Saliva consists primarily of water, some pro-
tein. glycoprotein, a signi~t·amoiµit, of elecuolytes, and anti- 3. Mandibular salivary gland: the encapsulated. round or N
gland located caudal to the angle of the jaw. It is a mixed gJ f
bodies {IgA). Salivary glands are c~ified by size, duct length,
and by secretions. Secretions can be serous, mucous {MYOO-
4. Mandibular duct: runs rostrally with the .major subling
lws). or mixed (both). The parotid.salivary gland bas predomi-
nantly a serous secretion; the mandibular and sublingual are duct,~e.dialtotbemandibleundertheflOQrof~mouth.It·ot~ies
mixc.d. ~pitbeticand sympathetic ANS neryefibers inner- on or near the sublingual caruncle. '
. '\;'.....
. .
vate the salivary glands.
5. Sublingual salivary gland: the gland under thetorigue ha•
MINOR SALIVARY GLANDS: located in the wall of the oral polystomaticand monostomatic parts. Thepolystomatic pst
cavity and oral pharynx, having very shon ducts. They are named consists ofdiffuse clusters of glandular tissue on either side c:1
based on location, i.e., labial. buccal and lingual (lips, cheek.and tongue, each clnsrc7 with its own duel The monustomatic
{d) is caudal to the polystomatic sublingual gJand, and romw
tongue). The minor salivary gJands are only locally importanl
the rnaw1>uJar salivary gland. The mooostomatic pan and
MAJOR SAUV ARY GLANDS: localed some distance from
rnandiool:ar salivary J)and share a common C"apSUle in the cm•
.,U"tS. 'The majoc subti.ngua.l di.let acompa:oies the maooi:...
the oral ca'tity aDd' empty their sa:ietlcm 'tia )mg doers
duct.:, tbe s.Jhli ogual c:a:mx::k. wbete they open eahcr tDR'lmn
i. htut:id pa-ROf -i:!) (G;,a:r.:... ..ear~. car) safrnlyg):a:nd: se:;• 41 fy.
r.be, ,e, a;is 3P"':..ktc!.s it+·:! :dow tlx &ll.i.uw car :::::r.:1-
SALIVARY GLAND
1. Parotid salivary 'gland
2. Parotid duct
8. Zygomatic gland
l/ !
j) ·,·,.
e 4. Mandibular duct
c
\ d
S. Sublingual salivary glan/ 3. Mandibular salivary g land
Fig. V ·81 - Dog - Head, deep dissection of

mandibular & sublingual glands
- lat. view
SPECIES DIFFERENCES
a.. Masseter m. f. Parotid duct opening
b. Bueeal m. g. Zygomatie duet opening
8. Zygomatic gland: the large buccal glands medial to the
e, Polyatoma.tie part (Y-81) (camivorea)
d. Monoatomatic par~ h. SubUniUal caeuaele zygomatic arch in carnivores. Its duct opens caudal to the 1.
e. Major 1ublingual duct parotid duct opening.
1
Sublingual glands: The dog and cat have a caudally-located

LYMPH NODES: lymphoid tissue often associated with the
salivary glands of the same name. monostomatic part and a rostrally-located polystomatic pan.
The horse has only a polystomatic pan. The ruminants have
bothpartS,buttheyhavereversedpositions~themonostomatic
6. Parotid lymph node: a small node near the rostral edge of the pan being rostral to the polystomanc part.
parotid gland. These drain the orbit and dorsal structures of the
bead.
Parotid duct opening:
• Dog - across from the upper carnassial tooth (P4)
7. Mandibular lymph nodes: two to four palpable nodes • Ox - across from the last or 5th upper cheek tooth
rostroventral to the mandibular salivary gland. These drain the
ventral structures of the head. • Horse, goat and pig-across from the 3rd upper cheek tooth
• Cat - across from the 2nd upper cheek tooth
Retropharyngeal lymph nodes: consist of medial and lateral Parotid duct1s path:
groups of nodes. The medial retropharyngeaJ ones are located on
• Carnivores and usually small ruminants: crosses the
:he roof of the pharynx; the lateral (inconstant in dog) in the lateral surface of the masseter muscle.
atlantal fossa (depression below atlas). They drain the head (deep
• Horse, ox and pig: courses ventrally to the inside of the
snuctures and the parotid and mandibular lymph nodes) and mandible and then onto the cheek with the facial vessels.
ad~t neck, including the pharynx and larynx.
259
SALIVARY GLANDS
Head-261
'
••I
./ I
·" j,
'
I /
- --...
.
/
..
· 1. Parotid salivary gland
·- ·--
b a
2. Parotid duct
Fie. V-82 - Horse • Head - lat. view

,,
.... f
r
1. Parotid salivary
/ ../ ' gland
I
, '
7. Mandibular In. 4. Mandibular duct
5. Subllngual salivary gland (c) 3. Mandibular salivary gland
Fig. V-83 - Horse - Head, deep dissection of mandibular

.·.. & sublingual glands - lat. view
260
SALIVARY GLANDS Head-262
Fig. V-84 - Ox - Head, dissection of

parotid gland - lat. view
3
2 7
1. Parotid salivmy gland
2. Parotid duct
3. Mandibular salivary gland
4. Mandibular duct (V-83)
S. Sublingual salivmy gland
6. Parotid In. (V.-84) .,.
7. Mandioular In.
• j
a. Massetet m.
b. Buccal m,
c. Polystomatic-salivary gland (V-83)
d. Monostomatic salivary gland {V-85)
( absent in horse)
e, Major·sublingual duct
f. Buccal gland (minor salivary gland) (V-83)
g. Labial gland (minor salivary gland) (V-82)
e
Fig. V-85 - Ox - Head, dissection of mandibular

& sublingual glands - lat. view
d
"5----c· 4
3
. . ·. .... -· ,. -~ ·.
CLINicit~-- ·. .: _'?=, .:· ..• .
. . . '
condition . .' Both 'the mandibular and the sublingual saii.v.,_-; :.
...
. :.. .. :·. .
•, •n •
, glands are removed~g~er becausethey shareacapsule;·'~us,·: '•
. . •, .. ,,; . .
Palpa6!>n or.·~-~~:s m~~~~,~ -~~ph nod~-,~~ -~i· one can't be removed without damaging the other: · . . · :_ ·
vary gland: Grasp,me skin-~-deqr SCI'l)Ctures at the angle of
tbe-ja!t'. ~~ sljp tf1roug~ )'~>ti(fingm, iµid'feel'a big lump Lymph nod~: the differentiation of an enlarged;lymph·node ·
(the mandibular- g~cj) and ~.:few smalf"iilmps (mandibular froni a sal'yilry gland is usefgl 'in ·diagn~is. . · ··
lyn),ph nodes)>. :f;;·/:· . : .·· : :~-- .. · ·, :.. . :·. . .
··.·
.• . .. . . .. .
....... ...... :: . ··. .: ..:·::·.::_:.:'·: ·..
.•' ::_.: -. ·.._ . . -:-,
~is parotid·iymph
a~e: drainsthe orbit and' is c~~
Mallclibllkr Qi'subiiliiuafdii~::~y during slaughter because' of cancer eye
become'blocked· in cattle. . . .. . . ,
. . . . . ... . . . . .. . . d...tie to .... .... .
. ··.. .
tra~·orio~p. res\il.~g.i~,.~ acctlf!1u1ation·ofsaliva . .. ··.
~ing_-a·swc.~i~(~~~y,_.·.,~ei~:~='nain¢d for Tramlocatio~-oi't~ ~.:Oticl
duct 'the surgical dissocti6il.of· ~·~
their location:·~- the 'tQi)goc . ---iJOiila or ·saJivacy 'cyst . the parotid duct and its movement to the lateral canthus ofthe, ' ;
<uaJocele); tlie,nect·.- ·~mjicot;ele~ ~
giarulitself.may eye ·to neat dry eye· (kera'too;mjunctivitis sicca) 'in ·the (tog.:··:~
become'blocked. Smgical rdilo~ilofthe glandsand as much of Whenever a dog sees food it then salivates ("spi~")·oo19'.it$':.'
tbedlictsas.possibfeii'(J:be&5i~t· i f6~i~i~torelieveei~ e ··~·
y~. ..·,...:-.:--
:·. :•,"' ......
· ...., .
. .. . . . ·.:. . .. ... . /•,
261
PHARYNX Heac-263
1. Nasopharynx 8. Pharyngeal opening of

the auditory tube ,_
... '.
4. Piri form recess
3. Laryngopbarynx
10. Entrance to esophagus
12. Esophagus
11. Palatine tonsil

2. Oropharyox
6. Pharyngeal opening
Fig. V-86 - Dog - Pharynx • sagittal section
PHARYNX(FAR-inks):actsasthecommonpassagewayforthe into the laryngopharynx.

digestive and respiratory systems. lt connects the nasal and oral
cavities with the trachea and esophagus respectively, serving to • 4. Pirif orm recess: the continuation of the floor of the orophar-
direct the intake of food and air into theirprcperchannels. The soft ynx on either side of the larynx. It is part of the laryngopharynx.
palate (5) divides the rosttal portion of the pharynx into the
oropharynx and the nasopharynx. The common caudal portion is 5. SOFT PALATE: the caudal musculomucosal continuation of
the laryngopharyru(. -,.. the hard palate that divides the rostral part of the pharynx imo
o~ andnasopharynx.
1. ·Nasopharynx (nay'zoh-FAR-inks): a part of the respiratory
channel, located ~ to the soft palate and extending from the MUSCLES or the PHARYNX: make up the walls of the phar-
caudal nares to the laryngopharynx. The caudal free edge of the ynx: All are constrictors, except the caudal stylopharyngeal mus-
soft palate and the palatopharyngeal arches (a) demarcate the cle, that dilates the pharynx. The constrictor muscles
nasopharynx from the laryngopharynx. · · (pterygopharyngeus,palatopharyngeus.~lopharyngeusrostrali!.
hyopharyngeus, thyropharyngeusand cricopharyngeus) act in ac
2. Oropharynx (or'oh-FAR-inks): a pan of the digestive chan- undulating fashion to move food toward the esophagus.
nel, ventral to the soft palate, extending from the oral cavity to the
base of the epiglottis. The palatoglossal arches (e) demarcate. the ... of the PHARYNX:
OPENINGS
oropharynx from the oral cavity. · . c.
-. · 6. Pha~'9g,al opening (aditus pharyngis or isthmus faucium):
3. Laryngopharynx (layr-in 'job-FAR-inks): the part of tlie phar- the opening from the oral cavity to the.oropharynx fonned by the
ynx where air from the nmopharytix crosses to reacti the larynx, soft palate, the tongue and the palatoglossal arches.
and food and water from the oropharynx crosses into the esopha-
•
gus, Thus, it is part of both the respiratory and digestive channels. 7. Caudal nares or choanae (KOH-ay-nee)(sin.= choana): tbe
The laryngopharynx is between the base of the epigloUis and the osseous opening between the caudal nasal cavity and the na-
esophageal entrance. The rostral portion of the larynx projects sopharynx. •
262
PHARYNX
Head-264
Fig. V-87 - Dog - Pharynx {pharyngeal roof &

soft palate cut on median
Plane) - dors, view
_ 12. Esophagus -----
9. Laryngeal openlna
3. Laryngopharynx
.
1. Nasopharyox
__ 11. Palatine
tonsil
5. Soft palate
a. Palatopharyngeal arch h. Basihyoid bone
2. Oropharynx b. Larynx i. Trachea
e. Oral cavity j. Pharyngeal mm.
d. Root of tongue k. Semllunar fold
e. Palatogloaeal arch (carnivores}
t. Epi~Jottia l. Glottic deft {V-87)
g. 'Late~l ventricle
8. Pharyngeal openings of the auditory tubes: the slits in the The esophagus passes down the neck at first dorsal to the trachea,
lateral walls of the nasopharynx leading into the auditory tubes,
thus, to the middle ear. and then shifts to the kfi of the trachea. Inside the thorax, it returns
to a position dorsal to the trachea, passing over the tracheal
''·
bifurcation to the right of the aorta. The esophagus pierces the
9. Laryngeal opening (aditus laryngis): the opening into the
larynx surrounded by the rostral laryngeal cartilages. esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm and terminates in the short
abdominal portion at the cardia of the stomach.
10. &ophage.al opening (aditus esophagi): opening at the caudal
end of the laryngopharynx into the esophagus.
TONSIL: aggregation of lymphatic tissue in the pharyngeal

mucosa Some are distinct accumulations and others are diffuse
and difficult to see. Named according to their locations (lingual,
palatine, pharyngeal, tubal [around the entrance of the auditory
tube], tonsil of the soft palate). They help to protect the openings
of the pharynx 'against microorganisms and toxic substances.
11. Palatine tonsil: the lymphoid aggregation in the oropharynx.

In carnivores it is a long cylindrical structure placed in a tonsilar
fossa and covered medially by a sernilunar fold (k).
12. ESOPHAGUS (ee-SOF-a-gus): the first part of the alimen-

tary canal. It is a muscular tube that transpons food fromthe oral
cavity and pharynx down the neck and through the thorax to the
stomach. It has cervical. thoracic and abdominal parts. Comified,
stratified squamous epithelium lines and protects the esophagus,
:, .
263
PHARYNX . . ..
Head-26S
1. Nasopharynx
Fla. V -88 - Ox • Pharynx
,. - sagittal section
··. ·,...
!· .•
4. Piriform ricess
3. Laryngopharynx
10. Entrance to
esophagus
7. Caudal
nares
6. Pharyngeal opening
5
12. Pharyngeal
dil'ertlculum (pig)
10.
- h Fig. V-89 - Pig • Pharynx - ·sagittal section
SPECIF.8 DIFFERENCF.8 tonsils are.

Pharyngeal (FAR-in-jee-al) diverticulum: the blind, mucosal Horse: the soft palate isextremely long. It lies ventral to and in
pouch in the roof of the nasopharynx of pigs. Directed caudally
above the opening of the esophagus, it is often fatally mistaken
of
front the tip of the epiglottis. The horse, unable to voluntarily
raise its soft palate, exclusively breathes through its nose. This
for the esophagus when "pilling" pigs. also explains why horses vomit through their nose. Displace-·
• ment of the soft palate over the epiglottis interferes with
. Tonsilar opening of the palatine tonsil in the ox: opening in the breathing as it is sucked into the larynx •
· wall of the oropharynx leading into a space where the palatine
264
PHARYNX Head-266
11. pa Iat in e frJ!Jlillff,,~,i~~:ltt;Jf:{I/\ti~IJil ~~if1*~
Dog Ox Horse
Fla. V-90 - Pharynx - Schematic cross section showing lymphatic tissue

(modified from Nickel, et al, The Viscera Qf. the Domestic
Animals, Verlag, Paul, Parley, 1973)
1. Naaopharynx ,:, a. Palatopharyngeal arch k. Ton,ilar foa,a (carnivores)

2. Oropharynx . · b. Larynx 1. Semilunar fold (camivorea)(V-90)
S.Laryncopharynx c. Oral cavity m. Tonailar opening of
4. Piriform rec.a d. Root of tongue palatine tontil {ox) (V -88)
5. Soft palate e. PalatocJosnl arch n. Lingual tontil (V-90)
6. Pharyn,eal op.nine r. Epiclotti, o, Tonsil of soft palate
(aditia pharynsit) I· Lateral ventricle (absent p. Pharyncea1 tonsil (V-88)
7. Caudal narea (choanae) in carnivore, & cat) q. Tubal tonsil (V-90)
8. Pharynceal openin1 of h. Baaihyoid bone r. Retropharynceal In. (V-88)
auditory tube i, Trachea ,. Pharyngeal septum
9. Laryngeal openin1 j. Pharyngeal mm.
(aditit larynp,)
· 10. Entrance to aophacu•
11. Palatine ton,il
12. Phaeynceal diverticulum (pie)
Type Carnivores Pig Ruminants Horse
Lingual tonsil ~::· • • + +

Palatine tonsil + - +<1> +
Tonsil of soft palate • + • +
Pharyngeal tonsil + + + +
Tubal tonsils + + ••
(a.round·pharynceal,~ninc
of auditory tubes) ·~":/'r.··
,
Paraepiglottic tonsil • • + + _{2)
'
-
,
+ Identifiable
• DilruM, difficult t:9 identify
• Abeent -
Adapud from Veterirwy Analomy •
M.J. Shively,
~ Tonaillar openinl ii lffn in the oropharynx of the ox
Abeent in ox, present in small ruminant,
PHARYNX Head-26?
4. Pirlform recess
8. Pharyngeal
of .audit opening 3. Lar·yngopb
.: arynx
ory tube .
1. Nasopb arynx
7• Caudal nares
.·-·t/•. »,
\
S. Soft palate
10. Entrance to
esophagus
h
2. Orophary~~ - ll. Esophagus
Fig. V-91 - Horse. Pha rynx

. . - sa gitta!
. section
A. Breathing
8·
Fig. V-92 .' H Swallowing
. orse. Phar ynx cavit
(schematic) Y
266
PHARYNX Head-302
Fig. V-93 - Horse - Pharynx
10. Entrance to
esophagus
I. Nasopharynx 3. Laryngopharyox
9. Laryngeal ·
•
opening
--4. Pirif orm

recess
5. Soft palate
h
-- 2. Oropharynx
6. Pharyngeal
opening
7. Caud. nares
1. Naaopharynx
2.0roph~
3.Laryngopharynx
4. Pirifonn recea.
5. Soft palate Fie. V-94 - Horse • Roof of pharynx, tongue
6. Pharyngeal opening -& upper respiratory tract split
(aditua pbarynp)
1. Caudal nara (choanae)
8. Pharyngeal opening of
auditory tube
9. Larynseal openins
( aditua laryncia)
10. Entr,anc:e to M<>phagua
11. F.eopbagua . .. .
a. Palatopharynpal arch (V-93)
-· b. Larynx
e. Oral cavity
d. Root of tongue
· e. Pala'9sf c.aal arch
f. EJ,iilottia
,. Liqual tonail
b. Byoid apparatus
I, Trachea
j. Guttural pouch (horse)
k-q. Pharynseal connrictora
k. PterycophUJDPUI m. (V-95)
I. Palatopharynceua m.
m. Stylopbarynpua rc»tralia m. .. :
n, Hyopb~npua m.
- o. Thyropbvynpua m.
p. Cricopbarynceua m. m
q. Slylopharyngeua caudalla m.
r. Lnator palatini Fig. V-95 - Horse - Pharyngeal mm.
•· ~tor veli paltini
. '
STOMACH Esophagus 499-Abdomen-269
2. Lesser curvature
·Fig. V-97 '.". Dog • Stomach, parietal
it-:---4. Fundus surf ace opened
. "";_
..
3. Cardiac opening
6. Pylorus 1. Greater .curvature
Fig. V-96 .: Dog - Stomach ~:·parietal surf ace

r
.. ..
a. Gastric groove ·. 'e, Cardiac gland region 6. Pylorus

b. Pyloric openi~g, {. Fµndic gland region g
c. Rugae · . . ~ g. Pyloric gland region 5. Body
d. Non-clandular ~egion b. Duodenum c
(absent in carnivores)
STOMACH (G. gaster): the dilation in the GI tract caudal PARTS of the SIMPLE STOMACH
(aboral) to the esophagus receiving ingesta from the esophagus
and temporarily storing iL Gastric enzymes, chiefly pepsin, 1. Greater curvature (curvauua major): the long, convex surface
rennin, and hydroch1oric acid, are secreted by the glands in the of the stomach extending from the cardia to the pylorus. The
stomach wall. Muscular movements of the stomach mix ingesta superficial leaf of the greateromentum attaches·to the greater
and enzymes and slowly move them· into the duodenum. Stom- curvature externally.
achs are lined by glandular epithelium, nonglandular epithelium ..· ..
or both. The nongland-..\~r lining is a continuation of the strati· 2. Lesser curvature (curvaturaminor); the short, concave sur-
fied squamous epithelium of .the esophagus. The glandular face of the stomach, also extending from the ccttciia to the pylorus.
lining is a simple columnar epithelium that continues into the It is the attachment site of the caudal ~ge Qf the lesser omentum
duodenum. Carnivores have a glandular stomach lining. A externally.
composite stomach is lined by nongtandular and glandular
epithelium and is found _in the ruminants. horse and pig. The wall Parietal surf ace: the side of the stomach in contact with the liver.
of the stomach consists of an iimermucous membrane,a muscular
"
coat and a serosa1 coat. The ·m11$Cular coar is unique in having an Visceral surface: the side of the stomach in contact with the
extta layer. the internal obliqQe layer, ,m· addi:lion to the outer remaining the abdominal viscera.
.~yers.
longitudinal and the inner <;ire~ It is ·p-esent only over
.. i
the expandable fundus and bQdy of th~ stomach. At the cardia its 3. Cardia (KAR-dee-ah)(Gr. kardia heart): the opening or the
·~. cardiac loop (ansa cardiaca).
fibers are thicker and {~;the pan of the stomach around the opening. The cardiac openln1
·.·.· , ~ (ostium cardiacum) is the opening of the esophagus into the
Simple stomach: the singte:cornpartment s&omach found in the stomach. The cardiac part (pars cardiaca) is the portion of the
carnivores. horse and"pfg: It has been incorrectly called stomach around the esophagus. It is the "fixed". point,(doeso't
monogastric, irnply~ng ~.complex stomach is polygasttic (hav- move) of the stomach. Do not confuse it with the cardiac. gland
ing more than one stomach). region which may or m/y not oorrespond to this location in 1he
different species. The f undic and pyloric gland regions of the
Complex stomach: the four compartment stomach found.in the stomach mucosa also don't necessarily correspond to the external
ruminants. The additional three compartments are called the fundic and pyloric regions.
fomstomachs and may be the source of the incorrectfwn:stomach •
concept. The complex stomach is still only one stomach. 4. Fundus (L. bottom): the blind, expanded portion of the stom·
268
STOMACH
Abdomen-270
9. Gastric divertlculum
7. Blind sac
(pig only)..,-,m~~
(horse only)
Fig. V-100 - Pig

Fla. V-98 - Horse ··· · - Stomach
- Stomach
..
8. Folded mara.ln h
(mar10 pllcatus)
'.-.· .. ··.,.:.:
;...
Fig. V -99 - Horse ' ....,..
stomach opened . ~ -:·· .
~.
..- _....,.
ach'sleftside. imme.diatelyadjacent.to the cardia. It is often filled
with gas that can be seen in radiograpbs. • 8. Folded IIIJlrgin or margo plicatus: the grossly visible,
internal, irregular, raised line separating the stomach's
5. Body (corpus): the largest pan 9f the sto~~. extending from nonglandular and glandular pMK)ns in the horse.
the cardia to the pyloric part. · ·: : ,.-.
PIG: a simple composite stomach with a small nonglandular
'- Pylorus: (py-LOR-us) (0. pyloros, gatekee~): the distal part around the cardia. ·
opening of the stomacb,:surrounde.d by a strong band of circular t-
muscle, and through which the stomach contents are emptied into •·,.Gastric diverticulum (diverticulum ventriculi): the ex-
the duodenum. ~· terin ·is variously used to mean the pyloric tension of the pig's fundas,
part of the Stomacli;pyloric antrwn, pyloric canal, 'pyloric open-
mg and pyloric sphincter. • Torus pyloricos: the round swelling of the pylorus in the
lwnen of the pyloric canal, also present in the ruminants.
• Pyloric part the portion of the stomach distal to the body.
CARNIVORES: a simple glandular stomach.
• Pyloric antrum: the wide proximal part of the pyl<lic part. .. -, '.
RUMINANTS: a_~plQ com_pqsite.stomacb comisting of

four c:ompanments (see pg. 270).
SPECI~ DIFFERENCF.S
HORSE: a simple composite stomach.

. . .
. .
• 7. Blind sac (saccus cecus): .lhe Qtensive fundus of the
horse'sstomach~bynonglandularmnrosa,homologomto
the f0tesunach of rwninants.
269
.- ·-,. .
RUMINANT STOMACH Abdomen-271
Fla. v-10·1 - Ox - Stomach - rt. lat. surface
3. Omasum
Esophagus
b-~
1. Rumen ...
2. Reticulum
4. Abomasum a. Pyloric part of abomasum g. Don. sac ·~·. Coronary grooves (don.
b. Caud. groove h. Veatr. sac & ventr.) . . ...
c. Accessory groove i. Ruminal recess (V_-92)... n. Jnsula rumini.s
d. RL longitudinal groove j. Crm. sac . ·:~::· o. Ruminoreticular groove
.' . . .; e. CaudodQD. blind sac k, Lt. longitudinal groove
f. Caudoventr. blind sac 1. Cran. groove
•: • 1'1t'"'. I c-,,' • '
~- , .... 1... ~;, .... , ·~ ;. •
RUMINANT STOMACH: a complex, composite stomach con- Ventral sac (h): the lower part of the rumen.
sisting of four compartments. The first (proximal) three compart-
ments, forestomacb (proventriculus)(the rumen, reticulum and • Rumenal recess or reeessus rum ink (i): the cranial end of
·~ . . ,. :: ., .. , ·.
omasum) are nonglanduJar and lined with stratified squamous Ventral sac. ··.·~-. t •••• , ...., .. , ..
: ' • •• t • ; - •• •
epithelium. The distal compartment. the abomasum, is the glan- .• :j =CT,fJ(~ .... :. • ··
dular stomach. · ' Atrium or cranial sac (j): the ventral pafiof tli~. J:'llin~:betw
the cranial pillar and the ruminoreticular fold. · ·
1. RUMEN (ROO-men): the largest of the four compartments,
filling most of the abdomen's left half. The rumen is divided into 2. RETICULUM (re·TIK-yoo-lum): the most cranial comp
dorsal and ventral sacs by right and left longitudinal grooves and ment of the ruminant stomach. located on the median pl
cranial and caudal grooves. The rumen is a fennentation vat for against the diaphragm.
microorganisms to break down cellulose' into metabolizable
components. The rumen fills the left half of the abdomen, displac- 3. OMASUM (oh'MA Y-sum): the spherical compartment c
ing the other organs to the right side. · dal to the reticulum.
Grooves: the external depressions in the rumen (longitudinal, 4. ABOMASUM (ab'oh·M.AY-sum): the elongated "nue st
cranial, caudal and coronary). ach" lined by glandular tissue, located on the right side in con
with the ventral abdominal wall
Dorsal sac (g): the upper pan of the rumen.
270
RUMINANT STOMACH
Abdomen-272
Fig. V-102 - Ox - Stomach - It. lat. side

Spleen .· .. . . ;'. ";
. .. -.,
..... .'
8~t.Rumea
Esophagus
'
h
; .
. .
( . ;
2. Reticuh1m
. .
·' . . ..
4. Abomasum. '·. :~
CLiNICAL· . . .. . .. .
.. ,·,. . .. : :. -, . ··.:-.· .. . . •' .. •' . .
.. .· .- .··
. ·...... ·: .. . :: ·.· . . -~ . ·::./·:.:~::::~· i;.· .
DisJ)laced abomasum: the·:relocation of the aoornasum to the . . •• • -~ ·;: •. . . ·••.• ~ ·=··: : .'t ... ·.
''Hardware"disease'': a common term for traumatic reticulitis
right (RDA) or Iert·(LDA)·cilusing distmtiances in digestion·
caus&fby perforation of the reticular wall by a·Sluirp·~~
that may·t?t{life direatening~·-~ abomasutn may be ~i-
tioried: sutured·'iri the correct· position~·.,~ Due · ·to· its w~iglit, metal entering-~ cardia falls . intcf~
. .anci
.· ~ . .. . . . .. .. , . . . reticulum, Noiiiialcontraction ·can'torce the metal 'dirouglfih'e ·
. .:·:··;-.-:· :·:·>:~.:::-=-. =:··.·:-,: . :, • _••. : · •. ::· •• : •· .:·) ... ·=::·- : . :reticulai' w~ll'and into other structures (common1y··rJie·nv&;~?
• L~Niertdisphlc~cl'aboi#~ftf:'~lrit~~-rumenand ··occasionally die ·pericardium). OTte~ a magnet is P~i#~:·:?
ap"it.s'leffsid!:-to ~irie'posi®nedb&weeifthe rumen and lhe reticufum to gather "hardware". and prevent migration::·':':'-'-:..,::. .. ::
left atidofuiilcil
~ .. . :
·wail. . ·Auscwtation
.. . and )X#ussion
. of an LOA . . . ··.:. ·. .: ···.:. .. 'f:~~:.->;::.::_:.:.:_;~;·
wi11•tevea1 ·abnormal gas sounds. · .
:.- ··....
,.· :
:.=-·. ·.. . : .. -:_

• ••
. .
4 •
.
•
. . .. . . .
Ruinenotomy: the surgical opening of the rumen~·:This'~ ~-· ·
through the left paralumbar fossa and dorsaJ'sac or~·~,;-
Rumeii· palpation:· the steady'pre~iire apinst the· left para-
If perfotmed·to·reJieve "hardware.disease". the retkuJiliu·.can · ·
luiritiar fo~·..to · feel t1te··oontractioos of the rumen, which be found·by palpating along the dorsal wall of thetlim&i 'irifil ·
normally ~ur·2~3 ti_mes·per·rninute. ·.
. . ·~ .. ... . .. . .. the reticulum is reached. The C1"31;ial sac can be diffeiea&Aled:· :·
Stomach tube:a:l~ng tube passed lhrough'the mouth and down
from the.reticulum 'by its absence· of a "honey comb.n:nh.~~:,· ·
.: :: . . : :, ..-: ::·:~::·-~
the esophagus.into.the rumen· to'release gas. If a stomach tube '.
fails, then a nocar can be used'torelieve gas build up.

Rumenal· rmstula: a pennanent opening of lhe ilimerf''to ·die=··
outside used· to study rumen physiology. The left ~~bar':/'
.
fossa and the dorsal sac of the rumen are opened. Tlie'~~:4r·.:'
Trocariutioit: the placement of a hollow tube(trocar) through
the opening of the dorsal sac of the rumen are sutmtcftifitfe ·
lhe leftpaialumbar fossa: and rumen wall to release gas from the
rumen. edges of the paralumbar skin incision, and a remo\iatile;'~.·.:.
• - • • : . I • .
cial plug is left in place. · ·· .-:.:·-,:(\. · ;
• .•.• ,:,.: ,<''•·.-: .• ···:.
. ' . . .. 271
... . .
RUMINANT STOMACH Abdomcn-273
...
h
2. Cardiac opening
Esophae_~!.
...' •
l
J
10. Gastric groove

I •
6. Ruminoreticular
fold
, ,. ., : ·~ ,
.
•.
' ,
' ,, ;
.
. -, . #',. .,,
~
.
;
I
' '
·""'
/
.... --: .. ' ""'
3. Reticulum
7.Abommum
Fig. V-103 - Ox - Stomach, reticulum ~ rumen opened
INTERIOR- RUMINANT STOMACH
· 1~ RUMEN: the interior of the rumen has pillars representing the · 2. Cardiac opening or cardia: the esophageal entrance into
exterior grooves. Many papillae (peg·like mucosal projections) rhe rumen. Heavy material (grain and metal) entering the nuoen
giv~ the surface a "pile rug" appearance. . usually falls through the cranial part of the nunen into the
reticulum, direcdy below the cardiac opening.
• Pillars: the internal ~ntations of the extemaJ grooves
(longitudinal, cranial, caudal and coronary ). The intraJumenal 3. RETICULUM: the interior bua honeycomb appearance doe
opening (ostium).is between the dorsal and ventral sac fonned by to its intersecting mucosal crests.
the longitudinal, cranial, and caudal pillars.
4. OMASUM: the third compartment, sometimes called die
• Dorsal sac (g): ~ upper part of the rumen. "Butchers bible" or "Book" because of the page appearance of iU
muscular laminae,
• Ventral sac (h): the lower part of the rumen.
S. Omasal laminae: Covered with short papillae, they are
Reeessus ruminw (b): the cranial end of the ventml ~- parallel, leaf-like structures projecting into the interior from the
wall of the omasem.
Atrium or cranial sac (a): the ventml part of the rumen
l ~
,, between the cranial pillar and the rwninoreticular fold. 6. Ruminoreticular fold: the inner septmn ~ing to the
272
•
RUMINANT STOMACH Abdomen-422
10. Gastric groove
9. Torus pyloricus 3. Reticulum

p
· S. Omasal lamina
7.Abomasom 4. Omasum
.. ~.
Fig. V-104 - Ox - Stomach, omasum & abomasum opened
L Cran. UC (alrium) g, Caudoventr. blind sac m. Abomlsal groove

b. Rumillll recess h. Don. sac n. Reticuloornesal opening
c. Cran. pilllr ;. i. Veno-. sac o. Omlsoabomasal opening
d. RL longihJdinal pillar j. Reticular groove p. Velum abomuacum
•
e, Caud pillar k. Caucl. groove
t Cavdock'a. blind IIC L Omaul groove (V-104)
.-- .....
a Dll ruminmedcular groove. It separates the rumen from the 10. GASTRIC GROOVE: the channel through the stomach
11cuh1m. · following its lesser curvature, found in all lhe domestic species,
but of ;reatest impor1ance in suckling ruminants. Sockling with
• ABOMASUM: thccompanment lined with glandular mucosa. the head up causes the lips of this groove to close. 1biS forms a
.-·.111br to the simple stomach of the carnivore. tube from thecardiac opening to theabommum. 'Ibrougbthistube
milk bypa.1SCS the nunen, reticulum and omasum to empty di
LPJ• •: 1he partof thcabcxnasum opening into theduodenum. reedy into lbe abomasum. This reflex disappears in die adult
except in response to some liquid salts. The gastric groove is
T••
»•- pyloricus: a round elevation of the pykH'm into 111,C . dividedintodlereticulargroove(esopbageal.milkpoove)(J),tbe
it canal; simiJs ·ID the pig. omasa1 groove (I) 8l_ld the~ groove (m). ·
27
. '.
. :. .,
SMALL INTESTINE 425-Abdomen-275
{
.
1
•
J
k '-
·'>
Root of mesentery
A. Cecum· ·
B. Aacen4ing colon ·
C. Tran1verae colon . . .. , .
f•l;-
. ...•.
D. Descending colon ·
E. Rectum (not ahown on .dog} '
D
a. Descending duodenum
b. Caud. Oexure 3._ Ileum ---
c. Aacendinc duodenum
d. DuodenojejunaJ flexure Fig. V-105 • Dog - Abdominal
e. Rt. born of uterua viscera, jejunum & greater
f. Urinary bladder omentum removed
g. Rectu, abdominia m.
h. Xipboid cartilage
i. Liver
j. Stomach
k. Spleen
SMALL INTESTINE: the principal site of digestion and absorp- (d), the jejunum runs ventrally and caudally, forming many coils
tion, extending from the pylorus of the stomach to the large and loops ·and occupying the venttal abdominal cavity. The
intestine and divided into duodenum, jejunum and ileum. jejunum has a long mesentery, allowing great range of motion.
1. DUODENUM (dyoo' -OD-e-num or dyoo-oh-DEE-num) (L. 3. ILEUM (Il.-ee-um) (L. rolled up. twisted): the short, terminal
duodeni, twelve): receives ingesta from the stomach -. portion of the small intestine. It is indistinguishable grossly ftom
the jejunum, Arbitrarily, it can be said to start at the end of the
• Cranial part: extends cranially from the pylorus. It then turns ileocecal fold (connecting peritoneum between the ilewn and
caudally at the cranial duodenal flexure. colon) or end of the antimesenteric ileal artery. It empties into the
large intestine.
• Descending C,uodenum (a): continues caudally on the abdo-
men 'stwnside, incontact with tberigbtabdominal wall. Thebile SPECIF.s DIFFERENCES
and pancreatic
. .. ducts empty into the descending. duodenum.
. . .. Small intestines: grossly. similar in all.f,be domestic spectes,
• Caudal flex~ (b): the bend where the descending duodenum
Sigmoid loop: the "s" shaped curve of the cranial part of the
becomes the ascending duodenum (c).
. ,. . duodenum in the horse, ruminant and pig. It is located against
the visceral side of the liver.
··Ascendingduodenum:.travelsoiltherightsideoftherootofthe
mesentery (pg. 284) and terminates in the duodenojejunal flexure
(d). The daodenocolic ligament connects the caudal flexure of
Duodenal ampulla: the dilated cranial part .ot me· horse's
duodenum.
the duodenum and the ascending duodenum to the descending
colon. •
Flange of the bovine small intestine: the part of the small
intestine with the longest mesentery. The proximal and middle
2.JE.)UNUM(je-JOO.num)(L.jejunus,emply): the longest part
of the small intestine. Beginning at the duodenojejunal flexure
pans of the jejunum have a short mesentery. The flange,
•
274
SMALL INTESTINE Abdomen-276
D l,c
Fig. V-106 - Horse - Intestines (schematic)
. '
1,b
Root of mesentery
l,c
/.b
1. Duodenum
-, --~ a..,
Fis. V-107 - Ox - Intestines (schematic)
•;
.. ..
coosistingofthedista)endofthejejunumandtheproximalend
of the ileum.~ a loog mesentery, th~ great mobility. Th.e
rmninanashavea proximal convoluted part and adistaJ straight
Piil to their ileum.
JJeocecal opening - into the cecum of the horse
275
LARGE INTESTINE Abdomen-277
LARGE INTESTINE: the cecum, colon, rectwn and anal canal.

It extends from lhe ileum to the anus, and functions to dehydrate SP~ DIFFERENCES
fecal contents by absorbing water.
Ascending colon: most species differences of the large
1. CECUM (SEE-kum) (L. caccus, blind): the blinddiverticulum intestine are due to modification of the ascending colon.
at the beginning of the colon.
• Carnivores: have a short, straight ascending colon.
2. Cecocolic orirace: the opening from the cecum into the colon.
• Pig and ruminants: forms a coil, the spiral colon.
lleocecal (ii'-ee-Oh-SEE-kal) fold: the fold of connecting perito-
neum between the cecum and the ileum. • H~: forms ;t doubleh~·sl)aped loop.
COLON (KOH-Ion) (G. kolos,'large intestine, hollow}: ascend- Cecum: located on the abdomen's D&b1 side, except in the
ing, transverse and descending segments of the large intestine pig, where it is on the left.
fixed in the dorsal abdomen by a short mesentery.
Openings into the cecum: the horse butwo openings of ihe
3. Ascending colon: the first~ of the colon. In the carnivores, cecum, the iliocecal and cecocolic. The other domestic spe-
it is the right colon, extending cranially on the right side of th~ cies have the cecocolic opening; while the ileum opens into
dorsal abdomen, medial to the descending duodenum! the colon by the iJeocolic opening.
4. Ileocolic orifice! the ileal opening into the colon, except in the Anal sacs: pouches located between the inner smooth and
horse. . · . ·· outer striated sphincter muscles of the carnivore's anus (cats
as well as dogs}: The anal sacs open into the anal canal at
S. Transverse colon: the middle colon arching cranially around positions comparable to 4 and 8 o'clock,
the mesenteric root from right 12 kfi in all domestic species.
Bands (teniae): the smooth muscle bands on the horse and
6. Descending colon: the longest segment ofthe large intestine. pig cecum, the horse's colon.and part of the pig's ascending
colon. These bands cause the sacculations (haustra) of the gµt
It extends from the transverse colon caudally on the kflsideof the
dorsal abdomen to· the pelvic inlet Here it continues. without wall.
demarcation as the rectum. ~ .
. ~· Rectal ampulla (c): the dilated terminal part of the rectam in ·
7. Rectum (REK-tum} (L. rectus, straight): the large intestine the horse, dog and ox.
within the pelvic cavity. extending from the descending colon to
the anal canal. v'
-.. ')
.• I •, •
.·" .: : . : . . .
''iI • • • • .'
l
!
•
276
LARGE INTESTINE Abdomcn-278
6. Descending colon
5. Transverse colon
7. Rectum A
8. Anus
1. Cecum--
H
3. Ascending colon
..
G
•
Fla. V-108 - Dog - Intestines
1. Cecum
..
I 3. Ascending colon
2. Cecocollc orifice
Fig. V-109 - Doa - Ileocecal junction
H
4. Ileocolic orlf ice
A. B,aphacua P. DUOCHnojejunalflexure
B.Stomac:h G. J~nn•nn
B' Fundua H.Deuui
e• Bod7 I. Deoc~al fold
a•• PJloru.l
C. D•cendiq deuodenum &. Rt. c:olic: flexuN Fla. V-110; Do& - Ilcocccal junction,
D. Caw:I. flexure . b. Lt. colic tknn
L A1eend1:ncduodenum e, Ampulla of NmDD ileum & colon opened
277
,-iORSE - LARGE INTESTINE Abdomen-279 ,
CECUM: a huge. comma-shaped structure occupying much of left cranial to the root of the mesentery.
the right abdominal cavity. It consists of a base, body and apex.
• 1. Base: the bulbous beginning of. the cecum in the ri&ht 14. Descending colon: the continuation of the transverse colon to {'_
paralumbar fossa. the rectum. Smaller than the ascending colon, the descending ·~
• 2. Body: the continuation of the base cranially along the right colon is called the small colon. Compared to the other domestic
wall-and floor of the abdominal cavity. · species, the horse's descending colon is long with a long mesoeo-
• 3. Apex: the tapered end of the cecum on the floor: of the lon, allowing it a wide range of motion.
abdominal cavity, caudal to the xiphoid cartilage. The ventral
colon wraps around
.. il RECTUM: the terminal pan of the intestines located in the pelvic
cavity. In the horse, as in the dog and ox, it has a terminal dilation,
4. lleocecal opening: the ileal opening into the base of lhe cecum. the rectal ampulla. ·
In the other domestic species, the ileum opens into the colon.
Mesocolon: the connecting peritoneum arising from the abdomi-
s. Cecooolic opening: the opening at the base of the cecum to the naI roof and extending between the dorsal and ventral colons.
ascending colon.
Bands er teniae (TEE-nee ah) sin. tefl;ia (L. "a flat band"): the
COLON: a highly modified structure with great capacity in the variable number of longitudinal smooth muscle cords on the
horse. cecum and the different segments of the colon. Some of these are
hidden in the mesentery attached to the different segments. Onthe
Ascending colon: due to its size, also called the great colon. ventral colon there are two bands in the mesocolon and two free
Imagine the generalized short ascending colon grasped in its bands. The band on the pelvic flexure and the left dorsal colon is
middle and stretched out, The formed loop then is folded on itself. in the mesocolon. One of the bands of the right dorsal colon is in
This gives the double horseshoe loop of the horse's ascending the mesocolon and two are free. The small colon has a mesocolic
colon. The two loops lie on top of each other. with the front of the and a free band. The cecocolic fold connects the right ventral
loops toward tile diaphragm, and the turn between the two loops colon to the lateral band of the cecum. The ileocecal fold connects
at the pelvic inlet The different portions of the ascending colon the ileum to the dorsal band of the cecum.
listed as they receive food are - right ventral colon - sternal
flexure - left ventral colon - pelvic flexure - left dorsal colon - Sacculations or baustra: the series of pouches in the walls of the
diaphragmatic flexure and right dorsal colon. cecum and ventral colon formed by the bands of these intestinal
segments.
s 6. Right ventral colon: the beginning of the ascending colon at
'· .•.
the cecocolic opening and extending cranially on the right ab-
dominal floor to the sternum. : B'~nds.-an<l segment' 1denti_ficatiQ~: the t~iae 'are used 'to
. dis?rigriish ~tw~n:~·:·~f.::w¥/~~ inle$~q~··aild, }n<li-
• 7. Sternal nexure: the connection between the right and left
( • •t ..
. rtj:ll i;the·· small intestili~.--~ .mps~· significant segments to
ventral colons curving around the apex of the cecum. · be:dffterentiated·~ the descending colon (tw_q.. bands), the
pelvic flexure (one b~d) and thesmall Intestine (no'bands).
• 8. Len ventral colon: the continuation . of
. the sternal flexure that These need to be distinguishedbecause of thefr.:simiiar size
ends in the pelvic flexure, and because they areall located in the left paraliimb~;fossa.
"9. Pelvic nexure: the connection of the left ventral and left dorsal Impaction: tightly wedged intestinal contents so as to be
colons in the left paralumbar fossa, near the pelvic inlet. immovable. In the horse, the cecum, pelvic flexure, and right
dorsal colon are most likely to become impacted due to
" 10. Left dorsal colon: the continuation the pelvic flexure diameter changes from large- to small. Common impaction
cranially on top of the left ventral colon, and against the left sites:
abdominal wall. • Pelvic flexure
• Cecum
"11. Diaphragmatic flexure: the continuation of the left dorsal • Transverse colon
colon on top of the sternal flexure. ; '
Volvulus: twisting of the intestine. The start of the right
• 12. Right dorsal colon: the greatly expanded continuation of the ventral colon is connected to the base of the cecum and the
diaphragmatic flexure caudally to the transverse colon. The end of the right dorsal colon is attached to the transverse
ampullacoli ("stomach-like" dilatation) is the expanded terminal colon. The rest of the ascending colon is free to move and
portion of the right dorsal colon. possibly twist on itself. These usually can be diagnosed by
rectal palpation.
13. Transverse colon: the segment of colon curving from right to
278
HORSE - LARGE INTESTINE Abdomen-28~!
7. Sternal flexure
11. Diaphragmatic flexure .. .
fie. V -113 - Horse - Large intestine ••
••
6. Rt. ventr.~olon
. ., .
r---12. Rt. dors ..i£olon
I. Lt. ventr. colon

--
10. Lt. dors. colon

1. Base
\
. ~
. - '
3•. "pex
• ..' 13: Transverse colon
. .. :
9. Pelvic flexure· 14. Descending colon . .
4. Ileocecal opening
I.Cecum 5. Cecocolic
(base) opening
NUMBER OF BANDS ON
HORSE INTESTINES
6. Rt. veotr.
Scali Intestine O colon
Cecum and ventr. colon including 4
sternal flexure
PelYlc flexure . 1
Lt.dors. colon 1
t, dors.colon 3
--" colon 2 Fig. V-114 - Horse· Cecum & ventr, colon
opened • rt. side
279.
OX - INTESTINES
v,
4. Dist. loop
6. Descending colon
8. Rectum D •._
S. Transverse colon
9. Anus
•
7. Sigmoid flexure
•
3. Spiral loop
A. Pyloric part of 1tomach

B. Deacendina duodenum
C. Caud. flexUN
D. Ascending duodenum Fi&, V-115 - Ox - Intestines (schematic)
E. Duodenojejunal flexure
F. Jejunum a. Centripetal tum•
G. Ileum b. Centrifugal tuna
1. CECUM· OX: the large. blind,tubetxie·ndingcaudally from jejunal coils before continuing as the distal loop.
the ileocecocolic junction on the right side of the mesentery ..
• 4. Distal loop: U-shaped, it runs first caudally on the left side
COLON-OX . of the mesentery, and then cranially on the right side of the
mesentery to become the transverse colon. -It-is attached high
Ascending colon: lhe pan of the: large intestine divided into
proximal, spiral and dislal loops. descending colon.
.
in the abdomen with the transverse colon' and start of the
· .~....
.. · . . ,
• 2. Proximal loop: lhe S-shaped loop continuing the cecum s. Transverse colon: arches from right to left in front of the
cranially. It doubles.back caudally" on the right""side of the mesenteric root to become descending colon.
mesentery. and then cranially. on the left side of the mesentery •
to continue as the spiral lo~Jj,:· ·, · ,/ . . 6. Descending colon: the continuation of the transverse coloo
~ .
•
~ .. . ":
!•
"" -·
0
. ..
0 I ·:
.. caudally on the abdomen's left side next to the ,ascending

• 3. Spiral loop: the segmenttolle.d upon itself, forming a Rat duodenum. ·l -
.. ~ t •
disc auached to the left side;,'Qf the mesentery. Us~ly two

centripetal nuns (a) spiral ·toward the central tle~ure.~_}'wo • 7. Sigmoid flexure: the region of the descending colon with
centrifueaJ turns (b) spiral away from the central flexure and a long mesocolon hanging down into the abdomen; it allows
continue as the disraJ loop. . . .~ . ; great range of motion during rectal palpation.
··:. ~ .;:.
Sheep and goat: the last centrifugal coil separates from the 8. RECTUM:· die continuation of the descending colon into the
;. spiral loop and passes in the greater mesentery very near the pelvic cavity to terminate in the anal canal and anus (9).
280
PIG - LARGE INTESTINES •
Abdomen-426
4. Descending colon
. •' ...
S. Rectum
3. Transverse
1. Cecum ---~ colon
2. Spiral loop----:::-::--~~
(ascending colon)
--F
A. Pyloric part of 1tomach

B. De,cendin,; duodenum
C. Caud. flexure
D. Aacencllnc duodenum
E. Duodenojejunal flexure a. Centripetal turns
F. Jejunum b. Centrifural turna
G.Deum e. Rectal ampulla
Fig. V-114 - Pig· Intestines (schematic)
...
• : ... ,.."O
.. ,. ,.. ·: .
1. CECUM • PIG: the blind sac extending caudally from the pan makes centrifugal turns counterclockwise inside the cen-
ileocolic j~tiorr. It has tendinous bands that form rows of tripetal turns and then continues as the transverse colon. The
sacculations as in the horse. Unlike the other domestic species, .centripetal turns have tendinous bands and sacculations.
in the pig it is on the 1'f1 side of the abdomen ..
3. Transverse colon: the continuation of the ascending colon
COLON - PIG: divided into ascending, transverse and de- from right to left around the front of the mesentery.
s:en<Lmg pans.
4. Descending colon: the continuation of the transverse colon
Ascending colon: the highly
~sible
modified part of the colon
for the pig's unique intestinal pauem.
,
in a straight line to the pelvic cavity.
5. RECTUM: the continuation of the descending colon duougb

2. Spiral loop: the coiling loop of the ~ding colon forming the pelvic cavity to tenni°'re as the anal canal. The rectal
a cone-shaped sttocture. The large first part makes centripetal ampulla (ampulla recti) (c) is the flask-like dilation of the
tmm clockwise (when viewed dorsally) on the outside of the tenninal rectum.
eeee to the cone's apex (central flexure). The thinner, second
281 .
SEROUS MEMBRANES 427-Abdomen-283
SE~ OUS MEMBRANE or SEROSA: a thin continuous mem- 4. FOLD: a connecting peritoneum between two visceral organs
brane lining the closed cavity of the body and covering the (e.g., ileocecal fold). t-,
cavity's organs. The serosa consists of a layer of mesothelium* •
backed by connective tissue. The serosa secretes a lubricating D. PERITONEAL CAVITY: the potential space between the
fluid, allowing movement of the organs without friction. The parietal and visceral peritoneum. This potential cavity contains
serous membranes of the abdominal and thoracic cavities are the no organs, only a small amount of lubricating fluid. Entirely
peritoneum and pleura respectively. closed in the male, it is open in the female at the abdominal end
of the oviduct This opening leads to the outside of the body cavity
Parietal (pa-RY-e-tal) serosa: lines a cavity wall, intimately. through the urogenital tract. The ovarian bursa (pg. 348) and
omental bursa (pg. 286) are subdivisions of the peritoneal cavity.
Visceral serosa: invests the organs within a cavity. The vaginal cavity (pg. 362) of the spermatic cord is a diverticu-
lum of the peritoneal cavity.
Connecting serosa: the two layers of serosa uniting parietal and
visceral serosal layers or two visceral serosal layers. Pouches of the peritoneal cavity: fonne.d by the caudal reflec-
tion of the peritoneum between organs in the pelvic cavity.
PERITONEUM (per'i-toh-NEE-um): the serosa lining the ab-
domen and covering its organs. It consists of parietal and visceral • Rectogenital pouch (a): the reflection of the peritoneal cavity
peritoneum that are continuous
. at folds of connecting peritoneum. between the rectum and the reproductive organs .
A. Parietal peritoneum: the serosa lining the inner wall of the - Pararectal fossa (b): the part of the rectogenital pouch on
abdominal, pelvic and scrotal cavities. either side of the rectum.
B. Visceral peritoneum: the serosa covering the organs of the • Vesicogenital pouch (c): the reflection of the peritoneal _cavity
abdominal and pelvic cavities. ·'. between the urinary bladder and the internal genitalia. ·· ·
C. Connecting peritoneum: the double-layered serosa connect- • Vesicopubic pouch (d): the ,eflection'of the peritoneal cavity
ing parietal and visceral peritoneum, or between visceral perito- between the ventral wall of the pelvic cavity (pubis of the ossa
neum. It includes the mesenteries,omentum, ligaments and folds. coxarum) and the urinary bladder.
l. Mesenteries: see pg. 284 E. Retroperitoneal (re•-troh-per-i-toh-NEE-al): the term used ~
for a structure between the peritoneum and cavity wall. thus. _.,
2. Omentum: see pg. 286 having no connecting peritoneum {e.g. kidneys). It also applies
to the portion of the pelvic organs not covered by peritoneum.
Ligaments: connecting peritoneum between visceral peritoneum
surrounding some organs and parietal peritoneum, or between
visceral peritoneum of two organs.
• 3. Ligamentsofth'e liver: the connecting peritoneum (rightand

left triangular and coronary ligaments) between the liver and
diaphragm.
Falcif orm ligament a fold of connecting peritoneum extending

from the liver to the ventral abdominal wall as far caudally as the
umbilicus. In-young animals the round ligament of the liver, the
remnant of the fetal umbilical vein, is found in the free edge of the
falciform ligament
Ligaments of the urinary bladder (Fig. VII-10): the connecting

peritoneum (median and lateral ligaments) between the bladder
and pelvic wall. '
l
••'•' ·....
*Mesothelium: a layer ofcells derived from mesodenn that lines the body
CLINICAL ......' •.: . , ....:..... • >
..,•
cavities of the embryo. In lhe adult, it forms the epithelium of aUserous
membranes. ·
Peritonitis (per' -i-toh-NY -tis): infla~u~~tlo~
.
of the· perito-
neum .. . . •'
282
ABDOMINAL PERITONEUM Abctomen-284
Fig. V-104 - Ox - Abdominal peritoneum

(schema tic) - caud. section
I. Meseutery
B. Ylsceral
7. Fold C. Connecting peritoneum
3. Lig. of the liver/
2. Omentum
(Lesser)
D. Peritoneal cavity
A. Parietal peritoneum
E. Retroperitoneal
2. Omentum
(Greater)
L Rectogenital pouch g. Rumen 2. Omentum (Lesser)

m. Lumbar vertebra
1 Pan.rectal fosaa h. Rectum n. Kidney
e, Veskogenital pouch i. Uterus o. Liver
'L Vesieopubic pouch j. Urinary bladder p. Intestines
a. Abdominal wall It. Diaphragm Fig. V-116 - Ox· :Abdominal peritoneum
A.bomaaum I. Lung (schematic) - med. section
\
283
MESENTERIES Abdomen-285
-....
1. Mesoduodenum
2. Root of mesentery
5. Descending mesocolon
6. Mesorectum
b 1. Mesoduod enum
~- S. Ascending mesocolon
4. Ileocecal fold
~- Mesotleum
3. Mesojejunum
:.
'
:_".t,
• '
\ •
----
Fig. V-117 - ffor,e - Intestines (schematic} - rt.. view.

....
.. " . ..
. ... ~.
,' ·. .,:
I
MESE"f'TERI.ES (MEZ-en-ter-eez): a typeoionnectingperito- encloses the right lobe of the pancreas.

neum !\etWle~·'ttie intestinal and reproduci;e tracts to the ab-
domintl wall. They are lhe expansive, (iuble-layered serosal Duodenocolic ligament (k): a peritoneal fold connecting the
folds ktween the visceral peritoneum 1d the parietal perito- ascending duodenum to the descending colon.
neum They contain the blood vesse}sJytnphatics and nerves
suppying their respective organs. Th( are named according to 2. Root or the mesentci-y: the narrow attachment of ~ long ....
theorganstht,ysuspcndbyaddingthf'ameoftheorgantomeso- mesojejunum and mesoileum to the dorsal wall of the abdominal ·
(mesaduodenum, m~ileum. mtSQOlon, etc.). The "broad liga- cavity. Located at the level.of' the second lumbar vertebra, it is -
ment" (mesovarian, menmetrsm etc.) is described in the chap- thick because it contains the cranial mesenteric artery, intestiilal
ter on reproduction (pg. 148) lymphatics, and the mesenteric plexus of autonomic nerves. It is
continuous toward the mouth (orad) with the mesoduodenum and
1. Mesoduodenum: the eitoneal fold suspending the duode-
num from the dorsal bod· /all. The descending mesoduodenum
away from the mouth (aborad) with the mesoeolon. l-
.~
;;-;-·~
~
284
ESENTERIES Abdomen-286
s
2.
h
I
4·
L Descending duodenum
~ A.cending duodenum
:.. Jejunum
~Ileum
t Cecum
' A.cending colon
ii Transverse colon
4.. Due.ending colon
Rectum
Pyloric part Fig. V-118 - Ox • Intestines (schematic) • rt. view
L Duodenocolic lie.
Mesojejunum and mesoileum: the continuation of the SPECIES DIFFERENCES

• soduodenwn that is very long and wide to support the jejunum
illl! ilewn. Bovine mesentery: short when compared 10· other species.
This makes exteriorizing parts of the intestine difficult. The
Deocecal fold: a fold of connecting peritoneum between the mesentery in young calves and emaciated adults is filled with
ii: o and cecum. The jejunum and ileum· are grossly indistin- fat which, during surgery, obscures parts lying deep to them.
1 dwble. Use the proximal extent of this fold to roughly deter- T.1emesenteriesof the ascending duodenum, the distal loop of
llmle the beginning of the ileum. The proximal end of the the ascending colon, the transverse colon and the cranial part
waenteric ileal artery can also be used to roughly determine of the descending colon are fused together into a "conjoined
tie junction of the ileum and jejunum. tendon". The "conjoined tendon" anchors these snucmres
high in the abdomen, making them difficult to distinguish
5.. Mesocolon: the serosa1 fold suspending the colon. It can be from each other.
6"idccl into ascending, transverse and descending mesocolons.
Bovine "flange": the most mobile part of the small intestine
Mesorectum: the shm:t meseotery suspending the rectum from due to its long mesentery. It consists of the distal part of the
ae dorsal wall of the pelvic cavity. jejunum and the proximal part of the ileum.
285
OMENTUM 6. Omental restlbule Abdomen-287
!. Lesser omentum Fi1. V-119 - Dog· Abdominal peritoneum

- med. section (schematic)
E D A
......
.. ..
: :.. .. . . .
. :. . .
.. . ..
.. . .. . . . . '•
S. Caud. recess of
omental bursa
.. . . . . 3. Omental bursa
p
G
Supf. h~af Deep leaf
\ I
2. Greater omeotum
OMENTUM (oh-MEN-tum) (pl.= omenta) (Gr. epiploon): a left lobe of the pancreas between its peritoneal layers.
double-layered connecting peritoneum between the stomach and
abdominal organs or abdominal wall. • Gastrophrenic ligament connects the stomach to the diaphraga
1. Lesser omentum: connects the lesser curvature of the stomach • Gastrosplenic

.
ligament: connects the stomach. to the spleca
and first pan of the duodenum to the porta of the liver. It is
continuousaborad(awayfronithemouth)withthemesoduoden~ .. • Phremcosplenic ligament connects the spleen totbediaptuagw
~ Gastrohepatic ligament: that portion of tbe lesser omentum 3. Omentalbursa: lhe potential space betweentbe two leaves
connecting~ lesser curvature of the stomach with the liver. the greater omentwn and the structures towhicli they attach. Il
a subdivision of the peritoneal cavity:
• Hepatoduodenal ligament: ~ portion of the lesser omentum
coonecting the liver to the duodenum. 4. Omental (epiploic) foramen: the opening between the gm s
peritoneal cavity and the omental bursa. It is located dorsally
2. Greater omentum: connects the greater curvature of the the right side of the abdominal cavity betweenjhe caudal 'T
stomach to the dorsal abdominal wall. Greatly elongated in the cava and the portal vein. It can be found by lifting the caudate ki
dog. the greater omentum folds over itself. This results in a deep of the liver and placing a finger between these two vessels.
and a superficial leaf (four layers of peritoneum) between the
viscem and the, venual abdominal
. wall. 6. Omental vestibule: the cranial part of the omental bursa. 1
• omental foramen opens into the omental vestibule .
• Superf 1Cial leaf: extends from the stomach caudally to the
pelvic inlet where it reflects and returns cranially as the deep leaf. 5. Caudal recess of the omental bursa: the caudal part <:l t
potential space between the two leaves of the ~er omentJlr
• Deep leaf: attaches to the dorsal abdominal wall and contains the
286
OMENTUM Abdomen-288
Greater curvature
of stomach
q
Supf. leaf of
greater omentum
A. Parietal peritoneum F. MMOrectum a. Diaphrasm f. Tranavene colon 1. Rect,,enital pouch

B. Vwcnal peritoneum G. Falciform u,. b. Liver I· Jejunum m. V eeicosenital pouch
C. aoo, ofm•enMrJ IL Lie· (coronary) e. Kidney (Ntro- h. Rectum n. Vesicopubic pouch
D-1'. Conneetiq peritoneum of liver peritoneal) i. Uteru1 o. Spleen (V-120)
D. Meeojejunum I. IJc. (median) of d. Stomach j. Urinary bladder p. Xiphoid canilaae
&. Meeocolon urinary bladder e. Pancreas k. Pararectal foua q. Dacendinr duodenum
Fig. V-120 - Doa.:- Abdom'inal

wall removed
287
OMENTUM
Abdomen-289
.....+- 4. Epiploic foramen
2. Greater omentum
Fig. V-121 • Horse - Omentum

- cranial view
... ,
.... ..:
SPECIES DIFFERENCES
Greater omentum: as described above for animals with simple

stomachs such as the carnivores, pig and horse. The ruminant,
having several stomach compartments, has a different arrange-
ment (pg. 290).
288
OMENTUM Abdornen-290
4. Omental foramen
3. Omental bursa
1. Greater omentum
Fig. V-122 - Horse - Omentum & epiploic foramcn,

transverse colon removed
Pancreas
Transverse
colon
:,
- a. Rt. don. colon

b. TramvaN colon
c. Deecendin1 colon
m. Liver
n.. Pancreu
o. Rt. kidney
Stomach
d.. IA. kidnq p. UNtel'

•· Splec q. Aoria
f. Falclfonn lie, r. Oaud. vena cava
I· BodJ of nomach •· Ponal v.
b. L 111 l'l' CUl'YMUN l. Diaphragm
L Great. curvature u, 4th lumbar vertebra
j. Pylorus T. Rt. trian,ular Jia.
IL Cran. duodenum of liver Greater curvature
L D•cendinc duodenum of stomach
Fla. V-123 - Horse - Line of attachment of greater omentum
289
OMENTUM Abdomen-291
A. Visceral peritoneum
'
~- C. Mesoduodenum
·-r
4. D-eep leaf
3. Supf. leaf
'--5. Caud. recess of omental bursa

Fig. V-124 - Ox - Abdominal cavity - cross section
at 3rd lumbar vertebra (schematic)
•
OMENTUM - RUMINANT: the omenta of the ruminants, It is divided into a vestibule and a caudal recess.
because of their complex stomachs, are arranged differently than
animals with simple stomachs. 6. Omental (epiploic) foramen: theopeningbetween theomental
bursa and the general peritoneal cavity. It is medial to the caudate
1. t~.;.;<!r omentum: the connecting peritoneum between the liver lobe of the liver and between the caudal vena cava and the portal
anc the omasum, the lesser curvature of the abomasum, and the vein.
cranial tltsodenum. Itcovers the right side of the omasum.
7. Caudal edge of the greater omentum: the joining of the
2. Greater omentum: has two leaves as in the other species. The superficial and deep leaves of the greater omentum at the caudal
superficial leaf arises from the left side of the rumen, and the deep edge of the rumen. The caudal edge is attached on the right to the
leaf from the right side of the rumen. Both leaves extend ventrally descending duodenum. On the left, it attaches to the caudal groove
and to the right, forming a sling for the intestines to the right of the of the rumen where the superficial and deep leaves join.
rumen .. Both leaves ascend together along the right abdominal
wall to attach to the descending duodenum. The two leaves are 8. Supraomental recess; the space above the deep leaf of the
continuous around the caudal end of therumen as the caudal edge greater omentum. It is open caudally and eontains the intestines,
of the greater omentwn.
... . ··... · . .... .. . .. .
:CLINICAL..
.•. . . . .: . . ..
. ····:
.
....::. ... .'•. ·!·.;.. • ...- • ·.·.·:- ,:. . • ·:
,:.,
......
3. Superficial leaf: attaches to the greater curvature of the •,
• :.. - ....•• • ,. • • -e, -···
•
• • • • ••
abomasum and the descending duodenum. It extends along the .:.:·.":., '••'-· •• • :- . ::· ., . • =· . :· . · • ,..', :·-:-~::;.
ventral abdominal wall Lo the left side to attach to the left :_()nie~J.~~; when- Q~ning;tl}~_-rig!it·'paralu~bar -fossa · pf 'tJle
longitudinal groove of the rumen. . niln_f1iani; the greater.omentum (''.oQienW ·curtain''); .tlie'·c1e-
. .
: ~ndingJiu~iluniJmd -mesoduodenum ouly are seen. jhe
4. Deep leaf: extends from the right longitudinal groove of the "superficial and deep Ieaves of .i6e greater omentum extend
rumen to the descending duodenum. · . fi;<>Jn the. descending duodenum forming a sling un~i .·the
· j_~J~tjres. T 9 visualize the intestines _in ~e su_prao~e,~tal
5. Omental bursa: the space, as in the other domestic species, recess;
. ..... graspthecaudal
. . edge
. 0f~e
. .. greateromentum
. . . andmove
.,,. .
between the superficial and deep leaves of the ::er1ter omentum.

if cqmially like a shower ~urtai~. · ·
290
OMENTUI\JI
Abdornen-292
Fia. Y-125 - Ox - Omentum & abdominal viscera - rt. side
6. Epiploic forameo
d
1. Lesser
'.
Liver
4. Deep leaf
g
8. Supraomen tal recess
S. Omenta! bt.1rsa---
7. Caud. edge of
greater omentum
D. Falciform Iig.
6 Omental vestibule
Fig. V-126 - Ox - Omentum, intestines removed: caudate

..
process of liver pulled forward, and windows
cut in omentum - rt. side
a.Rumen
b. Duodenum
e, Lt. kidney
8 d.Jejun~
•. Rt. kidney
Fig. V-127 - Ox - Omentum, t: Caud. lobe of liver
I· Liver
liver removed h. Gall bladder
- rt. side i.Abomuum
j. C.aud. Yena cava
k. Portal v.
1. Lesser omentum l. &lophap.
s m. Reticulum
n.Omuum
. -,
) : t 291
, . .~ ..
-.....
LIVER 5. Quadrate Jobe
Gall bladder
/3'. Lt. med. lobe
3. Lt. lobe
_,,...--4'. Rt. med. lobe
3". Lt. lat. lobe

4. Rt. lobe
1. Caud. vena cava
Hepatic vv.
1----- 4". Rt. lat. lobe
•
0 •
.. ' ~··
. . . .·. . . ~ .
c B
<.
..
.
. -~-
:
: ... . · ..
·.\
. ·. Fig. V:-128 ;;zD~~'- Liver h

" . : ; ;·_-.. diaphragmatic
.. .
surf ace
. .. ·;.:. ..
.
i .' /.... , · ·. 6. Caudate lobe G
'.
LIVER (G. h~ar): ~4ie -l~g~~ gland in the body. It is an in contact with the diaphragm.
extramural (outside the. lumen of the GI tract) digestive gland of
substantial importance in metabolism. Situated between the ves- Visceral surface: the side in contact with the abdominal viscera.
sels draining the intestines and :the general circulation, the liver The right kidney, stomach, duodenum, colon and jejunum pro-
has many complex functions, e:g.~ detoxification of drugs and duce impressions on the liver's visceral surface when the organ is
toxins, formation and secretion 'Qf bile: metabolism of carbohy- hardened m filt!h ·
drates and fats, plasma protein production, urea formation, inac-
tivation of polypeptide hormones; ru1d'redt1c.tion and conjugation LOBES and PROCESSES of the LIVER: deepfissures divide
of adrenal and gonadal
..
steroid.hormones.
. :·. -· . . ·..
· the liver into four basic lobes, and two processes, The right and
.. . ...... ,...: . . . ...:. .. . ...... .
left lobes may be divided into medial and lateral lobes, depending
The liver is in the abdominal cavity. abutting the diaphragm. The on the species.
caudate process encloses the cranial P9le:of the right kidney in the .
right dorsal abdomen. The stomach andfirst part of the descend- 3. Left lobe: lies to the left of the median plane except in the
ing duodenum lie against the Iiver's 'visceral surface. Three ruminants. . ··~.
distinct landmarks are used to.orient the liver once it is removed
from the body cavity - caudal vena cava, porta, and renal 4. Right lobe: lies to the right of the median plane.
impression.,
S. Quadrate lobe: located between the right and left lobes and
1. Caudal vena cava: runs through the dorsal portion of the liver. ventral to the porta of the liver.
;
2. Porta: the area where the vessels and nerves enter the organ on 6. Caudate lobe: located dorsal to the porta of the liver, consisting
the visceral surf ace. of caudate and papillary processes. The papillary process (i} is
the pan of the caudate lobe to the left of the median plane lying m
3. Renal impression: the indentation for the right kidney on the the lesser curvature of the stomach. Thecaudate process (b) is tic
liver's right side. ~ , ·.
~ '
.. , : .. ':; ~ -: .s-
-> '
•
I ' •
most caudal region of the liver. It has a renal impression that cups
the cranial end of the right kidney in all domestic species, except
Diaphragmatic surface (dy-a-fra-MAT-ik): the convex surface the pig.
292
LIVER Abdornen-; n 4
6. Caudate lobe
h
a
.
1. Caud. vena cava
.l
Hepatic a. -..J.-
·~4~. Rt. lat. lobe
Portal v. --- j. ... . . '\''· ..· ... , '•~~
-,
4. Rt. I o b e .• ..•I .
., '.
I
4~Rt. med. lobe
,,. ;
. ..
• I ~ •• '
. .. i\.
. ;.: :
. . . .'. Gall bladder

•. :•. ': i~· •, .
· I· .
1. •
... Quadrate lobe

1 ''!! , :
-. ' •
• • I
·.. ... .
J ••
A f .,
I••
~·• >,
A. Falcifonn li1. (V-128) a. Esophacua (V-12~) .. f. 'i.t.':1
B. Lea1er o.mentum b. JU. cna o! diapbracm ...
C. Lt. triancul.v lie. e. c~tal pan of diaphracm .'
• r•• :
D. Ellophaceal notch d. Lumbar venebra

E. a,. tnancwar He· e.Aona
r. Coronary u,. f. Sternum
G. Rena!,!:P1PNUio~ I· C~tal cartilace Fig. V-129 - Doa - Liver, in situ
h. Caudak procea
t: Papillary proceu - visceral surface
..• .. ..
~ .- .
SPECIES DIFFERENCF.8:
Carnivores: lhcrightandleftlobesaredividedintomedialand vided and lheLW>illary proce~ isaJso missing, as in the pig. The
latepllobes. Thecaudatelobe is divided intoacaudateprocess horse's livez is located obliquely across the diaphragm with the
and gmjllary IZJlPSS as in the ox. left lobe ventral and the right lobe dorsal.
Pig: similar to thecamivcxes, except for~ Jgkof thepapiJlary Ruminants: resembles the carnivores, except that neilhec rieflt
woaws of the caudate lobe. pgr left lobe is divided. The rumen bas moved lhe liver lP the
riehtsideoftbeabdominalcavity. Theliffl'isalsorotatM, with
Bone: resembles the carnivores, except the right lobe is undi- the right lobe dorsal and the left lobe ventral.
293
LIVER Abdomen-295
6". Caudate process
5. Caud. vena cava
2. Qu1drate lobe
Fig. V-130 - Horse - Liver, in situ

- visceral surf ace
Fig. V-131 - Horse - Liver

- diaphragmatic surface
,
1 ~ • Lt• me d. I o be 1". Lt. lat. Jobe
LIVER i\.'Jf ACMMENTS: The fibrous eapsuje is the strong. Left triangular ligament (C): attaches the dorsal pan of the left
mainly co{agenous. tissue layer closely investing the liver's lateral lobe to the left crus and tendinous center of the diaphragm.
surfacead interior vascular and nervous elements. The liver js . .. ,;
covered.vith visceral peritoneum. ·.. 1 Falciform ligament (L.fa(x, sickle+ forma, form) {A): connects
the ventral liver to the sternal part of the .diaphragm, and ventral
Coro,-try ligament of the liver {F): the reflection of peritoneum abdomen.
fromdie diaphragmatic surfaceof the liver onto the diaphragm.
It f,:11lls a circular area of reflection (corona means crown. thus: Round ligament of the liver: contained in the free border of the
itr name) around the caudal vena cava. The coronary ligament
falciform ligament, is a vestige of the umbilical vein of the fetus.
tomes together in three places to form the two triangular and
falciform ligaments.
Lesser omen tum (B): extends from the porta of the liver to the·
lesser curvature of the stomach and the cranial portion of the
Right triangular !igament (E): attaches the dorsal pan of the
duodenum. Itcan be divided into hepatoduodenal and gastrohepatic ·· ·
right lateral lobe to the right crus of the diaphragm.
~- ~-
.,,,4-...
'
LIVER
Abdomen-296
Fie. V-132 - Ox - Liver, spleen & rt. kidney
2. Quadrate lobe
6. Cauda te lobe
g F
4. :Rt. lobe
L Lt. lobe A. Falciform Ilg.

l'. Lt. med. lobe
1~.Lt. lat,. lobe
B. Lesser omentum 1. Lt. lobe
C. Lt. triangular Jig.
2. Quadrate lobe · D. Esophageal notch
3. Gall bladder
t Rt. lobe E. Rt. triangular lig.
F. Coronary lig.
5 Caud. vena cava
: Caujate lobe a. Esophagus
6'. Papillary process b. Rt. crua of diaphragm
6". Caudate process e. Costa! part of diaphragm
• Hepatic vv. 3. Gall bladder
d. Lumbar vertebra
! Hepatic a. e. Aorta
; Portal v. f:Sternwn 2. Quadrate lobe
U. Cystic duct
g. Costal cartilage
(abaent in horse) h. Spleen
:tl Bile duct i. Rt. kidney Fig. V-133 -·Ox - Liver - diaphragmatic surface
j. Splenophrenic Jig. (V-118) . .
295
LIVER
Abdomen-297
cells of the liver, also via the porta, They are branches of the
Lobes Species common hepatic artery (a branch of the celiac artery).
Carnivores Ruminants Horse Pig
2. Liver sinusoids: spaces where blood received from both the
hepatic arteries and portal vein interacts with hepatic cells, then
exits via central veins.
Left lobe + + + +
3. Central veins: course from the center of each liver lobule,
Lt. lat. + receiving blood from liver sinusoids and carrying it to the hepatic
+ + veins.
•
Lt. med. + + + · 4. Hepatic veins: the veins located inside the liver and emptying
into the caudal vena cava The central veins join to form the
Quad rate + + + + hepatic veins.
Right lobe + BILE: the liquid secretion of tbe liver cells into the duct system
+ + + of the liver.
Rt. med. + - - + 6. Bile canaliculi: small tubes, immediately surrounding and
collecting bile from the hepatic cells. They travel to the periphery
Rt. lat. + - + of the lobule opposite the direction of blood flow, where they join
to form interlobular ducts.
Caudate lobe + + + + 7. Interlobular ducts: ducts passing in the interstitial tissue
between the lobules.They uniteto form lobular-ducts that course
Ca uda te process + + + + to the porta, joining to form the hepatic ducts. ,,
Papitlary process + + • • Hepatic ducts: the 3 to 5 ducts that leave the porta to join with the
cystic duct
. '
GALL BLADDER or cbolecyst (KOH-lee-sist)[,Gr. chble bile+

HISTOLOGY OF'tHE LIVER: The structural unit of the liver kynis bladder J: the sac stOring and concentrating bile. Bile aids in
is the lobule. It consists of cords of hepatic cells (1) radiating out digestion and lubrication of food entering the duodenum from the
from aceniral vein (3). Sinusoids between the cords receive blood stomach. The gall bladder is located in the fossa between the
from branches of the hepatic arteries and portal vein passing on quadrate and the right medial lobes of the liver.
the periphery of the lobule. The sinusoids empty into a central :. -.. ·' ~ -~.
vein in the middle of the liver lobule. Cystic duct: connects the gall bladder with the hepatic duets,
Together, these make the bile duct. The cystic duct is a two way
BLOOD SUPPLY: the liver has a dual blood supply. Funct_ional street, bile can pass through itforstorage in the gall bladder. When
blood, to be processed by the organ itself, comes to the liver via needed, the stored bile can pass through the cystic duct to the bile
the portal system, bringing nutrients freshly absorbed from the ductandintotheduodenum.Bileisdischargedthroughtheeystk
gut It accounts for about 3/4 of the blood flow to the liver. ·-aoo bile ducts into the duodenum. ·
Nutrient blood (oxygenated) comes from the hepatic artery to · ·
keep the bepatocytes alive. Both types of blood empty into the Bile duct•: (Fig. V -118,.11): the duct fonned by the junction of
liver sinusoids. Blood in the sinusoids empties into central veins, the hepatic ducts_ ·and the cystic duct, It travels in, the' lesser
then into hepatic veins that empty into the caudal vena cava. omentum (hepatoduodenal ligament)toeniertheduodenum. ltis
, . joined by the pancreatic duct, and both open on the major
·· Lobule: structural unit of the liver. .. . duodenal papilla. . . .
1. Hepatic cells: liver cells. arranged radially around a centtal

vein.
Portal vein: the large vein carrying nutrient rich (functional)

blood from the stomach, intestines,~ and spleen !Jlto the *Frequently called the "common bile duct". "Common bile'duc(
liver at the porta of the liver. indicates the joining of the hepatic ducts and cystic duct This
term is being replaced with bile duct so it can be applied to both
Proper hepatic arteries: carry oxygenated (nutritional) blood to animals with or without a gall bladder and cystic duct.
296
LIVER Abdomen-298
4. Hepatic v.
Fig. V-134 - Liver - Lobule (schematic)
to caud. vena cava ---
3. Central vein
1. Hepatic cell
Z. Sinusoid of liver
6. Bile
canallcutl
from portal v.
from hepatic aa.
7. Interlobular duct
Lobular ducts
' to hepatic ducts -
'
·..... . . .... .
. ·.. ....·..... .
SPECIES .DIFFERENCES: . 'CLINICAL
.
:..... .: :... ::·~..;•.: : ·::; :..:·,:
Horse: has no gall bladder and thus no cystic duct. Its hepauc.
ducts join to fonn the bile duct. . :
Chol . •stiiis ·n,. h1" .. •. 111/us't' .. n~-,...~~;or··~···~'ij:,.

. : .. ~~i. =·-· ~ :·,~'?: -~~~~~-: : ~:~.-·.·:1.~;·:~~i~· ... ~~~!11~:-.···.~~;~~z
-, .. ..
'197
'
PANCREAS·
1. Body Abdomen-299
Deep leaf of
greater omen tum
3. Lt. Jobe
Mesoduodenum
.. - ......
Descending ---------
duodenum ~---...
D ·- ·-------·
2. Rt. lobe
. ~·
~,,
--;,., ~
.. :-
-,
. ..,.
... .
.•
.
·-
."}j, ",
:.·-::,._.
.. . .• -. ,... .:.. ·
.:,. .
:
A. c~um a. Caudal flexure .

B. Ascending colon b. Aacendinc duodenum
C. Transverse colon c, Duodenojejunal flexure
D. Descending colon d. Omental bursa
E. Kidner e. Supf. leaf of greater Fig. V-135 - Dog - Pancreas - ventral aspect
F. Stomach omentum
PANC~EAS (PAN-kree·as)[Qr. pan all+ kreas flesh]: the V- 2. Right lobe: . the right portion of the pancreas in the
shaped gland composed of two lobes joined by a body. It has both mesoduodenum next to the descending duodenum.
exocrine mid endocrine functions.
. 3. Left lobe: lies in lhe deep leaf of ·die greater omentum,
Endocrine: the islet cells of the pancreas secrete insulin and Extending from the body of the pancreas caudally and to the left,
glucagon into the blood, which keep the sugar concentrations of it lies along the dorsal abdomen toward the cranial pole of the left
the blood
.. at. a constant level . kidney.
. .
Exocrine .. (EK-soh-krin): pancreatic enzymes that aid in the DUCTS OF THE PANCREAS
.di&estion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins are carried to the·
descending
. duodenum by . pancreatic ducts. 4. Pancreatic (Wirsung's) duct: lhe tube opening with the bile
• duct on the major duodenal papilla (6) .
l. Bocly: the middle portion of the pancreas connecting the two
lobes. It lies in contact with the pyloric part of the stomach. S. Acces.wry pancreatic (Santorini's) duct: the tube opening into
the duodenum on the minor duodenal papilla (7).
•
298
PANCREAS A bdomen-328
Duodenum
f ~-- •.•.. ,
6. Major duodenal
4, Pancreatic duct
papilla
S. Accessory pancreatle duct
Fig. V-136 - Horse - Pancreas
I
I Stomach
6. Major duodenal papilla
2. Rt. lobe
3. Lt. lobe
Caud. vena ca va
2. Rt. lobe
Fig. V-137 - Ox - Pancreas 1. Body
S. Accessory pancreatic duct
-·1. Minor duodenal papilla

SPECIES DIFFERENCES
Pancreatic duct: the only duct present in the small ruminants

and cat Dog Cat Pig Hone Ox Sheep
&goat
Accessory pancreatic duct the only duct present in the pig, ox Pancreatic duct + (-) + + -(+) +
and occasionally dog. I
Accessory
Both ducts: present in the horse, usually in the dog and pancreatic duct + + + +
occasionally in the ox.
Location of the minor duodenal papilla: Horse- same levelas
-~-.TC.
Dog: always bas an accessory pancreatic duct, It usually has a
pancreatic duct, but it is always the smaller of the two .
the major, but on opposite wall; Carnivores and pig - a few
centimeters a way from the major; Ox - afoot distal to the major
""
~ papilla.
299
lOO
~...
.. ,
· · System
Respiratory
' . . ~
....
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
267-Head-303
Lt. lung, caud. lobe

Lt. lung, cran. lobe {
,• •' . Diaphragm
1. Trachea
Fig. VI-1 - Dog - Thorax,

opened - lat. view
... --·
--=='·~·- .
.. . .
. . .. . ;· .... . . : ~ .
.... . .
·. . . .;..··: .
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: the connected structures from the 'balance and regulation of circulating substances in the blood.
nostrils and oral ca~.i'ty:~ and including the lungs. It subdi~ded is·
at the cranial end of the' Jary~ into upper and 'lower respiratory NOSE: the external nose, its associated cartilage, and the nasal
tracts. The major function_'.Qfth~. respiratory tract is transport and -cavity.
exchange· of gaseous 9X:Y!t~.J.l and carbon dioxide into and out of ...
the blood. Oxygen is'utilized by the cellsfotmetabolism. Carbon External nose, the rostral structure protruding slightly from the
dioxide is the r~tµ_t:jilg .w~~~'.i,roquct. . ·: . . . . face .
. :·;_;:-". :'.;C·· ',.:. . ''}.;c:. ·' ':•_:.;.
The respiratory systemis a ~~6fentry into tn<{~
be guarded, The tonsils. of,the pharynx are one part of1his
~-m~i · I, Philtrum.~cyp.hillron a love charm): the groove in the lip and
middle .. of the nose.separating th~ nostrils.. .
protective system. The upper
respiratory tract, nasal cavity, and .: . · -:
nasopbervnx optimally w~ orcool thegases brought jnto the. 2. Nostrils (cranial nares): the external openings into the nasal
body. Hairs associated. with' the nares filter out large·.parficles. · cavity; thus, the respiratory system. ·
Smaller particles· get snick in the lining mue9sa. Many 'cihated · · · '
lining cells drive the mucouscoat back to. the oral cavity for . 3.Bonynasalaperture:.therostralendsoflhenasalbonesandthe
elimination. · . incisive bones, referred to as the immovable nose. The nasal
cartilages extend from the opening rostrally.
Phonation: prod@.tion ~f~und caused by movement of air
across the vocar'folds, causing them to vibrate. The associated
• # ~' Movable portion of the nose: the nasal cartilages, their ligaments
resonance, changea and modified by the tongue, oral cavity, and skin coverings.
...... c
mouth and lips, produces characteristic sounds.

4. Cartilage of the nose: the structures giving the nose its
Olfaction: the sense of smell, perceived in the brain (cerebral characteristic appearance. The nasal cartilages project rosfrally
cortex), involves receptors (olf~tory nerve, CN I) located in the from the bony nasal aperture.
nasal cavity. Gaseous material and airborne particles are inhaled
and detected (smelled) once dissolved in the mucous coat lining SPECIES DIFFERENCES
the nasal cavity.
~ ,,.. ~...
;~J.~, •
Philtrum: deep in the carnivores and small ruminants; shallow
Heat regulation: by panting, the dog helps control body tempera- or absent in the pig, ox and horse.
ture via evaporation. The lungs also play a role in acid-base
302
NOSE - t'1ASAL CART!lJ!l.GE Head-304
2. Nostril
Fig. VI-3 - Ox - Muzzle

Fig. VI-2 - Dog - Muzzle
,,,. 4. Nasal cartilage
- ~;
. 1 "-·
::#.; "
". . . :;
'""' »:
,,. ../ .,.""· -·· -

-
,,,.
. ':J'~ .•
.
, /
,'l '
!
. . , .. , ·"".
/
. '•
..
/
/
//,
'
c
, .. -, .. - 't~
.. '!30
,
I,, . Fla. VI-5 - Ox - Nasal cartilage
\
\ . \
Fig. VI-6 - Horse
- Nasal cartilage
A. NuaJ Mptum
a. NuaJ plane (planum

nuali) (carnivore.,
Fig. VI-4 - Horse· Muzzle ,m~ rurninanu) ·
b. Nuol~bial plane (planum
nuolabialil) (ox)
e. Arrow pointln1 into the
nuaJ divaniculum of
the horM
d. Don. lat. canilap
e. Ventr. lat. c:artiJap
(abtent in bone)
t. Lat. acc:euory c:artilace
(abtent in hone)
,. Med. acceao17 c:artilace .
h, Alar-cartilap (hone)
303
..
NASAL CA VGTY Head-305
Fig. VI-7 - Dog - Nasal cavity

1. Median nasal septum - sagittal section
Fig. VI-8 - ~og - Nasal cavity,

nasal septum removed
- sagittal section
. I' •
J
,;{;
a. Dorn. naeal concba

h. Dot'II. nasal meatue ·
c, }~ic:.r;,enaeal meatue
d. Couimon naaa! meatus (VI-10)
e. Str:?.i~ht fold (VI-8)
r, Alar foitl
i- Bas~ fvid
h. Opening into {he
ma.xillar-1 recesa·c dog)
t. Cribriform plate
j. Pron ta! i!inua
k. Cranial cavity
1. Oral cavily 2. Veotr. nasal concha
--- .
4. Ventr. nasal meatus
NASAL CAVIrr (NI. Y-zul): the facial portion of the respira- the middle lumen of the nasal cavity. It is a separate and distinct
tcry tr?,t extending ften} the r&filrils to the caudal nares. It is bone of the skull.
divided into halves by the median nasal septum. The nasal cavity
can be divided into three pans. The vestibule is the rostral part just 3. Ethmoidal conchae: the delicate, mucosa-covered, bony scrolls
inside the nostril. The middle part is filled with nasal conchae. known as ethmotubinates filling the caudal part of the nasal
These are JJ1ir, scrolls of bone covered by mucous membrane. cavity. They are part of the ethmoid bone.
Passages between the conchae are called meatuses (meatus). The
caudal pan contains the numerous ethmoturbinates. The nasal • Dorsal nasal concha (a): the upper concha extending from the
cavity is connected to the paranasal sinuses (pg. 56) and the ethmoid bone's cribrifonn plate to the rosttal nasal cavity.
nasopharynx.
Nasal conchae (KONG-kee) (L. shells) (~.~oncha): the bony
Opening of the nasolacrimal duct: at the junction between the scrolls covered by nasal mucosa and filling each half of the nasal
skin and mucous membrane, just inside the nostril. cavity. The nasal conchae and the median nasal septum divide the
nasal cavity into passageways (meatuses).
1. Median nasal septum: the perpendicular partition separating
the nasal cavity into leftand right halves. It is composed of bony Nasalmeatus(mee-AY-tus)(pl.=meatusormeatuses)(L.away,
(vomer, nasal and ethmoid bones), cartilaginous, and membra- path, course): the passageways between the conchae of each half
nous parts, Its cranial cartilaginous pan expands laterally, form- of the nasal cavity.
Ing the nasal cartilages for each nostril. • Dorsal nasal meatus (b): the narrow passageway between t!le
dorsal nasal concba and the nasal bones leading into the caadal
2. Ventral nasal concba: the extensively folded structure filling nasal cavity.
304
Hcad-306
Fi1. VI-9 - Horse· Nasal cavity, nasal septum removed b

- sagittal section
Nostril ···--
e
1. Median nasal
septum
4. Ventr. nasal meatus

15 Nasopharyngeal meatus
fi1. Vl-10 - Ox· Nasal cavity

- cross section
Fig. VI-11 - Ox - Nasal cavity, nasal septum '2

removed • sagittal section 5
...
• Middle nasal meams (c): the passageway between the dorsal

masal concha and the ventral nasal concha leading into lhe caudal SPECIF.s DIFFERENCES
.nsal cavity.
Nasal diverticulum (.. false nostril"): the dorsal passage
• Common nasal meatus (d): the narrow vertical space between · tlJrough the horse's nostrils into a blind cutaneous pouch.
:be median nasal septum and the conchae, from the roof to the When "tubing" a horse, a thumb placed in the diverticulum
:kx>r of the nasal cavity. Laterally it is continuous with the other will aid in directing the tube into the-ventral nasal meatus. -
meatu.ses.
Rostral bone (os rostrale) (pg. 52,1): the bone in the.nose of
4.. \' entral nasal meatus: the largest meatus located between the
a pig to help it "root".
,,aural nasal concha and the hard palate. It leads directly into the
aasopharynx. ('LJNICAL
3. Nasopharyngeal meatus: the short passageway connecting "Tubing": the passage of a stomach tube through the nasal
tbe ventral nasal meatus with the caudal naris (choana) on each · cavity, pharynx, and esophagus to the stomach. The tube must
S3de. be passed through the ventral nasal meams, nasopharyngeal
meatus, and caudal nares to reach the pharynx and the esopha-
'- ~udal nares or choanae (ko-A Y-nee) (sin.=choana): the two gus. Passing the tube in the dorsal or middle nasal meatus
opemngs of the nasopharyngeal meatus into the nasopharynx, would lead into the ethmoturbinates and cause massive hem-
rparated by the vomer bone. orrhage. Tubing is done in the large animals and the cat.
305
.. ~·
UPPER RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Head-307
S. Laryngopharyox
4. Nasopharynx
,.
.r r,
3. Choanae
: Guttural
pouch
::
2. Nasal cal'ity
.-,.,
1. Nostril e•
. 10. Esophagus
J
g 6. Larynx
7. Trachea
9. Oropharynx
8. Oral cavity
Fig. Vl-12 - Horse - Head - sagittal section
Fig. Vl-12 - Horse - Head - sagittal section
306 ,
UPPER RESP~RAT()~Y SVSTffv1 Head-308
k
- s
0
6 10
8
7
9
: . - ' ·.·.
: .'
:• ' ~ 'j'
'l. '" J •
· Fig. VI-13 - Ox • Head - sagittal·section : •"'
1. Noatril a. Ventr. nual eoncha h. Soft palate

2. Nual caYity o. Sternohyoideua m.
b. Ventr. naaal meatu, i. Opening into auditory tube
S. Choanae p. Cerebral be,miaphere
c. Hard palate j. Lingual proceu q. Cerebellum
4. Nuopharynx d. Genio1loum m. k. Epiclottic cartilage
5.1.aryn,opharynx r. Medulla oblonga&a
e. Tongue 1. Cricoid cartilage 1. Spinal cord
6.1,arynx f. Geniohyoid m. m. Lat. laryngeal ventricle t. Don. ~ of atlu
1. Trachea g. Mylobyoid m, (horse &t camivora)
8. Oral cavity u. Dem of axis
(not ahown in ox} n. Vocal.fold
9. Oropharynx
10. Eeophagu•
.. 307
- .
LARYNX - CART.LAGES Head-309
1. Epiglottic 3. Cricoid
Hyoid apparatus
J 7. Corniculate
process
1'
',/ 1, k
I1'
{ I process
~
z
\
\
~
'It ,\ g
' ,.,,
I ...-
.•
I . ·,
\ . '7I
i
s I "1
2. Thyroid l
{
Fig. YI-14 - Dog - Laryngeal cartilages
- lat. view
Cut surface s, Vocal process
Fig. VI-15 • Dog - Laryngeal cartilages,

It .. thyroid lamina removed
- lat. view
LARYNX (LAR-inks) (G. upper end of windpipe): pie shaped cartilage connecting the thyroid cartilage and the trachea.
musculocartilaginous tube connecting the laryngopharynx with
the L'"ai.::he::1 and containing the vocal cords (the organs of phona- · 4. Arytenoid cartilages (ar'e-TEE-noid): the paired, irregular
tion). cartilages articulating medially with the rostrodorsal border of the
cricoid cartilage. The arytenoid cartilages have a number of
LARYNGEAL CARTILAGES (lah-RIN-jee-al): the group of processes - vocal, muscular, comiculate, and cuneiform.
cartilages forming the structure of the larynx. They consist of the
single epiglouic, thyroid, cricoid, and pairedarytenoid cartilages • 5. Y~I process; the tentral projection of the arytenoid carti-
(and the insignificant sesamoid and interarytenoid cartilages in lage into the cavity of the larynx. It provides the dorsal attachment
the dog). for the vocal cord. Ventrally the vocal cords attach to the floor of
the thyroid cartilage. ·.·. ,
1. Epiglottis or ~piglottic cartilage: the rostral most cartilage
giving structure to the epiglottis which closes the laryngeal • 6. Muscular process; the lateral process of the arytenoid
opening during deglutition (swallowing), protecting the lungs cartilage, providing a point of insertion of the intrinsic muscles of
from foreign bodies. the larynx, especially the dorsal cricoarytenoideus muscle. The
pull of this muscle swings the vocal process of the arytenoid
2. Thyroid cartilage (G. thyroideus. resembling a shield): the cartilage and vocal cords laterally, thus, opening. the space be-
.l~gest cartilage, single and open dorsally. The laryngeal promi- tween them (glottic cleft).
! rience is the ventral projection of the thyroid cartilage, known as
the palpable "Adam's apple" in man. • • 7. Corniculate process: the rostral horn-like process that forms
the dorsal part of the laryngeal opining. It is absent in the cat
3. CricoifJ cartilage (KRY-koyd) (G. rinz): the signet ring-
.308
LARYNX - CARTILAGE
Head-310
Fig. VI-16 - Horse - Laryngeal cartilages

- lat. view
I. Eplglottlc
, ..
. ··""~''-
f
Hyoid app.~ratus
f.
. ·l \\
\~ ~ !
2. Thyroid
1 ~
I Tracheal
)
i
~ 7. 7
h ring
Laryngeal prominence
Fig. VI-17 - Ox • Laryngeal cartilages

- lat. view
r-
Fig. VI-18 - Ox - LaTyngeal cartilages, It. thyroid

iamina removed - lat. view
a. Petiolm of epi,toUic
h. Median crut of cricoid
:artilap (abteni in ca&) cartilage '..,;,
b. Lamina (thyroid cartilaJe} i. Adicular procea

e, Roetr. cornu (except pie) j. Cuneiform procaa (dog&: horse)
d. Thyroid notcli (except pig) k. lnterarytenoid cartila,e
e. Caud.comu
(doa & pie)
f. Cricoid arch
I. Sesamoid (dog)
I· Cricoi4 lamina
309
LARYNGEAL CARTILAGES - HORSE. Head-311
7. Ceralculate 4. Arytenoid
pros:ess 6. Muscular process
S. Vocal process
3. Cricoid
2. Thyroid
1. Eplglottlc
Fig. VI-19 - Horse - Laryngeal cartilages

- rostrolat. view
Hyoid apparatus
Fla. VI-20 - Horse· Laryngeal cartilages and part of

hyoid apparatus - lat. view
1. Epi1loitic ~milare a. Petiolua (absent in cat) f. Cricoid arch

2. Thyroid cartilage b. Lamina (thyroid cartilage) I· Cricoid lamina
S. Cricoid cartilage c. Ro11tr. eornu (except fig) h. M~ian crest
<l. Arytenoid cartilage d. Caud. thyroid notch i. Articular proceu
6. Vocal proc:e111 (except pig) (VI-23) j. Cuneiform proceu
6. Muscular proceaa e. Caud. cornu (VI-19) (dog & hone)
1. Comiculate proce11
3JO
LARYNGEAL CARTILAGES - HO,-<SE Head-312
7. Corniculate process
6. Muscular process
~~-- 1st Tracheal

ring
5. Vocal process
Fig. Vl-21 - Horse - Laryngeal cartilages, It. thyroid

lamina removed - lat. view
Hyoid apparatus
1. Corniculate d. Caud. thyroid

process notch
Fla. VI-22 - Horse • Laryngeal cartilages Fig. VI-23 - Horse • Laryngeal cartilages
· • dors, view • ventr. view
31
" .. , .
... . . - . . . :-. :,
LARYNX Head-313
Trachea
Fig. VI-24 - Dog - Larynx
- median section
,a
l F
3. Vocal fold
4. Dors. cricoarytenoid m. h Fig. VI-27 - Dog - Larynx
D . S. Vocal-..
Fig. VI-26 - Dog - Lt. thyroid

lamina removed,
- lat. view b
Elg, VI-25 - Dog - Laryngeal muscles
LARYNGEAL CAVITY: the space enclosed by the laryngeal 4. Glottic cleft (rima glonidis [L. rima, cleft]): the narrowest
cartilages, muscles, ligaments, arid mucous membrane. The la- space of the lumen of the larynx located between the structures ri
ryngeal cavity is divided into three regions. The part just inside the the glottis (the vocal cords and two vocal processes of the
laryngeal opening is the vestibule. The glottic cleft is the narrow arytenoid cartilage).
middle part of the larynx. The infraglottic cavity is the part caudal
to the glottic cleft . MUSCLES OF THE LARYNX: laryngeal muscles cover the
laryngeal cartilages in the undissected larynx. They are subcfi.
1. Laryngeal opening (aditus laryngis): the passageway for air vided inu( extrinsic and intrinsic muscles. Extrinsic muscles
from, the mouth or nose into the larynx. Its borders are the extend from laryngeal cartilages to other. body structures. Intrin-
epiglottis, aryepiglottic fold (j).and the corniculate process of the sic muscles arise and terminate on laryngeal cartilage and arc
arytenoid cartilage. named according to their auachments: dorsal cricoarytenoid.
lateral cricoarytenoid, transverse arytenoid, thyroarytenoid aoo
2. Lateral ventricles or the larynx: lateral depressions in the cricothyroid).
vestibule just cranial to the vocal folds, They allow the vocal fold
lateral movement. S. Dorsal cricoarytenoid muscle: the only intrinsic muscle
abducting (pulling apart) the vocal folds to open the glottis. It is
•
3. Vocal fold or vocal cord: the mucosa-covered vocal ligament innervated by the caudal laryngeal nerve (the end of the recurrem
and muscle caudal to the ventricle. It extends from the vocal laryngeal nerve, a branch of the vagus nerve). The other intrinsic
process of the arytenoid cartilage to the interior floor of the muscles either adduct (pull together) or alter the tension of the
thyroid cartilage. vocal folds.
312
LARYNX
Fig. VI-28 - Dog - Larynx, pharyngeal roof & soft palate Head-314
cut on median plane - dors. view
4. Glottic cleft
1. Laryngeal opening
A. Epiglottis (B with c;. Vestibular lig.

mucous membrane· . ·· .. 'fi;· d. Cricothyroid m. (Vl-25)
B. Epiglottic cartilage {cut) .;; ·· e. Lat. c.ricoa'?'tenoid m. (VI-26)
C. Thyroid cartilage (cut) ·. f. Ventr1culans ~-
D. Cricoid cartilage g. Thyro~teno1deua m.
E. Arytenoid cartilage ?· Aryte?o1de~a transveraus m.
F. lat traeheal cartilage 1 •. Hyoep1glott1cu1 m. (VI-24) -, ~ -.' a
· j. Aryepiglottic fold
a. Vestibular (ventricular) fold k. Vestibule c
b. Vocal Jig. (VI-27) l. Infraglottic cavity
Fig. VI-29 - Ox - Larynx - median section
'- Vocal (vocalis) muscle: ihe muscle of the vocal fold extending tube to push the softpalate up td ~sµalire the epiglottis. Then
from the thyroid cartilage to the vocal process of the arytenoid hold the epiglottis down with the. tubeand look into the larynx
:artilage. It relaxes the vocal fold by pulling the arytenoid cartilage (through the laryngeal opening). See jhe space.between the
jownward.
vocal folds (glottic cleft). Directthe, tube between the vocal
folds into the trachea: Inflate the endi>tracheal tube cuff arid tie
Crkothyroid muscles: extend from the ventral side of the cricoid
the tube around tlie·~p~ jaw: ~i~gauze. Attach~ tube to
:.atilage to the lateral sides of the thyroid cartilage. From the ventral
s.1e they look like a "bowtie" and can be used to judge midline.
the, gas anesthesia
,
-~~hille~, As:-~·
: lqhg·
,
_as·;,you. see
·~··
:t4l,e go:. die
between thevocal c9.~;y6u ~il!- ~]~(thetjght')>~~· · :.. ·. .
•,
::, f. . .· . · . . ·. . . .·. ,.:. _=,_: ... :· .... •. :,. . . . . . . . '

Cricothyroid ligament:' extends between the cricoid and thyroid
:anilage. "~oarer'' -laryiigealh"emipiegiaJri horses: paralysis of the"left
(usually) recurr~iliiryngeal riervetoilieabductorof the glottic .
clett, the dorsal cricoarytenold muscle .. This results in the left
SPECIFS DIFF~REN.CES vocal fold eveftjng·into the Iu111~n ofttie larynx and causing a
.
characteristic sound ("roar"). This "is irritating interferes and
with breathing, especially during a race. One corrective surgi-
Lateral ventrij:le of lhe larynx: present in the horse, pig and
dog; absent in the cat and ruminant. car procedure replaces the dorsal cricoarytenoideus muscle
-. with a suture •. The· suture is tied so
that the vocal process is
CLINICAL. permanently puUed laterally, opening the glottic cleft.
V.e·ritral lar~gotomyio the hone: opening the larynx. Incise

Laryngitis (1ar'in:.JY-tis): inflammation of the larynx.
the skin over the laryngearprominence. Find the midline using
the cricothyroi<l"("bowtie") muscles, then incise through ·the
Intubation: placement of an endotiachealtube into the larynx
cricodiyroid ligament ·that fills the caudal thyroid notch. This
and trachea. To,intubate a tranquilized dog, open its mouth,
opens the larynx allowing access to it and the pharynx through
.. UclSf> thetongue,andgentlypull irrostrally •..lJsetheendotrac~ the glottic cleft and Iaryngedl ortening .
. ~
313
LARYr~x .. LIGAMENTS & MUSCLES Head-315
Fig. VI-30 - Horse • Larynx, thyroid

c cartilage cut - lat. view
'
. . ..
•. J
1. Cricotbyrotd Ilg.
Fig. VI-31 - Horse - Larynx

- median section
· 2. Dors. cricoarytenoid
y
w
' . . 3•
! • ,.__; ,: •. l
.. . I: .,;
. . ...r·.
.. .
• t·
·j•·.__ ..,c •• .. - ,,,
Fig. VI-32 - Horse - Extrinsic mm.
of larynx - lat. view r-
Fig. VI-33 - Horse • Intrinsic mm. ..~
i!
(
of larynx - lat. view .
314
LARYNX - MUSCLES
Head-316
Fig. VI-34 - Horse - Lar ynx, It. thyroid
lamina removed - lat. view
5. Lat. ventricle -~-"'.r1

·.
•' ; • I ; • \
4. Vocalis m .
..
-'
-r- .
.,
1. Cricothyroid
lig.
, . •. !
,,
2. Dors. c;ricoarytenoid
• '
Fig. VI-35 - Horse - Larynx - dors. view
Fig. VI-36 - Horse> Larynx
- ventr. view
::icethyroid Iig. I. Hyoid apparatus (VI-S2) f. Hyoepiglottic Jig. q thru t and 2 tbru 4. Intrinsic
~- cricoarytenoid m ... J. Lingual procesa of g. Vestibular lig. (absent mm. of larynx
:'ricothyroid m. baaihyoid bone in cat) q. Thyroarytenoideua (ventricularis
.•.xala m. K. Muscular proceu (VI-SS) ·.•
& vocalism.) (VI-34)
h. Vocal lig. -.
L. Tracheal ring i. Thyroepiglottic lig. (Vl-Sl) r. Ventricularia
2:.piilottia (Vl-31) M. Caud. thrroid notch (VI-36) j. Dors. ~ricoarytenoid lig. s. Arytenoideus transversus
Thyroid cartilage· k. Anular lig. of tr~ea t. Cricoarytenoideu. Jateralis
:rlcoid cartilage a. Cricotracheal Ilg. l thru p. Extrinsic mm. of iim,nx u. Facet for caud. comual process
A.ryienoid cartilage b. Cricothyroid joint I. Sternothyroid_eu1 .· of thyroid cartilage
-~ proceu e. Cric:oaryienoid joint m. Thyrobyoideue v. Esophagus (Vl-32)
Cc-niculate pl'OUIII d. Thyrohyoid articulation n. Tbyrophaeyngeue w. Tracheal m .. {VI-S6}
~eform proceaa { cartilacmou,) o. Cricophary,ngeu1 x, Ceratohyoideua m.
It .Aryepiglottic fold e. Thyrohyoid membrane p. Cricoaophageua y. Hyoepiglotti~s m. (VI-33)
315
LARYNX
Head-317
Cornlculara process
Laryngeal opening e
Vocal process
c
Vocal fold
Lat. ventricle
Fig. VI-37 - Horse - Larynx - median section
A
B
•
Fig. VI-38 - Horse - Larynx A. Glottic cleft closed
B. Glottic cleft closed (arrows indicating
316
pull of dors. cricoa rytenoid mm. on muscular
processes of arytenoid)
-
LARYNX Head-545
Fig. V!~3~ • Horse • Larynx - rostrodors.

A view through the laryngeal
opening, mucous removed
,
Corniculate process
Glottlc cleft _....,.....

(ri01a glottidis)
Vocal cord
Epiglottis
Dora. cricoarytenoid a. Veatibule e. Aryepiglottic fold

Cricoid cartilace b. Glottis (vocal fold !. Cricoarytenoideua lateralia (VI-S9}
:uacular proeesaof & vocal proceaa) g. Arytenoideua transvenalit
-..t.anoid cariilace .(VI-S9} c. In!raglottic cavity · h. Thyroarytenoideua
Thyroid cartilage d. Med. ventricle
•
317
: ..
THORACIC CAVITY
217-Thorax-319
. :
Pf ,EURA: the serosa" lining the thoracic cavity and the thoracic
where the two balloons abut each other on the midline is the
organs; forming two pleural sacs on either side of the mediasti-
num. mediastinum. The lungs grow out of the mediastinum and pustff
the pleura ahead of them, thus, the lungs never enter the pleuraf~
cavities.
1. Pulmonary (visceral) pleura: the serosa on the surface of a·
lung.
Pleural cupula: the cranial extent of the pleural cavity extending
through.the thoracic inlet. It can be mistakenly opened during
Parietal pleura: the serosa lining the walls of the thorax includ- caudal neck surgeries.
ing the mediastinum and diaphragm.
Costodiaphragmatic recess: the potential space between the
• 2. Mediasdnal parietal pleura: the serosa on the mediastinum. costal wall and the dome-shaped diaphragm.
3. Pericardial pleura: part-of the mediasunat pleura on either . .
side of the pericardium. Mediastinal recess: the space filled by the accessory lobe of the
right lung, between the mediastinum and the plica vena cava,
• 4. Costal pleura: the serosa lining the thoracic wall.
Line of pleural reflection: 'where the pleura reflects from the
costal wall onto the diaphragm. Roughly, this line passes along
• Diaphragmatic pleura: the serosa covering the diaphragm's
thoracic side. the 8th costal cartilage and then curves dorsocaudally to the angle
of.the last rib. This line represents the separation of the thoracic
and abdominal cavities. A needle inserted caudodorsally to this
Connecting pleura: the double layer of serosa connecting vis- line will only enter the abdomen, one placed cranial will enter the
ceral pleura and parietal pleura.
thorax and if long enough the abdomen because of the doming of
the diaphragm .. ,,
• Pulmonary ligaments: the connecting pleura between the
pulmonary pleura from the left and right caudal lung lobes to the . Basal borders of the lungs: the caudoventral border of the lungs.
mediastinal parietal pleura.
It parallels the line of pleural reflection, but is craniodorsal to it
because the lungs do not fill the costodiaphragmatic recess. It
• Pllea vena cava: the connecting pleura between the caudal vena extends from th.e 6th costochondral junction to the second to last
cava and the diaphragm, pericardial sac, and floor of the thoracic. intercostal space at the border of the epaxial muscles.
6. Mediastinum (mee'dee-as-TY-num): the clef tor wall between

the right and left mediastinal pleura. Near the median thoracic
plane, it divides the thorax into two cavities. The thoracic organs,
other than the. lungs, (heart, esophagus, trachea, aorta, and thy-
mus) help form themediastinum. These organs can be considered
to make a wall, the mediastinum, which separates the thorax into
two cavities. The wall concept also helps explain why the pleura
on the mediastinwn is called parietal. In places the mediastinum
is just formed by the contact between the two mediastinal pleurae.
Such places may be fenestrated (perforated).
Parts of the mediastinum: The heart and its pericardium are

located in the mediastinum, dividing it into cranial, middle, and
caudal mediastinum. It also can be divided into dorsal (above the
base of the heart) and ventral portions (below ~p of the heart).
• Cranial mediastinum: pan of mediastinum cranial to the heart.
• Middle mediastinum: part of mediastinum containing the heart. ·

.I'
• Caudal mediastinum: part of mediastinum caudal 19· the.ljeart.
5. PLEURAL CAVITIES: the two cavities inside the pleural

sacs, between the visceral and parietal layers of tlie pleura,
Imagine the two pleural sacs as balloons of serosa blown up in the *A serosa is any smooth membrane, consisting of amesothelial layer and
two cavities of the thoracic cavity. The space or wall between a connective tissue layer, lining the cavities of the body. /; :
\.-:
'"-"
318
THORACIC CAVfTV Thorax-320
.:.~· .:.,.;':· :· ..
:·· · . : ....
6. Mediastinum -';
............_
1. Pulmonary pleura
2. Mediastlnal pleura
.
4. Costal pleura ·. . . . . · ... : ..
\}(~t/:·: :;,.;\:-!+--b
,_.':
·:.: ~·:;::_::·:·:·::\~~~-r
r;n~~~~-~~~d
. '\;}}}/\? .
J
5. Pleural cavity
3. Pertcardlal pleura
7; Fibrous pericardium
··~ .
Endocardlum
..
·k
Fig. VI-40 - Ox - Thoracic cavity - cross

section through heart·
a. Thoracic vertebra g. Phrenie n.

b. Body wall h. Rt. ventricle
e, Aorta i. Lt. ventricle
d.Esophagu1 j.Rib
e. Rt. lun1 · k. Sternebra
f. Lt. lune
319
-- : l • - '
Thorax-321 .
BRONCHIAL TREE
1. Trachea
12. Tracheal bronchus
3. Tracheal cartilage
2. Tracheal bifurcation.
-'1--~ 6. Segmenta'I
bronchus
-.. ,:
a. Lt. cran. lobe

b, Caud. lob.
e, Rt. cran. lobe
d. Middle lobe
e. Rt. caud. lobe
f. Accessory lobe
Fig. VI-41 - Ox - Lung (schematic)
320 J
BRONCHIAL. TREE Tborax-322
L TRACHEA (fRA Y-kee-a) or windpipe: the cylindrical tube 11. Alveoli (al-VEE-oh-ly) sin.= alveolus: thin walled sacs for
extending from the larynx down the neck into the thorax to the gas exchange.
- lwigs. It terminates by bifurcating into the right and left primary
bronch.iabovethe baseof the heart. Thecervical Qart runs from the SPECIES DIFFERENCES
larynx to the thoracic inlet. 11ic thoracic part continues to the
bifurcation. The traehea, consisting of cartilaginous rings con- 12. Tracheal bronchus: the bronchus in ruminants and pigs
nected by annular ligaments, is covered by adventitia and lined by arising cranial to the tracheal bifurcation to supply the right lung's
a mucous membrane. cranial lobe.
2. Bifurcation: the splitting of the trachea into right and left

primary bronchi above the base of the heart. just to the right of
midline.
• Tracheal carina: the ridge at the bifurcation between the

principle bronchi. Radiologists call the tracheal bifurcation the
carina.
3. Tracheal cartilages: the "C" -shaped hyaline cartilage rings,

incomplete dorsally. They make up the skeleton of the trachea and
keep it open.
Annular ligaments: fibroelastic tissue uniting the trachea! carti-

lages, making the trachea a flexible tube.
Trachealis muscle: smooth muscle connecting the open, dorsal \

ends of the tracheal cartilages.
7. Broncholes,
BRONCHIAL TREE '.
\ . ·.
' .
4. Right and left primary (principal) bronchi (BRONG-ky) '·~
{[Gr. branchos, windpipe] sin.= bronchus): the short, thick seg- {,
·,
ment entering each lung's hilus to divide into lobar bronchi.
. -:=
. ...;.··.·.
5. Lobar(" secondary") bronchi: the divided continuation of the . ::'
principal bronchi ventilating one lobe and giving rise to segmen-
tal bronchi.
6. Segmental ("tertiary") bronchi: the branches of the lobar

bronchi ventilating .a bronchopulmonary segment.
Br0'1Chopulmonary segment: a self-contained, cone-shaped !.
section of lung tissue within a lobe. 8. Respiratory

,- . - bronchioles
7. Bronchioles: small tubes with no cartilaginous support, arising
from segmental bronchi. The bronchioles are the last strictly
conductive branches. 9. Alveolar
ducts
8. Respirat_ory bronchioles (BRONG-kee-ohl-es): terminal
bronchioles whose walls contain some alveoli, therefore, conduct
and "respire" (allow gas exchange with blood). They are present 10. Alveolar
in dogs, cats, and horses. sacs
9. Alveolar (al-VEE-oh-lar) ducts: passages from respiratory 11. Alveoli
bronchioles surrounded. by alveoli.
10. Alveolar sacs: terminations of alveolar ducts, surrounded by

alv-eoli. Fig. VI-42 - Dog - Bronchial tree,
dist end (schematic)
,,,
I": •
321
LUNGS ..
2. L1. cran. lobe \ 2b. Lt. caud. part
2a. Lt. cran. part.
1. Trachea---¥.-
6. Rt. caud. lobe ;
Fig. VI-43 - Dog • Lt. lung, costal

surface - lat. view
4. Rt. cran. lobe
8. Cardiac notch
5. Rt. middle lobe
Fig. VI-44 - Dog .At. lung, costal

surfas' - lat. view
b. Interlobular fi~
c. Groove f.or ca~ vena cava 7. Accessory lobe
d. Esopl1agu8
~ ·•.
LUNGS (L. pu/r.Jnes): the paired organ of respiration occupying
the thorax, an- exchanging oxygen for carbon dioxide in the
blood. ltterJ~ar fissures divide the lungs into Jobes. The gener-
f
alizedJ>b?iOD pattern for domestic species is two-lobes for the
left 111tand four lobes for the right lung: The cranial lobes of
eiU,, .Alng can be further divided into cranial and caudal parts,
d~nding on the species .
. ~ft lung Right lung
, Cranial (apical) lobe • Cranial
., (apical) lobe
• Caudal (diaphragmatic) • Middle (cardiac) lobe
lobe • Caudal (diaphragmatic) lobe
• Accessory (intermediate or azygos) B. Base
lobe
A. Apex: the cranial end of the lungs lying in the thoracic inlet.
Fig. Vl-45 - Dog - Lungs, diaphragmatic
B. Base: the caudal end of the lungs resting on the diaphragm. surf ace - caudoventr. view
322
LUNGS Thorn x.-32~
Fig. VI-46 - Horse • Rt. lung, costal surface
..... -.:~.~. ·.<·:. . "';

. . .... ::....- '.:. . ... .
: •. . .
·,.
. •.· ',. ... : ~
. ..
·. . . : .
\•_. -
::\:-.::~·:,·,: -:
Fig. VI-48 - Horse - Lungs,
... '
..... ·: • ,4
...... ~
diaphragmatic surface
Fig~ ,tI:~7':.. Horse • Lt, lung
---
-
'
,
;~
<, .· -
'\
2-.. i
6 (
: .. .._ ..() . · 4a. Rt. er an, nart
·, : ·;
~I
~
) ) . I
y-' - \
. .
\.
2h.(
r
1
,, 1-,--.
\
J
/
3 .\..-\ .,
,_
.
··,.
.
\.r-·
,- ('
)
(.
-~--- (,
<, ~ ( { 1 v> -- ~
J
fig. VI-49 - Ox - Rt. lung, costal surface Fig. VI-SO - Ox - Lt. lung, costal surface
-,
Left Lung Right Lung
Gener.;.lEed Two lobea Four lobes

Cranial lobe Cranial lobe
Craiiial part Middle lobe
Caudal part Caudal lobe
Caudal lobe Accessory lobe
... .;
Carnivores .. " . ,. .
\
~-.,-
.'
. . ''
Pig " : " ~- • I
Ffg. V·I-51 - Ox - Lungs, diaphragmatic·

n
surface
Ruminants Four lobes, but cran.
.. • :-; : 1
lobe divided into cran.
and caud. parts 1. Trachea 4a. Rt. cran. part
2. Lt. cran lobe 4b. Rt. caud. part
2a. Lt. eran. part 5. Rt. middle lobe
Horse Cran·. 'lobe not Three Iobes, . ,. t 2b. Lt. caud. part (absent in horse)
div4deci into-eran. , middle lobe S. Lt. eaud. lobe 6. Rt. caud. lobe
:: ·~d eaud. part, ' mwina .C. Rt. cran. lobe 7. Accessory lobe
.. ,, 8. Cardiac notch
..
. ' ... 323
~-- "?
G
LUNGS Thorax-32.S
3. Hilus of lung
Fig. VI-52 • Dog - Lt. lung,

median surf ace
2. Diaphragmatic surf ace

2. Diaphragmatic surfa.ce
1. Cardiac impression
Fig. VI-53 - Dog - Rt. lung,

median surface
1. Cardiac impression
4. Cardiac notch
LUNG SURFACES and their IMPRESSIONS: Root of the lung: the aggregation of structures entering the lung
atthe hilus.
Costal surface: lies laterally against the thoracic wall.
4. Cardiac notch: the opening between lobes of the lungs where
Medial surface: faces the opposite lung through the mediasti- the heart sac comes in contact with lhe thoracic wall.
nwn.
PULMONARY VESSELS:
1. Cardiac impression: the impression fonned by the heart on the
lung's medial surface. between the 3rd and 6th rib. · Pulmonary (PUL-moh-ner'ee) trunk: lhe vessel leaving the
right ventricle which divides into right and left pulmonary arteries
2. Di~phragmatic surface: the concave surface· 'conforming to to the lungs. Upon entering the lungs the pulmonary arteries split
the diaphragm. into smaller and smaller branches parallelling the airways. These
vessels® ill2L supply the lung tissue. but exchange gases mi
3. Hilus of the lung: the area on the medial surface where the return oxygenated blood to the heart via the pulmonary veins.
pulmonary bronchus and the pulmonary and bronchial vessels
and nerves enter the lungs. Bronchial vessels: supply lung tissue with oxygen. They arise
from branches of the aorta.
LUNGS Thorax-383
3
3
....
·~· -~·.: .. ~: . ,: . . . .; ·:
B
Fi1. VI-54:.. Horse • Lt. lung, median surface Fig. VI-SS - Ox • Lt. lung, median surf ace
4. Tracheal bronchus
Fig. VI-56 - Horse • Rt. lung, median surface Fig. VI-54 - Ox • Rt. lung,
median surf ace
A. Lt. cran. lobe E. Rt. Caud. lobe a. Pulmonary lig. d. Aortic impression g. Esophageal
B. Lt. caud. lobe F. Acceasory lobe b. Groc"le for caud. e. Impression for impression
C. Rt. cran. lobe G. Pulmonary a. vena cava lt. subclavian a. h. Don. border
D. Rt. middle lobe H. Primary bronchi I ii,t~il:>bular fiuure f. J.pex
SPECIF.s DIFFERENCES Horse: missing the right middle lobe, thus has only three lobes
on the right, five total. The lobes are not divided by distinct
I
Generalized pattern of lobes: two lobes (cranial and caudal) fissures.
on the left and four on the right (cranial, caudal, middle; mid -----------------------
accessory).
Carnivores, pig, and ruminants: have the generalized pattern

of lobes.
both right and left cranial lobes are divided into

RUD'ii.:0111._ '-c:·
cranial and cau~ parts, They also have distinct connective
tissue septa in the lung tissue.
;.... ~-----------------------------------~-'
325
LUNGS· CLINICAL
~lI·.~·:·:~:r:;;~::L. :":.::).~· :. ::.. :.. ·. =- · .• -', • • : · •
tWJ!~:,_{(;JJ_~SIO~:·:·ihe·:att ·qf 'striking a part with short sharp Auscultation triangle: a restricted area due to the thoracic
t(blow.s ·ana . ·tis.terting 'for. the sound made. This can aid in limb. · I
i}[a,ijr~<>i#ig:j,l¢..~n<µ~j°bf\:9(µieunderlying parts. The noise of
J{~~ii~}~p ~S'.;p.t~~::)>y.,three source~:. 1) impact noise of a Boundaries:
Utfifi,get;.:.9f-'haj;tj:itj~i:,. ~friki~g-,.,intercoslal. space (it is of li(tle
f'.)ijjg~~µcv~µ~·:~i:id is ~aj.inished by using a-rubber hammer Cranial - caJdal bqrder of triceps brachii °
,:,:'Af:::ffi~· ,c.µ~hi~fof:'tm'tiiig¢f);
-=· .· •• ·.····-·. -,··.,......... . •.. · '. • ·•· • ..
2)• vibration of the• body wall; 3) • Dorsally-1pax"ial muscles or line from c~udal angle.of scapula
(!~9.~'-n~·of}~t·:~der,~yi!l}(air.:filledcavity which acts like a to tuber coxae
\;:.:{l!ilro.lie«l~;·Sijl;d'}~~tin'~$:·don't resonate. Percuss with light . to next to last inter-
• Caudoventral - curved line from olecranon .
frtt{ifq(oy,fra#.iin~icosiafspa:ceto reduce ..the amount of wall in
'•'•'•'• •'•' -:-.•,• o •,•,• 'r"-',". • • •' • • o o"i,,,•; o • o
costal ;Space
,,,(Jfie.: ·v•tbraiion;{~i:cussiop::oier
,.:·.· · =.,~~-:.,. .·t·,:·.\.,.. . ·.,! . . ribs. causes mote of the wall to
.,,, ,u,'!{.ra e1:- · · · · .· . .. ·.•..
. ·,..,.
f):j?\:. . ,·;:{. .:. . ·. , ..
:t:,tlijg~tJ~~rc;*~~i_Qn'meth.~: always used in small animals and
t]fi9.~~:¢g'ura.ie'iQ.)arge.aniiJj~Is. Place therniddle finger over the. · LUNG BIOPSY rmust be done crahiodorsatlo the basal border
~~{fpfJtl:<>.it~i"~\i:SfJ~/TtP.~, (ingerjust proximalto the fingernail. .:: of the lung ·-cobviously !) ;
., .... ~····· .•••.. ? .• , .. • .... ... ••. ••. •••• • ... .
· • • .. • .. •
;;(:~fJt:~s:~~p'if'.i!!1:·ro~~4!,"f~ng~rof the ~.ther .harid. Allowthe .. · .. ·:·· . ,.·=:-: · .. ,, ..

.· .· ·'- ..
{tfin;g¢,:Jg·r.ec9j['A·~arnmei: arid pleximeter can'be used in large ' · . .. · , · <:::::: . .. : .;
f"'.aifbiia'ls) " .. • •• 0 •. 0 •.• e ~ ••. e e •••• 8
:::::f ;-,: .:·:~ ,;.··.: .... : . -.• ·.·. ..• .
:('!~~i.cus~ing mi'hasal bP.rder of the lung: Syste~atically percuss PLEUROCENTESIS: or thoracocentesis: the surgi~~---p~nc-
, ·:;=:oji~·intercos~ space aralime. Percuss two points; one over the ture of the chest wall for drainage of fluid. Iris performed'in the'
:::. )W1g~~ one.we~l belowthe'Iung. Continue percussing, reduc- dependent (lowest) point on the-standing animal. Thisis caudal
\)\iji.;,~e clis~~e-bet~,ee~~l~.esetwo points until you find the to theheart and cranial to the diaphragmatic line o(pJ~ui~
=:·~·baw. bQ_t~er. Thiswill actually be above the anatomical border reflection. This varies from side to side and species to ~pe,ci_es.
. :...1tt,lfe·i4ng (~ttJung)s very thin a~ the 'basal border). General rule: 'puncture the middle of an intercostal sp.ace{avoid·
'· : · cranial and caudal branches of ventral intercostal vessels)
-~ .
;:
..,:-:· .
.
... -~
..
' ~ . dorsalto the costochondral junction.
• Ox.: 6th ot 7th intercostal space above the costochoridral

junction .
· ..
'
~ ,.' ,ifisCUi
... ;.'.f,*'.IiONotT.~ELUNGS: 'listening
. .. ·.·.··.......... . to air passing
... .·~, . . , • Horse: 7~h intercos.w space above the superfi¢1al'~qracic .
. . .. . -
JtlJit9.µgh:' ~iri~Y~:of thelungs with 'a stethoscope. The normal (" spur")'vein. · ·
\)#Q;~g-~iiii.n~,:wH{ha.ye.q.ui~t or inaudible sounds. An excited,
\:·if>:mting·,'.ijogjvitiJ1av~:,lq~d°,souhds -, Normal Jung sounds are · . . • • · • • , . • o. • • • •. • • • • • • • • .. .
?}JQuij~r.\5-yei'·!tiefirachea·~d lts bifurcation, decreasing-toward . · ... .
:=\\tt§:.J~tjp~fy:·.'qf the lungs, Normal sounds resemble wind. ~ THORACOTO~ES: surgicalopening'ofthe thoracic cavity.
::t:,g~ij!Jy:.rµst11f.ig)~v¢s. .. : : These openings can be through an'intercostal space, 1:?Y removal
\:::}:·\:.: :·: .')\. · · ·.\·.: . .-:.:.: · ..· :. of a rib.or by splitting the sternum (mediastinotomy). ·
:/.:J\tinormal.S(lUrids:.. · : :. :: . ... . :· .
t:~:,.:; =;:_:~(·... :... ·'\::t:. ·':·: . '.·: . · · .. ·. · . . . Respiratory asslstance durlng .t~9racptoin~e$: not n~~:in.
f..fp.i~o~tin~p.~:~c~~~.lni~nnittent.explosive sounds.They , standing cattle because of theif.thJck mediastinum, 'thus_;-9~~· -
; ,:\~qza~ ::py. ;~sµd4~:Qpeµing · of an airway or popping. of · ing one side willnot collapse the oppositetung as itiµighc:m ~e
t=·.:~?ti~t1·:~pl?f~i~ey·¥~·associated·wit1fbronchopµeumo- dog · ·' · · · .: · . ·=-··. : . ··
\:. ...=·,j...ta<intmtit'ial ,.·.··euriJMf·
. , . .... ·... .. . pn_ ,:·or pulmon ~rv edema. ",
.....-.'1~'1-1~.. .. . . . ·... ... . . •. .. :.. . . . . . . ·.... . .
:·-:/(/ ..:=. ~,..: ,··:'i-.' ·.,_,... ··.·=.,·,. ...-. ?. ·: .: : Vacuo~of thorax; necessaryfor'breething. When closing a.
i,.'!;'.Qp~u#u.p'*)y,heeies::~t;tsed by-airpas~ingJhrough narrowed thoracg~~y: infl*te· th~ Jun~s.= maximajly as ~e I~~ :cl~sra, ..
titi~y.$i0rf~i.piratioh·:ib,¢se.:M.eassoclated with spasm, neo- sutures·~ place~. · · .. ,... ..
t(:p.Jij~.::mµ~'':edema;: {oteigrr ooclies,. ot . ti'acheobronchial
f :[;)yfup~Qe.itQ.pathy. ·Oil· tilij>iration . l}tey are associated with
•.v ... ••• ,,•.·,:~••• ·:.
'tJW'i'9wi.,i)g·:(~Je~~is)·of
!tilf/:·
•.·.·.
.:·:=·:>;
•••••
_''.·:·:::::....
•• ••
. . .·_: .
me· larynx,
.• •
trachea, or principal bron- ··········~········

LOBECTOMY: the removal of a lung lobe. Trauma.and
r:, , ;ij~,qf~tion.~of
.. ..:... ~e oi: ~Qrmal so~nds are harsher and louder
~;;;.:.;;;;.,· ·.-~ ~" . . . . . . neoplasi? are two common indic·ations for this procedure. The
if:=: wmr~i)t~:-.,.,~~;_ : ':,.-=··· ····:· • bronchi and bronchjal vessels must be ligated;
326
· Chaptef VII
Urinaty System
327
URINARY SYSTEM 3. Capsular veins 299-Abdomen-3
Fig. VII-I - Cat - Kidney

.~ .
B
URINARY SYSTEM: considered part of the urogenital system, SPECIES DIFFERENCES
the urinary system includes the kidrieys, ureters, urinary bladder,
and urethra. The ureters connect the kidneys to the urinary Shape:
bladder, which empties to the outside through the urethra. • Bean-shaped and smooth (not lobated): carnivores, small
ruminants, pigs and the horse's left kidney.
:KIDNEYS (L. renes): functional organs of the urinary system • Heart-shaped and smooth: horse's right kidney.
that filter blood and produce urine. Both kidneys are located high • Lobated: ox
in the abdomen's lumbar region at the level of the thoracolumbar
junction. They are retroperitoneal (behind the peritoneum) and 3. Capsular veins: the normal, distinct veins under the cap-
against the crura of the diaphragm.
l. Right kidney: the more cranial kidney by a haifikfdney length.

l sule of the cat's kidney.
Mobile kidneys: the left kidney of the cat and ruminants

I!S cranial end is embedded in the renal impression (recess) of the hangs down into the abdominal cavity; thus, is not retroperi-
liver's caudate lobe, except in the J2ii. tonea!. The rumen pushes the left kidney to the right of the
median plane in ruminants.
2. Left kidney: the more caudal- kidney, except in the l2i& where
both kidneys are at the same level. Location: the right kidney is cranial to the left in all species,
except the pig where they are at the same level. The cat's
?ERlRENAL FAT: a mass of protective fat surrounding the kidneys are a level caudal to the dog's kidneys level.
'cidney and holding it in place.
Right kidney Left kidney
t1 1BROUS CAPSULE: the loosely attached (except at the hilus)
Dog T12-13 tp L2-3 Sllgbtiy more caudal
.:,)psule of collagenous and some elastic fibers ..:.:It peels away
Cat Ll to4 L3toS
easily from the healthy kidney.
Ox T13toL3 L1-3 to LS
Small rumtnants T13 to L2 1AtoL6
4. ADRENAL GLANDS (a-DREE-nal): paired glands located
Horse TlS-17 to Lt T16-18 to L2-3
against the roof of the abdominal cavity at the thoracolumbar
Pig Lt to lA LI tolA
junction. Cranial to the kidneys, except in the horse where they are
medial to the kidneys. They are endocrine glands producing ._.
.· .
·'·•
.;·,
:.nineralocorticoids (cortical, outer zone), glucocorticoids and sex CLINICAL . . .
hormones (cortical, inner zone) and norepinephrine and
epinephrine (medulla). The adrenal glands are part of the sympa- Nephritis (ne-FRY -us): inflammation of the kidneys.
thetic autonomic nervous system and participate in the "flight or . ··.
fight" response by dumping epinephrine into the blood stream. Phrenicoabdominal vein: passes over the ventral surface o
the adrenal gland. It is used to find the adrenal glands in
surgery. .
: .
KIDNEYS Abdomen-330
1. Rt. kidne.y
-.::: .
~-
,.:: .
.::::,
Fig. VII-2 - Dog - Kidney - dors. view ~
4. Adrenal gland ----.1.

b-~'-·-
.\ .
2. Lt. kidney
5. Hilus
B
Fig. VII-3 - Horse - Kidneys - ventr. view
\\
A. Bilua a. Aorta
B. Ureter b. Caud. vena cava
c. Renal a. & v. Fig. VII-4 - Ox - Kidneys - ventr. view
d. C.tliac a.
e. Cran. meaenteric a.
32
KIDNEYS
:-
,
Abdol,llen-331
.. -~ -
Fig. VII-5 - Dog - Rt. kidney - longitudinal section
-
--
--·~-·=
·- =:-
~- S. Renal crest J
.J
.j
~ 6. Renal pelvis 10
10. Renal hilus
8. Terminal recess
9. Renal sinus
Fig. VII-6 - Horse - Rt.,,:

kidney
- lo.ngitud-inal section
KIDNEY: composed of many lobes, each lobe consists of a

~ 5. Renal crest: the ridge resulting from complete fusion of the
mecullary pyramid capped by cortical tissue. The· apex of the
'ineduU~ pyramids, found in carnivores, small ruminants and
pyramid is the renal papilla. Fusion of kidney tissue accounts for horses.
the different types of kidneys. . .. ,
,._ .,....i.
.,-.;· .
. PROXIMAL END Qf the URETER: the part of the ureter
1. Cortex (i{OR-teks ): the outer layer of the kidney parenchyma
receiving urine from the renal papill~. Its shape varies depending
be1jeath the capsule; characterized grossly by its light color and on the species. ·
granular appearance. The cortex contains the renal corpuscles and
the convoluted parts of the renal tubules (Pg. 336)
•6.Renalpelvis(G.pye/osatubor~in):theemw<fedproximal
end of the ureters in kidneys· with a renal crest (carnivores, small
2. Medulla (me-Dlff.-ah): the inner layer of the kidney paren-
ruminants and horses), and in the pig (which has papillae).
chyma, characterized by its striated appearance. It contains col- . ·.. "'
lecting ducts and·nephric loops.
• 7.Calyx(KA Y-Iiks) (pl=calyces)(G.ka/yxcupof a flower): the
cup-shaped structure receiving urine from individual papillae in
J. Lobes (Fig. VII-8): the kidney units, obvious in the ox. but not . the ox and pig. In the ox individual calyces (KAL-iseez) empty
in the other domestic species. into two branches of the ureter (sometimes called major calyces).
· In the pig, calyces empty into a rerYatpetvis.
Renal papilla (REE-nal) : the apex of a kidney lobule that drips .. ~;:,;;~~ ..' .I,
urine into the proximal end of the ureter. The degree of fusion of 9. RENAL-SINUS: the potential space occupied by the ureter,
the lobes results in individual papillae or a renal crest branches of the renal artery and vein, and lymphatics and nerves
entering the kidney.
• 4. Individual papillae (Fig. VII-7): found in the ox and pig,
results from incomplete fusion of the medullary pyramids.
10. RENAL HILUS (HY-lus): the opening into the renal sinus
where the t ...~· 1ter and
0
. renal vessels enter the kidney.
.
330
KIDNEYS . •
.'•
.. '
\ . .. Abdomen-332
: '
. ... \ . ~.
4. Renal
papilla
1 Fig. VII-7 - Pig·- Kidney, opened
2
4. Renal papilla
a. Renal a.
b. Renal v.
c. Adrenal gland
Fig. VII-8 - Ox - Lt. kidney, opened

9. Renal sinus
Ureter
SPECIES DIFFERENCES
extensions that collect and carry urine from the kidney poles to
Papillae Renal crest Calyces Pelvis the small.renal pelvis. Different sources consider them either
large collecting ducts or diverticulum of therenalpelvis. (To the
Carnivores + + student this argument is the least of problems!).
Horse + +
Small ruminants
Ox +
+
+
+ Glands in the wall of the horse's renal pelvis: secrete mucous
which gives the horse's urine a turbid appearance. I
I· ·
Pig + + + ·. •
·An these renal terms (sinus, pelvis, hilus, crest) are confusing for
Smooth kidneys: appearance results from complete fusion of the student. Organize structures into those that are part of the
the kidney cortical tissue - carnivores, horse, pig and small kidney parenchyma, those that are part of the ureter; and those
ruminants. Kidneys of the dog, goar and sheep are hard to that are neither. ·
distinguish grossly.·
Kidney Ureter Neither
Pig: has a smooth kidney due to fused cortical tissue, but has
Cortex +
un(used medullary tissue resulting in papillae in a smooth Medulla +
kidney. It has no renal crest. · · Papillae +
Renal crest +
Lobated kidney: found in the ox, resulting from incomplete Terminal recess +? +?
fusion of kidney lobes. It has calyces and papillae, but no renal Calyces +
pelvis. Renal pelvis +
Renal sinus +
Renal hilus +
8~ Terminal recesses - horse {Fig. VII-6): the long tube-like
331
,,
••
Abdomcn-333
-~----1. Cortex·
2. Med.ulla
'
3. Renal crest
a 5. Renal sinus
pelvis ·:-----~H--'t{-
~!!-------'-----1. Renal
-U----------6. Ureter~-~---:--------u-
Terminal rece
Dog - Cross section

Horse - Sagittal section
1. Cortex
8. Calyx
Lobule
1. Renal pelvis
Pig - Sagittal section h
Ox - Sagittal section
i-4. ~nal tiaaue 6. Renal ainu, a. Glomerulua
:t. C6rtex e. Pelvic rece,a
6. Ureter b. Collecting ducta f. Major calyx (pig)
~ Medulla 7. Renal pelvit c. Medullary raya
$, Renal creat 8. Calyx d. P.ieudopapilla
i· Minor calyx (pig) Fig. VII-9-12 - Kidneys, showing tissue
~. Papillae h. Br. of ureter {ox}
of kidney & ureter
332
URINARY SYSTEM
Abdomen-334
--
,.._
Rt. adrenal aland
Lt. adrenal gland
Rt. kidney--~ .....
~.,.__ __ Lt. kidney
Renal a.
Ureter
G
A. Xiphoid cartil&.ge
B. Diaphragm
c. eaval foramen
D. Eaophagua --.. Lat. Ug~ of
E. Cru1 of Diaphragm bladder
F. Aorta
C. Te1ticular a.
H. P10u ·major m.
I. Deferent duct
J. Int. inpinal ring Urinary bladder
K. Ext. iliac a.
L. hit. iliac a.
M. Peru. (cut) Opening of ureter
a. COiatal pan of diaphragm
b. TendinoUI center of diaphragm
e, Median 1acral a.
d. G.enitaJ fold
Fig. VIl-13·· - Horse - Abdomen, opened ventrally, viscera·& caud.

vena ca va removed, urinary bladder opened
333
.~
•
.
&
)
·/
KIDNEYS Abdomen-335
Fig. VIl-14 Dog - Kidney

• cross section
a
2
.Pelvis
Ureter
1. Cortex
2. Medulla
S. Renal creat
4. Renal pelvis
5 . Ureter
6. ~nal a.
7. Renal v.
8. Arcuate a.
a. Medullary ray
•·
b. Fat in renal sinus
e. Paeudopapilla
d. Pelvic r-ecesa
e. Area occupied by pseudopapil)ez;i
,
i Fig. VII-IS - Dog - Cast of
renal pelvis
334
KIDNEY - ARTERIAL SUPPL V Abdomen-336
Glomerulus
Afferent arteriole
Efferent
Interlobular a.
Fig. VII-16 - Blood supply to kidney

Arcuate a.
\ ·...
·.
----F
Interlobar a.
Renal a. Straight vessels

( vasa rec.a)\
Interlobular a.
Arcuate a.
Ureter-...-..JL!../
A. G lomerular capaule
B. Prox. convoluted tubule
C. Nephric loop·
D. Diet. convoluted tubule
E. Collecting tubule
F. Collecting duct
a. Pseudopapillae
Fi1. VII-17 - Doa • Kidney b. Pelvic recesses
·• parasagittal section
/
NEPHRON Abdomen·337
·.
. .. '
NEPHRON (NEF-ron): the microscopic, functional unit of the .
{''Nepbrectomy. (Gr. nephfqs, ki<lney. + 'ekiome, excision):;:·
•,•
kidney, consisting of a urine-producing tubule and a renal corpus- (
cle. Collecting ducts (not a part of the nephron) carry the urine "
.·:;reinc;>\i~·i(e.xcision) of a la4tley. A}ways'check that the:other... produced by the nephron to the renal pelvis •
. $ey-'is.~rit an'd. funttibhiilg first. Aifu check f()f do.Ubl~:'
,.: renal'arteries
. .. .
•. . ·. · · ·· ·'.
:· .-.:~ ;.:·.~::.:;>:.
·; · . ..
· ·. . ·· ' :
1.Renalcorpuscle(KOR-pus'l):theglomerulusandtheglomeru-
'#ep.y (Gr. i,epfki;;.:+, roiflt;;~ Cuuiii~){~ml: lar capsule.
.
·ip<:~~'in_tc;>
.·' ..· -, .
a. kidney.
.
''flili; -~·~.. ~doe·
.. ·.~. . .
~fteJt)O~ a·gt}C.~~ ..
. .. . ~;<:..~~ ", 2. Glomerulus (gloh-MER-y~lus): a tuft of arterial capillaries
associated with di~ glomerular capsule .
. -~~ion~~~ritis (py'e-l~h~~Pfu:.usi :coit·~yelos, petifi,:~: :
. iJepliros *,ii~)): inflamniation of t&ffi~~y and 'its.pe.Ivis: :_· :-':
• •
..
• • • •
.
• • ¥
. ,•..
•• ••
. . .. . . :• ' • • ': : •••

3. Afferent arteriole: the small vessel entering the glomerulus.
Reflat biopsy: iherefnoy~\;trenal nssue tQ~ histopattj~Iogi~. :: 4. Efferent arteriole: the small vessel leaving the glomerulus.
.•
e··v·~.. ,·ua· ·.;-on···.. ·
.. ·.·':"~- ..... _( ·.
.:.· · ··
.r, . .;.. ~·-·.·..
·.
.
· .:.,. ·.: ·
_.~ •. -·. :: ·..•
·
.
· ·., v-,
. : .~---.
::
·_·;.
••• •
,~-n~~{:.piish the: 1eft-1Hdhey per.-'r~.tiiiri agai11$t·. die:Jeft ': 5. Vascular pole of the glomerulus: the point at which the afferent
.. araliimbai·fo~ atid 'direct the''bi<>"' ... ·,needle:·lh:rdu<i{:ui~-':' and efferent arterioles enter and leave the glomerulus. ·
:~~t:- · . ·.,· :·:)i,: ·:·.: ': :·,_.. ·:: :·: r;:: :·:_·. · . . . · ·;-:f:1/ : , :
.: ~- (j,t~ as ;mlhe '1orse per recttfhi;··Q~tj,·u~g-UJ·~kidney~ tli'~rigJif,,
r J)aratuinbar fossa. . . . '... ·:·: : : : ·.. . . . . ··:··· .· ·. . : ,., ,:- . ,: . 6. Glomerular (Bowman's) capsule: the double-waUed, c~
shaped, expanded end of the renal tubule surrounding the glomeru-
f • b_og:· oblique iQtisio1f' in· ilie'-~iodorsal of the ~~le lus. It has a visceral layer and a parietal layer.
J p~lilm~ Iossa Holdthe kidney against the wait· with, a
I finger and insert the needle through a ..separate puncture Site.
• 7. Visceral layer: surrounds the glomerulus (capillary tuft) .
. •·C~t: palpate the kidney :~gai!}~t ·the abdominal walland ·
· dj.r~c·t r.~~,jie~lle ~n&bjbe.· wa_lf, . ,
··. .. ·:···: .. • 8. Parietal layer: surrounds the urinary space. the visceral layer
. . .. ·'::·· . . .. ~
(Fron1 App6ed
and the glomerulus. It is continuous with the visceral layer at the
. Veterinary'A~~my,·Habel
. . . . . . andde Lahunta, .1986),
. · .• glomerulus' vascuiar pole.
. _Ec:op~i'u~~lers: a. ure~i teniiinatis}somep~~ ··~b~:; :;~at. • 9. Urinary space. or space of. Bowman's capsule: lite. space ,._-
f than die: urinarv bladdet - Uterus, vagina, or uretlii1L .-·Ttii~ :·. between visceral and parietal: layers of the glomenilar capsule. ;: ·
i :_·.:resillts·iii. utjnary incontirlerice·{qrif:5J)t'it)g ·ririne ):·This"affec~-::: Fluid is filtered from the glomerulusthrough die visceral layer of "'
i:_ ~ri1.y!'tpr breeds more thali'.~g~_bieeg~':li~fuI?laD~~i!-~tirs!·:
the glomerular capsule, collects in this space, and drains into the
b;td~~p1i9_~ng the obli"qqepa~ througft:lli<f Wall ofthe urlo¥Y ~- luraen of t.,e tubular part of-the nephron.
.. • oladder
. . .
~()" pi.event refl"u£of."utl',
• ...
.e nj'
•••
it_.i. reter.
.•
.. ·. '=-: :::···. t:.•·• ·~ .>·:~
.' i\~~:~ai·:~~!pationo~·
'e " :,it ,...; nvelonephritis'"• . . ..
·ii~·-:uf'e;~rs/:. ·' :_~:;.:' ;·:$.;;t~. iri. c~-. ·.~· ..t;~-~ ,..·.,.·~. ...i~',.,:'/'.':~· Tubular part of the n~phron: consists of the proximal convo-
luted tubule, the nephric loop, and the distal convoluted tubule.
: :· . <~~... ···: . ··-, ~ ... . . . .. - :. ..::
!O. F.-oximal C9.nvoluted tubule: the longest pan of the nephron,

: :· f~tei~t·(~crsisttn~)ur~hu~: c9nnti~:i,i~~iuinaiy bl~~~¢~ tri:_~·- a twisted t1.at.: extending from the· glomerular capsule toward the
:/~\~~~ilic_tjs.It uswilly_.degenerates· a«tr:b~_: If.~t: it;: medulla. whe1-e it s.iaightens into the nepbric loop.
:~us¢.s:C:unne'lo dribbltffrom the µmtiilitus; and sh9Qld,-1»: .:
. s'urg·
. it_:"'.i.1v.r.~m.oved. · .·:·::·:._; ·.·. · ·. .. ;: ·:- . ·.· . -·. :·.:. -. . :::_.'.:
" ..,. .... . ... -:... ·:.:. 11. Nepbric loop or loop of Renie: descends into the. medulla and
. . .:···.. ·:..
•,
~· . ·:··........:·.~·:·.·::.· . . . ·.. ::-. .··.. ·... . . . . . .,
••• • • • • r- :-. - • : • ' • " •• • ,•• •• ·••• • •• •
. . "·. ·.. . . ...•.
: c·· stifis:-:'inflar~·unatio~:;bf.-Oje.:urln ;.;: :.-bladder. . . : . • ·: - _"·,:·. then ascends to continue· as the distal w~voluted tubule. It has
thick and thin parts.
: _/:: ~:- ·?::i_.... ','.·:·. ':.-· . . ~-- .. :.,;·:·;:,:}?{('• ;. : ~::;_·::·,-~: : ·:. ·, ... ::.-:·.: · .... ?.:.,::::;:
,_. ·Qr:ii1~·~.Y:-:c~kuli (sin.~culus)~ ··an· a}m.orinar co~i~tlofr'lli:·· 12. Distal convoluted tubule: continues die nephric loop cl~.:~ to
: ·. ~Y'. P~fof.ilie ~nacy.;~Y.stem. ~t .i~·'yes1~w~ ~hin m:~¢. ·. the glomerulus and then joins the collecting ducts. ·
>bfudd~r "aiid·renat' \vhen·~Iji.,the renal ·wlv1s: Sorne are· iadl0: ·
·:\~.art~_soine ~ ra~9.}u~enL. . ·. ·, ... : 13. COLLECTING .. DUCTS: ~e long tubes receiving urine
·.. . . : . , <
.···•
·· -:cystotofuy: ~pen1ng cif\ilie:_urirrary''b.ladd~r. . . .·. from the distal convoluted tubules, They run through the medulla,
.. . . . - ... . . joining other collecting ducts to open onto the renal crest or
indivtdual papillae as papillary ducts. These are not considered
. : Cystoceiitesis: lapping'&f~ urinary.bladder with a r~e..fu: part of the nephron. ·
: remoy~ urine. Tru_s may;pe ~ecessary· tcrprevent rup!µre,of a.·
. bladder . iil'tomcatS
. . . that-'have
. .
·urethral'calctili.
. .. . ...
:-. ·.
.•. '
14. Papillary ducts: the openings of the collecting duct onto the
... ...• ·!· .· •.· renal crest or individual papillae, depending on the species.
. .... · . .. . -· . '
336
NEPHRON Abdomen-338
// 6. Glomer\lar capsule
9. Urinary space
7. Visceral layer
8. Parietal layer
2. Glomerulus ·•.
3. Afferent....._
arteriole ----
•
5. Vascular pole -
4. Efferent arteriole
·:.·
12. Dist. convoluted tubule
13. Collecting duct
/·
'
11. Nephric loop----
Fla. VI~-18 - Nep hron ( schematic} ---..;:;;;;;;;;;;;;;:::;;;:;:;;;;=:;;;;:;;;;i;-::;;;;;i.___,;;::;;~
337
...
tf•
URINARY BLADDER Abdomen-442
5. Lt. kidney
Fig-. VII-19 - Horse - Topographic
anatomy - cran. view
,
'I
A .. Rt. adrenal gland
B. Lt. ad!:'enal gland
C. Rectum :
D. Deferent duct
E. Deep inguinal ring
F. Sup(. inguinal ring
G . Vaginal ring
H. Parietal yaginal tunic
I. Psoae major m.
J, Psoas minor m.
K. Transverse abdominal m.
L. Int. abdominal oblique m.
M. Rectus abdominis m.
N. Aorta
0. Caud. vena c·ava
P. Celiac a.
Q. Cran. mesenteric a.
R. Testicular a.
S. Ext. iliac a.
T. Pudendoeplgastrie trunk
U. Int. iliac a.
4. Lat. lig.
a. 12th thoracic vertebra
b. Costal cartilage
c. Sacral In. 3. Median lig.
. 2. Urinary bladder
..
,
r
1. URETER (yoo-REE-ter): the paired fibromuscular tubes car- Trigone of the urinary bladder: the internal area of the dorsal
rying urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. Located bladder between the two ureteral openings and the start of the
retroperitoneally along the dorsal abdominal wall, each ureter urethra.
runs caudal1y to the brim of the pelvis. They pass ventral to the
ductus deferens, loop around the rectum and internal genitalia to Ligaments of the Urinary Bladder: the three connecting perito-
the reach tpe urinary bladder's dorsal surface. The ureters pass neal folds reflected from the urinary bladderonto the abdominal
through the urinary bladder's wall at an acute angle, preventing and pelvic walls. The median (ventral) ligament (3) reflects from
backflow and still allowing urine to empty into a full bladder by the bladder's ventral surface to the pelvic floor and abdominal
peristaltic action. wall, as far cranially as the umbilicus. The urachus is the vestigial
structure from the apex of the bladder to the umbilicus in the
2. URINARY BLADDER: the greatly distensible pouch receiv- medial ligament The two lateral ligaments (4) connect the sides
ing and storing urine from tbe kidneys for release out the urethra. of the bladder to the lateral pelvic wall. The round ligament of the
The empty bladder lies almost entirely within the pelvic cavity, bladder, a remnant of the umbilical arteries of the fetus, travel in
but with distention extends into the abdominal cavity. The bladder the edge of the lateral ligaments.
has a free apex, a body. and a neck.
338
- Chapter VIII .
Reproductive System
i
l -·
.• "
. 339
• f. ~
l. ... -'-"
·)· )
•< •
• ; ~ 4
. ,.,. '
f 4 •
OVARIES 220-Pclvis-341
6. Uterine opeala1 . "'

(inside) . . ,,
:~'?~( . ~j
I: . I .
,
' ! , . •
/• •.• tI • I
' • !
,------ E
I'
\ .: I
. I
a ,.. ""'' ~ .
G '\ '\
B
Fig. VIII-1 - Bitch • Lt. ovary,
ovarian bursa opened
1. Ovary Serous layer

b
2. Uterine tube
· Fig. VIII-2 - Bitch - Lt. ovary & uterine

.=-:--- -~
----
- ....
tube, broad Iig. removed
4.
b
5. Abdominal opening 6. Uterine opening
. · (inside)
3. Inf undibulum
1. OVARIES (Ofl-var-ees): the female gonads homologous to the duct running from the ovary, between the layers of the
the male testicles. The ovaries are round or oval and may be mesosalpinx (pg. 348), to the tip of the uterine horn. It conveys the
codular. They function in the maturation of the female germ cells oocytes or fertilized egg from the ovary to the uterus and conveys
(oocytes) and in hormone production. The visceral peritoneal sperm toward the ovary. It is the site of fertilization of the ootid.
covering of the ovary is called the superficial epithelium; The
tunica albuginea (white tunic) is the condensed connective tissue 3. Infundibulum (L. funnel): the expanded, funnel-shaped ovar-
underlying the epithelium surrounding the ovary. ian end of the uterine tube.
Cortex: the outer zone of the ovary. It is composed of follicles in 4. Fimbrlae (L. fringes): the irregular, finger-like projections on
various stages of development, corpora lutea, and connective the free edge of the inf undibulum. At ovulation, they pick up the
tissue stroma. oocyte from the surface of the ovary and direct it to the
infundibulwn.
Medulla: the central area of the ovary. It contains blood vessels.
nerves, lymphatics, smooth muscle fibers and connective tissue Abdominal opening of the uterine tube: the opening in the
fibers. center of the inf undibulum. It is the only opening of the peritoneal
cavity to the outside in t'1e female animal. The male has no such
2. UTERINE T4.Jlr.E{YOO-ter-in) C'oviducr" orfallopian tube): opening.
" ·o
.}4
OVARIES Pelvis-342
6. Uterine opening
Fla. VIII-4 - Cow • Lt. ovary

D 2 & uterine tube
2. Uterine tube
5. Abdominal opening
3
1. Ovary
4. Flmbrlae
Fig. VIIl-3 - Mare - Rt. ovary & uterine tube

D
1. Ovary
· 4. Fimbriae 4
E -···-·· ·-· -·
. ... . ./~·
5
3
Fig. VIII-S - Cow - Lt. ovary, mesosalpinx

moved to show ovarian bursa
2. Uterine tube
A.. Muovarium
B. Meaoaalpinx
C. Ovarian bursa
D. Proper lie, of ovary
E. Meaometrium
F. Uterine horn
G. Su.penaory lie. {carnivores)
3. Infundibulum
a. Laat rib
b. Round lie. of uterus
Fia. VIII-6 - Sow - Ovary, mesosalpinx cut
•
SPECIES DIFFERENCES
cortex being in the center surrounded by the medulla.
Location of the Ovaries:
7. Ovulation fossa: the central depression in the mares's
ovary where ovulation takes place.
mtdi,queenandmare:liecaudal tothekidneysinthesublurnbar ---------------------
qion.
Cow, ewe·andsow:. .lie.atthe pelvic inlet due to caudal migration.

..
. .
~· ~-
.. Mare: the cortex and medulla of the ovary are reversed, the ·
•
341
··. ··: , .
UTERUS
Pelvis-343
:..---G
Ovary
Uterine tube ..-J.\ :i '•
.
'
t
__
-e
'
f -
......,..... ~
5. Uterine horn
• '••
Urinary bladder ''
1.~ U terus
. .
Fig. VIII-7 - Bitch - Reproductive
. tract, opened - dors. view
~--- 2. Cervix
.....
'
Vaginal fornlx
3. Cervical canal
Vagina---..;.
· Ext, urinary orff'lce
·. ,•
Vestibule
. \,
Clitoris
d
1. UTERUS (YOO-te-rus)(G. hystera): the highly expandable, 4. Body: the pan of the uterus between the cervix and the-uterine
~~~~f organ where the ~~}?ryolfetus develops, horns. It opens into each uterine horn and into the cervix. The body
of the uterus lies dorsal to. the urinary bladder and ventral to the
2. Cervix (SER-viks)(L. neck): the constricted caudal part of the descending colon and rectum.
uterus joining the uterus to the vagina, 'It usually is located in the
pelvic cavity. • 5. Uterine horns: the two musculomembraneous extensions of
the uterine body which are continuous cranially with the uterine
~· Cervical canal: the channel through the cervix. Having open- tubes. They are located entirely within the abdomen.
ings at both ends (the internal uterine ostium and the external .: ,
ostium) it is closed, except during estrus and birth. I, •
\.,
'
342
UTERUS
Pelvis-344
Uterine tube
l' ,.
I
v / /' : ,,,,>'··'
1
~ .,~
..... •~
Fig. VIII-8 - Mare - Reproductive

tract opened - dors.view
Vagina
A. Broad Jig.
B. Mesovarium
C. Mesosalpinx
D. Ovarian bursa
E. Mesometrium
G. SuspenB-Ory lig.
(carnivores}
a. Int. uterine·orifice
b, Ext. uterine orifice
e, Ventr. commisaure Vestibule
d. Fossa clitoridia
e. Constrictor vestibuli m. Vulva--;~
i Constrictor vulvae m.
g. Openings of minor
vestibular glands
SPECIES DIFFERENCES
horns and continue back parallel to each other. They are bound
Uterine horns and body: together by the intercomual ligaments, giving the false impres-
sion of a long uterine body.
Carnivores and sow: very long horns compared to their body,
Caruncles (L. carunculae, small fleshy mcWCS): theregularly-
an adaptation for litter bearing (carrying several developing
young). spaced, circu1artoovoid, internal, specialized thickeningsofthe
ruminant'sendometrium,makingupthematemalcomponentof
the placenta. The fetal component is the cotyledon. Togethezthe
Mare: relatively short horns, of equal length to its uterine body.
caruncle and the cotyledon make up a placentome. 'The
placetomes enlarge during pregnancy and can be palpated to
Cow and ewe: long horns and short bodies like.the carnivores estimate the stage of pregnancy. t • "
and pig. The ends of the uterine horns are coil~ up like ram' s
343
UTERUS
Pelvis-34S
Fig. VIII-9 - Cow - Reproductive tract, 6. Intercornual Hg. ,-

opened - dors. view 1. L'......
.
J
6. Intercornual ligg.
-» '
A··.
2 \
E
/
,, I I
7. Spiral f .old .. ·
J I
r
Fig. VIII-10 - Cow - Gertital organs,

.... : ,.,.:
cran. aspect
-
....
1. Uterus a. Int. uterine orifice I. Vulva

2. Uterine horn b. Ext. uterine orifice bl. Urinary bladder
S. Uterine body e. Ventr. commissure n. Clitoris
4. c~nix: d. Foasa clitoridis o. Labium
5. Cervi~ canal e, Constrictor veatibull m. p. Vaginal fombc
t. Constrictor vulvae m. . . ....
A .. Broad Jig.
iB: Meaovariwn
g. Hymen ~-
b. Ovary
IC. Mesoaalpinx i. Uterine tube
'D. Ovarian bursa j. Vagina
E: Meaometriwn It. Veatibule
I SPF;CJF$ DIFFERENCES (fomix).
6. Intercornual ligaments: dorsal and ventral ligaments con- 'J. Spiral. folds • cow and ewe: have a .. very long cervix,
. necnng the uterine horns in the cow and·™· ,f~~ed by ttansverse folds- that interdigitate with e..ach
other to effectively occlude, along wi_th tf)e mucous secretions,
,Cervix
the cervical canal. It is open only during estrous and parturition ..
Mare and carnivores: have a simple cervix bulging into the 8. Pulvini (L. puivinuss. cushion): the mounds or cushions in the
vagina (portio vaginalis) to form a distinct vaginal recess sow that interdigitate with each other, closing the canal. . ..
344
UTERUS
Pelvis-346
2
8. Pulvini (sow)
h
Fig. VIIl-11 - Sow· Reproductive tract,

opened - dors. view
I .
' :~
345
•• !
VAGINA - \IESTRBULE - VULVA
Pelvis-347
1. Vagina
2. Vestibule
A
.. . . 7. Urethra
A. Ovary 3. Ext. ·u:rethral orifice

B. Uterine horn
8. Vagina I recess : 4. Clitoris
C. Uterine body
D. Cervix
a. Sacrum
b. Rectum
c. Anal canal Fig. VIII-12 - Bitch - Reproductive tract - median section
d. Pelvic symphysis
• !
. . -
1. VAGINA (va-JY-na): the part of the reproductive tract be- 6.Labia(LAY-bee-a)(sin.=Iabium):therightandleftlipsofthe
tween the cervix and the vulva. With the vestibule and vulva, it is vulva. The vulvar cleft is the opening between the labia leadll,lg
the female's copulatory organ and the birth canal. The hymen is into the vestibule.
the poorly developed, vestigial, mucosa] folds at the junction of · -
the vagina and the vestibule. -· 4. CJitoris (CLI-to-ris): the homologue of the male penis, located
· ·. within the ventral commissure of the vulva. The clitoris has left
2. VESTIBULE (VES-ti.:byool) (L. vestibulum, antechamber): and right crura that attach to the ischiatic arch. The crura come
the part of the reproductive tract belonging to both the urinary m;d together to form the body. The glans is the only exposed partofthe
the genital systems. It connects the vagina with the external clitoris. Theglansisintheclitoralfossasurroundedbytheclitoral
genital opening*, me vulva. · prepuce.
3. External urethral orifice: ·the urethral · opening at · the

vaginovestib.ular .junction. This opens on a papilla, the urethral 7. FEMALE URETHRA (yoo-REE-thra): the tube transporting
tubercle , in the carnivores. · urine from the urinary bladder-through the external urethralorifice
to the vestibule.
.
5. VULVA (VUL-va): the external orifice that terminates the
genital tract. . Urethral (urethralis) muscle: the skeletal muscle covering die
lateral and ventral sides of the urethra. The sphincter formed by
•The shallow human vesti1ru!eis included in the external genitalia. In quadrupeds,
the urethral muscle is under voluntary control.
j·
where it is much longer, it is considered an internal rather than an external organ.
l
~
346
VA,,_··:.~JA - VESTIBULE - VULVA
P(!lvis-348
·'
~ ~.... r, ..
..... " . -.
. a I .:} .: f , ... / ., I
'.
- . _.· •' i. . ;~ .-J
.- - . . I ~
~..
. .
•• ~t-··
, .i·
,.,... __ ,
,
>
,1 ... ,_ •
. ,· . . - - ;
:-..
,'. •
•
• : , :,:
""
- i
- , .. --.
•••
,.: ,y~ .. --
c . ·I . . . _, .. ..
;;.· .. . ,
'
9. Subu~ethral
di verticulum
Fig. VIII-13 - Cow - Reproductive tract

- median section
SPECIES DIFFERENCES
C'gtands of Bartholin"); the bitch. ewe, mare and sow have
minor vestibular glands.
8. Vaginal fornix (recess): the cranioventral recess formed by
the cervix bulging into the vagina (portio vaginalis) in the mare
and bitch. The cow and ewe have a craniodorsal recess. Os clitoridis: a homologue os penis is found radiographically
in some bitches.
V esribular bulbs: the organized erectile venous plexuses in the
vestibular walls of the mare and bitch. During the dog's "tie"
the bulbs· are erect and press against the penis caudal to the
enlarged bulb of the glans. ·
9. Suburethral divertieulum: the blind pocket just cranial and

ventral to the external urethral opening in the sow and cow. This
is clinically important when catheterizing a cow.
Ye$tibular glands: open into the vestibule and lubricate the

:-epr0ductive organs during parturition and copulation. The cow,
queen, and sometimes the ·ewe have major vestibular g!ands
BROAD LIGA·MENT
Pelvis-349
Fig. VIII-14 - Bitch

- Genital tract
- lat. view
6. Suspensory Iig.
of ovary
3. Mesosalpinx
-
g
. , 7:rr
' ' ,,
fl,'I
I :,
I
7. Vaginal process
4. Ovarian ' ' A. Ovary
i B. Uterine horn
C. Uterine body
D.Vagina
E. Labium
F. Vulvar deft
a. Sacrum
b. Rectum
c.Anua
d. Urinary bladder
e. Med. lig. of bladder
C; Lat. lig. o! bladder
g. Urethra
2. Proper Ilg, of ovary h. Round lig. of uterus
I. Ureter (VIII-6)
Fig. VIII- 15 -:- Bitch - Lt. ovary, ovarian
· bursa opened
BROAD LIGAMENT: the fold of connecting peritoneum (se- 3. Mesosalpinx (mes'oh-SAL-pinks) (G. salpin tube or trumpet):
rosa) connecting the visceral peritoneum of the female reproduc- the lateral fold arising from the mesovarium that holds the uterine
tive tract to the parietal peritoneum of the abdominal wall. It is tube between its two layers. The mesosalpinx is the only portion
subdivided into portions supporting individual parts of the repro- of the broad ligament not direct! y attached to the abdominal wall
ductive tract mesovarium, mesosalpinx and mesometrium.
4. Ovarian (oh-V Ak-ee-an) bursa: the small peritoneal cavity
1. Mesovarium (mes'oh-VAY-ree-um): the cranial part of the
formed by the mesosalpinx and mesovarium into which projects
broad ligament attaching the ovary to the dorsolateral abdominal the ovary.
wall. · ·
Mesometrium (mes'oh-MEE-tree-um): the part of the broad
• 2. Proper ligament of the ovary or ovarian ligament: the ligament· attaching the uterine horns and body to the dorsolateral
caudal continuation of the mesovarium' s cranial free edge con- body wall. The round ligament of the uterus (e) is the caudal
necting the ovary to the end of the uterine horn.
continuation of the proper ligament of the ovary and is located in
348
BROAD LIGAMENT Pelvis-350
J
.
1 ----.a..
"!. '
Fig. VIII-16 - Mare - Genital tract - lat. view
the free edge of a secondary fold off the mesometrium. It of the pelvis; much farther caudal than the other domestic i
extends through the inguinal canal. species.
Structures associated with the broad ligament: 7. Vaginal process: the evagination of the parietal and visceral
peritoneum through the inguinal canal (iri the carnivores). It
Ovarian vessels: the blood supply to the ovary traveling in the contains the round ligament of the uterus.
mesovarium.
Uterine vessels: the blood supply to the uterus traveling in the CLINICAL. ,...... · :... , . ." , · .·.·.···I
mesometrium. Upon reaching the uterus they course cranially ... · >,.-·.,,,:..<: ·:· . .: /':,:_., ·;_,: : : :·.,. :':,:;:::;}?.: .... ·. . ,.:::- .:.\.:: )
along the sides of U)e',uterus and uterine horns to anastomoses :'~µ~pe~s~~y'lfgafuenfoft)le0\fary".{6): broken When $P~S?ug·:,
. of the ovarian arteries and velns,
I
wilh the uterine bnfuches
t: J( bi.{cf{ufbtj~g)he9V~. to.tfl~:fu~sion,Site. . .' .. : ·_,:'(":···_::
:-· . . . . . '
. ·•· .
SPECIES DIFFERENCES
6. Suspensory ligament of the ovary: the mesovarium 's cra-

nial free edge attaching the ovary to the last rib. present only in
the carnivores.
Mesosalpinx: completely covers the ovary, except for a small

Slitinthebitch. Inthecow.~andmareitislessextensive,just
"draping" over the ovary.
Cow: lbe broad ligament is attached along the pelvic inlet

.. imteadof thedorsolateral body wall. The horns of the uterus coil
-. ·. back on themselves, placing the ovaries just cranial to the brim
349
..... .",
GENITAL ORGANS - HORSE - COW Pclvis-351
----- Fig. VIIl-17 - Horse - Abdominal cavity,

topographical - caud. view
' ....
7. Ovulation fossa (horse)
(
I
4. Uterine horn
6. Urinary bladder
'\
~---- -·- .. - . ---

8. Dors. intercornual
lig. (rumtnants)
1-2. Broad lig. A. Epaxial mm.

1. Mesovarium B. Hypaxial mm.
2. Meaometrium C. Reetus abdominis m.
S. Ovary · -D. Ureter
4. Uterine horn E. Aorta
5. Body'ofuterus F. Caud. venacava
6. Urinary bladder G. Ovarian a.
7. Ovulation fossa (horse} H. Uterine a.
8. Dora. intercornual . I. De~ending colon
lig. (ruminants)
a. Lat. Jig. of bladder ·"·
b. Med. Jig. of bladder
c. 5th lumbar vertebra
d. Abdominal wall
e, Mesocolon
,.
'.
l '
Fig. VIII-18 - Cow - Abdominal cavity,

topographical - caud. view
350 ' ,
GENITAL ORGANS - COW Pelvis-352
3. Body of uterus
6. Broad l~g.
I '. '\i1 .... •1 '·' • •) ,. ••
: . ·,·" . . . .
.4. ..
~... :,._~ \ H .. ,;.·:
·.: . . \' .~
i
! .
\
.
·-·.
.,> . .. ,. _,. . . .. _
:; -; '
,.._ .
.. . ... ... ...
: : .l.:
-~.~ -
._4.
';)-..,:. . ,; :• .-. :,•.: ,.... ':'· f.. : ••
:· ..,,.,._._ ..
·. •/, .._ '-1.<>•'
--· .... , \"'C_.. :-- ... ~
, ...
::~··.;..::
•
~·.;.:~J,>
)·2
··.:·:.,,i7
•.
'.. ... ·-··· '":'.:"~

. ..
N'
• • •
4. Vagina
S. Vulva
7. Urlnary bladder
/ I
F.,, I
/
. '
.•'
I . .i.
J
i
'
·i
~
..
~
Fig. VIII-19 - Ox - Pelvic region • sagittal section
A. Descending colon G. Teat M. Rectus abdominis m.

B. Sigmoid loop of colon ,H. Sacrum N. Rt. internal iliac a.
C. Rectum i. Coccygeus m. 0. Rt. external iliac a.
· D. Anus J. Levator m. ani . P. Pudendoepigastric trunk
E. Retroperitoneal area K. Transverse abdominal m. Q. Ext. pudenda! a·.
F. Body .of udder L. Int. abdominal oblique m.
. .
351
. ·.:,. ... ,, -. , . .
I .'
-"; ~ I
EMBRYONIC MEMBRANES Pelvis-353
3.. Chorion...
2. Amniotic cavity " 5. Chorioallantois
4. Allaotois
'•
a. Allantoic cavity
b. Yolk stalk Fig. VIIl-20 - Horse - Extraembryonic
c. Urachus membranes (schematic)
d. Umbilical stalk
• t
EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMBRANES: membranes formed from the mother to thefetus; and waste products from the fetus to
around thy embryo for protection and implantation in the maternal the mother. It also fi:as endocrine functions and forms a barrier
endometrium.
between fetal and maternal blood.
1. Amnion: the inner embryonic membrane surrounding the Fetal(;omponent:formedbythethreelayersofthechorioallantoic
amnionic cavity and fetus. membrane, as follows:
2. Amniotic cavity: the cavity encompassed by the amnion and 6. Fetal endothelium: lines the allantoic blood vessels.
filled with amnionic fluid, providing the fluid environment that
protects the fetus. · ·. i ': 1~ ~Fetal connective tmue or the ehorioallantois: mesoderm
surrounding the blood vessels.
3. Chorion: the outer embryonic membrane surrounding the
allantoic cavity, amnion, amniotic cavity, and fetus. This layer 8. Chorionic epithelium: the surface layer of the chorioallantoic
makes up the fetal component of the placenta. membrane.
. ~
":
4. Allantois: anevaginationfrom the hindgut, Th~traembcyonic Maternal Component: consistsofthreelayersoftheendometriwn
membrane lines the inside of the choridlt forming the (uterine mucosa), as follows:
chorioallantoic membrane. It also lines the outside of the amnion,
forming the allantoamnion. This layerprovides the vasculature to 9. Maternal epithelium or the endometrium (uterine lamina
the two membranes (chorion and amnion) it lines.· epithelialis).
5. Cborioallantois: the fused chorion and allantois. · 10. Maternal connective tisme: surrounds the vessels of .the
endometrium.
PLACENTA: the snucture formed by apposition of fetal and
maternal tissue. It functions to exchange nutrients and oxygen 11. Maternal endothelium: lines the vessels of theendomeUium(.:
. '-v
352
PLACENTAL TYPES Pelvis-354
A. Epitheliochorial placenta: has all six layers

(three fetal and three maternal). seen in the cow
horse. JU&, and ruminants.
• Adeciduate (a=net, deciduus:falling oft) pla-
centa: the maternal component is not sloughed Placentome
during birth (horse and w.&.). .
,. f I ' -
. '
• Partially deciduate placenta: part of the

endomettium (maternal component) is sloughed
off (ruminants).
B. Endo~eliochorial placenta: found in the

carnivores. The maternal epithelium and con-
nective tissue layers are absent, the maternal
endotheliu,m being in direct contact with the CARNIVORE
chorionic.epitheJium.
• Deelduate placenta: found in carnivores, the

maternal endomettium is lost during binh.
HORSE
Fig. VIII-22 - Placentae
A. EPITHELIOCHORIAL CLASSIFICATION of the PLACENTA: shape and

vascular arrangement of the apposition of maternal and
fetal tissues.
12. DitTuse placenta: horse and pig; apposition over

mo.st of the chorioalJantois by villi and microvilli
evaginaung into the endometrium. ·
13. Cotyledonary place~ta or placentomes: found in

endothelium ruminants where apposition is in discrete areas. .
Placentome: the functional, discrete placental part con-

sisting of a connected cotyledon and caruncle found in
the ruminants. In the~ it is-dome-shaped, in the small
ruminant it has a dent in its top.
9. Maternal • 14. Cotyledon: the fetal component of the placenta
epithelium that forms villous processes that interdigitate with the
maternal components.
• 15. Caruncles: the maternal component consisting of

discrete units scattered over the endometrium. They are
11. Maternal endethellum proliferations of the connective tissue.and are also found
in non-pregnant anim3!,s.. : · · : __
. - .. . a.~,~
}' ;
·~~;
:
";.
.. . ,
B. ENDOTHELIOCHORIAL 16.Zonary placenta: f9~ in carnivores.abroad band

of apposition of matemai and fetal tissue around lhe
transverse circumferen~.of the.chorioaUantois.
Fig. VIII-2i - Placental components . t .. ,
. ..
! ..: :~-
353
,.·~ '
RECTAL PALPATION '

t.
,..
••
'
. Pelvis-355
Determining the stage of estrus or pregnancy in cattle is the bull has been taken away from the herd. If the cow is open
economically very important to the cattleman. This can be done (not pregnant), the cattlemen need to know when she will come
by systematic, gentle, and efficient rectal palpation. To orient into heat (estrus) again so she can be covered (bred). If the horns
yourself, once in the rectum, find the cervix. It is a firm cylinder are empty (non-pregnant), palpate the ovaries to determine the
that may be over the brim of the pelvis or completely in the stage of estrous.
abdomen, depending on the stage of pregnancy. Sweep your
open hand over the brim of pelvis to locate it. Next, retract the Palpation of the ovaries and uterus: in conjunction with the
uterus into the pel vie cavity of cows open (not pregnant) or less chart. can tell the stage of estrous the animal is in. Thus, it can
than 90 days pregnant. If over 90 days pregnant, this can't be be estimated how long before the cow comes back into heat and .
done. To retract the uterus, move cranially to the cervix to the will be ready to breed.
uterine horns and locate the intercornual ligaments. Grasp the
ventral intercomual ligament and flip the uterine horns and The ovaries are located on the ventrolateral margin of the pelvic
ovaries into thepelvic cavity. inlet, just cranial to the external iliac artery. Pregnancy draws
the ovaries forward. To palpate the ovaries ..they should be
Palpate· the entire length of the uterine horns for consistency .. retracted by grasping the ventral intercomual ligament and
An empty horn will have a meaty consistency. A pregnant horn· tlipp~$·the ho~s andovaries into the pelvic cavity.
will be fluid filled withresiliency and fluctuation.
' .
'/ F (Matu~e follicle): a spherical mass of cells containing a cavity
There are four criteria to use to diagnose a positive pregnancy: and ovum ( egg, female sexual cell). This is a soft, fluctuating
1. Palpable amnionic vesicle; 2. Slip of fetal membranes; 3. structure that can be identified during rectal palpation.
Palpable fetus; and 4. Palpable placetornes.
OVD (Ovulation depression): the depression left in the mature
Amnionic vessel: can be palpated from 30 to 65 days of follicle after ovulation, usually lasting 24 hours.
gestation (after 65 days it is too large and softto palpate). It is
__ . found in the most.distended part of the horn with the thinnest CH (Corpus hemorrhagicuip): a ruptured follicle filled with
bj~all. It should not be used routinely to diagnose .pregnancy blood. It is a soft, but not fluctuating, elevation on the ovary.
because this· may cause abortion. Depending on its size; it is classified as a CHl (I cm), CH2 (1-
2 cm) or CH3 (larger than 2 cm).
"Membran~ slip":. chorioallantoic membranes can be feltat30
to 35days post breeding·(with practice). Grasp the horn with the .-'CL (Corpus hiteum): results when .the blood in a corpus
thumb and finger and let it slip through. The membrane will hemorrhagicum is replaced by cells that produce hormones
pass through first, followed by the uterine wall. The membrane (progesterone). It (eels firm to hard and is classified, depending
"slip" feels like a taut string slipping lengthwise between the on size, into CL3 (greater than 2 cm andfirm), CL2 (l ·2 cm and
. finger and thumb. firm) andCl.l (1 era and hard).
.. . . . . " ~ .
Ptacetomes; small ones can.be detected at 70 to 75 days. They S (Static ovary): an ovary 1~---which no follicle, corpus
~·
increase in size as pregnancy continues. Do not mistake one for hemorrhagicum or corpus luteum can be felt. -
an ovary!
' Uterus: palpating the uterus can also indicate the stage of estrus
Fetus: fairly reliable indication of pregnancy! It can be pal-. and should be correlated to what is found on the ovaries.
pated after 65 to 70 days.
UN • uterus normal
Uterine (middle uterine) artery: can be palpated going to the UT - uterus turgid
gravid horn at85 to 90 days of gestation. A "buzzing" sensation, UE - uterus edematous
freinitus. can be palpated at 90 to 120 days in the artery. The
movable uterine artery travels in the broad ligament to the horns Abbreviations used are: F. folJicle; OVD, _ovulation depres-
of the uterus. By rectal palpation, run your fingers from the sion, CHI,. corpus hemorrhagicum 1 cm. in diameter (soft);
abdominal cavity to the pelvic cavity along the lateral wall. The CH2, 1-2 cm (soft); CID, 2 cm. {soft) CL3, corpus luteum
first artery encountered is the immovable external iliac artery (fully developed); CL2, 1-2 cm. (fmn); CL3, 1 cm: (hard);·s,
coursing down the cranial edge of the shaft of the ilium. The static; UT, uterus turgid; UE, uterus edematous; UN, uterus
i next artery is tl\C movable uterine artery. normal.
Common errors in pregnancy diagnoses are mistaking the
urinary bladder and the rumen for the uterus. Pregnancy diag- Chart from R. Zemjanis, "Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques in
nosis is important to cattlemen between 35 and 120 days after Animal Reproduction" 2nd ed. 1970, Williams & Wilkins-Baltimore
-----------------------------------------·~·~";
354
OVARIES & ESTRUS Pclvis-533
F CL1
CHs s
20 - 21 days
OVD CL1
..
S - 7 days
~- .
CLs F
O days
CH1 s
I,. '· ••
I·_.
7 - 17 days
CL2 F
1 - 3 days
..•
'\
CH2 s
17 - 19 days
3 - S days
.. 20 - 21 days
. '
'Correlation of findings indicative of stage of estrus cycle & time to next estrus
Findinga in ovariea & uterus Approx. Dliya to
Rt. ovary Lt. ovary Uterus eatrus cycle predict estrus
F CL1 UT 20 - 21 0
OVD CL1 UT 0 18 - 21
CH1 s UT 1 - 3 19 - 20 .,
CH2 s UE 3 - 5· 15 - 18
CH! s UN 5-7 13 - 17
CL! F UN 7 - 17
.
' 6 - 11
CL2 F UT 17 • 19 I -4
CL1 F UT 20 - 21 0- I
355
TESTIS 535-Pelvis-357
E. Rete (REE-tee)tes&: thenetworkofirreguJar, intercon-

i F. Efferent duct necting channels continuing as the straight seminiferous
tubules through the me.diastinum to the efferent ductules. 1
.- 5. Deferent duct
F. Efferent ductules: the 8-15 channels leading into the
~.t-, .
-. head of the epididymis; they unite to fonn the.epididymal
duct .
., .. B. Mediastlnum testis
G. EPIDI.DYMAL DUCT {ductusepididymidis): the con-
A. Tunica albuglnea tinuous, coiled channel forming the epididymis between
the efferent ductules and the deferent duel
G. Epldldymal duct-.....,
2. EPIDIDYMIS (Ep'i·DID-i-mis): the structure adjacent
to the testicle formed by the epididymal duct. The bead {a)
·, of the epididymis, consists of the efferent dqcrul~ and the
first part of the epididymal duct. 11ie body (b), die central
part, consists of the highly coiled epididymal duct connect-
ing the head and tail of the epididyniis. The tail (c), the
bulbous end of the epididymis, continues on asthe ductus ·
defer~,s..·Spermatozoa mature· in the head and body of the
epididrmis .~d are then transferred to the deferent duct as
fertile sperm.
+ E. Rete testis
.. .... ·.;. . ..
;
. ~. • •• • !• 3. PROPER LIGAMENT OF THE TESTICLE: con-
nects the tail of the epididymis to the testicle.
·, -..- 2. Epididymis. •
4. SCROTAL LIGAMENT and·LIGAMENT OF THE
TAIL Of THE ErlDIDYMIS;·c_onnect;S)he tail of the
Fig. VIII-20 - Dog - Testicle, epididymis
epididymis to the scrotum. They are divided by the visceral ,
& deferent duct
.· (schematic)
. vaginal tunic (pg. 362), into the pan outside the runic, the '
scrotal ligament; and the pan inside the vaginal tunic, the
ligament of the tail of ihe epididymis.
1. TESTlCLE or TESTIS (I'ES-tis) .(pl.= testes): the male
gonad that produces both testosterone {male sex hormone) 1. Testicle
and spermatogonia, the male genn ce1l that differentiates into
sperm. The testicles arecontained in the scrotum and vary 2. Epididymis
considerably in shape and size among the species.
A. White tunic·or. tunica albuginea: the strong, white,

fibrous capsule enveloping the testicle.
B. Medi~tinum testis: the cord of fibroustissue running

through the middle of the testicle, containing the ret.e testis.
Septae, webs of connective tissue, radiate from the mediasti-
num to the tunica aJbuginea, dividing the testicle into numer-
oµs lobules.
C. Lobules: the units of the testicle, each contains a few

seminiferous tubules.
'
D. 'Seminiferous tubules (sem't-Nl-fer-us TOO-byools):
the hollow structures in" which germ cells differentiate to 4. Scrotal lig.
spermatozoa. The major part of the tubules are the convoluted
seminiferous tubules, where sperm production occurs. The 5. Deferent duct
straight seminiferous tubules are the short, straight part near
,,,.,. :·:.'.'Jjiastinum. They do not produce sperm. ~ig. Vlll-21 - Dog - Testicle
Pelvis-358
Fig. VIII-23 - Stallion • Lt. testicle - med. view
Fig. VIII~22 - Stallion - Lt. testicle
\,:
• lat. view
5. Deferent duct.
-,
/2. Epididymis
b .
4. Scrotal Jig.
a
1. Testicle
3. Proper lig. of
testicle
5.DUCTUSDEFERENS,deferent(DEF-er-'ent)duct(d)or"vas -Ampulla (am-PYOOL-a): the enlarged .te~inal end of the

deferens": the continuation of the epididymal duct at the tail of the ductus deferens, absent in the boar and tomcat. Its wall is very
epididymis. It travels beside the body of the epididymis, up the glandular, causing an increase in the diameterof'the duct, but not
spermatic cord. and through the inguinal canal to reach the in the diameter of the lumen.
abdomen. In the abdomen, it arches caudally to the pelvic cavity
passing through the prostate gland to open into the pelvic urethra.
2,c
2,b Fig. VIII-25 - Boar • Lt. testicle
- lat. view. 5
h
h
2,a
:,;:'.·(
-"---h ..;t.·:.'
.')
-;
•/
. I
,: I '
. I'.':
2,b J
t ,1
X·· l
• r ,\ I /
I 11 .•.
· 2,a · l
a. He~d of epididymia
b. B6dy of epididymis
e, Tai! of epididymia
d. Visceral vaginal tunic
e. ·Mezprchiuin · · :
!. Ctemaater m.
f. Skin
h. Spermatic cord Fig. VIII-24 - Cat • Rt. testicle
.. - lat. view
Fig. VIII-24 - BuIJ - Rt. testicle
- ca udorned. view
:-57 ·
.DESCENT OF THE TESTICLES
Pelvis-359
DESCENT of the TESTICLES: The testicles begin fetal devel- ,-------------------
opment within the abdomen behind the kidneys. The epididymis "Closed technique": a castration that does nm cut through the
and deferent duct connect the testicle caudally to the urethra. The parietal _vaginal tunic, thus, doesn't open the abdominal cavity.
gubernaculum, a jelly-like cord, extends from the testicle to the The panetal and visceral vaginal tunics and the sperrnatic cord
tailoftheepididymisandthenintotheinguinalcanal.Thetesticle are ligat~. The cord is then uansecred-dlsiar to the· ligature,
the epididymis, and the ductus deferens develop retroperitoneaj, therefore,.the abdomi~l:cav~ty is neveropened.
ly, between the peritoneum and the body wall. They are thus,
covered by visceral peritoneum, that is continuous with the
parietal peritoneum. During development, the knoblike, free end
of the gubernaculum, covered with visceral and parietal perito-
neum, lies through the inguinal canal of the developing abdominal
wall. The testicle and epididymis move caudally, following the
gubemaculum through the inguinal canal and into the scrotum.
Moving ~ough the inguinal canal, the testicles carry their vis-
ceral peritoneum. They also pick up the parietal peritoneum and
the fascial layers of the inner and outer abdominal wall. Once out-
side the abdominal cavity, the two peritoneal layers become
known as the vaginal tunic (vaginal process). The gubernaculum
shrinks to become the proper ligament of the testicle, the ligament
of the tail of the epid.idymis, and the scrotal ligament.
3S8
DESCENT OF THE TESTICLES Pelvis-360
Gubernaculum
Deferent duct Future proper H~.
Testicular "Vessel of tesrlcle
Parietal peritoneum
Future head of
epldidymis
Future tail of
Testicle epididymis
Visceral peritoneum
...
. ··:.. .( . .~ . .
. ' Deferent duct
Head of
epididymis
Visceral tunic
", '
a- --Parietal
Parietal tunic
b peritoneum
Vaginal
i . -
ring Spermatic·
b · cord '
.•. .. '; .;
....
..
1- '"'
. : ·.
'•
Gubernaculum
.. "·.:": . .....
.. .
,_, t; . '
..
Scrotum·----~
... . . .
.. . . . . ' . '•
• " ':. • r,
Fig. VIII-26 - Bull· Descent of the testicle ·

-'. -:: .... (schematic) ·r,,
' .,r
Testicle . -~(i5 ..
·'
I
a. Inguinal canal ' .:~
f
b. Supf. inguinal ring
!
e, Deep incuinal ring ./
cl. Cr.emaster m. ,.
Tail of the epidldym!
. . . :-
'·
3'S9
·'. .... . .
CRYPTORCHIDISM
Pc.ivis-361
l .The retainoo_testicle can be anywhere lie{wee1f the scro.tjim)md,the

caudal JJ<?le· of ~e kidney. . . ·. . : .. ~-~=·\ . ·.. _ : .
. .
m
.·
,
· statiion: cryptbrchidism is often called "tidgimg~" ;,·q~~~tj~_s!>or

"rigs" in the .horse. . · . . · . .-,: . · ':)... ·} ,:· · ·
\ I I '•-Jn@ina) cry~torchid:'the most common:has'?P -~~j¢ipped
testicle in the canal or just outside -~e:_supeffici~. m.#µ~~~ ,p.ng
f'hlgh-flanker"). ·:. ... : · -\:t :·· ,·
-~ D.es<;~nded epididyinis: when th~ tail.-of lfi~:.epjdjdyft.tls.;.~~'the
,. di1¢tus deferens are located i[' the inguinal c"anal ffi~:~~cl~jn ·and
,.J.p~_:ao.<fumeh;just insidethe vaginal rin~~.. . . r · . . : '-'.:·. ·-, ,, "'.. · ..
~ · complete 'abdominal ~ryptorchid: when··'lhe,testi<.ile an(i'.the
. ~p~clidymis ·lie within· the abdominal cavity, ·:_.· . ;:.: ·r: . ; ~- '.
. - . • • y
r . . - .... : . . .. . ·. . . . . . ·:.-. :. . ~ -, .
:The·.· ~ undescended-
_· ~ .·.. .. t esticle
•,• .· should . be·
.. emoved~·
r · ,·.····.· As-'·abafiinirial.sUr-
;..• _- ',('
? ~-~, ,· siifurd~·be avoided whenever . 'ss16tiirt tJie- ho·. :.:_:_. tii" · '·b&t
,.~J~::;·,;;·,:·.'
~,-.:,~h:-,·i..s':f·:fiioti .. · _g
o~e{Ji
"· K.i"h~.. • skin: ·:.. .irt"'~-~:-:IfiifciJiai- tl' ,.,. ~~or
- -·:,,:• ·.:...-.····· ,·:··:.:.:;::P! ,,:«,;;· -
:,·t-,he-· iti_g_u ·· .. ··re·gt,
" •"jnaJ: .•on.. o.. rrecta;
·
al ation ma
. P .f ... Y···iocate)he:,e·_J.}'P co·
...,.,foic1ud.
••••• ..,.,.,,,··..-
•...
J~ ~-inguj_riI!l~iyptorcl)Jd_:inci~·o~er~J~gu"fnal_~~~:~1i~:!~
.·and·rem9·y~-t1i~_~esticle.A descended~pi~_idyri)_is-~ a~ ~°f9im(f
• •.. • . • . • : ,:... ,..;.· • :, : ····._!··. • ·, •••
:Br this,approach. Once found it can be·ii$_ed ro:pull theJest{~te:·out.
\Vi~ a~orripletea~inal cryptorchid, rfy"tofl!)d the g~J?emac~um
.Fig. VIII-27 - Horse ·an4: .(oUow .,_this lflr9ugh the inguinal canaf to· the· Jail tjf'ut
·-.....~pididyrtiis·and
.. the testicle. . . . .· :.. · ..:: .. · . ~ ...:'..: · ; : ·. ·.
' .
Testicle ·
Deferent duct
Epididymis
InL
inguinal-"+-4~;.,\4.J~~
ring O\ I'
I
I Ext. inguinal
ring
· CRYP'J'ORCIUDISM:· failure of ORe or Fig. VIII-28 - Horse • Removal o_f - •

..~-- both ·.testicl~
.· . descend
to .. mto . th~ scrotum complete retained testicle \~
360
CRVPTORCHIDISM Pelvis-362
Fig. VIII-29 - Horse - Caud. abdomen - cross section
a
'
Complete abdominal
cryptorchid
Descended
epldidymis
•
ring
Ext. inguinal
.ring
a. Epaxial m. g. Int. abdominal k. Vaginal ring

b, Lumbar vertebra oblique m. l. Urinary bladder
c. Psoas major m. h. Aponeurosis of ext. m. Lat. lig. of bladder
d. Caud. vena cava abdominal oblique m. n. Prepubic tendon
e. Aorta i. Rectua abdominis m. o. Inguinal lig. · · ·
f. Mesorchium j. Spermatic cord
361
SPERMATIC CORO
Pelvi.s-363
SPERMATIC CORO: the structure extending from the testicle , · '' ,,,· ,..... ,,_,. · · .. ·· · ·(:(:· ··:. ,...; .. ··· ···:· · · ···,::·· .c
through the inguinal canal; consisting of the ductus def erens, the ~:,CL~q~~-·· . '" ·· .. :::: ::. · · · = · ·· ':·-<·. • · ·: · ,:i · .,., ... ·~:'~~-;.:.·<,'
testicular vessels and nerves, and the Iymphaticsann their seroµs ,· -, . ';-:;ft<· -,'.... · · .:::;-. . : . :, .:\ . ::. . .._. :.- · . :. . , .r,·.
. ~-. }Bmlt?ducius deferenst.too·· 's:(dofsail -over ttit;······ e1er.
coverings. C'' ~jf· • sibli\¥fi!ist&tp~ ditiile~is\Vh.;~/1'.~ ·
Vaginal tunic: the double wall of serous membrane (visceral and
parietal) around the spermatic cord and testicle in thernale and the - . '·, -· · ·::.;,,<··:
»: ff~[·;:ri~y!,f\iJ'w.mlijtJi;/t/:,:'.)~~-;.:·\:i;:Jr.:.: · '·\;tt:~2:.
,::::·;}\::,f:..::. .../:: .. .. ·,,,,.,.,,: :·~~:,:.:,:_::\:{,f;:;:;'::'·'::i\)i·,;,:4 ·'.·;::-:, ,.··.·.,,.::·:':"'{\!>?
<U' • ~ · •,•,::;;.•• ,., ••, , .• ·.·.·~=<·,
,:,,:::-«- , • ·,:. :· .• .•• ·:·.<:'.•••
: .••• :. ·:·.· .:-:,. •, :,: :;, •·..•.•'. ,•, :,,., :.;,: ..
round ligament of the uterus in the female.
1. Visceral vaginal tunic: the continuation of the abdominal

visceral peritoneum tightly investing the structures of the sper-
matic cord and the testicle.
2. Parietal vaginal tunic: the continuation of the abdominal

parietal peruoneum through the inguinal canal. It surrounds the
':'-.·..
visceral vaginal tunic-c.overed spermatic cord and testicle •
.;
3. Mesorchium or connecting vaginal tunic: the serosal ~old' ? -:. ~ .·· ·
connecting the visceral vaginal tunic with the parietal vagirutl ;·,
tunic. Ir is similar to the connecting serosa between the parietal '.: ,
peritoneum lining the abdominal walls and the visceral perito- ..
neum covering the gut.
• Mesoductus: the fold of connecting vaginal tunic between the . . .

mesorchium and the ductus deferens.
• MesofunicuJus: the part of the mesorchium between the parietal

vaginal tunic and where the mesoductus arises.
4. Vaginal cavity: the potential space between the two vaginal

tunic layers. It is continuous with the peritoneal cavity at the
vaginal ring.
5. Vmginal ring: the crescent-shaped opening located on the

abdominal side of the deep inguinal ring. It is formed by the
evagioation of the parietal peritoneum through the inguinal canal.
6. Pa)np,t1'if orm plexus: the coils of the testicular veins around

the testicnlar artery. making up the bulk of the spermatic cord. It
functions to draw heat from the testicular artery, cooling the blood
before it reaches the testicle.
7. Testicular artery: the convoluted artery supplying the testicle

and arising from the abdominal ao~.
8. Spermatic fascia: the inner and outer abdominal fascia that,

along with the peritoneum, invest the testicle as. it passes through
the inguinal canal. ·
Uterus masculinus: the remnant of the paramesonephric duct It

is usually present between the layers of the genital fold and
between the am pull a of the ductus deferens in the horse. It is also
often found in the bull.
362
SPERMATIC CORD
Pelvis-364
1. Visceral vaginal tunic
----- Deferent duct :: 8. Spermatic fascia
Fig. VIII-28 - Dog - Sperrnatic cord

(schematic) - cross section
.,· .
..
'\ '
3. Mesorehium
:• :
..
_;.
. .
/ '
6. Pampiniform plexus ... -v
-
.. t,..
t- • Body ·ef epididymis-
4. Vaginal cavity
Head of epididymis
....
.. :.. '
. .
.. . ,.
':
.;
.. •
._ .•i...,.,.<.-'\• ~
.. ~-
.i• ... ..
...
•...
-;
l .... :.
. .
· Tail of epldidymis
~-
.. .
~ • "11:.. ~t'!_ . . :'
..
Fig. VIII-27 - D~'gi~~:Te~ticle,.(schematic of vaginal tunic)
':'.
. l. 't •
• :... • ( ~ t,. ~t:c. . • ·' • •
.·)'
_. • s.:..'IJ'.•• • '!.{,
- • ...
\'.
' ' 363.
ACCESSORY SEX GLANDS Pelvis-365
Fig. VIII-29 - Dog - Pelvic cavity, sacrum removed

- dors. view
t
\
A. Genital fold
B. Ieehiocavernosua m.
' '
C. Penile retractor m. 4. Urethra, urethralis m,
D:13ulbospongioaus m,
~ ; . .
: : . . .
a. Ureter
b. Urinary.bladder
c. Wing of ilium
d. Femur
e. lsc:hiatic:tuberosity
f. Deferent duct
•
. !. • : •
·. : ~· c
"
ACCESSORYSEX GL~DS: the glands associated with the 3. Bulbou-:~·thral ("Cowper's'') glands: the paired glands on the
urethra that add the liquid portion to the ejaculate. They differ dorsocaudal aspect of the pelvic proximal~ near the bulb of
among the species and consist of the prostate, vesicular, and the penis.
bulbouretlual glands:S91De consider the amp'ullaeof the deferent
ducts an accessory sex gland. MALE URETIIRA: the common passageway for sperm and
. . urine extending from the bladder to the external urethral orifice.
1. Prostate gland (PROS-tayt): adds prostatic secreiioas to the · · The pelvic pan extends from the neck of the bladder to the pelvic
ejaculate to provide an optimum environment fqr sperm survival outlet; its cranial portion (prostatic urethra) travels through the
and motility. Present in some form in all the domestic species, it prostate. while the urethralis muscle encloses the rest The penile
mayconsistofavisiblebody,surroundingtheneckofthebladder; or cavernous part (pars spongiosa) begins where the urethra
a disseminate part, consisting of lobules in the wall of the pelvic enters the bulb of the spongy body (corpus spongiosum). The
urethra; or both. The ductus deferens run through the gland to SJ)9flgy body (corpus spongioswn) encircles lhe urethra to its
open into a papilla, the colliculus seminalis, in the dorsal part of external opening. The colliculus seminalis is a mound projecting
the pelvic urethra. The prostatic ducts open into the entire length from the dorsal part of the prostatic pan of the urethra.
of the pelvic urethra.
• 4. Urethral muscle (rn, urethralis): the skeletal muscle enclosing
2. Vesicular glands: the paired structures located dorsolateral to the distal pan of the pelvic urethra.
the neck of the bladder. They are present in the s.tallion, ruminant,
and boar. They secrete an alkaline fluid rich in fructose into the External urethral opening: the opening to the outside of the
urethra. body, located at the tip of the penis. t.;
364
ACCESSORY SEX GLANDS Pelv is-366
·.
2. Vesicular gland
f
f
Fig. VIII-28 - Horse - Removal of complete
retained testicle
1 --4
4 3. Bulbourethral gland
D
•
Fig. VIII-32 - Boar
Genital organs Fig. VIII-31 - Bull
• - dorsolat. view B Genital organs
- dors. view
SPECIF.s DIFFERENCES Horse: its vesicular gland has a lumen, therefore, is often l!
called the-seminal vesicle. The prostate does not contain a Ii
Stallion, ruminants .and.boar:
. - have all three. disseminate pan; it has two lobes connected by an isthmm.
;,
-
Dog: has only a prostate gland. It has two Jobes completely Seminal vesicle: the name of the vesicular gland in the horse
surrounding the urethra. because it has a lumen.
Torn cat: has prostate and bulbourethral glands. but no vesicular Common e)(rretory duct: the duct of lhe ductus deferens an,!
gland. The prostate does not comple~ly swround the urethra the vesicular gland in the horse, ruminant., and possibly the
venttally. boar, which opens on the colliculus seminalis.
-~-...-
'
J
365
PENIS Penis-367
f .::.,
b
Fig. VIII-33 - Dog - Male
genital organs
5. Preputial . orifice
.. .
3. Glans penis
4. Prepuce (cut)
Male urethra ..,.....-Penis
··.
·.. ~
/
1. Root of penis
.a, Kidney Testicle
'b. Ureter
e-
c. Head oi epididymi1
d. Body of -cpididymi1
·e. Tai~ of el?ididymis
.
-· ..
PENIS {L. tail): the male copulatory organ, extending from the CLASSIFICATION: penises are classified according to their
ischiai~c arch cranially (except in the cat) between the thighs. The connective tissue content into fibroelastic andmusculocavemous
penis provides a passageway for semen and urine to the outside of types.
the body, thus, is a part of both the urinary and genital systems. ,
: FIB~OELASTIC PENIS: characteristic of ruminants and the
. l. Rcot: the proximal pan of the penisattaching to the ischial arch. . boar. The large connective tissue content causes them to be fum
.- The root consists of the bulb of the penis and crura of the·penis. ··even when they are not erect. Erection is characterized by greatly
increasing the length (straightening of the sigmoid flexure) and
2. Body: the main pan of the penis between the root and the glans, stiffening from engorgement with blood, without an increase in
diameter.
3. Glans: the distal free part of tile penis. r-
f ...
MUSCULOCA VERNOUS PR~'IS:characteristicof carnivores \..:
366
PENIS Pelvis-368
Ampulla of deferent ~ttct
....,,.
::--- Bulbourethral gland
(
,·- ... Prostate gland
Vesicular glands
" .
·"'-: ~ ,·· .:' Male urethra
Urinary bladder
Sigmoid flexure
Deferent duct
6. Preputial diverticulum (boar)

Testicle
Ep id idymis
2. Body of penis
3. Glans penis c
4. Prepuce
S. Preputial orifice
i
Fig. VIII-34 - Boar - Male genitalia - lat. view
and the horse. The low connective tissue content causes them to SPECIES DIFFERENCES
be flaccid when not erect, Erection is accomplished by engorge-
ment of erectile tissue with blood. increasing the length arul die Tom cat's penis: directed caudoventrally when not erect All
diameter of the penis, while stiffening it the other species are directed cranioventrally. Upon erection it
faces cranioventrally like the rest.
4. PREPUC~(PREE-pyoos) {L. preputuim foreskin): the cuta-
DCOUs sheam cµoo~ the free part of the penis in the quiescent state Os penis (baculum): the bone found in the penises of carni-
oonerect). It has -an ·inner lamina continuous with the skin over vores. (Theos penis of coyotes is sometimes called the "pros-
the glanspenis: Its outer lamina is continuous with the skin on the pector's toothpick"!) In the dog (not the cat) its ventral surface
Jbdomen. is grooved for the urethra.
S. Preputial 'Orifice: the external opening of the prepuce to the 6. Preputial diverticulum: a blind pocket in the dorsal wall of
outside environment, the boar's prepuce. It is partially divided midsagittally by a
septum. Trapped material in this diverticulum gives the boar its
?reputial ~~ity: the space between the prepuce and the glans of characteristic odor.
me penis in the nonereci state.
-367
PENIS Pelvis-369
Fig. VIII-35 - Billy Goat - Male genitalia

- lat. view
Fig. VIII-36 - Stallion - Musculoca vernous
penis - lat. view / 1
~ nn D
_/ I
1. Root of peni•
2. Body ..of penia
S. Glans penis
4. Prepuce
L Head of epididymis
b. Body of epididymis
c. Tail of epididyrnia
A. Te,ticle
Urethral process B. Epididymis
C. Deferent duct
D. Proatate aland (only
diaenilnate part in
am. ruminant)
E. Vesicular aland (absent
in carnivoru)
F. Bulbourethral gland (~bsent
in dog)
c G. Urinary bladder
H. M.ale urethra
I. AnipuUa of deferent duct
.. . .
SPECIF.s DIFFERENCES
Horse's prepuce: because of the great length attained on erec-

tion of the penis, the prepuce needs to be proportionately long
orit would tear from the body whenever the horse gets excited.
Instead of having a long ·prepuce that would drag the ground,
it has an extra fold inside the first. ..
~~~~!.'!lt._ .:~i,di:::1~,.11111·-~i~-
:mu.s,.111.:~·~~~M:~·7::}!~z;· 11
. v.·-,·:.:~·: .... v .. · 8l.tl.,e.:;:..;:z··: .. ·1·:·;.~t:-•:::»·:·:··
'
=·'=·•==·-=·'.·tJi:=·=<·>'.·-··,,<··=·· e.·ne»=,J&<=··.,,.·-=~=~n;~s·r:<'' '''"'·'~ ,-,·=·=·=·=<-=·~
• Preputial fold (pg. 378): dle second fold prepuce inside the
'.~;;.\~~:: :;,~r:_: : . : ;~;:.:.~'.:.::,~; ;~,:x~!.;~:.:.;~:~:; ;·~:i~;~,}::Ii,;:~;~~~:·:r~r~;1~;:i: :1·:~;1~~'.1;
preputial sheath of lhe__l)orse.
=,m~:= t= ·u-.:.· · bl"111ta•~;·•1u,1~••1'1iifflffl•j'f'nt''(
;~,;)1:~~~~;.,.
~·~~~
1.-..
=~: .. -~:.,. i~~fftj'f!:\'lf:I,~~·
• Preputial ring (pg. 378.f): the cranial edge of the preputial ''~lk:ir''•r· · ... ..· 'ftom'·:tffe"''·"'..... _._ . .. ·.·:bliddet}'lbi .. . ····:··· .... , .. ~ ... ·.· :«:
fold of the horse. ·
'
.
•
7. Sigmoid flexure: lhe double curve found in the penis of the
rumin;mt and •· The straightening of the sigmoid flexure ':ifie·tontca-i1t>u&m4·.1f'~ai('~-m~B~y·'if1AUHiml··
causes the lengthening of the penis during erection.
'. ~~,:~!~~''. ~~-~~l'ffitM~:~ ~t ~:;~ ~'.~f=~: ;=:i~:~ :;~:~~~~~~~r~;:~ :~;~;: ~:'.f: : ji0{31 ;_L.
"
368
PENIS E
Pelvis-370
1. Root of penis
2. Body of penis
7: Sigmoid flexure
(ruminants & pig ---~~~~
Fig. VIII-37 - Bull • Male genitalia

- lat. view
3. Glans penis
> •
369
PENIS
Pelvis-371
3. Bulb of penis
b
c
D
1. Cavernous body
(corpus cavernosum)
Os penis /1-----G .,
H ...
2. Spongy body
, (corpus spongiosum)
Fig. VIII-38 .- Dog· - Male genitalia ·,·,. ·

A. Deferent duct G. Bulb o! glans (dog) ~, median section ···
B. Prostate glan~ H. l'..onc part of glans (dog)
C. Pelvic urethra · I. Glans penis
D. Bulboaponposua in.
E. Penile retractor m. a. Urinary bladder
F. Urethra b. Ureter
STRUCTURE of the PENIS: composed of erectile tissue di- Corpus spoogiosum (spongy body): the rube of erectile tissue
vided into two cavernous bodies and one spongy body. directly enclosing the urethra. It fonns the bulb and the glans of
the penis.
1. Corpus cavernosum (cavernous body): the paired erectile
tissue with enlarged venous.spaces -. Proximally. the right and left 3. Bulb of the penu: the expanded. proximal part of die ~us
cavernous bodies separate, forming the two crura. In the cemi- spongiosum at the ischial arch. The bulb is between the cruraand
vores the two bodies are separated by a complete septum, but in is covered by the bulbospongiosus muscle.
the other species perforations in the septum result in one body.
4. Tunicaalbuginea (white tunic): the thick;fibroelasticcapsules
; Crura (L. legs)(sin.= ems); the proximal ends of the corpus enclosingthecavemousbodiesand the spongy body. Trabeculae,
'cavernosum covered by the ischiocavemosus muscle. The right a connective tissue framework, runs inwards from lhe white tunic,
. and left cavernous bodies attach separately to their respective supporting the blood spaces in both the cavernous and spongy
sides of the ischial arch. The crura, along with the bulb, make up bodies.
the root of the penis.
370
PENIS
Pelvis-372
.· 4. White tunic Fig. VIIl-40 - Bull - Penis. prostate gland &

urinary bladder - median section
A
B
b c E
D
2. Spongy body·
3
(corpus
spongiosum)
Fig. VIII-39 - Stallion • Penis

•
- cross section
Fig. VIIl-41 - Bull - Penis, dist. end 2

- median section
l
I
i_
Fig. VIII-42 - Bull - Penis, prox,

end - cross section
.Fig. VIII~43 - Bull • Penis, dist.

end - cross section
E 2·.
-.371
• ,: }-·.~ • I • : ... .. l
' Pelvis-373
PENIS
Prostate gland ....
Deferent duct
Pelvic urethra
Crus of penis
Ureter
Urinary bladder
Cavernous body
(corpus cavernosurn)
.
''
. •'
Spongy body
(corpus spongiosum)
3. Long part of the glans
Fig. VIIl-44 - Dog. - Erectile

tissue of the penis ,
(schematic)
.. 2. B1db of the glans
Os 1:tcn1s
., ~
1. GLANS PENIS: the distal free end of the penis. It is erectile 4. Urethral process: the free end of the urethra in ruminants,
tissue derived from the corpus· spongioswn surrounding the very long in the ram and goat (resembles a "party favor").
urethra. It differs greatly between the species.
Horse:
SPECIES DIFFERENCES
• Urethralprocess(pg.377·8):theshonfreeendoftheurethra.
Dog: has a large glans penis subdivided into:
• Crown of the glans or corona glandis (pg.· 377): a ridge
• 2. Bulb of the glans or bulbus glandis: the part of the glans surrounding the glans penis of the horse.
surrounding the proximal os penis. Tbe bulb. due to its
potential for greatexpansion, is responsible, along with ex pan- -. • Fossa of the glans (fossa glandis) (pg. 377-8): the depression
sion of the bitch's vestibular bulb and contraction of the around the horse's urethral process. ·;
vestibular muscles, for the ..tie" during copulation.
' • Urethral sinus (pg. 378): the dorsal diverticulum of the fossa
• 3. Long part of the glans (pars longa glandis ): the distal part of the glans. ;
of the dog's glans surrounding the os penis.
• Collum glandis: the constriction (neck) caudal to the crown of
Cat: has backward projecting cornified spines on its glans. the glans.
This may explain the queen's (female) scream as the tom
(male) withdraws.
•
ftoar: has a twisted ..corkscrew'? glans.
Ruminants:_ like the boar, have a twisted glans, They also have
an urethral process. -· ·. - ·
372
PENIS
Pelvis-374
a
Fig. VIIl-45 - Cat - Penis, dist end (modified from

Nickle, ct al, The Viscera Qf ~ Domestic
1. Glans penis Animals, Verlag, Paul, Parley, 1973)
b 1. Glans penis
4. Urethra! process
..
.
• •• .J
.
•
.. \
i\
•
a
I
4 -v-»
r.,
~
. 1 ~
R:' <,
. . .. . r8>
. ·. 'It}/
Q~ ,·.,
Fig. VIIl-46 - Bull • Penis,
-· dist. end·
,-
... Fig. VIII-48 - Ram· Penis,

•, Fla. VIII-47 - Boar - Penis,
dist. end
dist. end a. Ext. urethral opening
b. Spinea (cat)
373
MUSCLES - PENIS Pelvis-375
r ...
:11111 l :! / 1 I ~ ., 'I.
l·i I .I . :
Cran. preputial m. ------;..\1....\ .;..._' I ./
!
I
-----2. lschiocaver.JJosus m. -,
Caud. preputial m •
.,
3. Bulbospongiosus m.
. (;.
'
Fig. VIII-50 - Bull - Muscles
• ventr, view
i
.
i
Fig. VIIl-49 - Dog • Muscles - caud. view a. Tail

J:,. Anu1
e. Int. obturator m.
d. Testicle
MUSCLES OF THE PENIS
1. Retractor penis muscle: the paired smooth muscles originat- J. Bulbospongiosus muscle: the paired skeletal muscles cover-
ing from the first few caudal vertebrae, They travel laterally ing the bulb of the penis (proximal portion of the spongy body)
around the rectum and then continue side by side over the urethral and the bulbourethral glands. In the horse it extends distally all the
surface of the penis to attach distally. way to the glans of the penis.
•
· 2. _lschiocavernosus muscle: the short skeletal muscle covering Cranial and caudal preputial IJlUSCles: the unimportant skeletal ..
each crus of the penis, arising from the ischiatic arch and inserting muscles that pull the prepuce cranially over the penis, or caudally.-{
on the cavernous body (corpus cavernosum). to unsheath iL · ._,.t L•
37-4
MUSCLES
Pelvis-376
.._ .... __
Urethralis m.
• •
Fig. VIII-St - Bull - median view

I '
....
A. Scrotum .
G. Spermatic cord a. Sacrum
B. Taticla· f. Pelvic symphyaia
H. Vaginal ring b. Reetum
C. Body of penia g. Transverse abdominal m.
I. Vesicular gland c. Aorta
D. Sigmoid flexure h. Int: at:-dominal oblique m.
J. Prostate gland d, Kidney ·. i. Rectua abdominia m.
E. Glans penia K. Crus of penis e. GenUal fold
F. Deferent duct
... 375
SCROTUM
Pelvis-377
4. Vaginal tunic
2. Dartos
1. Skin
3. Spermatic fascia
• . • ·:.. . .
.•• .••.••••• • •
.•• •.• •••••....• •• • •••• .••••• .•• •
•
• • • • ••••
~
• •
• • • • •• • ••••••••••
•. ••. ••.••• . • • •• • •• • • • • •••• : .· .
• • • ••
•
Testicle • •• • •• • •• • • • • •• • • • •
• • • •• ••• •• • • • • ••••
•. . .• . .• . • . •. . • . . .•. • . •
•• • •
~
• • •
•
•
•0 •
• • • • • • • • • • • ••
• • • • •
•
• •
• • • • • • • • • • • • •••• •
• • • • • •
• • • • • • • • •• • • • • •
·•..
•
•••• •• • •• •• •• •• •• • • • ••
•
• • • ••• •
•
•• f.• • • •••• • • •••
•
• • • •
Deferent duct
Mesorchium Scrotal septum

Median raphe
Fig. VIII-52 - Dog - Scrotum & testicles (schematic) - cross section
·.. ..:
SCROTUM (SKROH-tum): the pouch containing the testicles dartos draws the testicles closer to the body in cold weather.
and epididymides. Itconsistsof the skin, the dartos, fascia, and the
vaginal tunics. In the pig and cat, the scrotum is located directly 3. Spermatic fascia: the continuation of the inner and outer
below the anus. The other domestic species have pendulous scrota abdominal fascia around the testicle and spennatic cord.
a distance below the anus.
Ligament of the tail of the epididymis and scrotal ligament:
·l. Skin: the pigmented integument of the scrotum. connect the tail of the epididymis to the scrotum. ·
•
2. Dartos (DAR-tohs) (tunica dartos): the fibromuscular layer 4. Vaginal tunic (pg 362): evagination of the peritoneum through
just below the skin and in the scrotal septum. Contraction of the the inguinal canal covering the spermatic cord and testicle (vis-
ceral layer) and lining the insi:Je of the scrotum (parietal layer).
376
GENITALIA - STALLION
Prostate gland Pelvis·378
g
Bulbourethral gland
) Vesicular gland ----
-Root
of
Deferent duct---- Penis
Body of Penis
Fla. VIII-53 - Stallion
• Genitalia - lat. view
Spermatic cord
--- Testicle
Prepuce 0
5. Crown of the glans
1. Clans penis
6. Fossa of the glans --.::::s

4~ Urethral process
Fig. VIII-54 - Stallien - Penis, dist. end
a. Head of epididymia ,. Pelvic Ul'ethra

b. ~oc:ly of epididymia I, Attachment of inner foJd of prepuce
h. Bulboapon,iosua m. layer or prepuce
e, Tail or epididynm p. Ext. prepuce
i. Rectractor penis m. m. Inner layer of int.
d. AmpuJla of deferent duct j. Cavernous body fold of prepuce
e. Urinar, bladder (corpua cavemoaum)
t. Ureter ' n. Preputial rinc
Jc. Free part of penis e. Outer layer o! int.
377
_:· ..::
ERECTILE TISSUE - STALLION Pclvis-379
Fig. VIII-SS - Stallion - Genitalia

- sagittal section
~.c_..._--_:B:u:lb~ofthe pe;is
Cavernous body Spongy body
(corpus cavernosum) (corpus sponglosum)
White tunic Fossa of glans

(tunlca albuginea). (f ossa glandis)
Urethral process
:\'"1t}1l~~W~ Ca vernous body

(corpus cavernosum)
~-:!---Spongy body
(corpus spongiosum) , •..
g Urethral sinus
Urethra Fig. Vlll-57 - Stallion - Penis, dist.
Fig. VIII-56 - Stallion - Penis end - sagittal section
- · cross section
A. Testicle G. Seminal vedicle a. Excretory duct of e. Int. prepuce (VIII-57)

B. Epididymis H. Prostate gland seminal veacicle f. Preputial ring
C. Deferent duct I. Bulbourethral gland b. Oollieulus eeminslie I· Ext. prepuce
D. Ampulla of deferent duct J. Pelvic part of urethra e, Urethrali• m. h. Ext. fold of prepuce
E. Urinary bladder K. Penile urethra d. Ducta of bulbourethral
F. Opening of ureter gland
37.8
SCROTUM - BLADDER - STALLION Pclvis-380
Fig. VIII-58 - Stallion - Urinary

'
bladder, opened ventrally
Ureteral
orifice
Penis
Urethra
Deferent
duct
Body of
epididymis
: .
Visceral vaginal tunic
Dartos
Fig. VIIl-58 - Stallion - Section through
penis & testicles (after Amann)
&. Apex of bladder (opening of ductus

b. Body (vestige of umbilcal a.) r. Bulbourethral gJanda
deferena & exeeretory l. Genital fold
c. Neck duct of seminal 1. Spermatic fasciae (VIIl-58}
m. Lat. lig,, of bladder t. Scrotal aeptum
d. Tri,one vesicle,} n. Int. urethral orifice u. Cavernous body
•· Uret•ric fold i. Opening of prostatic o. Seminal vesicles
!. Urethral creat (corpus cavemoaus m.)
ductulea p. Prostate gland
J.. Collicuha aeminali, v. Spongy body
j.'U~thraJia.m. q. Openings of ducts of
h. Ejaculatory onfice (corpus 1pongioau1 m.)
k. Ro1,1nd lig. of bladder bu)bourethral gland
J ,_
I • w. Retractor penis m,
. ~f
379
GENITALIA - STALLION
Pclvis-428 ..
Vesicular gland
Prostate
........'
''!\
~, .___
...
4,'\
.
(;'
....
..
~,# L---1
.......~ ~ ·~ ---J
Cr · ;; .......
'- ..
r' :"\
I
~
41~· "--·I
t. •
h; ':.
Bulbouretbr
gland
H
I
~inguinal ring.
Spermatic cord
,·.
,.
Testicle
Fig. VIII-59 - Stallion - Genitalla
A.Aorta G. Cavernous body , L. Deep femoral a. a. Cran. aa. of the penis

B. E:,_ct. iliac a. {corpus cavernosum} M. Pudendoepigastric trunk {br. of ext. pudenda! a.]
C. Int. iliac a. H. Ischiocavernosus m. N. Ext. pudenda! a. b. Obturator a.
D. Peritoneum I. Bulbospongiosus m. 0. Prostatic a. e. Middle a. of penis (horses)
E. Rectum J. Retractor penis m. P. Caud. gluteal a, d. Dora. a. of the penis
F. Obturator fv!""?r,·,.,n J:C. Testicular a. Q. Int. pudenda} a. [br. of int. pudenda} a.}
380
Chapter IX
Circulatory System. .
,
-·. ·- . . ". . _,. .
' '
..• ...::o
,
,,
,
.
. '
'
.•
'
38l
,•
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM General-438
1. Aorta ----13-14. Descending aorta
/
13. Thoracic aorta
"'- i4. Abdominal aorta
16. Cran. mesenteric a.
15. Celiac a, 17. Caud. mesenteric a.
18. Ext. iliac a.
2. Ascending aorta
19. Ext. pudendal a.
5. Aortic arch 21. Femoral a.
22. Popliteal a ..
7. Common
caroti_d a. .,..· · ~.,·--·---...
8. Subclavlars'a. ·
9. Axill"~:ty:a:::~ ·--~ ..
6. Brachlecephallc trunk .~. e• 29. Heart

•
, ;.t. 4·. Lt: coronary a .

. 10. Brachia(· a. ·: ~
·~ . ,.
.
.
28. Pulmonary - ~~ ·Rt~: ~o·ronary a.
11. Median a. 20. Caud, supf. epigastric a.
27. Vaginal/prostatic a.
12. Digital a.
23. Caud. tibial a.
Fig. IX-1 - Ox - Arteries (schematic) \-..
25. Dors. pedal a.
- lat. view v-'
CIR CU LATORY SYSTEM: consists of the heart, blood vessels small veins that join to form larger and larger veins, all carrying
and lymphatics. It provides for the metabolic requirements - · oxygen-depleted blood baclc to the right side of the heart, The
nutrition, waste removal, protection - of the body's cells via the heart pumps this blood to the lungs again via arteries, where COi
blood, the interstitial fluid and the lymph. BJ~~uires oxygen is exchanged for oxygen.Newly oxygenated bloodrewmsthrough
in the lungs. nutrients from the digestive tract and hormones
from veinstotheleftsideof tbeheartthatpum~ittotherestofthebody
the endocrine glands. It then transfers them to the interstitial fluid and heart via the aorta. The lymphatic system removes wastes and
in exchange for waste products and transports all waste to the bacteria from the interstitial fluid and returns protein-rich fluid to
lungs, kidneys and.sweat glands for elimination from the body or the bloodstream.
to the liver for deto~cation and recycling.
Interstitial Ouid: the fluid bathing rhe cells of the body. It carries
The circulatory system has. two principal divisions: the blood on the neceswy exchange between the cells. blood and lymph.
vascular system and the lymph vascular system. The blood
vascular system includes a powerful pump, the hean. ¥teries Lymph vascular system: consists of the lymph, lymph vessels,
Jave the left side of the heart They branch into progressively lymph nodes and lymphatic organs. This system returns protein·
, smaller arteries until they form microscopic vessels called capil- rich fluid from the interstitial fluid to the general circulation. It
Iaries, The permeable capillaries exchange oxygen and nutrients also filters waste and bacteria from the interstitial fluid.
for waste products with the interstitial fluid. Capillaries feed into
382
PERICARDIUM
319- Thorax· 384
1. Fibrous pericardium
Fig. IX-2 - Heart & pericardium
. - longitudinal section
2. Serous -----
peric,ardium"-b
L-------4. Myocardium
5. Endocardium
6. Eplcardium, a
3. Pericardial cavi
a. Visceral )aY,er
b. Parietal layer
: • • • r: : ••
BJood vascular system: consists of the blood, heart, arteries. myocardium of the heart closely. It is also called the epicardium.
capillaries and veins. ·' . - . < , .- . :
·.~ . ~ . .. . .. : 3. Pericardial cavity: a potential space between the visceral and
Artery (AR-ter-ee): a vessel carrying blood away.from the heart. parietal layers of serous pericardium. It has approximately one
Arteries are generally thicker and stronger than veins. sustaining ml. of yellow fluid between the contacting layers, which acts as
their higher pressure, a lubricant to allow the heart freedom of movement during
contraction. Other serous body cavities have alnrostno fluid
Capillary (KAP-i-lar'ee): a microscopic vessel that joins others . . i •
to form an extensive network throughout the body tissue. Posi- LAYERS OF ffiE HEART: the three layers having ••-cardium"
tioned between the arteries and veins, the permeable capillaries in their name with prefixes telling the location of each (''epi·"
allow exchange of gases and nutrients between the blood and the meaning being on topof,"endo-" being inside of, and "myo-" the
interstitial fluid muscular part of).
Veins: vessels carrying blood back to the heart. They are thinner- 4~ Myocardium: the muscle layer making up lhe majority of the
walled and carry greater volume than arteries. thickness of the heart wall. It is between the endocardium and
epicardium.
PERICARDIUM: the fibroserous sac enclosing the heart; com-
posed of the fibrous and serous* pericardium. covered by medi- S. Endocardium: a thin, mesothelial layer lining the atria and
astinal (pericardiac) pleura. ventricles. This layer is continuous with the endothelium lining
the great vessels entering and leaving the bean.
7. Fibrous pericardium: a tough, fibrous sac surrounding the
serous pericardium, the heart and the pericardia) cavity. It is 6. Epicardium: a thin )ayer of mesothelium covering the surface ·
closed above by its attachment to the great vessels of the heart. of the heart. The epicardium is the visceral layer of the serous
When discussing the pericardia! serous membranes, the fibrous pericardium.
pericardium will be considered as a wall.
-; ' .. . :·. ::
• Steroopericardiac ligament: connects the pericardium to ·-cLiNICAL: ".
the floor of the thorax. • 4 • ••• • ••• :·
• Pbrenicopericardiac ligament: connects the pericardium "Surgeon's ·pericardium·": the structure a surgeon must
to the diaphragm.
'incise to reach thepericardial cavity (for open hearr:~urgiiy).,
It consists ofthe mediastinal (pericardial) pleura, d.i~-fibrdgs ·
1. Serous pericardium: a serous= membrane forming a closed pericardium and the" parietal layer of the serous pericardiwn:·,
cavity. It covers the heart (visceral layer [al) and lines the inner
smface of the fibrous pericardial sac (parietal layer [b]).
After open bean surgery.the pericardium need nm
be:=suillte!r
completely closed to preventcardiac tampoaade, ' · . · '. · _ :
• Rarietal layer of the serous pericardium: lines the inner
surface of the fibrous pericardium (considered a wall). It reflects . Cardiac tamponade: acute compression of the.heart.due_rq
ooto the surface of the heart as the visceral layer. fluid effusion orhemorrhage into .··the pericardium.' . ·: . ·:·.
• Visceral layer of the serous pericardium (b): covers the . . . .
. : . .· .· .. ; :
• A serosa is any smooth membrane, consisting of a mesothelial layer and . Hydrops pericardii: an exces_si~e production and.ooncliitent ·
a COllnet':tive tissue layer. lining the cavities of the body. retarded absorption of pericardial
. . .
fluid, caused by-pe.ri~(i:f;
.. . . .· . . ... . . ..
'
383
• l .
THE HEART
Thorax-38S
HEART: a muscular. four-chambered organ that drives the
9. ~ ventricle: sends oxygenated blood to the body and brat
circulatory system. It has specific input channeJs (veins) and
specific ouq>ut channels (arteries),
10. Aorta: the major outflow from the left ventricle into lhe
systemic circulation. ·
PULMONIC CIRCULATION: through the right side of the
heart to the lungs. The right (pulmonic) side receives blood from
the body and pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation. It returns to
the left side of the heart.
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION: through the kflsideof the heart

to the heart itself and to the rest of the body, delivering oxygenated
blood from the lungs.
CIRCULATION through the HEART: '3lood enters either

atrium by veins, is pumped into the respective ventricles. and on
· · ' to the lungs or body through theaneries. The right atrium receives
deoxygenated venous blood through a number of veins, but
primarily thecauda) and cranial venacavae. The blood then enters
- : ; : the right ventricle, which pumps it through the pulmonmy trunk
·: · into the lungs (puhnonic circulation). Pulmonaty veins carry
oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium. Blood then
descends to the left ventricle. The left ventricle pumps it through
the aorta to the rest of the body (systemic circulation).
Major vessels returning blood to the heart:
1. Cranial vena eava; the large vein returning blood from the
head, neck and thoracic limbs to the right atrium.
' ..
2. Caudal vena cava: the large vein returning blood from part of
the thorax, the viscera and the caudal part of the body to the right
atrium. .' •
3. Right atrium (AY-tree-um): the chamber of the heart receiv-

ing deoxygenated blood from the body.
4. Right ventricle {VEN-tri-kul): the chamber receiving blood

from the right atrium and sending it to the lungs. The conus is lhe
funnel-shaped end of the right ventricle Je.ading to the pulmonary
trunk.
S. Pulmonary trunk: the large vessel cmying blood from the

right ventricle to the pulmonary arteries, thus, to the lungs.
6. Pulmonary arteries: the two branches of the pulmonary trunk

carrying blood to the lungs; one to the right lung, one to the left ·.. ..::
Lungs: receivedeo.xygenated blood through the pulmonary veins.

It oxygenates the blood and sends it back to the heart through
pulmonary veins.
7. Pulmonary veins: the numerous vessels emptying oxygenated

'blood from the lungs into the left atrium of the heart.
- 8. Left atrium: receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via• the
pulmonary veins.
.~::,.
; ..,.
• <
'.~
384
THE HEART Thorax-386
10. Aorta
6. Pulmonary aa.
Tobody ~ 5. Pulmonary trunk
1. Cran. vena cava
1. Pulmonary vv. From body
8. Lt. atrium
- 3. Rt. atrium
Frombody
2. Caud. vena cava
...
9. Lt. ventricle 4. Rt. ventricle
;.
• 'f •• • •
Fig. IX-3 - Circui..tip~ _t.hrough the heart

(schematic) ''
'J
..... ... . . .385

FETAL CIRCULATION
Thorax-387
During fetal development, the placenta functions as the lungs and
liver for the fetus, supplying it with oxygen and nutrients and muscular artery, begins to close shortly after birth due to the
eliminating fetal waste products. The fetal lungs and liver need change in oxygen content of the blood flowing through it. It
only enough blood to nourish their growing tissue as they are non- eventually becomes the Iigamentum arteriosum. Closure of the
functional. The bulk of the blood is diverted to "functional" ductus arteriosus allows even more blood to reach the lungs.
tissues (especially the heart and brain) by three shunts in the fetal
circulation: the ductus venosus, the foramen ovale and the ductus The greater volume of blood through the lungs returns through the
arterjosus. These shunts bypass structures, creating a dual circu- pulmonary veins to the left atrium. This increases the left atrial
latory system - the one in the fetus shutting down within minutes pressure, functionally closing the "flap valve" of the foramen
after birth to allow the other, the adult circulation, to take over. ovate. With time this functional closure becomes an anatomical
as
closure the walls of the foramen fibrose, leaving a remnant of
The umbilical vein brings nutrient- and oxygen-rich blood from the foramen ovale, a depression called the fossa ovale. Blood is
no longer shunted from the right to the left atrium.
the placenta into the fetus. It enters the liver to join the portal vein.
The ductus venosus connects the umbilical vein with the caudal
vena cava, allowing some ·of the umb~ical blood to bypass the · The closure of the three shunts.gives the newborn an "adult
liver sinusoids and empty directly into·the caudal vena cava circulatory system". Oxygen now comes from the newbom's
. ~· lungs and nutrients from. its intestines via the portal vein.
.,
The caudal vena cava empties into the right-agium where about
three fifths of the oxygen-rich blood is shunted through the 1. Umbilical veins: vessels carrying oxygen- and nutrient-rich
foramen oval~ to the left atrium. Thus, the blood bypasses the they blood from the placenta to the fetus. Paired in the·umbilical cord,
pulmonic circulation and enters the systemic circulation. From . then become a single umbilical vein in the fetal abdomen, which
enters the liver.
the left atrium it passes into the left ventricle and out the aorta to
supply the hean via the coronary arteries. Distally. the oxygen-
rich blood travels over the brachiocephalic trunk into the arteries 2.Ductus venosus (venous'duct): the fetal shunt from the umbili-
cal vein directly through the liver to the caudal vena cava,
that supply the brain (common carotid arteries). Thus. the ducms bypassing the liver.sinusoids.
venosus an<il the forarnen ovale insure that the blocd.richest in . '
">-\• • •
. •:
oxygen reaches the heart and brain by the fastest route .
... ::- 3. Foramen ovale (oval foramen): the opening in the wall
separating the two atria (the interatrial septum) allowing blood to
The cranial vena cavaret~.soxygen-poor blood from the cranial
shunt from the right to the left atrium. It is a double-walled
pans of the body to the ri&ht atrium to mix with the unshunted,
structere with holes in each wall offset from each other. In the
oxygen-rich, caudal vena caval blood in the right ventricle. This
mixed blood, althoug~ not 'as rictt in oxygen as that shunted fetus, the pressure is greater in the right atrium, pushing blood
through the opening in the right atrial wall, between the two walls,
through ·the foramen ovate, is .still oxygenated, theretore, is·
shunted away from the lungs via the right ventricle and pulmo- and out the opening in the left atrial wall. With the first breath at
nary trunk. birth, bloodremming from the lungs raises the pressure in the left
; . . .;.. atriwn above that in the right, pushing the two walls together and
\ •) effectively closing the fora.men ovale.
The ductus arteriosus shunts blood from the pulmonary trunk to •• l, .
...
.
the aorta before it reaches the non-functional lungs. It enters the - . -

• Fossa ovale: the adult remnant of the foramen ovale.
aorta distal to the origin of the brachiocephalic trunk, thus,
supplying the caudal body without diluting the oxygen content of
4. Ductus arteriosus (arterial duct): the shunt between the
the blood coursing to the brain via the common carotid arteries
(branches of the brachiocephalic trunk). · · ·· pulmonary trunk and the aorta, diverting most of the blood from
'' the pulmonary trunk (pulmonic circulation) to the aorta (systemic
circulation).
The umbilical arterie,, large branches of the terminal aorta, return
the fetal blood via the Wl)bilical cord to the placenta for oxygena-
tion and waste elimination. • Ligamentum arteriosum (arterial ligament): the adult remnant
of the ductus arteriosus between the pulmonary trunk and the
aorta.
At birth the umbilical cord is disrupted, stopping blood traveling
over the umbilical vein. The ductus venosus becomes part of the
portal liver circulation. S. Umbilical arteries: the pathways of oxygen-depleted blood
from the fetus to the placenta. They arise from terminal branches
of the aorta (internal iliac arteries), and travel via the umbilical
The newbom's first breath expands the lungs with air, relieving cord to reach the placenta.
the pressure on the vessels and capillaries of the lungs and
allowing them to expand for the first time. As the vessels open,
resistance to blood flow drops, allowing more blood through ·
puhnonary arteries to reach the lurigs. The ductus aneriosus. a
•
"386
' J.
FETAL CIRCULATION 2. Venous duct Thorax-388
.
J
4. Arterial duct
3. Oval f'oramen
.·· :
. .:
. ~
.
S. Umbilical aa.
.'
1. Umbtllca! vv .
0 . . ,
Fig. IX-4 - Dog - Fetal circulation

(schematic) :
.· ...;.·,
4. Arter1al duct . :)· -
...
.:
"' ' .
h• I
3. Oval fo·ramen
a. Cran. vena cava

.
1
b. Caud. vena cava
e, Rt. atrium
d. Rl. venmde
•. Pulmonary mmk
f. Lunp
C· Pulmonary vv.
· h .. LI. atrium
, L Ll. ventricle
j.Aoria
It. Liver
. L Intatinea
Fig. IX-5 - Section of heart m. Porial v.
n, Double wall of
& oval f oramen oval foramen
.: •(,
.: 387
DEVELOPMENT OF THE HEART
Thorax-38~
Primitive heart tube

FORMATION of the HEART TUBE: The primitive embryo ist;
a three-layered structure: the external layer is ectoderm (a], the\G
internal is endoderm [bJ and between is a mesoderm layer [c]
(lying on the yolk). The mesoderm layer is most concerned with
cardiogenesis.
a&c
'
.. · 1. Cardiogenic tissue
Adult heart c
Fig. IX-6 - Development of heart ·
and· blood flow
Fig. IX-7 - Presomlte embryo
,, - sagittal section
. '
CARDIOGENESIS: thedevelopmentoftheheartfromasimple The mesodennal cardiQ&ePic tjttue (1) wbich gives rise to the
tube in the embryo( with one inflow and one outflow} toan "adult" bean begins cranial to the head of the embryo. With growth, the
four-chambered structure with two separate circuJatiom in series cardiogenic tissue is drawn underneath the head into the throat
(pulm®ary and systemic). While these transformations prepare (cervical) region and then into the thorax. As die embryocontin-
the fetus for life independent of the placenta (pg. 384), the heart ues to fold, the cardiogenic tissue comes to. be located venttal to
must still meet the unique requirements of the fetus (pg. 386). the foregut (f) (future esophagus); the relationship found in the
Understanding the development of the heart makes the function adult . ·
and the anaaomy of the adult heart and the fetal heart, and the . .
Slrueture and disability of common heart malfonnations· more The heart begins as two tubes (2) located laterally; As.the embryo
understandable. .;. · · ·, · folds, the paired tubes are brought together and.-~ (3) to form a
single tube, the endocardium (S). A thick layer of mesodenn
Changes in the developing heart result· from two different pro- (future myocardium) surrounds the endocardial tube. A thin layer
cesses: one is growth. the other degeneration. Growth is an of ep~um (mesothelium) envelopes both the myocardium
increase in size 31ld/or number of cells. Degeneration is the death and endocardium. This single lllbe develops by fusion progress-
of cells. Both of these processes occur in a focal manner; areas of iog cranially to caudally.
the heart tube grow while other areas degenerate, resulting in the
shape of the adult heart. ·
!.
As file fetus grows, diffusion becomes insufficient to meet the

eel~ need~, n~!8"88 a circulatory sy~~· ~ heart
~n~ pwnping prun1uve bl~ through a pnnutwe vascular
~ while developing-and changing. Within a maiter of min-
ms after birth the animal mmt shift from the intrauterine to the ... ·
fillauterine pattern ofcircnJation. This requires a system that can 2. Cardlo1enlc tubes
POdify ilself as it functions during development.
Sages in heart development:

• 1. Formation of the heart tube.
• if Cardiac loop formation. Fla. IX-8 - Transverse section throuah cardiac
• 3. Partitioning of the heart and outflow channels.
realoa of embryo
118
DEVELOPMENT OF THE HEART Thorax-390
Fie. IX-I - Cephalic end

of embryo - sagittal ... :.
section
7. Truacus
arteriosus
· .. ,
~-
-;
.•
t.ir
'
:
. .. • ,I !t .,
~ ~
,1
;,
8. Ventricle
? • • : {. :
•
. ..
10. Sinus veoosus
Fla. IX·9 - Cephalic end of. embryo
- transverse section Fia. IX~ll,12 - Developing heart - ventr. views
The first pan of the heart to differentiate and stan beating is the
truncus arteriosu~ (7) (aortic truil,c), the common outflow of the
primitjve heart, Behind the tnincus
anenosus, the tube is still
paired and continuing to fuse. As the tube fuses caudally, forming
the ventricle (8), the bean rate increases. The atrium (9) then
forms and the bean rate ~gain picks up. The last chambers to
develop,· the right and left sinus venosus {10), remain unfused
. .
S~ Enciocardium
.. .. until much later. They receive venous return from the .vessels of
the allantois, yolk sac and body of the fetus. With the appearance
of each sinus venosus, the heart rate increasesto its maximal level.
The increase in rate with the appearance of each new chamber is

called the pacemakgphenomenon.Specialized cells of the heart
spontaneously depolarize, generating action potentials which
spread to the remainder.of the heart The sinus venosus contains
the cells with the fastest depolarization rate,· thus. become the
pacemaker of the hean. In the-adult these pacemake.r cells are the
SA node (die remnant of the right sinus venosus which becomes
6. Myocardium incorporated into the right atrium.) If the SA node becomes
damaged, otbel' pa--u of the heart can take over as slowea- pace-
makezs.
Legend for rig. IX-6-12
a. Ectodenn
b.Endodenn
Fla. IX-10 - 4 somite embryo c.Mesoderm
•
~ transverse section d. Amniotic cavity
e, Neural plate
f.Foregut
389
DEVELOPMENT OF THE HEART
Thorax-391
11. Fixed points
..
Fig. IX-14 - Early fetal blood flow
. :. .•',".
.. . .. ' . (schematic)
Ventricle
FORMATION OF fflE CARDIAC .LOOP; the primitive,
straight-tube heart is anchored at each end by vessels connected
to iL Cranially it is anchored where the truncus arteriosus is
connected to the veotta1 ams (12) (future aortic arches C13J).
I It is anchored distally where the venous return comes into the Fie. IX-16 • Fetal heart· ventr. view
sinus venosus. Thus ancllore<( the tube begins to bulge out to the
·rigbt side (ventt.al view)• it lengthens. Continued growth forces
'.the ventricle below and caudally, cau$ing the previously crani-
ally-located ventricle to become caudal and venttal to the atria; PARTITIONING of the HEART: lntemally, at this time, the{.:
~ orientation in the aduh heart. The truncus pushes into the heart is partitioning in preparation for birth. As partitioning\
~trium, prestaging the two adult atria. ·
continues, shunts form so that fetal ~ireulation can continue to
.. bypass the pulmonic c~on;
~~jj
'12 •. Ventral---~,:-;.,~,--. .. . ~~ .. .
..: .. t,
••
aortae . :. r ... . .. !-
-, '
Truncus artcriosus -:
..
Ventricle ----+-- 14. Common AV

open Ina
15. Endocardial
cushion
1
Fig. IX-lS - Fetal heart - vcntr. view Fig. IX-17 - Heart - frontal section
390
DEVELOPMENT OF THE HEART •
Thorax-392
... 16. Septum 1
•
'.
. ., ..
:
• • .: ...r :: ; • •
r • • •• ' '
.... .• • ••• 'I.:;-
.. ) .
. , =:i. ,15. Endocardfal
cushion 16. Septum 1
-Fla. IX-18 - Fetal heart - frontal section
Fig. IX-19 - Fetal heart - frontal section

Partitioning of the common atrioventricular pac;sageway: The
common atrium is demarcated from Ifie common venlricle by a
constriction (i). The common AV opening is subdiv.aded into two
18. Foramen 2 passageways by the atrioycntrtcu1ar endQQem;,r 21Sbions (lS)
which are growing out to meet each Other.
Partitioning or the common atrium: Septum I (17) (septum

primom) grows downward from the dorsal wall of the atrium
toward the endocardial cushion to partition the common attiwn.
The diminishing openingfonned by this septum isfogmen 1.(20).
Before m1ching the cushions and completely partitioning the
atriwn, perforations develop high in the ~ and coalesce to
f0.,:amen
20. Oval fonn fQJlPl)SID 2 (21). This allows continued communication
foramen between the right and left atria
Septum 2 (19) grows downward, parallel with and to the right of

septum I, to· cover foramen 2. It then stops growiQg, leaving an
oval-shaped ·opening, the forarnen ovaJe (20). During fetal life,
22. IV septum the volwne of blood coming into the right atrium causes a hilbtr
(muscular) pressure than that in the left atrium. This high pressme fortes
blood through the foramen ovale, between the two walls of the
septum and out foramen 2, bypassing the pulmonic circulation.
Septum 1 acts like a flutter valve, thus, a functional parlitiln is
formed (which is also an opening). This permits a fetal circulation
that is ready to switch immediately to the aduJtcirculationat bidh.
Fla. IX-20 - Heart - frontal section Partitioning of the ventride and the Qutnow channel: 1be
ventricle is partitioned by the outgrowth .of the infmwngjcgJ&
<IV} sepblm (22). The septum extends upward from the ventral
side of the heart toward the endocardial cushions, leaving an
opening-the interventricutar OYl foramen (21 ). This closes later
as a sequel to the partitioning of the common outflow tract of the
ventricle.
39J.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE HEA~T : . : ' ..
Thorax-393
Partitioning oftbe truncus arteriosus: The common outflow of
the undivided ventricles, the truncus arterio§u§, is connected to
the ventral aortae. The nm ventral~ fuse to form the aortic
sac (a) from which the aortic arches.arise. The truncus arteriosus
will be partitioned from the aoi1ic arches to the ventricles so that
each ventricle has one outfl(>w connecting to the correct aortic
arch . .,!. ~~. . ,.,
2·
.~
< .,
Partiti~ing begins by the appearance of truncal rid&es (23) in the

lumen of the truncus aneriosus. The ridges grow toward each
~r. begiming first at the aortic s;lC. and moving toward the
ventricles. They spiral and fuse, forming the spiral septuin (24).
The two parallel outflow channels (aortic and pulmonary) spitaJ
around each other.connecting the right v~tricle,to the pulmonary
uunk (27) and the left ven,tricleto·ttk aorta (26).
·, .
As the many aortic arches develop, 'some
degenerate and some
persist, determining the patterns that result. The 6th aortic arth
gives rise to the pulmonary trunk and pulmonary arteries and is
connected to the right ventricle in the adult. lhus, fonning lhe
pulmonic circulation. The systemic circulation is formed by the
3fd··and 4th arches. The Jeft41h aortic arch gives rise to the·a<lrta,
and in the adult is connected to the left ventricle, The two Jrd
aortic arches give rise to the common carotid arteries. The ductus
arteriosus (28) ~n~l$ the pulmonary trunk to the aorta in the
fetus, shunting blood from the pulmonic circulation to the sys-
temic circulation. This duct closes at birth or soon after. becoming
the Iigamentum arteriosum. · ··
Closure of the interl!entricular foramen: before closure, the

incomplete interventricular CIY} septum (22) (with the
interventricular <IY} foramen (21) above it) can be seen in an
opened right ventticle (b). The left ventricle (c) can be seen
through the interventricular foramen •. l3oth ventricles still have a
common outflow, the truncus. Further up, the truncus is parti-
tioned. As partitio~ing continues, the two edges of die tnmcal
cushions grow ~~ther witb,~e epdpgudial cushions (15). clos-
ing off the interventricularseptwn and finishing the two outflows.
The membranous~ '(25)' of-the.:interventricular septum is the
I~ pan to close. . ... .,, .. . ...
. .l.
. ..
.. • • l- •
..
·. - ..
·.;
; .
...
·392
DEVELOPMENT OF THE HEART Thorax·394
Aortic
arches
27. Pulmonary trunk

28. Arterial
duct
25. Mem~ranous.
.' .
part of IV septum
Endocardial cushlo~
24. Spiral septum

..
.22. IV sept11m·
(muscular part)
.f
-· ...., .
.·
•••
.. Endocardial cushion
a.Aorticnc
b. Lt. ventricle
e, a.&. ventricle
d. 8.1. atrioventricular
(A,V) openins
•· Lt. urioventricular
(AV) opanm1
f. 1". atrium
Fla. IX-21-23 -· Fetal heart, rt. ventrlcle opened - schematic
393
HEART - EXTERIOR Thorax-395
FREE HEART: to orient a heart that has been removed from the 3. Right auricle: seen from the ldisideof the heart, in front of the
body, first locate the apex which is directed downward pulmonary trunk (c).
(caudovenlral) in the live animal. The base (or top of the bean) is
opposite the apex, The cranial and caudal sides can be oriented by 4. Left auride: also seen on the lmlsideof theheart, caudal to the
finding the aorta, which arches caudally; or the auricles, which pulmonary trunk.
point to the left, with the pulmonary nunk between them. With the
heart oriented thusly, the right and left sides are easily identified. S. Conus: the expanded outflow from the right ventricle into the
pulmonary tnmk •
. •Apex-down
. •· Aorta - arches caudally 6. Paraconal interventricular groove: the external indication of
• Auricles - beside the pulmonary trunk, point to the left the interventricular septum ~g the ventricles.'The groove
descends the left side of the heart, adjacent (para·) to the conus of
Since tile chambers of the heart are connected by specific vessels, the heart, thus, paraconal.
locating vessels helps identify chambers; and identifying cham-
hers helps locate vessels. So many vessels enter the heart, the 7. Coronary groove: a depremon encircling the heart, except for
majority of lhem pulmonary veins, it is confusing. To simplify the conus•. -The groove externally indicates lhe separation of the
identificati~,.locate the great vessels first- the aorta, the pulmo- atria and ventricles and contains the coronary vessels.
nary ttunkand the two venaecavae. The remaining vessels are the
pulmonary veins. · 8. Left atrium: the chamber into which the pulmonary veins
. . empty.
Find th:.:.vessels to locate the chambers they connect:
9. Left ventricle: seen best from die left side, caudal to the
• Cranial and caudal vena cava locate the right apjum. paraconal groove. On the right side, it is seen caudal to the
,. . . . . .. . • r subsinuosal groove. It forms the caudal boundary of the heart and
• Pulmonary veins locate the left atrium, where they terminate. its apex.
• Pulmonary trunk locates ~ right ventricle. 10. Ligamentum arteriosom (arterial ligament): the remnapt of
the fetal ductus arteriosus (arterial ·duct) connecting the pulmo-
• Aorta locates the left ventricle. nary trunk and the aorta.
Coronary groove: Partially encircling &he bean, it marks the .11. Right atrium (Fig. IX-25): seen f101n the right side of the
separation of the atria and ventricles. · t.eart, wilh the venae cavae entering iL ·
Interventricular grooves on the heart's exterior indicate the · 12. Right ventricle: makes up most of the heart on the right side,
interventricularseptum separating the ventricles. The two grooves below the coronary groove. It "wraps" around the cranial side cl
(the paraconal and subsinuosal grooves) carry similarly-named the heart to continue as the pulmonary trunk.
arteries.
13. Coronary sinus: the termination of the great coronary vein
Left side (auricular surface•): the side of the heart where the emptying into the right atrium.
auricles are seen with the pulmonary trunk in between them.
14. Subsiauosal interveQtricular groove: the long depression
Right side (atrial surface•): the side of the heart where the vena on the caudal right side of the heart. The groove is below (sub-)
cavae (cranial and caudal) are seen
entering the right atria. the coronary sinus (sinuosal). Like the paraconal interventricular
groove, it marks the interventricular septum on the exterior.
1. Apex: the most caudoveottal part of the heart, always fanned
by the left ventricle (and havinga "tip").
2. Base: the hilus of the organ facing dorsocranially. (It is the

broad "top" of the bean.) It receives the great veins and sends out
the great arteries.
•stemocostal surface anddiaphraamatic surface~ terms u~ to orient

lbc human helrt becauseof thehmnan •s vattrodorsally(anterioposteriody)
flanened thorax. The stermcostal surface faces the sternum and 1he
•
diaphragmatic surface rests on the diaphragm. In domestic animals, with
lheir laterally-flattened lhorax, the tendency is to think of lhe heart from
lhe lateral view. that is right or left sides.
394
HEART - EXTERIOR
Thorax-396
. . . .
.
3. Rt. auricle
1 O. Arte~lal Ila.
:--..,....__ E Fla. IX-24~- Do& • Heii°rt - It. side

:.
4. Lt. auricle .
.'
---..: 7. Coronary 1roove
9. Lt. ventricle
E
S. Conus
(Rt. ventricle)
11. Rt.
--.- atrium
6. Paraconal
interventricular aroove
1. Apex
14. Subslnuosal --~.;.._.-

interventrlcular 1roove
....
Fla. IX-25 - Doi - Heart .-
- rt. side . ·...
--
7. Coronary
I .•.. • ' •
9. Lt. ventrlcl'e aroove

A. Cran. vena cava
B. Cut vena cava
c. Pulmonary trunk
..
-· ·.
D. Pulmonary aa.
E.~vv. ·.
F. Paraconal interventricular br. 12. Rt. ventricle
0. Subsinuosal inlaventrlcular bt.
ff.Aorta
. :·
.395
Thorax-397
HEART - EXTERIOR
1
I .
....
Fla. IX-26 - Ox • Heart

• It. side
6 ._,.
,,,
D 7
B
-.
9
A
1. Baae or hean-
2. Pulmonary trunk 10
3. Anerial u,. c
4. Pulmonary aa.
6. Pulmonary vv.
e. Great coronary v.
7. Coronary 1100••
8.Conu. . . -.::--
9. Panconal interventricular sroove 8
10. Apex or bean
11. Aorta ·-·'
12. Cran. vena cava
13.Caud.venacava
14. Coronary tinut
16. Subeinu011al interventricular
poove
A. Rt. atrium
B. IU. ventride ' .. .
C.Lt. atrium
D. Lt. ventricle
.
a. Rt. auride
b. Lt. auricle
e. Brachiocephalic trunk •
d. Panconal lnterventriculu br.
e. Subeinuoeal interventricular br.
f. IU. uycoa v.
,. Lt. UJIO• v. (only ruminant le pie) Fia. IX-27 - Ox • Heart - rt. s
396
HEART - EXTERIOR Thorax-398
~I.Base
Fig. IX-28 - Horse - Heart, lt. side
3. Arterial Hg. . -·
4. Pulmonary aa.
~--5. Pulmonary
.. . vv.
12. Cran. vena cava
.. '
9. Paraconal
Interventrfcular groove ·
IO. Apex·
! 1
A
-r, 13. Caud. veoa cava
.. .
14. Coronary sinds
15. Subsinuosal
interventricular groove ·
Fla. 'IX-29. - Rorie • Heart, rt. side
397
.. '.
HEART - COMPARTMENTS Thorax-399
Fig. IX-30 - Doa - Heart,

rt. atrium opened
4. Interatrial septum
S. Opening of
•
coronary sinus
. .
...._---3. Pectinate mm.
.... · .'.
... ·· .• . .,
H-
3
·.·:5
;
,'
Fia. IX-31 - Ox • H~art, rt. atrium

& rt. ventricle opened ·
:, ....
. .
~ - "! ... ~ -:·.

COMPARTMENTS el' the HEART: the heart has four cham- 4. interatrial septum: £001~ separating the two atria.
bers. The two atria receive.
blood and pump it down into ihe
respective ventricles, which pump it away from the heart.
• Fcma.ovale( ovalfossa) (a),ashallow depression in the interalrial
. septum. It is the vestige of the oval foramen .
1. RIGHT ATRI UM: the compartment receiving deoxygen'i~
blood from the body and most··of the heart,
.'S. Col'Q.nary sinus: the end of the great cardiac vein which opens
Vena caval sinus (sinus venarum cavarum): the main p~Q(~tfle
..
·' into the right atrium.
right atria were the vena cavae and coronary. sinus open./f,his
doesn't include the auricle. · · ... 9 v
lntervenous tubercle (b): a projection from the dorsal wall of the
right atrium that·diverts the flow of both the cranial and caudal
vena cava into the right ventricle.
2: Right auricle (AW-ri-kl) (L. auricula, a little ear): the blind
pocket of the atria, characterized by pectinate muscles in its wall.
Fossa ovale (a): a remnant of the foramen ovate of the fetus.
3. Pectinate muscles: the interdigitating, criss-crossing, muscu-
lar bands in the walls of both auricles. Openingsinto/outottherightatrium: cranial venacava,caudal .. ~ ·
vena cava, coronary sinus, and right atrioventricuJar orifice. '---<.,
398
HEART - COMPARTMENTS Thorax-400
Fla. IX-32 - Horse • Heart, rt. ventricle & rt. atrium opened - rt. side
4. Interatrial septum
2. Rt. auricle
a
-~-3. Pectinate
H mm. ·
S. Ope~ing of
coronary sinus
1.Rt. atrium
A. Cran. veaacava
B. Caud. vena cava
C. R.t AV valve
D. R.t. ventricle ·: ·
E. Olordae tmdinae
F. Papillmy mm.
G. Subsinuosal interva11ricular br.
-· -· ...
..i• • '
H.Great~y.
I. Coronary sinus
• J. I'• J. Pulmonary aa.
K. Pu1monaiy vv.
a. Oval fossa
b, lntervenous tubetcle
c, Tenninal crest
d. Rt azygos v .
.
' .
, <;. .
'
399
' .
HEART - INTERIOR Thorax-401
·~ l3. Aortic opening
Fie. IX-33 - Doi - Heart, rt. half

- sagittal section
·-.... .
-
·· 14. Papillary mm.
- ,,.... .h
I • .,:-:;,:.
6•. R.t •. ventricle. I • ,. •
3. Pectlnate mm.
2. Rt. auricle
7. Rt. AV opening 10. Lt. a.uricle
16. Interventricular b
septum
11. Lt. ventrlcle: .»: . ."
1. RL atrium
2. Rt. auricle
3. Pectinate mm.
a. Cran. vena cava
.
b, Aorta
c, Pubnonary a. 4. Lt. AV opening
d. Aortic valves
e. Lt. atrioventricular valve
f, Rt. atrioventricular valve
g. Trabeculae camae ·
h, Moderator bands
(trabeculae septomarginalis)
Fig. I;x-34 - Dog - Heart, It. half 6. Rt. ventricle

· - sagittal section
---"""!-~
~.,..,.. . ·~ 8. Conus ar terfosus
COMPARTMENTS of the.HEART (cont.}
7. Right atrioventricuJar (AV) opening: the opening between
the right atrium and right ven~le. functionally opened and
6. RIGHT VENTRICLE: the compartment receiving blood closed by the right atrioventricular valve.
from the right atrium and pumping it, via the pulmonic circula-
tion. through the pulmonary· trunk and the pulmonary veins to the 8. Conus arteriosus or conus: the funnel-shaped outflow of the
lungs. The right ventricular wall is thinner lhan the left because right ventricle leading to the pulmonary trunk.
less pressure is required to move blood through the lungs than
jhrough the body.
Pulmonary opening: the opening in lhe pulmonary trunk pro-
tected by the pulmonary valve.
Openings into/out of the right ventricle: the right AV opening
and the pulmonary trunk.
Moderator band or trabeculae septomarginalis (h): a cord of .
'~
400
HEART - INTERIOR Thorax-402
FJg. IX-35 - Ox - Heart, rt. half

- sagit.tal section
--13.
. '~ .
9
a
'1 '
,":I·. • •• ·:. •
,.
. .. .
r-
.• .. - ·.-.
·,
myocardium crossing the lumen connecting the-outer wall with 12. Left atrioventricular (AV) orifice: the opening between the .
the interatrial septum. Purkinje fibers travel over these bandsto · ·. Jeftatriumandleftventricle;operatedbytheleftatrioventricular
help synchronize coniraction and emptying of the yertlricle.' . .. . valve. .. . .. .. i ' : • : .
9. LDT ATRIUM: the companment receiving -oxygenated 13. Aortic opening: the opening from the left ventticle int.Q the
b~ from Qle lungs via the pulmonary veins. · . ·,. ,, ..: . aorta. The aortic valve prevents back.flow ~ the aorta into the
left ventricle.
10. Left auricle: a· blind pocket with characteristic pecnnare . ·. ..
muscles as.~n m· the right auricle. . . . . STRUCTURES COMMON to both VENTRICl,.ES
'· . .. ' .
Op~nings in/out of the left atrium: the.pulmonary veins ~d the . 14. Papillary muscles: the muscular projections sezving as at-
left atrioventricular orifice. · . . · : . tachments for the tendinous cords (chon,ae tendineae) of the
'
atrioventricular (AV) valves.
11. LEFf VENTRICLE: the companment receiving oxygen-
ated blood 'from the left atrium and sending it out the aorta to the 15 -. Chordae tendineae (tendinous cords): the tough strands
body.and .the heart (systemic circulation). The left ventricle is anchoring lhe free edges of the atrioventricular (AV) valves to the
thicker ·Walled than the right because· of the higher pumping papillary muscles and preventing eversion of the valv.e Jeaflets
J¥eSSme required for systemic circulation. into the atrium upon ventricular conttaction (systole).
Openings into/out or the left ventricle: ~e left AV orifice and 16. Interventricular septum: the wall separating the ventricles.
tbeata.
401
HEART - INTERIOR
Thorax-403
10. Lt. atrium Fla. IX-36 - Horse - lt. half

- ~agittal section
15. Tendinous
3. Pectinate mm.
11. Lt.
ventricle ---- 8. Conus arleriosus
6. Rt. ventricle
9. Lt. atrium
12. Lt. AV
opening
16. Interventricular septum
13. Aortic opening
7. Rt. AV opening
a. Rt. coronary a.
b.Aona
e, Pulmonary a.
d, Aortic valve
•· Lt. atrioventricular. valve
f. Rt. amoventricular valve 6. Rt. ventricle
g. Trabeculae camae
b. Moderator bands ( trabeculae
septornarpnalet) (IX-37) ' 11. Lt. ventricle
i. Great coronary v. ·
j. Lt. coronary a. (circumflex hr.)
Fig. IX-37 - Horse - Heart, rt. half - sagittal section
402
HEART - VALVES Thorax-404
3. Aortic valve
Pulmonic valve 1. Rt. AV valve
Fig. IX-38 • Horse • Heart,

base of ventricles
I
.. . .
2: Lt. AV valve
a. Nodule
b. Openinr of coronary 1int11
c, Rt. coronary a.
d. Lt. c~o~aey a.
e. Fibroua rings
f. Rt. AV opening
I· Lt. AV opening
h. Aortic opening
l. Pulmonic opening Fig~ IX-39 • Ox - Heart skeleton
j. Oeaa cordis (ox&: older boraea)
VALVES OF THE HEART: the fibrous structures guarding lhe left ventricle during contraction (systole). (A miter is a two cusp
openings between the atria and the ventricles and the ventricles.
hat worn by bishops in the Catholic church. Someone thought they
and the two main heart outflows - the ®na an<l ,die pulmonary : looked like the left AV valve, hence mitral.)
trunk.
. , 3. Aortic (semilunar). valve: the three semilunar cusps attached
·•f:rioventr~~\ai::(~Y.~~~-Oh~ven-1'RlK-y0<>-lai) (AV) valves; to the aonic fibrous ring in the origin of the aorta.
prevent bacldlow :iN9 ~ atria dwing veotticular (systolic) con-
traelions. The AV valves are anchored in the ventricles by 4. Pulmonary (semilunar) yalve: the valve between theconusof
teodinouscords (chMlaetendineae) and attach peripbe,allytothe the right fflltricle and the pulmonary ·tnmt. It is similar to the
. . ..cardiac
fibrous rings of the .. skeleton.
. &Mr, valve, but of Jigh~ consttuctioil. ·
1. Riiht AV (tricuspid) valve: the right AV opening.

operates Memory aid: fortbecommon names of the AV valves: "tri before
There are only ayo map cmps (parielal and sq,«al) in lbe dog, you bi•. This is related to the direction of flow through the heart.
wi~ intervening.~ cusps. In man and ocher domestic
thus
' .....
specits, there are thiee major cusps (angular, parietal and septaJ),
"O.: "
"SKELETON" OF THE HEART: the connective. tissue skel-
elOn separating the atria from the ventricles and supplying attach-
2. Left AV (bicuspid, mitral) valve: similar 10 die right AV
menlS for1he belJt valves. It contains cartilage in all the,species
and two bones (ossa ~) in the ox and older horses.
f valve,.buthasaheavierconstructiondue~~pressureof~
•. .. ...
403
..
HEART - VALVES Thorax-405
'.:._ ll~ART ~USCUL TA'.fl,01~{'(?~~1.cuJiT~Y-~'1un);.list¢hing.

_:'.'.' to heartsounds. Hean sobn~~ji~.-~~-'!>Y. the'~losmg· of die
'·_:: different ~eaitvalves. Veh~1~:~c.>il~,ti~~(systole) causes a
;-,'tis~ iri' veiuiicu~ pre~ ~.·¢.~QSl\t.e'·ofthe ·Av.·vaJves: (1st
'; ·"h~if-sound) and opeiling·ofjh~·-·aahic··~d'p11lmoruc valves .
. · During veritricular -~~tibii_':(d_1!istp!e) • .' ilie ~v v_alves open
arid the aortic and pulmoriic ( semilli'nar)Valvesc1oset2n<t'heart
.sound)dueto back pressure.'ufthe_ao~ ~d pulmonarytrunk.
~: ;. . . :· . ·. . . : . ~.~;-·: . ~·:t ~- :·;. .~: ;: : '·:· : : . ~ ·: . . .
. -: : •·Systole: contraction of the "ve))tiicles;··occurs between the 1st
:-:_ and 2nd 'heart sound. ·: · . · · : ..: :·,.. ;·:.: · ::· · · ._:_.=. ·· · ':
. . •. ', . : : . ::;. :-:· . :·
:, . ·~ i>wtole: relaxation otihe vefitncl~ioccurs between the 2nd

.·· · · ana· Istbeart sounds: ·.: ... · ·'. , .:·:::_:_. ·· \:·· ·· · · ·
~~;;:. ·.:·· ··. ·:::_·.. . ·:· ·.:::.~~--' .. ··-::,/ -~:,~:.)/_ ..: ·/,: .: · ..
/..'J.'·tst:. lieart·souncl''t"Iub")r causeifb'.,llie'·closlii'e·of the AV
(,yfil~; ' ·· . ' . !\ ;".;'~{'} }:\i' ''i ' , ', .
• 2nd': lieart sound ("dub;;J:.'·tatis¢d.b"y:·me. closure of the
. ·-: semilunar
.·
valves (aorlit'°and. ·pulrtionic
. ).. · ..
. +-"
404
CIRCULATION
Thorax-406
--· .
•
.. .
Aorta
.
1
Common
carotid
Caud. vena cava

.Subclavian a.
Ext. jugular
Cran. vena cava
Axillary 4.
- IX-40 - Ox • Rt. thoracic cavity

Fig. . ~
(schematic)
. :
a
..
,• •• •• • •
. .. .
A. ,Eloph-.u, ,. . Tracheal bronchus a. Rt. asy10. v. h. Supt. cervical a. " v.

8. T?achea G. Phrenic n. ··· b. Coat~ical trunk
O. Tboncic: duct i. Cephalic v. · ·
B. Vaeosympathetic trunk e, Don. scapular a. ck v.
D. Pericardium (cut) j. Ext. thoracic a. & v.
I. Stellate canallon d. Supreme intercoatal a. & v.
B. Central tendon of k. Int. thoracic a. & v, .·
J. Vagua n. e. Deep cervical. a. & v. 1. Dora. intercoatal a. & v.
diaphncm K. Recurrent JarynceaJ n. f. Vertebral a. & v. · m. Bronchoeaophqeal a.
g. Int. jugular v. n. Ania aubdavia
.-_
405
CORONARY ARTERIES Thorar.-407
AORTA: the great artery leaving the left ventricle and arching
caudally. It sends oxygenated blood from the l~fl heart to the heart 3. Rt. coronary a;
itself and to the rest of the body through its syste~ic branches. The
aorta is divided into the ascending aorta. aortic arch. and descend- .. 6. 'Circumflex pr .
ing aorta. The descending aorta has thoracic . .
'and
I,
.abdominal
•
segments. -\ ..
. .
1. ASCENDING AORTA: the initial pan of~ ~na, originat-
ing from the left ventricle at ~e center of the heart's base .., ·
. . ... .
S. Paraconal
2. Aortic sinuses: the pockets between the aortic"valve's cusps in terventrlcular
4. Lt~·
and the vessel wall. Right and left coronary arteries arise from the br.
coronary a.
cranial and left sinuses respectively •
•• :· 'I, •
•1 :.: \ •• ; .;. :..i, • "-': •
Coronary (KOR~na~) arteries (L. corona, crown): the < '
arteriesenc~ling'.lbel>aseoftheheartlikeacrown.Thesearethe
first branches off 7. Subsinuosal
. . aorta,
. the interventrlcular br.
3. Right coronary artery: originates from the right aortic sinus.
It courses cranially under the right auricle and then to the right in
the coronary groove. In some species it continues as the .....
subsinuousal interventricular branch ((horse and pig). Fig. IX-41 - Horse & Plg> Coronary aa.
(schematic)
4. Left coronary artery: arising from the left aortic sinus. it
courses to the left under the left auricle and immediately branches
into descending ~onal)andencircling (circumflex) branches•
. In some species, the c~umfl~ branch, after reaching the heart's
right side, descends as the subsinuosal interventricular branch.
3. Rt. coronary a.
5. Paraconal interventricular branch: the descending branch of
the left coronary artery in the paraconal intenrentHcular groove. 4. Lt. coronary a.
6. Circumflex branch: the branch of the left coronary artery

coursing in the coronary igroove from the left to the right side of
the heart. S. Paraconal
i~t~rven~ricular br. -...__
7. Subsinuosal interventricular brailth: ·tfie· descending artery
in the subsinuosal interventricular groove. This branch is derived
from either the right coronary or circumflex branch of the left
coronary artery, depending on the species.
SPECIF.8 DIFFERENCES:
Dogand ruminants: the left coronary artery gives rise to both 7. Subslnuosal
the paraconal and subsinuosal intcrventricular branches. Interveatrlculae
hr." ··
Horse and pig: the;,-rt. coronary artery gives rise·:co- the 6. Circu_mflex br
subsinuosal interventticular branch. , . . ..
--·
Cat. the subsinuosal interventricular branch can arise from
either coronary artery, but usually from thecircwnflex branch
of the left coronary artery as in the dog and ruminants. Fla. IX-42 - Dog & Ruminants - Coronary aa.
(schematic)
406
CORONARY ARTERIES
Thorax-408
3. Rt. coronary a.
2. Aortic sinus
•
. F. Aortic valve
B. Pulmonic valve
5. Paraconal-
interventricular br. ~-E. Rt. AV valve
c.. Lt. AV valve H. Coronary sinus·
---1. Subsinuosal
interventricular br,
6. Circumflex br.
Fig. IX-43 - Doe - Heart, base of ventricles
- cross section
D. Great coronary v. 3
s 7
Fla. IX-44 - Ox· Heart. base of

ventricles - cross section
A.Aorta ·E. Rt, AV valve

- -~
"!.!.'>8. Puhooiuc valve
! .;:,, IA. A.V valve
P. Aortic valve
G.NoduJe
Sb. Great COl"OD&rJ v. H. Coronary ainua
Fla. IX-45 - Horse - Heart, base of ventricles
. • cross section :
4()7
AORTIC ARCH - THORAX Thorax-409
, \' \
S. Thoracic A.orta
i
b I \
~
c
3. Common carotid a.
Fig. IX-46 - Ox • Lt. thoracic
4. Subclavian a. cavity (schematicr
2. Brachlocephallc trunk t~.: .
6.. Axillary a. · ,s;..
.A. Ext. jugular v. a. Esophagus g. Costocervical trunk m. Recurrent laryngeal n.

B. Cephalic v. b. Trachea. . .. h, Thoracic duct n. Pericardium (cut)
C. Paraconal br, · C.. V asosympathetic trunk : i. Sympathetic trunk o. Phrenic n;
D. Lt. azygos v. d. V~bral gan~rt ... ,.j: Cervicothorecic (stellate) ganglion p. Int.uhoraeic a. & v.
E. Caud. vena cavt e. Supf. ce.rvicara.·& v. · k, Pulmonary trunk q, Crus of diaphragm
F. Cran. venacava f. Ext th~racic a. & v, 1. Vagus n. r. Costalpart of diaphragm
. .....,.: )
_,,.. . ..
1. AORTIC ARCH: the continuation of the ascending aorta, it • Costocervical tnmk: ~-~~lateral to thc. vertebral
sends branches to the head, neck. and thoracic llmb.s. artery. Its branches can includethe4eq, cervical, dorsal scapu)ar,
'·
supreme intercostal (thoracic vertebral in the dog}and verteb(al
2. Brac~jocepbalic trunk: the first branch of the aortic arch, arteri~.
present·m all the domescic species. It gives rise to the common
carotid artery and the right subclavian anery. • Superficial cervical artery: arises near the ~ic inlet and runs
onto the superficial neck in~ of~ $lloul~ .
_ 3. Right and left common carotid arteries: ascend the neck to •• < )
· supply the head, ~. and brain. · • • . • .the · -'a...r.cial ---.:-,

• Intern al thoracte artery: anses opposite .-AI - "-
artery and passes on the floor of the thorax.
4. Right and left suhclavian arteries: supply:lhe neck, thoracic
limb, and the cranial portion of the thoracic-wall. Each has many .-
DESCENDING AORTA: the part of the aorta caudal to the '
branches: · aortic arch. divided into the tho;aci~aortaand the abdominal aorta
...," . . by the diaphragm. ~ ··
• Vertebral artciy: the farstbranch off either subclavian artery. It
courses cranially to pass through the transverse canal. of the S. Thoracic aorta: the division of the descending aorta in the
cervical vertebrae. thoracic cavity. It helps supply the thoracic wall via the dorsal. '!·
intercostal arteries. ~
408
AORTIC ARCH - THORACIC AORTA Thorax-410
l. Aortic arch
5. Thoracic aorta.
'
~-·3. ~9mmon carotid a.

A
8
4. Subclavian a.
.. ..
, I
Fig. IX-47 - Horse - Rt. thoracic cavity

· · (schematic)
A ExL jugular v a. Esophagus h. Thoracic duct
B Cephalic v. b. Trachea i. Sympathetic trunk
C.Subsinuosal interventticular c. Vagosymphathetic trunk j. Cervicothoracic (stellate) ganglion
br. of rt. coronary a. (horse) d. Middle cervical ganglion k. Int thoracic a.
D. Azygos v, e, Costal pan.of diaphragm I. Vagusn. · .
B Caud. vena cava f. Crus of diaphragm m. Recurrent l!lfYllgeal n.
.' . ·· -P: Cran. vena cava g. Costocervicalmmk n. Phrenic n.
.
.
SPECIES DIFFERENCES Subclavian arteries: branches (vertebral, costocervical, deep
cervical, superficial cervical and intemai thoracic) vary in their
Common carotid arteries: dogs - arise separately; ungulates origins between the species:
(hooved animals) -arise by a shon, common bicarotid trunk.·
• Ruminant the vertebral artery arises tiom the costocervical
Branches of the aortic arch: trunk, dlus, the subclavian arteries have only lhree branches.
earnivores and pig: brachiocepbalic and left subclavian aner- • Carnivores: the vertebral and costocervical arteries arise
ies arise separately from the aortic arch. separately. thus, ~ sebclavian arteries have four branches.
Horse and ruminancs: only the brachiocephalic artery arises • lbse: the same as~ dog on the right- four branches. On the
from the aortic arch. Both subclavian arteries arise from the left the deep cervjcal aittty arises from the subclavian. not the
brachiocephalic bunk. cmtocervical lrunk and, thus, the left subclavian has five
·branches.
409
: . •,
r·
AORTIC ARCH - BRANCHESi~ Thorax.414

'.
..' ' ''
...
.- ', ·:·'" . ':
Common carotid aa.
Lt~ subclavian a.
Bracblocephalic .
trunk
b
a
DOG PIG ..
J
(
'•
Rt. subclavian
g
• ~ c..l. •
. . . Lt. subclavian
Lt. subclavian
Brachlocepballc
trunk
., . a
• l • •
. .
ox· HORSE
Fig. IX-48-51 - Branches of the Aortic Arch

a. Rt. coronary a. e. Costocervical trunk i. Internal thoracic a.
b. Lt. coronary a. f. Deltoid a. j. Supf. cervical a.
c, Bicarotid trunk g. Deep cervical a. k. Axillary a. ., r
(ungulates) h. Thoracic vertebral a. ~ -

d. Vertebral a. h' Supreme intercostal a. \:,,
410
ARTERIES - NECK
219-Neck & Body-470
;
' '
Fig. IX-52 - Horse - Arteries

5. Int. carotid a.
to neck
I -r
-· ./
J},
\' ..;::
-·
A
.,
1. Common carotid a.
Mery Tissue Facts

~ ~~~~~~~~~~---~------~---------~---~---~-
..
..::OMMON CAROTID br. of brachiocephaJic trunk
eaud. thyroid
cran. thyroid
}.
External carotid
occipital terminal br. of common carotid a.
middle & Inner anastomosa with vertebral a..
ear, meninges
cran. laryngeal larynx
ucenciiq pharyngeal pharynx
lin1Jtal toncue Axillary a.
Facial face
eaud, auricular ext. ear & auricular mm.
parotid parotid gland Lt. subclavlan a.
1upf; temporal·
maeseter m. (do1: upper & lower eyelid)
Maxillary Brachiocephalic trunk
infer. alveolar alveoli & teeth
·mental br. lower lip & chin
ext. opb,halmic ttructure, of orbit
ethmoid nual cavity
major & minor hard & aoft palate
palatine
infraorbital upper alveoli & teeth, lat. face
a. Coatocervical trunk
Intemal carotid b. Don. ,capular a.
joina batilar & contralat. int. carotid to form arterial circle
c. Deep cervical a.
Arterial circle brain d. ·Vertebral a.
roetr. cer.bral e. Spinal br.
mi4dle cerebral f. Don. muscular br.
caud. cerebral g. Ventr. muscular br.
re.tr. cerebellar h. Supf. cervical a.
i. Bicarotid trunk
•~ .. iliar j. Caud. thyroid a .
:~::caud. cenbeJJar formed by ventr. spinal & vertebral aa.
-2 k. Cran. th7J'<)id a.
I. Occipital a.
m. Cran. laryngeal a.
411
ARTERIES - HEAD 209-Head-413
. .
..
· Int. carotid a.
----cominon carotid a.
-- Fig. IX-53 - Ox - Head, supf, arteries

- lat. view
. . . ·.
catotid a.
Common
••• <(
Fl1. IX-54 - Ox - Head, deep arteries (ramus of mandible

& caud, portion of bony orbit removed)
- lat. view
a. Occipital a. i. An,ularia oria a. q. Buccal a.

b. Middle meningeal a. j. Nual aa. r. Ext. ophthalmic a.
c. Condylar a. k. Auricular aa. ,. Malara.
d. Lini,;uofacial trunk I. Supf. "mporal a. t. Ani,;ularis oculi a.
e. Lini,;ual a. m. Transverse facial a. u. Infraorbital a.
f. Sublingual a. n, Palpebral aa. v. Sphenopalatine a.
g. Inferior labial a. o. Int.tor alveolar a. (IX-55) w. ~alatineaa.
h. Supf. labial a. p. Mental a.
.:
412,
ARTERIES - HEAD Head-452
A. Ven,r. •plnal aa. H. OJractory bulb
B. Caud. cerebellv a. J. Optic nerve
,, 0. Ro.tr. cu.bellu- a. J. Cerebral hemitphere
_.:·
; D. Caud. cer.bral a. K. Pona
E: Caud. communicatinc be, L. Cerebellum
F. Ro.tr. cerebral a. M. Medulla oblonpta
G. Middle cerebral a.
1.COMMONCAROTIDARTER·
JES (right and left): arise separately
or together (biC&rolid trunk) from the
bmcbiocepbalic trunk. ~ ;a.,cend
the neck with the ~osJpaabetic
IIUDk to terminate in 1he internal and J
extemal~dart«iessupplyingthe
bead. face, and brain. The thyroid
and laryngeal arteries are the only
branc~ of the common carotid at-
leries.
2.Externalcarotidartery: lhelarge,
direct continuation of the common
carotid artery that becomes the max-
illary artecy. Its first small branch is 7. Basilar a.---
the occipital artery. It terminates by
fD"St giving off a caudal auricular , :
artQ)' and then branching into super-
. ficial temporal and maxillary arter-
ies.
3. Linguofacial artery or separate

lingual . and racial arteries:
brancb(es) of the external carotid ar-
tery. The facial artery winds around
the ventral bonier of the mandible to Fie. IX-SS - Ox - Blood supply to brain
supply the face. •·,
'.
4. Maxillary artery: the direct continuation of the external VENOUS DRAIN.AGE OF THE HEAD
carotid artery to the space below the orbit (the. pterygopalatine
fossa). Its branches supply the orbit, teeth.chin. nose. nasal cavity
..
Maxillary and'. finguofacial veins join to form dle external
and palate. . .
jugular vein. The external jugular veins and subda~n veim
join to form the &achiocephal~ vein in carnivores and pigs. The
5. Internal carotid attery: the Sinall~ terminal branch of the brachiocephalic veins thenJoin to form the aanial vena cava. In
ccmmon carotid artery. It enters the cranial cavity. joining the horses and ruminants the·extemaJ jugular veins and subclavian
basilar artery to form the arterial circle. It has an enlargement, the veins jo~ to form the cranial vena cava .
carotid sinus, near its <Jrigin.
6. Arterjal circle (circulus arteriosus cerebri, circle of Willis): SPECIF.s DIFFERENCF.S

located ventral to the hypothalamus encircling lhe infundibular
sudk. It is formed by the paired intenial carotid arteries and the Bkarotid trunk: in ung11Jates. the common origin of the two
basilar artery. It supplies the brain. common carotid arteries (in camivores they arise separately).
- .
7. Basilar artery: arises from I.he vertebral artery and ventral Internal carotid artery: in cats and ruminants the· part
spinal anery. . outside the skull degenerates.
Blood brain barrier: inability of most substances to cross the Linguof'acial trunk: the common origin for the lingual and
:=,._capillariesof nervous tissue due to tight connections between the · facial anery horses and ruminants (in the carnivores and pig
·.•?capillary endothelial cells. they arise separately).
413
' :
. .. ·. .
ARTERIES - THORAX. . ·.: •'
.\
410- Thorax-415
;
•..•••• ~ t~J ...
: Fig. IX-56 - Ox - Thoracic aorta

· ; 1. (schematic) - lat. view
·,
,,
~-'r-
.,. . . 1'.,.
. :· -,
" - .
··.-; .
3. Dors. 'lntereostal
,, a.
·, • •• 7'•
. ·-
'
-~~E
\~B
o\
\
~==-, \ J,b:::.~
....
1. Int. thoracic a. .
Thoracic
aorta Broncboesophageal artery (m): arises from the aorta or from
one of the dorsal intercostal arteries. Its bronchial branch is the
3. Dors. intercostal a. nutritional supply'to• the tissues •of• the lung.
<. ; • • ., •
3. Dorsal intercostal arteries: the first few arise as branches of

... ,(
~.·
I •
',
,•
-:
t
the costocervical trunk. the restarisedirectly from tbeaorta. Their
. ·; ; ....
mainbranchcoursesonlhecaudalaspectoftheribstoanastomose
•i ''.
-2.v·entr. Interecstalra; with the ventral intercostal arteries. ·The dorsal costolll>aominal
arteryissimilartothedorsalinteicosfal~es~butttave.lscaudal
to the last rib. therefore, is not locatecfintercostally.
1. Internal thoracic artery: a branch of the subclavianartery,

coursing through the ventral pan of the ·thoracic cavity. lt,perl'~
rates the diaphragm to continue as'the c.ran~epigastric artery oo
.. ;
'. •. ·.. the floor of the abdomen. ColJaieial branches supply the sttue-
\
.. .
tures of the ventral thorax. '' .. e
2. Ventral intercostat·arteries: arise from the internal thoracic

h artery and course between the ribs. supplying the venttal thoracic
..,. ,.. ."' . . .... .
'•.
wall.
. - : ' ..
Fig. IX-S7 - Ox - cross

section (schematic)
414
.ARTERIES - THORAX Thorax-479
Fig. IX-58 - Horse • lat. view (schematic)
.. '
'•
Thoracic ,;aorta
{ ..
;.
' v'
• •• ,,t:....
. ;
...
Braehlocephallc trunk
: .·
s·
1. Int. thoracic a. ..
Fl1. IX-59 - Horse - cross section .

•,
(schematic)
~·.;
A. Rt. coronary a.
B. Subt4,uool int..o-
venlricular- br.
u c. Lt. CO!'OD&I')' L
D.PanconaJ
intervctricuJar br.
E. Circl3Dlflex:br.
3. Dors. L Costocuvical trunk (lJC.58)
'
intercostal a. b. J)on. ~p~~ a.
c. Superioiid\uco.t;al a.
d. Dora. int.icoetal aa.
e. Deep cervical a.
f. Dora. interconal a. I
. ·. : I· Ventr .. in.tm:ottal br .
h. Perf'oratinc br.
·2. Ventr. intercostal a. i, Sternal br.
. ., .' j. Muc:ulophr.nic a.
.. . . ' .; • • • '"f k. Supf. cervical a.
u 1. Deltoid br.
m. Ltonchoeaophapal a.
n. Brol\c:hi-1br.
o. &lopl_lqeal br.
p. Don. intercoetal aa.
q. Donal br. (IX-59)
1. Int. tboractc·a. r. Spinal br•
! T ,,• •. Intenpin~ br.
t. M.t. cutan. bra. of p.
u, Lat. c:utan. bn. of p.
..
~ -.
~ ..
.
---.:::.. -----
v. Dora.~-~abdominal a. (IX-90)
w. PhNnic bn:
x. Pulmonary ...
4JS
..
' .
;.
DOG - ARTERIES - THORACIC LIMB

197-Thoracic limb-417
•'·
Fig. lX'"60 • Dog - Thoracic limb aa.

·med.view (schematic)
'· .a. Ext. thoracic a. 1. Cran. lnteroaeoue a.

b, Lat. thoracic a. m. Caud. interoaseoua a.
e, Subecapular a. . n. Deep antehrachial a.
d.Caud.cireumf1ex o. Radial •.
e humeral a. p. Supt. pabn. arch
•· Thoncodonal a. q. Deep palm. arch
f. Cran. circumflex r. Palm. metacarpal aa.
1. Axillary humeral a. ,. Palm. common dlplal aa.
I· Deep brachia) a. t. Palm. proper di,ital aa.
h. Bicipltal a. . . u. Don. common ctiptal aa.
i. Collateral ulnv a. · v. Don. proper d.i&ital aa.
j. TranaverN cubilal a. w. Supt. brachial aa.
k.Common interc111oua a.
1. AXILLARY ARTERY: the direct continuation of the subcla-

vian artery around the f'IrSt nb to~ thoracic limb. It supplies~
2. Brachial structures of the shoulder and continues as the brach.ialarteryafter
the subscapular artery branches off.
h Sub~capular artery (c): passes dorsocaudally between the·

subscapular and teres major muscles. It gives off the caudal
circumflex humeral anery and thoracodorsal aitery (to the latis-
simus dorsi muscle).
2. Brac~l artery: the contin~tion of the axillary artery on the .-::

medial aspect of the arm. which it supplies. It continues as the ;·~
median artery in the forearm after it gives off the .common
j interosseous artery. Its major branches- the deep brachial (g) (to
the triceps brachii muscle), bicipital {h) (to the biceps brachii
. muscle), collateral ulnar _(i) (toward the olecranon), and the
transverse cubital (j )(nnder the biceps bracbii muscle) arteries.
Common interosseous artery: dives through lhe.interosseous

.:..&,...--3. Median : space between the radius and ulna. It has caudal and cranial
in~ branebes, The cat has no common interosseous
.artery because the cranial and caudal interosseous arteries arise
separately. In dogs the caudal interosseous can't be occluded with
a tourniquet in the mid-forearm became it is protected between
the radius and ulna.
3.-Median artery: the continuation of the b(li:hial artery past the

common interosseous artery. It supplies the foreann (ar.tebra-
chiutn). by its branches - the deep antebrachial (n )(to the
caudbfnedial muscles). and the radial (o) (to the digits). k puses
through the carpal canal to join blanches of the common interos-
. se-OU$ artery ·to fonn pa1mar artrnal arehes,
Palmar ~hes; give off palmar metacarpal arteries (dt.ep) and

palmar common digital ~ (superficial) that supply the
• palmar aspect of lhe forearm and manus.
4. Digital arteries: the blood·vesseJsof thcmcaacaipus and digits. : -~ :~

Their distribution varies between the species. Number the digital ~
arteries from medial to laJ.eral.
416
'
DOG - ARTERIES - THORACIC LIMB Thoracic limb-418
r" . .. ·. Fla. IX-61 - Doa - Metacarpal

. . .
'
& digit aa. - palm.
~... view (schematic)
·, ~ ..
-._ ·~ . - ~l~ll'ii---....' I
- .
.- ;
'.
Fia. IX-62 - Do& - Metacarpal
& digit aa. - dors.
view (schematic)
•t . .
,.
( .,
.
. -- .
' .
'•
. ..
·. .
... . .
~· -.
;
·
Palmarcommondigitalarteries(s): thesuperficjalaneriesloauoo to the formation of the proper digilal arteries.
on the palmarsideofthemetacarpus. Camivoresa1so have dorsal :
common digital arteries. Propes digital arteries (t.& v): the distal branches of the common
· . digilal arteries past the proximal end of the di~ts. They extend
Dorsalandpalmarmetacarpaldigilalarteries(r):the~p~~ . down the sides of the digits as axial and abaxial proper digital
-"']*~ of.the meiararpus traveling next to the metacarpal-bones. They . arteries. ·
. ~ parallel the larger common digital aneriesandusually contribute
417
' .
HORSE .; ARTE.RIES - THORACIC LIMB Thoracic limb-419
3. Median a.
--· .
Fig. IX-63 - Horse - Thoracic

limb aa. - med. q
view (schematic)
a
Fig. IX-64 - Horse - Metacarpal & digit aa.
- palm. view (schematic)
1. Axillary a.
-
4. Digital aa.
"'t---a
7. Med. digital a.
1--tr--',~ t--r--- 3. Median
'i •
8. Lat. digital a. --1~~
I a. Ext. thoracic a. 1. Cran. interoueous a.
0 --f.!-"i, 11· b. Lat. thoracic a. m. Caud. interoaaeou, a.
c:. Subac:apular a. n. De.p antebrachial a.,
d.-Caud. circumflex humeral a. o. Radial a.
e:Thoracodorsal a.
(. Cran. circumflex humeral a.
p. Supt. palm. arch (IX-6') -~
q. Deep palm. arch ,
I· Deep brachia! a. r. Palm. metacarpal aa. (IX-67)
h. Bic:ipital a. 1. P11lm. common digital aa.
i. Collateral ulnar a. t. Palm. proper digital aa.
,u...-Q j. Transvene cubital a.
k. Common interoaaeoua a. 9. Terminal arch
DIGITAL ARTERIES· HORSE

..--5. Med.plam. a. ..
S. Medial palmar'(second palmar~on digital) artery: the
main· supply to the d~gits: Proximal to the metacarpophalangeal
joint (fetlock) it divides into the digital aneries.
4.· Digital aa. 6. Lateral pal.mar (third palmar common digital) artery: much
smaller than.• the medial palmar artery .
7 & 8. Medial and lateral digital (medial and lateral proper

7. Med. digital a. common digital) arteries: pass on the abaxial surface of the
proximal sesamoid bones and the flexor tendons.
9. Terminal arch: the distal continuation of the digital arteries

after they enter the solar canal through the solar foramina. •,
418
OX - ARTERIES - THORACIC LIMB Thoracic limb-420
1
r.,;:.:
. -,.. Fig. IX-67 - Ox - Metacarpal
~ . . & digit aa. - palm .
view (schematic)
Fig. IX-66 - Ox • Metacarpal

& digit aa. - dors,
view (schematic).
a
Dorsal metacarpal a. III--,....__.
1. Axillary a. Common
2. Brachia! a.
3. Median a. -digital a. III
•· Digital a. I
a. Ext. thoracic a. ·P
b. Lat. thoracic a.
e. Subacapular. a.
d. Caud. circumflex humeral a.
3---t"" e. Thoracodonal ·a.
f. C.ran. eircurnflex humeral a.
K· Deep brachia! a.
h. Bicipital a.
i. Collateral ulnar a.
j. Transverse cubital a.
k. Common interoueoua a.
I. Cran. interoneoua a:
..m. Caud. interoueoua a.
n. Deep antebrachial a.
o, Radial a.
p. Supf. palm. ~h (IX-6") \ .
q. Deep palm. arch
r. Palm. metacarpal aa. (IX-67)
1. Palm. common diaital aa.
t. Palm. proper digital aa.
Abaxial digital a.
,! . , ..•
. . . ..
.
ox
3. Median artery: continues ro· the distal metacarpus where it becomes the
th~palmat common digital artery.
5. Common palmar digital artery ill: the continuation of the median artery on
the medial side.
6. ,,Ax~J~palmar proper digital arteries: '1:te continuation of the third common

Fig. IX-65 - Ox - Thoracic. palmar digital. artery on the axial sides of the third and fourth digits .
--~
.
,;4 ...
.'
:.. !
limb aa. - med.
~I view (schematic) 7. Dorsal metacarpal artery III: travels in the dorsal longitudinal groove.
419
.•
. .,.. - ...
•, •. ··<,_ .
.,• . ; .
...' . .. ~ \· .,
.. .
ARTERIES. - HORSE - SHOULDER & ARM ..
Thoracic limb-421
. .
·.
.
t
;"":.
...~ . ·r
..
~-
Axillary a.
.....'-
: •• f {
Brachia( a.
... .. .;
Med1an a.
Fig. IX-68 - Horse - Arteries of

· the arm • med. view t···.
'~
420
•
ARTERIES - HORSE - FOREARM Thoracic limb-480
VEINS - THORACIC LIMB
There are superflcial and deep veins of the

thoracic limb. The deep veins travel with like-
named arteries. 'The super ficial veins travel usu-
ally by themselves just beneath the skin.
.
Acces.wry cephalic vein: arises from the dorsal 3. Median a. q
digital arteries. It travels proximally to empty
into the cephalic vein above the carpus.
· Cephalic vein: In carnivores (pg. 488-489), Cephalic v,

arises from the palmar digital veins. Proximal to
the carpus it crosses the medial side of the
foreann to reach the cranial surface. Itis joined
by the accessory cephalic vein before continu-
ing up the cranial surface of th~ forearm and Med. cubital v. · ·
lateral surface .of the arm under the brachio-
cephalic muscle. Its empties into the external
jugular vein. It branches (omobrachial and axil-
lobrachial arteries)provideotherdrainageroutes.
Median cub ital vein: connects the cephalic and

brachial vein over the flexor surface of the
elbow (cubit). Accessory cephalic a.
SPECIES DIFFERENCES '··
Horse: the accessory cephalic vein empties· , I
into the cephalic vein near the. elbow. not

above the carpus as in the carnivores and ox.
6. Med. palm. a •. ------ii-~
. (palm. common digital_ a.)
CLINICAL
Venipuncture: most commonly and easily

performedinthe ~eph~.i9 vein in· the dog.
: ·T}te cephali~ ;and: ~~:·~~bital vei~ are
,·:ooJc;I off by (~ger:piess~-~fuss:~··fiex~r . ..
·surfaceof tbe·etbow·;A·neoofe·
· is then.ihreaded
.. Jhto the cepb~lic· Q(~t-Y.-~phalic v~p·:.
)disiaUy on.di~·cnirii'i1l ~f<Sf·tfie -~b.. :.
-,
Fla. IX-69 • Horse - Arteries.

forearm - med. view
.. .
. ..
a. Suprucapular n. h. Tboracodorul a.•v .,& n. · e, Flexor retinaculum t. Med. cutan. antebrachial n.
b. Thoracodoraal n. L Coll8'eral ulnar a. p. Oommunicatins br. (br.' of muaculocutaneom n.)
C• .Axillary D, j. Ulnar n. q. Caud. cutan. antebrachial n. u. Deep pectoral m.
d. Radiai n,'
.,,. . le. MW1Culoc;utaneou1 n. (br. of ulnar n.). v. Coracobrachialis m. ·
•· Subecapular n. 1. Median n, r. Med. palm. metacarpal n . w. Terea major m.
t: Pec&oral n. m. Bicipital a. ·1; Cran. cutan. antebtachial n. x. Trieepa brachii m,
C· Sublc:apular a.· . n. Med. palm . .n. (br. of axillary n.) y. Extemor carpi radiali,
.. . .. . . -.
. -! • . :. . 42-1-
. . ·.
:-'. '.
ABDOMINAL/AORTA
. ,.... - ,• '
273-Abdomen-423
'· .
,•
1. Abdominal a.
)"' ..
1. ABDOMI~~LAO.RT :,the part.or the descending f 3. Cran. mesenteric a.
aona caudal to t;he· diaplji'agm. It courses beneath lite
vertebrae next toi.t1¢1caudai vena cava and terminates in
the two intemai'mac··anenes
f ~ :.: and the median sacral
"I •
artery at the leve.f;ofJhe last lumbar vertebra. Its main

: )1. t'-}
branches to the ~.abdominal viscera are the unpaired

celiac, cranial arid· caudal mesenteric arteries; and the
paired renal~:;~ .· arteries.
Phrenic ~;-·su~~ly~'the diaphragm. In the carni-
vores the caudal p~ic artery arises with the cranial
abdominal it.rtery by a common trunk - the
phrenicoabdominal
.. ~
..
•
2. Celiac artery: supplies the stomach, part of the
duodenum,liver,.andspleen.Itbasthreemainbranches,
the left gastric. hepatic and splenic aneries.
I .
.mtesu~.
3. . . mesenteric· artery: supplies most of the
Cranial :
4. Renal arteries:-. :Originating caudal to the cranial

mesenteric artery,:~wdly forming one artery to ea:h
kidney. .
. •.'
5. Gonadal arteri~ (testicular or ovarian): the tiny.

vessels supplying the gonads that usually arise just
caudal to tho renal arteries.
-6. Caudal mesenterie artery: supplies the descending
colon and rectum. 7. lot. iliac a.
' ·.
Lumbar arteries: hQmolog9us to the dorsal intercostal
arteries, these ~ · ~0hes course dorsal to the
lumbar area. ·.·· · · ·.··
..... ...
<
Deep circumflex iliac arfe.lies (k): arise fiQm the aona
only in the carnivores. In Jhe other species they arise
from the external iliac~- .. Fla. IX-70 • Ox - Abdominal aorta
• I\. : -. . • dors. view (schematic)
?• Internal iliac arteries:.the ·terminal aortic branches
supplying the pelvic viscera and 1)81' of the hip and A. Caudal vena caYa: fonned by ·thejoining of the right and left common
thigh.
iliac veins. It receives blood from the branches that drain 1he areas supplied
by the paired branches of the aorta. ltaJso receives the blood lmught to the
8. External Wac arteries: the.branches of the terminal livez by the portal ~einthrough the hepatic veins.
acxtasupplying lhe pel~ tiofb:
·· ' . . ·. · B. J-ortal vein: formed by the joining of the aanial and caudal mesenteric
9. Medien sacral arfery:_ ih,eunpaired artery of_thc~.. veins. It then receives the gastrodoodenaJ and spJenic vein.,. The portal vein
Its caudal continuation in· die tail is called the caudal drains into the liver allowing intestinal blood to be'"J)lorased.and cleaned
artery• .. , : < . · .. . before
it is sent OD to the geneaaf. circulation.
VEINS· ABDOMEN: the paired branches ttavel wilh Liver sinusoids (a): Sf*es in the liver where the portal bJood is processed,
arteries of like name. Those draining areas supplied by
the un~ branches of the aorta (celiac. cranial and Hepatic veins (b): drain the portal sinuses to the caudal veaacava, Since the .
caudalmesenteric)donotretumtothecaooalvenacava, ,.,
but join to form the portal vein. caudal vcna cava passes through the edge of the liver and the hepatic veins ~
aiein the liver tissue they can't be seen unlessthecaudal vmacava is opened.
422
ABDOMINAL AORTA Abdomen-424
,"'--.
Fla. IX-71 - Horse - Abdominal aorta

.. : : - dors. view (schematic)
Fig. IX-72 - Horse - Caud. vena cava

- dors. view (schematic)
••
- ..
~
d
8
i
1. Abdominal a. A. Caud. vena c:ava e. Eld. iliac v.
2. Celiac a. B. Portal v. (.Int.iliac Y,
a. Cnn. m11enteric a. ,. ,. Oaud. mesenterlc v.
4. Renal a. .,. a. Liver ainuaoidt (IX-72) h. Splenic v, :
5. Gonadal a. b. Hepatic: vv. I. Lt. patric v. ·
6. Caud. me.enkric a. e. Renal v. j. Cran. maenteric v.
'I. Int. iliac a. d. Gonadal v.
8. Ext. iliac a. .
. . ..
SP~IES DIFFERENCES
Median sacralartety: mlucedorabseotin thehorse. Thecaudal

artery is ~ta~ ~b of die-caudal glutealartay.
II
- .'
. . ~.
. 423
. .
CELIAC ARTERY .
Abdominal aorta Abdomen-425
~...,;~·.. . '
!t...
·.'J·•. Celiac a.
<
•
Fla. IX-73 - Doa - Viscera supplied by
the celiac a. (schematic)
.,·,
' .
.. . ..
' '
E
-· --c
'. •.
,.·
f,
~
'..
.- ;
... ..
.
"'r.:~:.... r--._ -...,; - , ... . '•
. ... {._,\ .2 ~- '"\~..! GJ,._,.--
,,,.......>."'
. ,.
' .
-
I, Celiac artery: the f11'5t \liscetjllJ>J~.och of the abdominal
aorta. _pans of the stomach, duodenum, and pancreas.
arising unpaired between thecruraofthediaphragm. It terminates
as the hepatic, splenic and left gastric aneries supplying lhe • Right gastrk artery (e): anas~ with the left gastric
cranial part of the GI tract (sromach, part of the duodenum, lver ' artery to supply the ~ curvature of the swmach:·
and spleen.) '·
I
• Gastroduodenal artery (c): crosses the stomach to branch
• Left gastric artery (a): supplies the left side of tlw lesser into right gastroepiploic and aanial panaeaticoduodenal
cwvature of the stomach. arteries, · = · .. -, ··. · ·. · · ·, i t ' •
• Splenic artery (t): eaters, by many tenninal branch,S. the long • Right gastroepiploic artery (h): supplies the greater curva
hilus of the spleen in the dog. In the ruminant it erters a small ture along with the left gastroepiploic artery.
hilus.
• Cranial pancreaticoduodenal artery (d): passes discally
. • Left gastroepiploi~ :~r:tery (g): passes to ne greater . along the descending duodenum to supply it and the pan
cwvature of the s«>roach. · creas.
• Short gastric arteries (I): arise from the splenic artery SPECIES DIFFERENCES
and pass to the fundus of'·f11C stomach.
Ruminal arteries: travel in the right and left longitudinal
• Hepatic artery (b): sendsllepatic branches to the liver and a grooves of the rumen. Bolh can arise from the splenic artery.
cysuc branch to the gall b~der. It then continues on to supply
424
CELIAC AR"FERY Abdomen-27 4
c
E
..
.. . ..
. . . ..
Fig. IX-74 - Horse - Viscera supplied

by the eeliac a.
·~ . · ·- · (schematic)
~. . . ..
..... .
.
' . . . ... .
..
. : ·. .... .. .. . . . ...
, . ,:.,.
:
;\,/}/~-~::\\·/;;};
....
.. 1. Celiac a. ~·... -
-- . , ••
.. .
...
'
Fla. IX-75 - Ox - Viscera su·pplied by the
celiac a. (schematic)
,.
'..,: CLINICAL
•,•'
.·.... .
~-... ·. : .: ::. . . .. ...
.,. ~lelitctomy. in t~ carnivores: the vessels to the spleen A. Fundu, of stomach a. Lt. patrlc a. (IX-71)
B. Spleen·- · b. Hepatic a.
~ musti)e1ip)rdclos¢to thespleenalong the hilus so the short C. Stomach c. Gutl'Oduodenal a. ·
,: ,~tri¢ and I~ gastroepiploic arteries are not compromised.
==- . . ..
D.Duodenum d.. ~. pancreaticodu_odenal a.
E. Livtt •· Rt. 1utrlc a.
F.1>),lorua ·. • i. f. Splenlc:a; ·
i· (l~~1..;,«wli~··<>peliinJ the stomach· of a dog. cut G. PaJJcreaa ,. I.A. pa\,oepiploica. .
~~ween the-twocui.'vatures to avoid the major blood vessels. H. Rumen (IX-75)
'!
<· .. h .. Rl. patroepiplolc a.
... . . . . ...;t"\!.~ .
••: • .. '."'.: ~··: •. • .
; . ... 1:Reticuluni . , .. 1. Lt. nuninat a. (IX-75)
· .':·:Riameilotomy; open the dorsal sac above the longitudinal · J. Omuwn j. Reticular a. ·
K.Abomuum k. Rt. rwninal a.
::::gft)9VC;:~y
. . . . avoiding
·.
its arteries.
425
. '.
' '
ARTERIES - INTESTINES 281-Abdome~~427
2. Caud. meseaterlc 1.· Cran. mesenterlc
Abdominal aorta
. •. · l. ,
~
Fig. IX-76 - Doa - Arterial supply to

the intestines (schematic)
. 1. Cranial meseoteric artery: the larg~t visceral branch orthe
abdominal aorta. arising just caudal to the· origin of the celiac
anery. Itcoursescau4<)ventrally in the mesentery to supply most
of the intestines. SPECI~ DIFFERENCES
• Caudal pancreaticodeodenal artery: anastomoses with the cra-
nial pancreaticoduodenal artery. Memory aid: consider the ascending colon (AC) to be the
• lleocolic artery, branches to: "right" colon and divided into two pans. Consider lhe trans-
• Middle colic artery (d): supplies the transverse verse colon the "middle" colon and the desc.ending colon the
("middle") colon. "left" colon. Then name the arteries supplying the second part
• Right colic artery (e): supplies the second half of the of the right colon, the middle colon and the left colon the right.
ascending colon. middle and left colic arteries respectively. This leaves the first
• Colic branch of the ileocolic artery (g): supplies the first pan -of the AC which is supplied by the colic branch. This
part of the ascending colon. · · simplification works for all the domestic species ..
.. • Antimesentenc ileal arteryIk): travels on &he
antimesenteric side of the ileum in the ileocecal fold. Horse: the first part of the AC is the ventral colons from the
• Jejunal and ileal branches (b): come off the contincauon of the cecum to the pelvic flexure (colic branch). The second·part is
cranial mesenteric artery. These branches anastomose, making the left and right dorsal colons from the pelvic flexure to the
arcedes from which shonjejunal and ileal arteries extend to reach transverse colon (right colic artery). ·
the organs.
Ox: the first part of the AC is from the cecum to the central
2. Caudal mesentericartery: the smallest unpaired majorbranch flexure (proximal loop and centripetal coils) (colic branch).
of !he abdominal aorta. It arises near the termination of the The second part is from the central flexure to the transverse
ab:lominal aorta and supplies the descending colon and rectum colon.
ttrough its left colic and cranial rectal arteries respectively.
426
-
ARTERIES - INTESTINES Abdomen-282
.-et 1. Cran. mesenterlc
Abdominal aorta
~-.
,.. -·. -,:.\..
2. Caud. mesenteric
----~ ' . .'
Fig. IX-77 - Horse - Arterial

supply to intestines
(schematic)
. ·.·
Fig~ ~x-7:s, - Q~ - Arterial supply to

·· :-... intestines (schematic)
l 1
..
.. .
A. Descending duodenum
-' . ...:. B . .AaceudinJ duodenum
C. Jej,mum
D. Ileum
E. Cecum
F. Ascending colon
G. T~ene colon
H. Deace~ding colon
I. Rectiun"
a. Caud. pancreatico-
duodenal a.
b. Jejun-1 a.
e. Deal aa,
... . d. Middl., colic a..
.•. JU. colic a.
f. Deocolic br.
g. Colic br.
h. Cecal .br. _
i. Lt. coJie~a.
(off caud. meMnteric a.)
j. Cran. S'«tal a.
k. A.ntimeNDkric ilea! a.
(abMni in hone)
1st part AC- colic br. 2nd pan AC - Rt. colic

CLINICAL
_ Horse Rt. & It ventt. colon Lt. & n, dors. colon
to pelvic flexure
Prox. loop & spiral loop Spiral loop dist. to central

to centtal flexure flexure & dist loop
.•
. ,,..
427
EXTERNAL & INTERNAL ILIAC ARTERIES 380-Pelvis-429
1. EXTERNAL ILIAC ARTERY: the large branch of the is usually obliterated (not patent).
tennifuil aorta. It gives off the deep femoral artery, then pe~trates
the abdominal wall through the femoral canal (lacunae) to reach Artery of the penm: the continuation of the internal pudendal
the medial side of the rear limb. Once out of the abdominal cavity artery in the male. It rounds the arch of lhe ischiumand trifwcates:
it becomes the femoral artery. The caudal abdominal artery
-usllally arises from lhe external iliac artery after the ~p femoral • 12. Artery of the bulb: supplies the corpus spongiosum penis.
artety and.~pplies the caudal abdominal wall (carnivores, sheep
and caute).' . • 13. Deep artery of the penis: enters and supplies the corpus
cavemosum penis.
2. Deep femoral artery: the only branch of the external iliac
artery present in all species. It has the following branches: • 14. Dorsal artery of the penis: travels along the dorsal surface
of the penis.
• 3. Pudendoepigutric trunk: a short branch off the deep
femoral artery giving rise to the caudal epigastric and external Artery ol the clitoris: analogous to the artery of the penis. It
pudendal arteries. branches into the anay of the vesti~ar bulb. the deep artery of
-. the clitoris (except in horses) and dorsal artery of the clitoris
• 4. Caudal epigastric artery: courses cranially OJI the·c:teep (except in horses).
surface of the straight abdominal muscle (rectus abdominis).
Ventral perineal anay (d): the other terminal branch of the
• 5. External pudendal artery: passes through the inguinal internal pudotldal artery. It supplies the paineum.
canal and branches into the superf1Cial caudal epigastric and
ventral scrotal or venttal labial arteries (the latter supplying
the scrotum or labia of the vulva, respectively). SPECI~ DIFFERENCES.
. .. ....,
. ·.
• 6. Superf"ldal caudal epigastric artery: courses crani 15. Uterine artery: branches off various arteries:
aliy undet the skin of the ventral abdominal wall to anas- . • _Vaginal artery in the carnivOJ§. ·
tomose with the cranial epigamic arteay. • External iliac artery in the horse,
• Umbilical artery in the ruminant,,. The horse and rumi-
?. INTERNAL ILIAC ARTERIES: the terminal branch of the = nants also havea uterine branch of the vaginal artery.
aona that enters·the pelvic cavity. It blanches into caudal gluteal
and inlernal puc:lendal aneries. This division ocx:urs al different lntmaal iliac artery (1): carnivores and horses have short
levels, thus, giving rise to either a "long" or "short" imemal iliac internal iliac arteries; ruminants and pig have long ones.
artery.
Internal pudendal artery (8): carnivores and horses have
8.lnternal pudendal artery: can be "short .. or "long" ,depending "long" internal pudendal arteries; ruminants and pigs have
on where it and the caudal gluteal arterY separate. It tenninates as "short" ones.
the ventral perineal artery and the artery of the penis or clitoris.
Prostatic or vaginal artery (9): arises from the internal
9. Pr()Static or vaginal artery: the branch of either the internal pudendal anery in thecamivores and horses. In the ruminants
pudenda! or internal iliac, depending. on which is longer. lt and pig it arises from che inte:maJ iliac artery.
supplies the urogenital organs in the pelvic cavity. Its branches are ,.
named for the+.~Ysupply: uterine/uterine branch (ductus . . '
16. Obturator artery: usually arising from the cranial gluteal
deferentis anery76ranch), urethralis, middle rectal, and caudal artery in the cat and horse, it travels through lhe obturalOr
vesical arteries. ..... foramen. In the horse it gives off the middle artery of the penis
(clitoris). It is absent in the dog and usually absent in Che ox.
• 11. Round ligament or the bladder: the part of the umbilical

artery in the edge of the lateral ligament of the bladder. Its lumen
428
-
EXTERNAL & INTERNAL ILIAC ARTERIES Pelvis-430
-:.,.... .. Fig. IX-79 - Dog • Arterial supply to pelvic organs

e ,';
. ..,. & ext. genitalia (schematic)

Abdominal aorta 7. Int. Iliac a.
1. Ext. iliac a. 8. Int. pudendal a.
-\:~~~~~,--~,-/'\~-;:-~{__ 9. Prostatlc a./yaalnal a.
(uroaenltal)
2. Deep femoral a .
...........~~ ~~---12. Artery cl bulb
.....,.....__ 13. ,Deep a. of penis :

10. Umbilical a.
3. Pudendoeplgastric trunk
14. Dors. a. of: ~nis .'. ,·
4. Caud. eplaastrlc a. .,
....... .~ ¥'
'
'
6. Caud. supf. epigastrlc ... -
(cran. mammary) a.
B
A
. · .. , .. .- , 15. Uterine a.
. .
,. .
Fig. IX-80 - Bitch .• Arterial supply to pelvic organs . '
& ext. genitalia (schematic} 11. Round lig. of the

urbaary bladder
1. Ext. ililC a. 9. Prostatic aJvaginal a. A. Testic:ul• (ovarian) a. a. Median saaal

2. Derep femoral a. 10. Umbilical a. B. Caud. mesenteric a. b. Caud. glute.al
3. ~igastric trunk . 11. Round lig. of bladder C. Rectum c. Cran. glutal
4. Caud. epigastric a. · 12. Artery of bulb D. Urinary bladder d. Vauralperineal
S. Ext. pudenda! a. 13. Deep a. of penis E. l>uclU'I deferens e. Arra:y of penis (clitoris)
6. Caud. supf. epigastric (cran. 14.l>ors.a.ofpenis F. Body of penis
inammuy)a. IS. Uterine L G. Pelvic symphysis
1. Int. ililc a:. ff.Ovary
8. Int. pudenda} a.
"'-"f.·.,.
.
I. Uterus
~=--
429
.i :
.'
.. ~ v , . ..
'
EXTERNAL & INTERNAL ILIAC ,ARTERIES

Fla. IX-81 • Stallion • Arterial supply. to p~ivic organs
& ext. genitalia (schematic,) · . ·
Abdominal aorta 7. Int iliac a. 8. Int. pudendal a.

1. Ext. iliac a. b
. ·...
•, .
10. Umbilical a • .-l.---r 9. Prostatic aJV11ginal a.
2. Deep femoral a.-.--\--t"-
3. Pudendoepigastric trunk ,, 16. Obturator a. (horse);'. · .·

. ./
/ ..
. . :
4. Caud. epigastric a. 18. Middle a. or penis (horse)

5. Ext. pudenda! a.
6. Caud. supr.epigastr~·
17. Cran. a. of penis (horse) ·
,·
,'
»,
·....
~ .. b
,··
16. Obturator a. (horse)
: : .
HORSE~ SPECIES DIFF'ERENCES
15. Uterine artery: comes off the external iliac

artery in the hcne.
16. Obturator artery: arises from 1he cranial

glureal arteiy and gives off the middle artery to the
penis (cliaoris) in the horse. ·
17. Cran•I artery of the penis: a branch of the

RISDIJ PHkodeJ artery in the horse.
11. Middle artery of the penis: arises from the
obturator artery in the horse.
Dorsal artery or the peni.1 (14): in the horse has
litde or no contribution from the continuation of
die internal pudenda!. But in the midthigh region, · ·
it is fonned by anastomoses from the cranial and· . .
middle arteries of the penis, branches of the exter-
na1 pudendal, and obturator arteries respectively. f
Deep artery of the clitoris and dorsal artery of the

clitoris: arise from the middle anery of the clitoris, Fig. IX-82 - Mare • Arterial supply to pelvic organs
a continuation of lhe obturator artery. & ext. genitalia (schematic) .....
;
, .....
430
EXTERNAL & INTERNAL ILIAC,ARTERIES Pelvis-520
Abdominal aorta 7. Int. iliac a. 8. Int. pudendal a.
10. Umbilical a.
.· ,
3. Pudendoepipstric trunk
5. Ext. pudendal a.
7 8
6. Caud. supr~·epigastric
(cran. m~mary) a.
B.
Fig. IX-83 - Cow • Arterial supply to pelvic

organs & ext. genitalia
(schematic)
14
RUMINAN'.f • SPECIES DIFFERENCES
15. Uterine artery: a branch of the umbilical

artery in the ruminant:
.. Fig. IX-84 ·.- -~y.ll
.~
. '
Long internal iliK and short internal puden-
dal: 'note how far caudally .the internal iliac ,., . . . . ..
branches into caudal gluteal and internal puden- 1. Ext. iliac a. . ,,. ·
da! in the ruminanL Because of this the ~c 2. Deep femoral a. . .' · · . l ••
3. Pudendoepigasttic trunk
or vaginal artery is a branch of the internal iliac 4. Caud. epigastric a. . .'
artery. S. Ext. pudenda1 a.
6. Caucl. supf. epi&astric r
i; ••
• , •.
"Cranial mammary artery": another name for (cran. mammary) a.

7. Int. iliac a.
the superficial caudal epigasllic in the ruminants 8, lnL pudenda} L '
\
' .
anclmarc. 9. Prostatic aJvaginal a.
10. Umbilical a. A. Testicular (ovarian) a. a. Median saaal
"Caudalmammaryarteries":theventtallabial 11. Round lig. of bladder B. C~. m~c a. b. Caud. gluteal
12. ~ of bulb · C; Rectmn c, Cran. gluteal
arteries in the cow and mare. ·, 13. Deep a. of penis D. Urinary bladder d. Venlral perinea!
14. Dots. a. of penis E. Ductus deferens e. Array of penis (clitoris)
"Milk vein" or "superticial abdominal vein": 15. Uterine a. F. Body of penis f. Middle artery of clitoris (br.
common names for the satellite vein (superficial 16. Obturator a; (horse) · G. Pelvic symphysis of obturator in horse)
17. Cran. a. of penis (horse) H. Ovary
caudal and cranial epigastric) of the superficial 18. Middle a. of penis (horse) I. Uterus
epigastric arteries in the raminant,
431
- .' ! •
ARTER.IES - DOG - PELVIC LIMB- 199-Pclvic limb-433

1. INTERNAL ILIAC ARTERY: terminates into internal pu-
dendal (pg. 428) and caudal gluteal arteries.
~
4. Ext. iliac a.
2. Caudal gluteal artery: after giving off the crariial ·giuteal
artery itleavesthepelviccavity to supply the gluteal and proximal 1. Inter. iliac~
part of the caudal thigh ("hamstring"). muscles. 2. Caud. gluteal
,, a.
3. Cran. gluteal a. ·
3. Cranial gluteal artery: arises from the caudal gluteal and
passes over the greater ischiatic notch to supply the middle gluteal
muscle.
4. EXTE~AL ILIAC A~TERY (cont from pg. 428): pen-

etrates the abdominal wall through the femoral canal (lacuna S. Deep femoral a.
vasorum) to becomes the femoral artery.
5. Deep femoral artery: arising from the external iliac artery just
inside the abdomen. It gives off the pudendoepigastric trunk. It
then passes out the femoral canal (lacunae) to the medial thigh
where it becomes the medial circumflex femoral artery.
6. FEMORAL AR'fERY: the continuation of the external iliac
artery coursing in lhe femoral triangle on the proximomedial side
of the thigh. Passing distally: deep' to the semimembranosus 6. Femoral a.
muscle. itcontinuesasthepoplitealartery caudal to the stifle joinL
•~ first. branch. the lateral circumflex femoral arteo', passes 8. Caoct. remoral •··-~--'
laterally between the rectos femoris and vastus medial is muscles
~ anasaomose with lhe medial citcumOex artery. Proximal.
9. Popliteal a. _T'"-l"'"""'--
middle and distal caudal femoral arteries supply the caudal aspect
7. Sapbenous a. _ __,,_...,
of the thigh. The constam branch in all the domestic species is the
distal caudal femoral artery. ·' .~,
' .....
1. Saphenous artery: arises from the femoral artery in the ·~
femoral triangle. It passes subcutaneously with a vein and nerve
on the medial side of the thigh. It gives off the descending
genicular artery to the stifle. Past the stifle it divides into cranial . . .'
and caudal branch§ in the carnivores and horse.
8. Distal caudal remoral or caudal remoral artery: arises from

the terminal eod of the femoral artery and passes caudally on the
gastrocnemius muscle IO supply the caudal thigh ("hamstring"
muscles.
9. PopUteal artery: the continuation of the femoral artery behind ,.,__ 11. Dors. pe~ ,.
the stifle and between the two heads of the gastrocnemius muscle. , ' .
g
lt branches into cranial and caudal (small) tibial arteries,
. .
Digital aa.
10. Cranial tibial artery: the largerbianch of the poplitealartery.
passing in the inte~us space'between the tibia and fibula to
the cranial surf~ of the crus.
I/ I
m
.
11. Dorsal pedal artery: the direct continuation of the cranial . '
tibial ~ry over me· tarsus. ,.
., · ·-
...
~ t._, ~
•.
Perforating tarsal artery: posses between the tarsal or metatarsal
bones to reach the plantar aspect.
Metatarsal and digital arteries: similar to the metacarpal and Fie. IX-85 - Doe - Lt. pelvic limb ·-.. .~..
digital arteries of the forelimb. •· med. view (schematic) .....~
432
DOG - ARTERIES - PELVIC LIMB Pelvic limb-434
Fig. IX-86 - Doa - Lt. pes - dors.

view (schematic)
Fig.· IX-87 - Dog - Lt. pes - plant.
6. Femoral a.
view (schematic)
8. Caud. dist, femoral a.
+ t
..
• • • •
9. Popliteal a.
10. Cran. tibial a; ----+-1-1 Common digital arteries: the superficial

e
arteries (dorsal and plantar) in &he metatar-
sal region.
: .. . . .
Metatarsal arteries: thedeeparteries(dor-

sal and plantar) of the metatarsal region.
7. Saphenous a. · Proper digital arteries (dorsal and plantar):

fonned from the jo~g of the common
digital and metatarsal arteries. They have
"axial" or "abaxial" added to their name.
.. · depending on which side of the digits they
pass.
SPECIAL • .. ···? . .
. '
Femoral canal or vascular lacunae: the

opening between .the abdominal cavity and
the medial thigh:
SPECIES DIFFERENCES
Carnivores~ pig: there is liute clini-

cal significance to the arteries distal to
____, Di1ltal aa. ...-.....___ the tarsus. In the carnivores the dorsal
digital arteries are formed by the cranial
branch of the ~henous artery and the
. cranial tibial artery; plantar arteries ame
from the caudal branch of the saphe~
.. artely •
a. Median saaal a. f. Anastomosic br. j. Deep plantar arch

b. Int. pudenda! .. (horse) k. ~al aa. (JX-89)
e, Lat. circuflex femoral a. g. Perforaling tarsal a. 1. Common digital aa.
d. Med. circumflex femoral a. h. Lat. plantar a.
e. Caud. tibial a. i.Med. plant.- a.
·~. ...
' v
., . ... :
,:·; :;; .. 433
... ~.:
·:::.
' .
HORSE - ARTERIES - PELVIC LIMB Pelvic limb-435
;,I.•
.
'
Fig. IX-88 - Horse • Lt. pelvic limb 7. Saphenous a.

• caudodors. view (schematic)
HORSE
·•
'.•
I 12. "Greatmetatarsalartery"
«dorsal metatarsal artery m:
I
~-1 die continuation of the drupJ

h uooal artery (11). and the main
supply distal to the tarsus. It
10. Cran. tibial a.-- runs distally on the dorsola~ral
side of the metacarpus ij'i, a
8. Caud. femoral a. groove between the cannonend
lateral splint (Mf Ili arid· IV).
6. Femoral a. · Halfway down the metatarsus it
passes between the cannon and
11. Dors. pedal a. lateral splint as the distal perfo-
ratingbranchto reach the plantar
i.--- 7. Saphenous a. . surface of the limb. · It then
branches into lateral and medial
digital arteries. ·
13, 14. Medial and· lateral

(proper) digital arteries: con-;
tinuations of the great metatar-
sal artery (distal. perforating
branch) on the sides of the dig,
its similar to the forelimb. ;:
,.., ..
10. Cran. tibial a. Caudal branch oftht saphen- · .· ·
. .... :
oos&:rtery: receivesan S-shaped ...
anastomosis (t) from the caudal
tibial artery and then branches
f into lateral and medial plantar
arteries (hJ) at the tarsus. A
t-i,--h deep branch of the lateral planla(
11. Dors. pedal a. artery joins with the perforating
tarsal artery to form the deep
plantar arch G). PlanJac ·meta-
1arsa1 arteries (k) arise frc;>m.the
12. Donal 13. Lat. digital a. deep plantar arch. Both plantar
metatarsal a. m and metatarsal arteries contrib-
J ute to the digital aneriesby join·.
ing the digital arteries or the
distal perforating anery of the
g I l great metatarsal artery. ·
'
Fig. IX-89 - Horse • Lt. pes - plant. view
13. Lat. digital a. . (schematic) ..'·
a
·,
6. Digital aa.
1. Inter. iliac a. 9. Poplileal a. a. Aorta g. Perforating tarsal a.
2. Caud. gluteal a. 10. Cran. tibial a. b. Median sacral a. (usu- h. Lat plantar a.
3. Cran. gluteal a. 11. Dors. pedal a. ally absent in horse) i, Med. plantar a.
4. Ext. iliac a. 12. Dorsal metatarsal a. III c. Int pudendal a. j. Deep plantar arch
S. Deep femoral a. 13. Lat digital a. d. Med. circumflex k. Metatarsal a. (IX-8~~:
6. Femoral a. 14. Med. digital a. . femoral a. 1. Common digital at ..
7. Saphenous a. e. Caud. tibial a. m. Pioper digital aa. \:_
8. Caud. femoral a. f. Anastornosic br.. (horse)
434
•
OX - ARTERIES - PELVIC LIMB. Pelvic lirnb-436
1. Inter. iliac a.
h
. ~·· ~. \
\
.. •:
:
I . k
~·
'
••
\..
,-.
Fig. IX-91. ·-:Ox • Rt. pcs. Fla. IX-92 - Ox - Rt. pes

.. plant. view
- dors. view
ox
h
g
12. Dorsal metatarsal artery ID: the continuation of the dgmJ ooJal anery (11),
courses _in the dorsal longitudinalgroove. It gives off a perforatingtarsal and continues
as the d<na1 common digital artery mwhich gives off prop«digital arteries and then
12-- passes between the digits to anastomose with plant':ll· common digital artery III.
Saphenous artery: doesn't have cranial and caudal branches. divides at the tarsus into
, . ;,· lateral and medi3J plapLlf artqies (h,i). Branchesfrom the plantar arteries anastomose
with the perforating tarsal artery (g) to fonn the plantar metatarsal arteries (k).
Medial plantar artery (i): divides into plantar common digital arteries II and III. The
. plantar common digital artery U continues on as the abaxial proper digital artery Ill.
The common digitalana-y m anastomoses with dorsal commondigital artery m and
then bifurcates into axial proper digital arteries m and IV. ,
435
ARTERIES - DOG - THIGH & PELVIS Pelvic limb-437
Int. iliac a.
Int. pudendal a.
Urogenital a.
Caud. vena cava
Ext. iliac a.& v,

A
Femoral
.,_ a.& v •
,.
B·
Saphenous a.
. Med. saphenous v.
. .
Fl&. IX-93 - Doa • Pelvis & thigh • med. view
436
ARTERIES - DOG - CRUS & PES Pelvic lixnb-500
..
-----
~~-.
•
Saphenous a.
Fig. IX-94 - Doa • Rt. crus & pes - med. view
VEINS· PEL VIC LIMB: deep veins parallel the arteries of

the same name. Superficial drainage occurs via the medial
and lateral saphenous veins that do not parallel similarly-
named arteries. ·
I .. .
Medial saphenous vein: passes o~the medial side of the
limb with the saphenous artery aqd,vein. It empties into the
femoral artery at the apex of the femoral triangle.
Lateral saphenous vein: travels on the lateral side of the

limb to enter the caudal popliteal region and empty into the Lat. saphenous v.
distal caudal femoral vein. ·
-~LiNICAL.... . . . ·.:
'.
: .
•..·
~ ·•• . .;:.. .• ·=·= : . • • :
:~~teral~pheiao~~~: ~~u~forv~~ture~,.
:=ifie dQ£\qheb~ ~c ·~m is· unavailable. Injeciing··.-
·where· it crosses -~:latenl side.. of' the ieg ·is difficult"
-, be.cause of its ~ility. Injecting it more: pro,.;i~y. ·
where it dives into ~ ~string muscles. is easie.r.
Cranial brandi of the median saphe~·vein: in the

-horse~ ihe dorsomedial aspect of die tarsus. This · A. Pemoral n.
crosses the •cunean* tendon {medial insertion of the· B. Saphenou1 n.
cranial tibial muscle) and the injection site 9f the dorso- C. Ob&umor n.
. medial pouch of the 18locrural joinL D. Tibial n.
Intravenous local anesthetic of the bovine pes: apply a a. Middle 1acral n. . . .

tourniquet below the tarsus to distend the five superficial · b. Deep femoral a.
veins in the area Inject any one .to anesthetize the distal · e, Lat. plantar n. (Ubial n.) (IX-94')
--':. · liinti.... ·. . . d. Med. plantar a. (tibial n.)
- •· Med. plantar a.
-· ~
'--~...:........~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-l s. i !° :~.•
437
. ..
'.
. .. ;
VEINS - BODY 5. Caud. vena ca va
·- 382.General-439
;;,:
,. ~· Cran. Velia cava
1. Ext. jugular l'. : v •

-;/
2. Cephalic Y.
·- c
•'o\'
• r
3. Subclavian v,
. ..
4. ~- 82. ...
,, ~
A. Pulmonary vv » · 7. Saphenous v.
B. Great cardiac v. ·
C. Catid, supf. epigaatric
(milk) v. .
Fig. IX-95 - Ox· Veins· lat. view (schematic)
VEINS: the vessels returning oxygen-depleted blood from the formed by the intersection of the external jugular and subclavian ·
body tissues to the heart. ' veins.
1. External jugular vein: the large vein in the neck returning 4. Cranial vena cava: the great vessel emptying into the cranial
blood from the head to the heart. part of the right atrium, returning blood from the head, neck,
thoracic limbs and cranial part of the walls of the thoracic cavity.
Veins or the. thoracic limb·: the deep veins usually parallel the
arteries of the limb and take the same names. Superficial veins S. Caudal vena eava: the great vessel emptying into the'caudal
pass under the skin not accompanied by like-named arteries. part of the right atrium;·retuming blood to the bean from the'
abdomen, pelvis and pelvic limbs.
2. Cephalic vein: arises from the digital veins on the pabnar
aspect of the paw. Itextends proximally around the medu!} side of 6. Portal vein: the large vein carrying essential~y all th~ blood
theforeannjustaboyetheaupustoieacbthecran.iat~wf~ofthe
, . . ' .. .. from the abdominal viscera to the liver and its internal sinusoids.
limb. Here it isjoined by the accessory cephalic vein, It continues Hepatic veins located insi~ the.liver, return to the cau~ vena
up the limb crossing the flexors#.(faceof theelbow and lateral side cava. · .. :·
of the arm. It empties into the.external jugular vein. ..
..
.. . . .. . Veins of the pelvic limb: Deep veins parallel the arteries of the
Accessory cephalic vein: arises from ~ digital .yeins on the same name. Superficial drainage occurs via the saphenous veins.
dorsal surface of the paw. It extends proximally.~ join the
cephalic vein above the carpus in the carnivores ·and ox and near 7. Medial and lateral sapheilous veins: the superficial drainage
the elbow in the horse. :.. · of the pelvic limb. They do not parallel similarly-named arteries.
The median sapbenous vein travels on the medial side of the limb
3. Subclavian vein: the vessel returning blood from the thoracic and empties into the femoral vein in the femoral triangle. The
limb to the heart lateral saphenous vein travels on the lateral side of the limb and
empties into the caudal femoral vein behind the stifle. r/']
Brachiocephalic vein: found only in the carnivores and pig, ~~~
438
L VMPHOCENTERS - BODY General-440
from lhe capillaries into surrounding tissue. The lymphatic ves-

SPECIES DIFFERENCES
sels have greaterpenneability lhan the capillaries, easily "picking
- :. ,, up" proteins and large molecules. Muscle contractions compress
External jugular vein: empties into lhe brachiocephalic vein
the lymphatic vessels, moving the "lymph" along. Lymph nodes
in carnivores and pigs; directly into the cranial vena cava in
are staueredaJong thecourseof th_e lymphatic vessels and contain
ruminants and horses.
primitive cells and macrophages. The primitive cellsdiffezentiate
into lymphocytes and/or pmma cells. Macrophages lining the
Subclavian vein: e~pties into the brac:hiocephalic Yein in the
lymph· nodes. ~gtjlf ,substances, including metastasizing cancer
carnivores and pig; into the cranial v~cava in the ruminants
and horse.· . ceJJs, entering ~.lymph .DO.des. Lymphocytes are a1so prod~
by the spleen, thymus, and tonsils. The spleen also phagocytoses
aged erythrocytes.
BracbiocepbaJic vein: present only in the carnivores and pig;
formed by the convergence of lheextemaljugular and.subcla-
Lymph capillaries: blind-ended tubes located throughout_ the
vian veins. . .. body. More penneable than blcxxf~illaries, they ''pick up" the
excess interstitial fluid. which is then called ..lymph". ·
Cr~nw,I vfnacava: fo~,by the conve.rging of the brachio-
cephalic vein in the carnivores and pig and by the extemal
Lymphatic vessels: the larger vessels fonn~ by the convergence
jugular and .~ubclavian veins· in the horse and ruminants.
. . . .~ . .•
of lymph capillaries. Similar to veins. lhe lymphatic vessels differ
in having thinner walls. more valves. and lym~ nodes along their
course.
CLINICAL
.. - ; ' - .
Lymph nodes {Inn., sin.eln.): the ovoid or bean-shaped, enca12:
:
· Venipunctu~~:·: placing a needle into ~ vein · t6 '0ratr to :

withdraw blood or inject a substance, · . ,' .
sulated strucrures located along the course of the medium-sized
.. •, .. ·.· . lymphatic vessels... ,:lie i~Ph. nodes function as. filters and
.. :· .. ,· '{1~:·;j;;: .
germinal centers for lymphocyces. Each node has a capsule of
Sites, Qf,v~nipuncture:
fibrous connective tissue. Trabeculae extend from the capsule
.. ,Dog: ., into die lymph node. Theouia conc.x and inner medulla make up
the r,arenehyma of the node. Lymph enters the periphery of the
lyatpb node by affen:nt lymphatic vessels, passes through the
ff:·,
··~· • Cephalic vein: l1lOSl common site of venipunct~ . .
pareocbyrnal sinuses. and out the hilus of the lymph node by a
~-:_,.;; • Jugular vei~~d most common site. ·. : single efferent lymphatic vessel. Lymph picks up l}'D)phocytes
and is subjected to macrophagesas it passes through the node.
'!1' • Lateral saphenous vein: a third choice. but a poor choice, . Primitive cells: Located in lymph nodes, they differentiate into
after the cephalic and external jugular v.eins. · · ·. ''.
lymphoctyes and/or plasma cells.
•·,
; Sublingual vein: sometimes used during surgery.
Macrophages: tbe phagocytic cells lining the walls of the si-
nuses.
Large animals:
: : : t
L YMPHOCENTERS: groups of lymph nodes draining the same

• External jugular vein:. the· most common ~ite.
region of the body in all species. Outlined on the next few pages·
:·:, are th~. lymphocenters of the body and their major lymph nodes
(minor ~nodes have been ignored). Trunks and ducts drain the
YMPHA TIC SYSTEM: consists of lymphatic tissues and ves- lymphocenters back to the general circulation at the so-called
sels. This system returns protein-rich fluid to the blood circulation "venous angle". The "venous angle" is where the ducts or trunks
that escapes from the blood capillaries into tissue spaces. It is, empty into the large veins in the thoracic inlet
therefore, part of the circulatory system. The. lymphatic system is
involved in lymphocyte and antibody production, phagocytosis HEAD and NECK - LYMPHOCENTERS:
of particulate maner, and movement of fats from the digestive
system to the circulation. Thus, it may be consideredpart of the 1. Parotid lymph node: represents the parotid lymphocenter. It
hemopoietic (blood forming), immune. reticuloendothelial, and is located under the cranial edge of the parotid gland. It drains the
digestive systems. Lymph vessels are not present in the brain, dorsal part of the head, including the orbit and parotid gland,,then
spinal cord, or bone marrow. the lymph continues to the retropharyngeal nodes. It is palpable
in the dog and ox. '
The pumping of the hean,causes hydrostatic pressure that filters
~=f~
out all components of the blood, except
: .
blood cells and platelets, 2. Mandibular lymph nodes: represents the· mandibular
..... '"::_,i;:....
~~j
-I~; •·
of;>
439
.
• :. v, •
·' . :
•: • • v, '
.
,.
. .. _,. ·i.,
-,
-.
..
..:: ..( "",
' :>..:·
' . '•.
L YMPHOCE·NTERS - BODY .: ~.:- :•. .. . . .. : . ,·
. .\
·..... ~ . \ Gen.cral-441 ·
. ;:f- ..
. ~· .
lymphocenrtt and comists of agrq11pof nodes~ ventral to 'located along the abdominal aorta. They drain~I die kidney, Joins,,
~·. ~
~
the angle of the jaw. They drain that pan of the head noi drained
adrenal glands. and abdominal portion of die urogenital ~ -. I
by the paroti~ gland to the medial retropbaryngeal node. Present including the testes, into the lumbar tninks orcistema chyli. 1be
in all speeles, they are palpable in the dog, ex, and horse. cemivores lack renal lymph nodes, ':.'' ,, ..
Retroph~ieal ,Ympbocenter: <bins thedeeper structures of 11. Celiac lymphocenter: consists of mfenic, 11$1JX•. hepatic.·;~
' '
the lie.ad -~d nee~ including the pharynx and larynx. They also
receive l~ph coming from the paroaid and mandibular lymph
andpancm,ticodnnfimeJ lxrophDfldr:sthatdrain~Sb'UC- ;
nodes; tares to lhe cistema chyli (see below). The ruminants have many ·
nodes. aociated with dae compar,:111~.
. . ntsof their stomach.· ·.
.: ; :.,....
· ~ 3. Medial retropbaryngeat iymp• node: the largest lymph '
12. Cranial mesenteric lymphoceater:·comists ofdle ieiuqaJ.
node<# the head and nee~ present in all species. It lies between waJ. and eolk lmab IIQdes.. They are Jocated near these organs
the larynx and the wing of the atlas and is not normally palpable:' and drain into the cistema chyli. ·
. . ·.'.'
• 4. Lateral retropharyngeal lymph node: usually absent in the •
• 13. Cranial mesenteric lymphnodes: asurprisirigly large node
•• • .Jti.. •
dog and f>8:lpabJe in the ox.

located in the root of the mesentery of the dog.
S. Superficial ~rvical lymph nodes: represent the superficial 14. Caudal mesenteric lymphocenter: represented by 1he cau-
:,;~ical lymphocenrtt _ They are present in all species and palpa-
dal mesenteric lymph nodes draining the descending colon ..
ble in the dog. ox. and horse. Located in fron.tofthe.shoulder joint
un(Jer the superficial neck muscles. they drain the superficial neck G •. VISCERAL TRUNKS: drain the celiac, cranial and caudal
'and. dorsal thorax along with the proximal pan .
of. the forelimb. mesenteric lymphocenters to the cisterns chyli.
' .
•
6. Deep,cervical lymphocenter: the chain of deep lymph nodes PEL VIS and PEL VIC LIMB L YMPHOCENTERS
(cran'iaJ, middle and caudaD along the length of the trachea. It
c:h;ains1he deep and ventral structures of the neck into the thoracic 15. Popliteal lym·pftocenter: r9P~ by the superficial QOJ):
duct on the left side or into the. lymphatic duct on the right. liteal lymph nodes in the carnivores (palpable.in the dog) and the
... .
deep popliteal lymph:nodes in lhe other species. They drain the
A. RIGtIT and LEFf TRACHEAL (JUGULAR) TRUNKS: distal limb into the medial iliac center. .,,·., ..
traveling along,the trachea. draining the lymph nodes of the head
and neck . ~y emptyinto lhe thoracic duct on the left side, the 16. Ischial lymphocenter: absent in lhe dog.
' .·
nght-ly~pbatic duct,. or. the vessels of the thoracic inlet. . '·
.:
·. :
17. Deep inguinal lympbocenter: located along the external iliac
THORl,\CIC LIMB and THORAXL YMPHOCENTERS: the anery. The horse has deep inguinal lymph nodes.
thoracic Jyqtphocenters can be divided into parietal (dorsal and
ventral thoracic lympl,ocenters represented by the intercom! and Superf"adal inguinal lymphocenter: drains the groin, caudal
sternal tvmph nodes.-.~tively) and visceral groups (medias- mammary glands. and scrotum into the iliosacral or deep inguinal
. tinal and bronchial l~phocenters).
~: .
lymph nodes.
~. . :1 . ' \
1. Mediuti~•l lympbocenters: consistof lhecranjaJ mediastioa) • 18. Superracial inguinal lymph nodes: present in all species.
lymph nodes in all species, The carnivores lack the c;audal they are palpable in the dog. ruminants, and horse.
mediastipal lymph nodes that are huge in the ruminants.
• 19. Subiliac or "prefemoral" lymph node: absent in the dog
8. Bronchial lymphocenters: consist of nodes locatedaround the
a,nd palpable .in the ruminants and horse. It .is also called the
tracheal bifurcation. All species have lefttracheobronchiallymph mammary c,>i scrotal lymph node because it drains these sttuc-
node& tures,
9 -. Axillary lymph node (pan of lhe axillary lymphocenter); 20. Medial iliac and sacral lymph nodes (pan of iliosacral
constantly present in all species and palpable in the dog. Located lymphocenter): located near the rennination of the aona in the
in theaxilla, it drains the forelimb and the thoracic wall. including · abdominal and pelvic cavities. They drain the surrounding region.
ttie first~~ of mammary glands in lhedog. The accessory the pelvic organs. and the hindlimb into the lumbar trunks.
axiflary b:mph node is present in the cat and inconstant in the dog
and ox. The horse has a palpable cubital lymph node. B. LUMBAR TRUNKS: extend from the medial iliac lymph
nodes to the cistema chyli. It receives lymph over the visceral.
A'DOMENAL LYMPHOCENTERS: cenac, intestinal, jejunal, hepatic and colic ttunks.
10. Lumbar lymphocenters: consist of lumbar lymph node§ C. CISTERN A CHYLI: the dilation at the thoracolumbar junc- :. ·
'<..:
440
·..
L VMPHOCENTERS - BODY Generat-444
.-""'. ., '.
(. .....
.•,,·
.. 1'~
:~._;:;.·
.. :
Fla. IX-96 - Ox· Supf', lymph nodes (schematic)
• ••
A. Parotid In. •
B. Mandibular In.
(Normally palpable superficial Inn •
• Parotid ln. -dog and ox C. Supf. cervical In.

•Mand.tl,ular Inn. - dog, ox and horse
•Lat. retropbarypgeal In. -ox
•Superficial cervical Inn. - dog, ox and horse
•Axillary In. -dog D. Sublliac In.
-CUbital Inn •. -borse
•Superficial popliteal In. -dog E. Supf. inguinal Inn.
•Subiliac Inn. - ruminant and horse~
'I..
J. Thoracic duct
·I. Cisferna chyli H. Lumba:'r trunk
•
t.
Tracheal trunk
. ~.. ~- ..
-~
~
L. Cran. vena cava

Ji .· • • ~ .. 4•
:.~
0
G. Viscer•I trunk
Fla. IX-97 - Ox • Lymphocenters

. . of
the body (schematle)
,,
tion receiving lymph from the lumbar and intestinal (visceral) azygos vein and the aona. Passing to the left side of the thorax in
1nlnks (draining the lymph-~ of ~ abdomen, pelvis and the cranial mediastinum, it empties near the thoracic ~let("y~
pdvic limb). nous angle") into the jugular vein or the caudal vena cava.
,~:.~D. ,...ORACIC DUCT: the major lymphatic vessel draining the E. RIGHT LYMPHATIC DUCT:· drains the right cranialdio-
· ~ ~:}~ body, except the right thoracic limt:>, right cranial thorax • . rax. right thoracic limb and right side of the neck inl() the venous
.s::., and right side of the neck. It begins at.the cistema chylt~ passes system where the caudal vena cava formed. . u
through the aortic hiaws cranially on the right side between the
.'
441
•
' , . . ..
• •• • • c ... • ••.•
- ....
SPLEEN c 338-Abdomen-End
b ,. ..
' ..
i '
.. . .
. . .
. . . . . . b .. !
1. Hilus ---.,---:----
a
Gastrosplenic lig.
~ . '. • •
r
I '
'.
. .... ·-'
• '
1
..
. .
. -,.'
..,
.,
Fig. IX-98 - Horse • Spleen - visceral surf ace
a. Splenie a. '
b. Splenie v.
d
e. Phrenico,plenic lig.
d. Area covered by --
peritoneum
Fig. IX-99 - Ox - Spleen • visceral surf ace
OTHER LYMPHOID STRUCTURES iron, and destroys worn out red blood cells. .
.
Tonsils: masses of 1mencapsulated lymphoid tissue below mu- 1. Hilus: the area where vessels and nerves enter the spleen. It is
cous membranesIpharyngeal, palatine and lingual). The major a long 'groove in the carnivores, horse and pig, and a small
ones protect the entrance to the larynx and esophagus from . indentation in ruminants.
incoming pathogens.
.. .· .. •,.
CL~~~i .. · ·· ···, · . ;_.. . · r. ,: : ,

Peyer's patches: diffuse accumulation of lymphatic tissue in the .: . : '. : : .· : . . ... ··. ::\ ..: ·. ·:....::. ', :·. :... ·: ·:....- : ~': ·. : ·-;;-·.-.. ':,: \..' . :
,•,• -, . . ·.
wall oI the ileum.': · · ·.·
·~pJe~ec'98:lY; ~9.Y,al:0£.IJ'.le spleen.~.is:·i.sa common ~ ·
: t -
·.·· .... ·. foi......tlimors''iti'or'ti'awriatjc'

. . g.. indicauxl
dute iii"the'do · ..• .· .. ,.,.. .... . rupture of
Hemal nodes: filter blood instead of lymph found in the rumi-
. nants along the "aorta. They are easily distinguished from lymph
.the spleen.. .The animaf
' .. . . can :do. 'quite .. :.
w~tho.
. .
. .· .
~»·.
.µt its·~ee~t ,•
'·nc:xte by their dark, reddish brown color.

·,
. Superficlai:lympb n6des: cib1 be ail· in_lportan~ ~i:idicator.of an
. ',
illness because they enlarge·and become palpable in response·:
. ' SPLEEN: the largest lymphoid organ in the body. It-is a flat, to infection. ·
elongated structure interposed in the blood stream located next to
the left abdominal wall. In the fetus it produces red blood cells. In Mea, in$pection ~d necropsy: pathogenic changes in lymph .
the adult it stores red blood cells that can be squeezed back into nodes make them im~t
circulation when needed. It also produces lymphocytes, stores
--~~--~~------ ~----~~~~--~~---
. .· ln these. disciplines.
• ·,;,
........
••• •' '!..,
442
'
.. • • #.'. ~
\.
.· ~.;_·,··
ChapterX
,. Nervous System
..
. ,
•
. ·.
.
.
'. . •. j \
\
2
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. . . .... ~- ! .
443
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r. e• : • r-• ••• t . ,· •
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NERVOUS SYSTEM
441-General-445
r
••
-·
Fig. X-1 - Ox
- Peripheral nervous system
' .
. '
NERVOUS SYSTEM: the control center allowing the body to • Ascending tracts: sensory fibers in the spinal cord that travel 'i.;
react to the environment It stores, integrates, and initiates an toward the brain.
appropriate response to information it receives. It is organized
into a communication network. · Motor (eff'erent) systerja: consists of motor {efferent) nerves that
conduct from higher totower levels of the central nervous system
Or-ganization or the Nervous System: Functionally, it can be and from the central nervous system to the periphery.
divided into the somatic and autonomic ner:vous systems. . . :.
• Upper motor neurons (UMN): extend from the brain down
STRUCTURAL CLASSIF1CA TION: divided into the centtal descending tracts in the cord to synapse on lower motor neurons
and peripheral nervous system. This is an anificial division (LMN) ..
because many of the nerves of the body are partly in both
divisions. • Lower motor neurons (LMN): extend away from the spinal
cord and brain to the muscles and glands of the body.
Central nervous system (CNS): the control center consisting of
· the brain and spinal cord. • Descending tracts: bundles of upper motor neuron fibers that
move caudally in the spinal cord. ·
Peripheral nervous system (PNS): all nerve processes connect-
ing to the central nervous system, consisting of cranial and spinal This system doesn't hold up under close scrutiny. especially the
nerves. integrating components in the spinal CORL It is still a valuable
concept for understanding damage to the central or peripheral
IMPULSE CLASSIFICATION: takes into account the im- systems (see appendix).
pulses {sensory or motor) carried by nerves and the directions they
travel. FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION: takes into account the
• activities that are directed by the nervous system .
. Sensory (afferent) system: conducts sensory. (afferent) informa-
-,
tion from the periphery to the central nervous system(CNS) . Somatic nervous system (soma. body); carries conscious yo)un- , ·
Sensory information travels in ascending uacts from the spinal U)[X information from the central nervous system to the skeletal:.
cord ("lower") to the brain ("higher"). muscles along cranial and spinal nerves. It functions to keep the ~f.
444
NERVOUS SYSTEM General-446
. ·..
Fig. X-2 - Ox (
• Sympathetic nervous system
··~
'body in balance with its external environment This system allows nervous system to skeletal muscle; and from skin and deeper
the animal to move and interact with its environment somatic structures ..
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) (auw. self; nomos,'Iaw):
carries involm1tazy infonnation (sensory and motor) to and from
• Somatic motor 'i;rre~e~t)
fi~rs (SVE, GSE): supply
skeletal (somatic) muscles, no matter what the branchial arch
smooth muscle. cardiac muscle, and glands of the body along origin.
cranial and spinal nerves to the spinal cord and brain:.It functions
to iqulate the balance {homeostasis) of die body's internal • Somatic sensory (afferent) fibers (GSA): carry sensory
environment.
infonnati~ from ~ ·and deeper somatic Sfnletures (skeletal
muscle.~ ~joint capsules, bones.etc.).: .
FIBERS • FUNCl10NAL ·CLASSIFICATION (pg. 560):
divides fibers dpe1ipberal nenesacconting function into
to their • ANS fibers: flou, nerves of lhe aufODOmic nervous system.
afferentandefferentoerveswbicbintumaredivicledintosomatic They innervate smooth muscle.cardiac muscle;and glands. lbey
and. visceral divisions, llld then subdivided into general and aic subdivided into ftbersof the sympathetic and pamympaibetic
special categories. It also «akes imo account their embryonic divisions. Sympalhetic'fibersare canied by branchesof il.Uspinal
branchial me.10denn origin. Three capilal I~ (OSA. OSE, and most cranial DCl'Ve$. Paraympalhetic fibels aft' rallicted to
SVE, OVA. OVB. SSA, and SSV) are given to each of die some·sacra1 spinal netves (pelvic nerve) and only a few cnnial
subdivisions. Allhough this may be a con'Vellient shonhand for ncnes (Cn m. vn. IX. and X).
tbcneurologiststharusestbemalldletime.itisex11eme1ydifficult
the student. N~ Ollly is it confusing and hard to ~ if not ~ ANS motor (efferent):ftbers: thcse:can be further divided
continually •· it is soon forgocten. -. · into sympathetic and paruympathetic.~~ .:
,: . . '.
.. . ·' . . . '
FIBERS-SJMPLIFIEDFUNCllONALCLASSIFICATION: • ANS sensory (afferent) fibers: w,y ~ fiben fro.i'.Ji
die aulhor proposes a sunplez iysaem f« aeaching· purp>ses. blood vessels and viscera throughout ~ \)ody. Some somatic
~ Allhough it may not hold up fO close scrutiny. it reduces lhe sellSOI)'. fibets also affect ANS motor fl~-~. · ·. .
~.~ c:oofusioo when learning ba.uc neurology.
• Special 54!Dsory fibers: cany special ~ information of
~.:.; Scaatlc flbers (motor and sensory): mmi nerves of the somatic wte. smell, vision. hearing. and vestaoular'fu~
.• . . . to lhe lnin.
• •
:~
: lo,
.. .
••
: . 445
.. . ~) .
.. " .
1 '. • ·) •
. ,In
. ,. ... ....
NEURON General-447
C(lMPONENTS of the NERVOUS TISSUE: consists of two possibility of regenerating. Neurofibrils form a network extend-
lyp es of cells- nerve cells or neurons and neuroglial cells. These ing into the nerve fibers, functioning in support and transport of ~
are bathed in the extracellular fluid. materials between the compartments of the neuron. t?r:: :; ·
·~:..... - ;... .
~.-;._~)
Neuroglia (nyoo-ROO-lee-ah): the supportingstructure of nerv- 2. Nucleus: well-defined with a prominent nucleolus and granular
ous tissue consisting of neuroglial cells. These specialized cells chromatin. After four years of age. the nucleus appears to be
support, nourish and insulate nerve cells. They replace the sup- unable to undergo mitosis, therefore, unable to increase or replace
porting connective tissue the not present in the CNS. neurons. .
NEURONS (NYOO-ron) (G. neuron, nerve) or nerve cell: the Nerve processes: two types extend from the cell dendrites and
functional units of the nervous system. Their specialized proper- axons. A cell usually has one axon, but may have many dendrites.
ties make the nervous system unique. The largest.cells in the body, ,
they are also the most numerous (on.the order of 10 to the' 12th • 3. Dendrites (DEN-dryt) (G. dendron; tree): the multiple proc-
power, a million million cells). Most of these are in the central esses acting as the receptor portion of the neuron that conduct
nervous system as compared to the peripheral nervous system. A information (electricalimpulses) toward the cell body. They are
number of characteristics make neurons so specialized that no two usually multi-branched processes containing cytoplasmic
cells are identical. organelles and Nissl bodies. ·
'
·. .
Compartmentalization: the different portions of a neuron have • 4. Axon: carries information (electrical impulses)away from the
different membrane propenies and to a degree different internal cell body to other neurons or tissue. It is a long cylindrical
organelles, therefore, making them functional and structural process, usually singular. that may have tiny side branches (axon
compartments. This concept explains how diseases can effect collaterals). Axons have neurofibrils. but no Nissl bodies. Their
only specific compartments. These specialized compartments terminal branches (telodendrites) end in synaptic knobs (end
communicate with each other by transport systems. feet). The axon usually originates from the axon hillock, a small
elevation on the cell body.
Biochemical specialization: nerves cells are grouped bioebemi-
cally by their neurotransmitters, allowing each set to carry out • 5. Synaptic knobs (also called end fe.et, boutons, or buuoos):
specific functions. Clinically. diseases can attack sets of neurons form the presynaptic side of a synapse (pg. 449) and contain
based on their specific neurotransmitters. synaptic vesicles that store chemicals for release at the synapse.
__......
\
.·
Nonreprodudble: nerve cells uniquely Jack the ability to divide. CLASSIFICATION of NEURONS: nerves are clusified u :_ .
A neuron dies if it is damaged and its function is Jost. 'Other nerve sensory neurons. motor neurons. or intemeurons. 99.991'1> of the. ··-·,·
cells may take over .:_this
.
function.
.t
. neurons of the CNS are intemeurons.
Complex connettions: distinguishes nervous tissue from other • Sensory (afferent) neuron: brings infonnation from receptors
tissues and is central to the functioning of nervous tissue. These in the periphery to the central nervods system. These neurons
connections are very precise (e.g .• a specific point on the brain is have their cell bodies located~ central nervous system.
connected to the little finger). ' · · ./
• Motor (efferent) neuron: carries information from the centtal
Information: neurons are the informaJ,ion cells of the body. They nervous system to peripheral muscles. glan~ or other neurons.
are specielized to process or integrate infonnalion. conduct it to The neurons of the motor nervous system have their cell bodies iD
different parts of the body. transfer it from one cell to another, the cenual nervous system (brain or spinal cord) and their axons
store and/or ge~rate information. (motor, efferent) extending to the periphery.·
1. Cen body (soma [SOH-ma] or perikaryon): arranged as a • Interneuron. a.w>clation. connecting or intemuncial ~
nucleus and its neuroplum (cyioplasm) which contains typical carry sensory impulses from sensory neurons to motor neiironS.
organelles (e.g., mitochondria, RER, and golgi [with the excep- The whole intemeuron (cell body, dendrites and axon) is located
tion of the ~~es used in Olitosis like die centrioJes]). Rough iD the CNS (brain or spinal cord). :
endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is in high concentrations because.
neurons are the most metabolically·active cells in the body;. Clusiration .or neurons based on processes: ·'· ~
producing huge amounts of protein. The RER is clwnped into
large.granu~.basophilicinclusionscalledNissl(NIS-lz)bodia • Multipolar. receive many dendrites and has one axon. ,,.
scattered thtoupoot thene.poplasm of thecell bodyand_dendrites.
but- not in the axon. This feature makes the body thtj control • Bipolar. receive one common trunk formed by its dendrites and
(trophic) center of lhe neuron. The cell body sythesises enzymes sends out one axon.
and other molecules essential to the normal function and the
survival of the other compartments of the neuron (dentrites and • Unipolar or pseudounipolar: receive one common ttunk formed~:·-:·::·.:
axon). H the cell body is damaged, the rest of the cell dies. On the
Ghee hand, if an axon in the periphery is damaged. it has the
by the axon and dendrite. . '-.~.: )
--
446
NEURON
General-448
~
..
... .
'l ......
•
.
. . .. 3. Dendrites
. ~:i~f
.. :...
.. . . . :. \~f. :
•=.
. . ·,
.1 ·: ;' •
. \ :.
,. .
·~ -
.: . . ·.
. .
. ,. .
. . .
2. Nucleus
; ·.s. Sy~aptic- knobs .
. .· .
. ., .
....
. •J:
4. Axon
Fig. X-4 - Neuron (schematic) :

. . ..
-e
. a~ Ni... 1 body e, Axon collateral or.

b. ·Neuroftbrill !. Teloderidri~ · ··
. e. ·P!f ucleolua I· Schwann ceri
· · d. Axon hillodt h .. Nodn of Ranvier
g -:
, .. ' . : .: ..... - ..
·' • •
..
. • .. ..... ' .
~:=CLINICAL ...
•
. . . .. .
.
.. • • • J
. .' .. ~ . : .
447
. . , ..
NEUROGLIA
General-449
., .
NE!UROGLIA (nyoo-ROG-Iee-al) (neuro + G. glia, glue): the
second cellular component of nervous tissue. They are about 10
to 50 times more abundant than nerve cells. Neuroglial cells
function as a binding agent to maintain the form of the nervous
system. They also provide metabolic support for nerve cells and
play a role in repair of damaged nervous tissue. Unlike neurons,
they are able to divide, therefore; 'are the primary source of
intrinsic (coming from the tissue itself) tumors,
NEUROGLIA or the CNS; astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and

microglia. '
Astrocytes (AS-troh-syt) (G. astron, star): star-shaped cells that

supply support lo nervous tissue. The processes of astrocytes
extend to form a membrane around the capillaries of the CNS. _
They bring nutrients from the capillaries to the neurons, thus, · .. ·~
providing nutritional support. ~ -. . ..
Oligodendrocyte (ol'e-goh-DEN-droh-syt) (G. oligo, few):

Smaller and less branched than asrrocytes, they wrap around the
axons of nerve cells to form myelin. Myelin increases the speed
of conduction along the axon, resulting· in faster ·information
transfer.
Microglia (my-KROO-lee-ah) (sin.= microglial cell): the small- 1. Schwann cell

est neuroglialceUsof theCNS. They migraseandacttophagocyli7.e
waste products in nerve tissue.
PERIPHERAL NEUROGLIAL CELLS
1. Schwann cells: the neuroglia of the ·PNS. They form myelin

sheaths by winding around nerve processes. They are the equiva-
lent of the oligodendrocyte of the CNS. ·
Nodes of Ran vier (rahn-ve-ay)(Fig. X-4,h): unmyelinated gaps

between segments of the myelin sheath.
Neurolemm/
Myelin (MY-e-lin): a lipopro(ein (all cell membranes are com-
posed of lipoproteins) Conning a sheath around nerve processes.
Axons or dendrires can both have myelin sheaths (myelinated) or
remain naked (unmyeUnated). Myelin sheaths function to in·
crease the speed of impulse conduction and lo insulate the nerve
process. In the PNS. lhe myeJin sheath is produced by Schwann
celb winding themselves around the process, leaving several
·continuous layers of ifS cell membrane. The remaining portion of
. the Scbwann cell encircling the sheath is .known as the
neurolemma. which msts in regenerauon of injured axons.
Schwann cells also enclose wunyelinated fibers, but without the
multiple wrappings.
Myelinated fiber: a process having a myelin sheath.

' ::,• I
Unmyelinat~ _l"d>er:a process lacking a myelin sheath. but still

having a Schwann cell covering. e-
Myelln
'... :
Fla. X·S,6, 7 - Schwann cell, wrapping around ~

.
I· ••
448 nerve process

SYNAPSE General-450
Axon
Synaptic knob
// .,,
Muscle cell Synaptic cleft
Fig. X-8 - Neuromuscular junction (schematic)
SYNAPSE (SIN-aps) (G. synapsis, connection): a specialized neurotransmitters ..

site of apposition where information passes from one nerve cell to
another cell. The first cell is the presynaptic cell, the second the Postsynaptic cell: the neuron, muscle, or gland receiving inf or·
postsynaptic cell. Between the two cells is a synaptic cleft, The manon from the presynaptic cell.
presynaptic cell is always a nerve; the postsynaptic cell can be a
nerve, a muscle or a gland. Receptors: integral proteins inserted in the membrane of ,the
postsynaptic cell. They function to t,in<;l with a neurotransmitter,
Nerve action potential (NAP): an electrical event that travels resulting in a change in the membrane.of the postsynaptic cell
down an axon.
~ . .. -
Synaptic event: A nerve action potential propagates down the
Presynaptic cell: the neuron that is transferring infonnation to axon 'io reach the synaptic knob. This causes pie synaptic vesicles
Ule postsynaptic cell. to release their neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. The
neurotransmitters diffu.se across the cleft to bind to ~ptOrs on
Synaptic button, bouton, or knob: the terminal end of the the postsynaptic membrane. This binding causes a change in the
presynaptic nerve that is in apposition with the postsynaptic cell. postsynaptic membrane. If the postsynaptic ~11 is a nerve, it can
It contains synaptic vesicles. · initiate or inhibit another nerve action potential in thepo~tsynaptic
nerve.
Synaptic vesicles: membrane-bound organelles containing
neuroeansmiuers located in the synaptic button. Neuromuscular junction: the synaptic connection between a
neuron and muscular tissue where electrical impulses pass from
Neurotransmitters: a chemical substance within the synaptic the neuron to the muscle cell.
This can result in contraction of lhe
vesicle that mediates information transfer between nerve cells muscle.
and other cells at synapses. Different sets of neurons use different
449
.,. ·....
-REFLEX ARC ,::
General-451
4. Association neuron
1. Stimulus
I 3. Sensory neuron
2. Receptor
S. Motor neuron
Fig. X-9 - Reflex arc - schematic

6. Effector organ
REFLEX ARC: the simplest impulse pathway. A reflex is an • Motor (efferent) neuron: carries an impulse (information) toan
involuntary response to a sensory stimulus. The reflex arc (the effector organ. · _/
pathway of a reflex) involves a sensory neuron;·an' intemeuron
(ir.ternu:1cial neuron), and a motor neuron (the pa'teliar tap lacks
• Effector (target) organ: the muscle or gland innervated by a
an intemewon). Specialized receptors at the end of sensory
motor neuron to react.to the stimulus (pull away from: the stove}.
neurons receive a stimulus, resulting in an impulse. The impulse
travels through thedendrite, body, and ax on of the sensory neuron NUCLEUS: aggregations of nerve cell bodiesIpenkarya) lo-
into the spinal cord. In the 'spina' c .. «l, the sensory neuron
cated in the brain. Their dark color sets the nuclei. off from
. . the
synapses on an intemeuron that carries ~.1e impulse to a synapse white nerve fibers.
on a motor neuron. The motor neuron innervates a receptor organ
(muscle) to contract (pull away from the stimulus).
. . GANGLION (pl.=ganglia): a group of nerve cell .b<xlies-~tside
the central nervous system, manifested as a swelling of a nerve.
• Stimulus: a change in the environment (e.g., hot stove).
GRAY MATTER: that part of nervous tissue consisting of
• Receptor: the end of a sensory neuron's dendrite· that responds neuronal cell bodies.
to change (stimulus) by developing a nerve impulse: .
WHITE MATTER: that pan of nervous tissucc~~tin~mainly
• Sensory (aff'erent) neuron: sends sensory impulses to ~e CNS. of myelinated nerve fibers.
• lnterneuron, association (intemucial) neurons: located inthe·
NERVE: a bundle of nerve processes outside ~e CNS.
. spinal cord, connect a sensory neuron with a motor neuron. They
also can connect with other neurons, thus, send information up to . ..
NEJVE TRACTS or F ASCJCULI (fab-SIK-yoo ly): nave
the brain (so when the reflex is ever," it can be commented on,
"o:--U\,01
....,..... :r.1• fiber bundles of common origin in the brain and spinal cord. They
are usually named for their origin and destination.
450
REFLEX ARC General·522
Fig. X-10 - Ox - Brain & cranial nn.

. ,·~
•
. . :
Nuclei
·.
' ":
• 'II•'
:,·
.....
Gray matter
v.
.· ·~ ·:
, ...... 1
\Vhlte matter
Fig. X-11 - Spinal cord • cross section

(schematic)
.
•
~
451
BRAIN 4!3-Head-453
BRAIN: that portion of the central nervous system (CNS) con- • Lobes and functional areas: the Jobes of the cerebral hemi-
tained wilhin the skull. It can be divided into three major pans; the sphere are named for the bones overlying them. The cortex bas \
cerebrum, the cerebellum. and the brain stem. The cerebrum been mapped for sensory and motor areas. The motor area. the -
forms the bulk of and perfonns the higher functions of the main. caudal part of the frontal lobe, receives axons from motor neurons
The cerebellum, the large mass behind the cerebrum, houses that Cl'OS.$ to the opposite side in the ~n stem. Therefore, the
reflex centers coordinating voluntary movements. The brain D&b1 hemisphere controls skeletal 'muscle movements on the
stem connects the cerebrum, cerebellum. and spinal cord; and is body'shalside,thelefthemispherethebody'srightside.Specific
also concerned with visceral (internal organs) activities. Enceph· points in the motor cerebral cortex control specific muscles.
alon (G. enkephalos, brain) is the basis of many medical terms
relating to the brain (e.g., encephalitis). • 6. Frontal I•: ~ rosttal part of each cerebral hemi-
sphere. The caudal part of ~:.frt>nral Jobe houses the motor area
CEREBRUM (SER-ee-brum) or telencephalon (L. brain): the (f) of the brain~-. ··· ·_- · . ·
largest part of the brain, divided by the median fissure into two
cerebral hemispheres. The cerebrum carries out the higher brain • 7. Ocdpital lobe: the caudal part of each cerebral hemi-
functions. It interprets sensory inputs from sense organs, initiates sphere where the centers for ~ion are located.
· voluntary skeletal muscle movements, and stores memory. Spe-
cific areas of the cerebral cortex have been mapped for their • 8. Temporal lobe: . the . lateral side of the cerebrum
functional activity. These areas are interconnected by fiber tracts cau~ntral to the lateral ·fi$$ure (h). Thi~is the l~ation or the
to coordinate their interactions. hearl~gcenters, · · ·· ·
I
• L Cerebral bem~pberes: the two structures created by the • 9. Parietal lobe: the dorsal part of the cerebrum. Therostral
loogillldinal fissure dividing the cerebrum. They are connected parietal lobe (g) is the area of temperature, pressure. touch, and
deeply by the corpm callosum. pain sensations.
• Cerebral cortex: the thin, superficial layer of gray matter made • Ventral cerebrum: the centers for smell.
up of nerve cell bodies.
~
· • As.wciation areas: the areas next to the sensory and motor
•· White matter: the myelinated nerve axons connecting the areas. Theyanalyzesensory input and are concerned with memory.
cortex with other pans of the cortex, brain, and spinal cord.
~
Association fibers are the axons connecting nerve cells in differ- LATERAL VENTRICLES (pg. 473): the two spaces of the
ent pans of tJie same cerebral hemisphere. Commismral fibers vemricular system, each surrounded by aettebral bemisphereand
are the axons pasing between nerve cells of both hemispbezes fdled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
and from the corpus caltosym. Projection fibers are the axons
connecting the ~ral ~x to other parts of the brain and tP.,e
spinal cord. 'i
• Basal ganglia (GANG-lee-a) (basal nuclei): the masses ofnerve c:

cell bodies localed deep in the white matter of the cerebrum.
(They include thecaudatenuclem, putamen.fildglobus palli~) .
.
• 2. Convolutions or gyri (JY-ry) (sin.=gyrus): the munerous
foldsonthesurfaceofthecerebralhemispheksgreatlyincreasing
its surface area.
• Grooves: the depres&ons between the gyri (convolutions),
diviood into two groups according to their depth. Fisares are
deep grooves; said are shallow.
.. • 3. Longitudinal l'mure: the deep groove sepamting the

cerebrum into two cerebral hemispheres. ·
• 4. Transverse li&lre: the deep groove separating the

cerebellum from the cerebral hemispheres.
•
• 5. Sulci (SUL-sy) (L. forrow) (sin.=sulcus): the shallow
grooves between convolutions (gyri).
452
BRAIN Hcad-454
, . ,. .. ' ., ,.
;,
. ..... .... ,.
Fla. X-12 - Dog • Brain - dors. view
~
'
r f .• . :, . . --· ·-=· -~
\
9. Par ieta] lobe

8. Temporal lobe
g 4. Transverse fissure
6. Frontal lobe
...
.'
4. Transverse fissure
';
'
e
Fla. X-13 - Doa - Brain - lat. view
a. Orucia&e aulcua •· Piriform Jobe
b. Lu. rbfnal suleus f.Mo'°1'aNa
e, BdoqlYian aulcua I· R.odr. parietal lobe
d. OoloDal aukua h. Lu. flaun
··4S3
DIENCEPHALON Head-4SS
--2. Third venrrtcla

1. Thalamus
3. Hypothalamus
4. Pituitary gland
5. lnfundibulurn
Fig. X-14 - Horse • Brain - sagittal section
. -.
DIENCEPHALON (dy-en-SEF-a-lon) (G. dia, through + . endocrine system .

. enupha/os, brain): the rostral brain stem between the cerebrum
and tbemidbrain. surrounding the third ventricle. Thediencephalon
The hypothalamu.5 regulates the viscera by controUing and inte-
is composed primarily of the thalamus and lhe hypothalamus,
grating the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Through the
both gray matter grouped into nuclei. Cranial nerve II (optic ANS, it controls heart rate. blood pressure, body temperature, and
nerve) enters the brain through the optic nerves which cross as the gastrointestinal secretions and motility.
optic chiasm and continue as the optic tracts through the
diencephalon. ·
Another way the .hypothalamus regulates~ body is)/ ~c-
two hormones, antidiuretic hormone (ADH) 'and oxytocin,
1. Thalamus (1HAL.a-mus) (G. thalamos, innerchamber): the ing lhatarc sent to the postttiorpituitary gland for storage and release.
two oval masses, mainly gray matter, connected by the·
The hypothalamus also serves as an intermediary between the.
interthalamic adhesion. The thalamus functions as a central
nervous and endocrine systems through production and release of
reta.v center for seoSQ[Y impulses to tlie cerebral cortex, and regulating factors which control honnonal release by the anterior
contains some motor fibers from the cortex to other brain centers. pituitary gland.
All senses, except smell, come to the thalamus, which sends them
on ro their appropriate cerebral cortical areas. The thalamus also
4. Pituitary gland (pi-TOO-i-tair' -ee) « hypophysis (hy-POF-
interprets an awareness of pain, touch, and temperature.
i-sis): the small gland of internal secretion attached to the
hypothalamus by~ infundibulum. It consists of two main parts:
3. Hypothalamus (hy -po- 'lliAL-a-mus) (G. hypo, under): the
lheanteriorlobe'{adenohypophysis[ad'·i~noh-hy-POF-i-sis)and
floor of the diencephalon. Seen in a ventral view of the brain, it . the posterior lobe.(neurQhypophysis). Its secretions are important
is located beneath lhe thalamus. The hypothalamus communi-. in growth, maturation, and reproduction.
calt$ widi the cortex, tl'.&iamus, and other pans of the brain, as
well as with lhe pituitary gland via lhe inf undibular stalk. Through S. lnfundibulum (in'fun-DIB-yoo-lum): the stalk attaching the
the pituitary gland, the hypothalamus is the main link between the pituitary gland tolhe hypothalamus. The third vcntricleevaginates :
two regulating systems of lhe body-the nervous system and the into the infundibulum, fonning a recess. <,
454
DIEN CEPHALON
Head-456
.i"9r>-.
F C.•. •
.,_,·. -
Fig. X-15 - Ox - Brain, pituitary ,....

gland removed - ventr. view
.
i"·
' ..'
.;.
S. Infundibu-lum
>. •..
.. -
' .
~.
I. Olfactory n. A. Cerebrum
II. Optic n. B. Midbrain
Ill. Oculomotor n. C. Pons
IV. Trochlear n. D. CerebeUum
V. Trigeminal n. E. Medulla IX
VI. Abducene n.
VII. Facial n. .
F. Olfactory bulb x
vm. Veatibulocochlear n." XI
a. Optic chiasm
IX. Glosaophary.ngeal n. b. Mamillary body
X. Vaguan. c. Interthalamic
XI. Acce.1sory n, · adhesion
XII. Hypogloual n.
_.,·CLINICAL:
.
,,
;
-· . \
:.·.
... ·. . .. . .. 1-..I ••
.
·. remper~hu-e ~·lation: the hypochatamus of the newborn ..
,. ::; i
.. .. .
· ~ not regulate ~y tempe.rature as efficiently ~ the •
: I~ 1:,"/
- , ... l
,
;: hypothaJani'us
.. .. ..~ran _adult. ·
.....
... : . . .. . . .. .. ....·.
,'
·.: ,,
-. 455
. ., .
MIDBRAIN & MESENCEPHALON Head-457
Fig. X-16 - Ox - Brain, sagittal-secrlon 7. Cerebellar cortex

:
4. Cerebellum
8. Arbor vitae
> •
3. Pons
.. 2. .Cerebral aqueduct
1. Midbrain
a. Cut surface between

cerebrum & brain item (X-18)
b. Stria habenularia thalamus
c. Hubenular commiaiure
d. Pineal body
6. Lat. masses· e. Lat. renieulate body
r. Med. geniculate body ·
g. Cuneate nucleus
Fig. X-17 - Ox - Brain - dors. view h. Fasciculua cuneatua
i. Optic tract {X-19)
j. Mamillary body ·,~
k. Cru1 cerebrl .'
I.Trapesoid body
m. Median filaure
n, Rostr. cclliculus
o. Caud. ccllieulus
l. MID BRAIN ormesencephalon (mes-en-SEF-alon)(G. mesos, 3. PONS (L. bridge): lhe bulge (venttal metencepha)on) between
middle): located between the diencepbalon and the pons. it the midbrain and the medulla oblonpaa. .
Functionally.
'
it bridges
connects lower brain centers and the spinal cord with higher brain : the spinal cord and brain. and diffe.reot pans of the brain. Nuclei
centers. The roof (rectum) of the midbrain is composed o~ four · within the pons. working with nuclei in the medulla oNongata,
colliculi (corpora quadrigemina). The rostral colliculi-(ko-Lik- regulate breathing. Several cranial nerves have their cell bodie.,
yoo-ly) (n) are the two rounded eminences containing visual of origin located in the pons, including lhe trigeminal (Cn V),
reflex centers. The caudal colliculi (o) are two rounded emi- abducens(Cri·Vl),facial(Cn VIl),andves&ibularbranchesoflho
nences behind the rostral colliculi which contain auditory reflex vestibuJocochlear(Cn VDl) nerves,bulonly die lrige.minalnerve
centers. Cranial nerves 111 and IV (oculomotor and trochlear) · (Cn V) emerges.from.the pons.
have their nerve cell bodies of origin in and emerge from the
mid brain. 4. CEREBELLUM (ser-e~BEL-um) (L. liUle blain): the secood
largest subdivision of the brain. It is lbe dorsal ~km.
2. Cerebral (mesencephalic) aqueduct: the ventricular tube located dorsal to the pons and med•dfaand caudal to thcoccipilll
running through the midbrain, connecting the third and fourth lobes, fJom which it is separated by the transverse fiss1R.
ventricles.
456
MIOBRAIN & MESENCEPtiAlON Head-45S
Fig. X-18 ~ Dog - Bra L r .ecrum

,,-.·... & cerebellum removed
- dors. view
1. ~·lidbrain
3. Pons
9. Cerebellar vm
peduncles ---x
t.--..X
--X\
.t,•
s.
m
Fie. X-19 - Doa ·Brain.cerebrum &
cerebellum removed· ventr. view
The cerebellum functions as a motor reflex center in coordinating lateral masses and the vennis are·indented to form parallel ridges
subconscious and conscious skeletal muscle movements. (folia), increawig the surface area.
Proprioceptors, located ia muscles, tendons, and joints, sense the
relative position of one body part to another. Vestibular rece~ 7. CerebeOar cortex: tbe thin, outer layer of gray matter. ·
oftbeinnerears~visualreceptorSoftheeyesalsoprovideinput
relaaed to proprioception ($Cllsing position). These proprioceptOrS 8. Arbor vitae (AR-bohr VEE-tee): the white matter tracts
send sensory information to the cerebellum, which in tum evalu- branching into the cerebellum.
ates this input and· sends out motor impulses to .adjust muscle
actions, thus. maintaining posture and balance, and coor4inating ,. Cerebellar peduncles (pc-DUNG-kulz): bundles of fibers
skelelal muscle movements. · · · coonecting the caebellwn to the brain stem. The ·caudal cerebel-
. . lar peduncles connect the medulla. spinal cord.I and thecerebel-
5. Vermis (VER-mis) (L. wonn): the central part of the cerebel- lwn. Themiddlecerebellarpedunclesconnectthecerebellumand
~3~ lmn. .. the pons. The rosttal cerebellar peduncles connect the tnidbrain
...:~ ' and the cerebellum.
.;.;,, 6. Lateral masses: lhe pans on eilhef side of. the venniS. The
...
·457
. -. ,•
. ..
•: :
MEDULLA.
.
Hcad-459
'
i·
..
Fig. X-20 ~ Horse - Braih - ventr. view
. -,,.
.•.·
. ~·:
... ..:.~.
"'":;,
''
1. Olfactoey ~wb
II. Optic n.
Ill. <kulomotor n. ·-
IV. Trochlosr n.
V. Tngaadnal n.
VJ. Abducent n.
VII. Facial n. . .
VIII. V"tibwoeochlear n. ~r4--..XII '-,
IX. Glonophaeynieal n.
X. Va,uan. 2. Pyramids
Xl. Acceuory n,
XII. Hypo1losaal n.
A.Cenbrwn 1. Medulla
B. Midbrain
C. Pom
D. Cer.bellwn
; '
.,·>""-
•,. , r:
'
1. MEDULLA_OBLONGATA (me-DUL-la ob'Iong-GAT-a) cranial nerves are located in the medulJa, including the
or MEDULLA: the caudal portion of the brain stem which vestibulocochlear (VIII) (cochlear part), glossopharyngeal (IX).
.. !
continues caudally as
• • l
~e: spinal cord.
!;.1:t1t . . vagus (X), accessory (XI) (cranial part), and hypoglossal (XU)
• ·, '•• I •. ( ~ nerves.
;..Wilhin the medulla ate ..three vital reflex centers, The.'cardiac
, center regutares the rate and strength of the heart contraction. The 2. Pyramids: formed by motor tracts coming from the cerebral
vasomotor center regulates the diameter of the blood vessels; cortex .on the ventral surf ace of the medulla. These tracts cross
thus~ blood pressure. ~ rhythm of breathing is regulated by the from one side to the other in the pyramids.
resp1ratory centers. Besides these vital reflex centers, the medulla
has "nonviral" reflex centers regulating coughing, sneezing, 3. FOURTH VENTRICLE (pg. 473): located between the .. ·~
swallowing, and vomiting. The cell bodies of origin of several medulla and cerebellum.
·......:....
458 . .
'
MEDULLA
Head-460
s . ·.
3. Fourth ventricle
Fla. X-21 - Doa - Brain stem, cerebellum

removed - dors. view
'
CRANIAL NERVES: the medulla contains the cell bodies of all RETICULAR FORMATION (re-TIK-yoo-lar): a network of
or pan of vm. IX. X, XI and XIl cranial nerves. nerve fibers and islands of gray matter located in the brain stem.
from the spinal cord to the diencephalon. It is connected IO die
l.lMBIC SYSTEM or emotional brain: the interconnected hypothalamus. basal ganglia; cerebellum, and cerebrum. It func-
parts of the cerebellum, hypothalamus, thalam~. basal ganglia tions in consciousness and arousal. When SCIWX)'·input C<bts
and other nuclei dealing with the emotional aspects of behavior into the brain, the reticular fonnation arouses the cerebral cortex
_ such as fear, anger, pleasure. rage and sorrow. Through these to respond to such input. Without the reticular formation, an
-=- · ., emotions the limbic system modifies the actions of the animal to animal would remain unconscious or unaware (coma). ·
,s:,,."i help insure its survival.
459
CRANIAL NERVES
Head-4~1
J
.
~i.. ..
~
.
..•.-.~ .
CRANIAL NERVES (CN): the twelve pait-s,mznerves arising CELL BODIES:
from the brain. These nerves. along with th~ 'spinal. nerves. form
the peripheral nervous system. All -cranial nerves· attach to the:"~ • Motor neuron: a neuron whose cell body is located in nuclei
brainstem, withtheexceptionofCranialnervel(olfactory)which within the CNS (brain or spinal cord).
enters the cerebrum. AU twelve pairs leave the cranial cavity
through forarnina to reach the head. neck, and body cavities. They
Sensory neuron: a neuron whose cell body is located in groups
are given Roman numerals to indicate the order in which they (ganglia) outside the CNS.
attach to the brain, from .. front" to "back" (tpstral to caudal). Their
names indicate their functions. Most of die. nerves are mixed, 1. OLFACTORY (Cn I) NERVE (ol-FAK-toh-ree): the first
meaning they carry both sensory and motor fibers. Some. suchas cranial nerve, entirely special sensory, dealing with smell. Its
I, II and VIII, are completely sensory s :carrying fibers of special cell bodies, located in the lining of 11'.e caudal nasal cavity, send
senses. Some carry both voluntary ·and involuntary motor irn- their axons into the cranial cavity through the cribrifonn plate of
pulses. AU these differentcombinations:can be very confusing. In . : the ethmoid bone. The axons join the olfactory bulbs of the
hope of clarification, the different components have been sepa- cerebrum and travel througf the olfactory tracts to the pyriform
rated into somatic motor nerves, somatic sensory nerves, lobe ofthe cerebrum. The olfactory nerve is them cranial nerve
autonomlc (ANS) nerves (sensory and motor) and special
sory nerves. For a complete functional classification of neurons,
sen-·
not entering or exiting the brain through the brain stem.
see appendix A. '--.. :;__ ' · · ·.
n, OPTIC NERVE (Cn II) (OP-tik): the second cranial nerve,
I On · it is also special senson:, dealing with vision. Its cell bodies are
Olfactory located in the retina of the eye. Their axons combine to form the
II Old Optic
III Olympus optic nerve which tranverses the orbit to enter the cranial cavity
Oculomotor through the optic foramen (1). Both eyes send axons to both visual
IV Towering Trocblear
v Topps Trigeminal
cortices. Axons coming from the nasal (medial) sides of the
VI A··. eyeballs cross over in the optic chiasm. The visual impulses
· Abducens
VII Fat continue via optic tracts to the thalamus, which relays them to the
Facial visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the cerebrum.
VIII Vested Vestibulococblear
IX German Gl~opbaryngeal
x Viewed Vagus
Optic chiasm (ky-AZ-um, G. a crossing) (B): the joining of the
XI Some two optic nerves inside the cranial cavity, just rostral to the
Spinal accessory hypothalamus. It is the site of crossing of some optic fibers.
XU Hops Hypoglossal
Optic tracts (Fig. X-19 .i): the paths from the optic chiasm to the
thalamus.
TYPES OF CRANIAL NERVES:
Occipital lobe of the cerebrum (Fig. X- 13; 1 ): the location of the
Mixed nerve: a nerve carrying both somatic sensory and motor visual centers.
fibers. They also carry ANS sympathetic motor fibers.
Motor nerve: a nerve carrying primarily somatic motor fibers to 111,'0CULOMOTOR NERVE(Cnlll):Thethirdcranialnerve
arises from the midbrain. It is primarily a motor nerve to most of
voluntary (skeletal) mm. These are understood to also carry
the eye's voluntary. (skeletal) extraocular muscles-the dorsal,
sensory fibers from muscles innervated by motor fibers. They
usually also carry ANS sympathetic motor fibers. · medial, and ventral rectus muscles, and the ventral oblique
muscle. It also is motor to the superior palpebral levator, the
muscle that raises the upper eyelid.
Sensory nerve: a nerve carrying only somatic sensory fibers to
the brain.
The oculomotornerve also has ANS motor fibers controlling the
involuntary smooth muscles of the eye (ciliary and pupil sphincter
Special sensory nerve: a nerve carrying special sensory, fibers
-~~iated with Smell, vision, hearing, or taste (special·senses).
! .
Autonomic (ANS) fibers: fibers from nerves of the autonomic

modation), and adjust the pupil si:tJ:e
visceral reflexes is carried by the · ·
.
ser
muscles). These alter the shape of the lens for f9<=using (accom-
rv .
I
limb for these
.
nervous system. They innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle,
IV. TR OCH LEAR (1ROK-lee-ar) NERVE (Cn IV): the small-
and glands and are subdivided into fibers of the sympathetic and
est cranial nerve, motor. to the dorsal oblique muscle of the
parasympathetic divisions. Sympathetic fibers are carried by 'eyeball,
branches of all spinal and most cranial nerves. Parasympathetic
fibers are restricted to some sacral spinal nerves (pelvic nerve)
, and a few cranial nerves (CN UI. VII, IX, and X).
460
'
CRANIAL NERVES Head-462
<,
Fig. X-22 - Ox - Brain ~~<:r.ernatic)
- ventr.vrew
!! ('.'\
,;- :. .
A
)
1_----I. 'Olfactory n.
III. Oculomotor n.
JV. Trochlear n.
V. Trigeminal n.
o-,\ \'I, Abducent
VII. Facial n.
VIII. Vestibulocochlear n.
IX. Glossopharyngeal n•
.----XI. Accessory n.
XII. Hypoglossal o.
'
Cl. 1st Cervical n.
v
K h
)
,.
' A. Ey-<!ball a. Foramina in cribriform m. Otic ganglion
.... B .. Optic chiaam lamina n. Trigeminal ganglion (V)
C.,Ophthalmic, maxillary n.(V} b. Optic foramen o, Mandibular ganglion
., , D. Mandibular br. (V) · · c. Foramen orbitorotundum p. Geniculate ganglion (VII)
E. Lingual br. of mandibular n., d. Oval foramen q. Vestibular ganglion (VIII)
division of V e. Int. acoustic meatua r. Spiral ganglion (VIII)
. !•...::'Y .•
F. Major petrosal n. (. Stylomastoid foramen 1. Prox. ganglion (IX)
G. Nerve of pterygoid canal g. Jugular foramen t. Dist. gan1lion (IX)
••• •
H. Chorda tympani (VII) h. Hypoglossal canal u. Prox. ganglion (X)
I. Tympanic n. i. Lat. foramen of atlas v. Dist. ganglion (X)
J. ·Tympanic · plexus j. Cavity of middle ear
K. First cervical spinal n. I. Pterygopalatine ganglion
.
.
• 461
'
CRANIAL NERVES II, Ill, IV & VI ·Head-463
Fla. X-23 - Ox - Eyeball & CN II, Ill, IV & VI
IV. Trochlear n.
1. Optic
III. Oculomotor n. foramen
1. Optic foramen a. Don. br. or CN Ill

2. Maxillary br. of b. Ventr. br. or CN III
tripminal n. (V) e, Ciliary ganglion (CN II)
S. Ophthalmic br. ot d. Shon eiliary n,
tricemlnal n. e. Foramen orbitorotundum VI. Abducent n.
t. Pteryl(Oidcreat
I· Eyeball
h. Cillary body
I. Im
r,
..
V. TRIGEMINAL NERVE (CnV): The largest cranial nerve. 2. Maxillary division (V2): a seDSOI')' ttigeminal subdivision
arises from the pons and is a mixed nerve with three dlvistons- the exiting the cranial cavity and traveling rostrally through che
ophthalmic, maxillary and mandibular divisions. infraorbital canal as the infraorbital nerve to innervate the upper
teeth. It exits the canal through the infraorbital foramen to
1. Ophthalmic division (Vl) (of-THAL-mile): a sensory division Innervate the skin of the nose (mU1.Zle) and face, and the oral
to the skin of the forehead. the skin lateral to the eye, most of the cavity.
nual cavity and the cqnea of the eye. Its cell bodies are located , .
... -·
.,.
in the trigeminal ganglion within the cranial cavity, but still • Comual nerve (j): ~ m.ajorsensory nerve to the horn of lheox.
ougide the brain.
• lnfraorbital nerve (n): passes through the infraorbital canal.and
• lnfratrochlear nerve (t): the principal supply to the horn of exits the inf raorbital foramen to supply sensory innervation to the
small ruminants. middle pan of the face.
• Long ciliary nerve (d): supplies sensation to the cornea. J. Mandibular division (V3): mixed nerve (both sensory.and
462
TRIGEMINAL NERVE Head-464
'. 1. Ophthalmic di-vision of CN .V

-· . ..
.-.·. '·
Colored to indicate if
I
motor
sensory
= mixed
2. Maxlflary division
of CN V -:'
~·.•
:,, 'r
'.
3, f\1andibu!ar dlvtslon
oi CN V
Fla. X-24 - Ox - Trigeminal n. (schematic)
a. Lacrimal n. h. Zygomaticofaeial n.' o. Naaal br. u. Transverse facial n,

b. Frontal n. i. Zygomaticotempor~l n. p. Maaseterie br. of v. Buceal n.
"e. Nasociliary n. j. Cornual br. of CN V mandibular div. w. Lingual & aublingual nn,
d. Long ciliary n. k. Pterygopalatine n. q. Deep temporal n. x. Inferior alveolar n.
e. Ethmoidal n. l. Major&: minor pal~t;r.e nn. r. Pterygoid nn. y. Mylohyoid n.
r. lnfratrochlear n, m, C!lud. nasal n. a. Aurieulotemporal n. z. ~fental n.
,. Zycomatic n. ·· ·n. Infraorbital n. t. Parotid bra. CN V or
motor). It supplies motor innervation to the muscles of che~ing

(mastication). Sensory fibers innervate the lower cheek and Jaw. : :~~~iCf_L :.· . · · · · _-:.:'.-". .. . ·.. :· . · : :;J;:'.:\·=:.''.:if\·:'i:'··:::::.-:"·':{i, _'.°.
and the rostral two-thirds of the tongue (not taste).

. . . intraorbi~~i nerve: C3Jl be :palpated and anesuit,u~/~·if::
• MtDU!3 nerve (i).:.tJ:w·ccnt,inuation of the·infcrior alveolar -~rve comes out ofthe infraoroital fo~men. . . . .. · ... ·~··:· :- /,:.·":: : ·:.:.... ::;.:"
(~) as itexits the iY,~r.ral f°O!"dffien. It supplies sensation to me chin.
~-~~~~1 nerve· can. be ~~1~tw,:m~ ines~~~t~:'~·ii'~~i?:
"1. ii.iDUCENT (ab-DYOO-serd) or AIH)UCENS [t.,,, d:2w- I • ""·" .°fy:-- ~
"""v V.J. ~·v

•
.,·u-• Jl'v
x-
: -••
.n.\:'t ....,~·,h,.. mo .... t~1 "i.:,ai?>•-:.n
.. .., ,
Y"'" •' -,•. · . :
· · . ·.
. .
.
.
.
•
•···· -, ·.::~:··: •.
· · ..... · ... '·~.;_.
: ··:·-;;':.. .
:;'..'.:......
. .. .. .
• .
-,
.•
a~g away) N~:JR'VE (Cn 'VJ): (Fig. X-23): '!"'he sixth crnr?i<01 ~ei·ve~
it is the 1n1Jt~~fai,::,ervation~ two skeleUll extraocaler muscles ct ~i•;Y to the Mg,rui,;.I ~;;~, ~ ~Ii. in .iiiror;&i,;u; :
H~ ey~.; the titeml reetus and part of the retractor buioi muscles, . qftiie f~c·ii.rld drr.-::;bid ja ~~;e to·~?,;~~~'$~:;:·of.~~~,~~§C~~~-.?.r :
'.,~_!
insstic~tion. . .:, . . ,..... :·
Xt ~"i~ir1..~~.;; from u'!emedalla and exits the cranial cavity to enter
· th3 i;'roat. illen-i~ryAid: To remember which muscle it innervates, . .· . . . . .. .. ·;.::··:. . : . .-... :: ", : ·: : :·:~
remember 'that-to abduct (move laterally. as in abducent) the eye ·injury to abdi,eens"'nerve: results in inability ..io gaie·~~~:.:·
· requires the lateral rectus. ally.~ .' . .
..
.. . . . . . ·'.C:. ·. :'. :· .,/. ,· ·.. -.,
. . ·.. . . .· ........-, ": ··:
},
.,
.4.l
·/
"
• lr- '
463
. ·- .
FACIAL NERVE
Head-465
Tzlgemlnal n.
XI. Accessory n.
VII. Facial n.
Second cervlc1
spinal n.
g
Fig. X-25 - Ox - Supf', vessels, 7 nerves
of head - lat. view
Fig. X-26 - Horse - Skull (schematic) - lat. view
a. Ext. jugular v.
b. Linguofacial v.
c. Parotid salivary gl.
d. Mandibular salivary gl.
e. Parotid duct
f. Masseter m.
g. Rostr. auricular n. (VIl)
h. Zygomatic br. {VII)
i. Palpebral br. (VII)
j. Caud. auricular n. (VII)
k. Digastric br. (VII)
I. Dors. buccal br. (VII)
m. Ventr. buccal br, (VII)
n. Auriculopalpebral IL (VII)
VII. FACIAL NERVE (Cn VII): a mixed nerve originating in

the pons and exiting the cranial cavity from the medulla to travel
. • ~· . · · . ·· . · : · •· .•. · :- -, . ::f:;;: . '•' ~ · -::~:.:::···3::::i:.;:~· ~:·-, ·;:::.: ·.:~f;:f:
across the face under the skin. It innervates the muscles of facial
expression (including the orbicularis · oris muscle). Sensory This can cause loss ·of:taste, :faciaf'~y$it;)i(ij}J~·: ;~tt{
branches (chorda tympani nerve) from the rostral two-thirds of . I>o.8..s:fiave.
lacrimation. . . .:.._9...aJiity.:·abodt]h6ir'
. iittle :~~-
·.·... -, . . .. ·-~ ~~~W.'l;=,
~,w. · .,·.t' .
the r · h. · · n ·· · · ..... nerve:atso 11as-,iasaftibets<:6ufiMffidft/:
the tongue carry the sense of taste to the brain. The facial nerve
also carries ANS motor fibers to the lacrimal gland (major
rf°fu!ci~~ a:Jc/~r'·lartd'~rili~obit~iifis &ciitffuti~tt·tfrt.;!~\~
petrosal), and the sublingual and mandibular salivary glands.
ANS parasympathetic: innervate the lacrimal glands and sali\'.3l}' be blocked for pr6cedwes·<lf~·eye'' ·,; •:', ·:\,·':· :: :.:(:·:':\:i?,>:.. :)."'·,:ir::
glands. Lacrimalization is very important because it is only
controlled by Cn VII; whereas salivation is also caused by Cn IX. . . . . . . . . . . : '; . : .,=/~ ·'.;:,:-.:·. : . -. :. . / . . : }:::,:=::?~i:.,\:::·::-,: ~/:'.J:t?~)\.(i i'.)\:]
o< B-.ccal ·tiranche~ Qf the;f~ial.~erve:.¢:l'<;,~Jh\flaiteii,1f~J!:
VIII. VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR NERVE (Cn VIII) (ves- oi lhe. masseter muscle;:~.~ &{ifijUie¢{$iin,i~rei?f
paralysij (exarnpie::'"fiorse.· Jying:'on··a:'.ttaffiess:~=Niij~[:jfuriitk}:l
b.oCR}•i{t;) ·. ?1~tt,WJ;f't:r"n
tib' ·yoo-loh-KOHK-lee-ar) (Fig. XI-39, A & B): the special
sensory nerve dealing with hearing and equilibrium. It is divided surgery [buccal ~n
into two branches; the cochlear and the vestibular. (For more see
pg. 556) Facial/t~igemlnai re~-:~r~{'1~~ fatial/h¢Jb·:,~,ij~~;ffiet,i;'
. . • motor component to the sensory component" of the irigem~nai:
CLINICAL nerve; Pricking ifre. face. with ~:i>in c~~-
. . .. this.· arc;·;J('ei~(:..
·. . . .. .. .
nerve is paralyzed, then a·twilch of)he.. muscles.wilf"'no(bt(/
Middle ear infections: can cause paralysis of the facial nerve.
....__ e11.c1·ted
• ....;·~, .., -----.:..·
· ·. · . . . ·. ..;·;·::....·....-:•,,;.: · . . ·.\. .., · ·.-:...;:- ··
.... !
~
464
CRANIAL NERVES rx. X, Xi &. XII Head-466
...
r ,
Fig. X-27 - Ox • Skull (schematic}

- sagittal section
IX. Glossopharyngeal n.
,,
, ,.
1 , ";
XI. Accessory n.
XII. Hypoglossal n,
a. Vagosympathetic trunk
b. Pharyngeal br. (IX)
c, Lingual hr. {IX)
d. Pharyngeal br. (X}
e. Esophageal hr. (X)
c r. Laryngeal br. {X)
g. Cranial part (XI)
h. Spinal part {XI)
i. Cranial cavity
.'· : j. Soft palate
k. 6th cheek tooth
.... --- I. Stylohyoid bone
m. Basihyoid bone
IX. GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL NERVE (Cn IX) (glos'ob-fa- swallowing and vocalization. The spinal portion (h) descends
RIN-jeal): a mixed nerve supplying, as its name suggests, the into the neck to supply the trapezius muscle and pans of the
tongue and pharynx. ft-deals with taste, swallowing and salivation. stemocephalicus, brachiocephalicus and ometransversarius
Motor fibers with those of the vagus nerve supply muscles in the muscles.
pharynx that aid in swallowing. The special sense of taste from the
caudal third of the.tongue is carried by the glossopharyngeal nerve. XII. HYPOGLOSSAL NERVE (Cn XII): motornerve supply-
Autonomic (ANS) sensory and motor fibers regulate the secretion ing the muscles (voluntary) of the tongue, controlling vocaliza-
· of the parotid salivary gland. Sensory (ANS) fibers from the carotid tion and swallowing.
sinus play a major role in sensing and regulating blood pressure,
X. VAGUS NERVE (Cn X) (L. wandering): a mixed nerve. Its

motor fibers innervate the. muscles to the pharynx (with the
glossopharyngeal nerve) and larynx that control swallowing and
vocalization. Its parasympathetic {ANS) fibers to.the viscera of the
cervical region, the thorax and abdomen regulate these organs'
activities {pg. 526). Tbe recurrent laryngeal nerve is part pf the
vagus that peals off in the thorax and returns up the neck to 'supply
motor innervation to the muscles of the larynx, including the dorsal
cricoarytenoideus muscle.
XI. ACCESSORY NERVE (Cn XI): a motor nerve to some neck.

muscles, including the trapezius.It isdivided intocranial and spinal
portions, with cell bodies located in the medulla and spinal cord,
''." respectively. Both portions leave-the cranial cavity together; then ·
'
['1) branch immediately .-The cranial portion (g) is the somatic motor
~ innervation to the soft palate, pharynx and larynx dealing with
465
CRANIAL NERVES.· ~ . ,.
Head-467 ~. •.,
.,•
~~~~~~~~~~--.--~~~~~~~~~~~~~----~~~~~
CRANIAL NERVE
I. Ol(actory
FUNCTION
Special Sen~e - smell (SV A)

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~
II. Optic Special Sense - vision (SSA)
Ill. Oculomotor Motor - extrinsic ey4: mm. [dors., med., &: ventr. oblique & sup~rior levator) (GSE) .
Short ciliary n. ANS - parasympathetic - ciliary & sphincter pupilla"e' mm. (GVE)
IV. Tro~hlear Motor - dora. oblique m. (GSE)
V. Trigeminal
Vi. Ophthalmic Sensory - area of forehead (skin of forehead & caud. nose, med. side of eye, eyeball, nasal
mucosa) (GSA}:
. . ··-r
V 2• Maxillary Sensory - area of upper jaw (skin of l:::.t. eye, nose, upper lip, cheek; mucosa of nasal
cavity, soft&; hard palate,
. upper lip; teeth of upper jaw & gums.). (GSA). ·
V8. Mandibular Mixed ·-

>.
-
'\ .. .. .
Motor - muscles of masticatior. (masseter, temporalis, med .. & lat. ptery.goid, rostr. belly of
digastrlcus &: mylohyoid) (SVE)
Sensory - area of lower jaw (skin of lower chin, lower lips; roots of teeth of lower jaw;
mucosa of tongue, oral vestibule, floor of mouth}; temporal&: zygomat1c regions
(skin of temporal & zygomatic regions, ext. acoustic meatus, tympanic membrane,
parotid salivary gland & guttural pouch in horse) (GSA)
. -·-·-· ··-----------------------------------------·
Vl. Abducent
-------:----
Motor - lat, rectus & retractor bulbi mm. (GSE)
VU. Facial Motor - muscles of facial expression (SVE)
"Intermediate" Special Sense - taste {rc;:;h:. 2/3 of tongue [chorda tympani n.)) (SVA)
ANS - paraaympathatic - Iacrlmal, nasal&: palatine glands; mandibular & sublingual
salivary gl~nd.,. {GVE) .... :
.!: ,.,; ,.,A'f·~
·------------------------------------------·---------------'!\·
V~II. Vf!stibulocochlear
:;
·~
Cochlear .'
Special Sense - hearinz (organ of corti) (SSA}
Veatibular Special Sense - equilibrium (semicircular canals, utriclea & saccule] {SSA)
I.X. _qiossopharynreal Mixed
Motor - stylopharynp;eus caudalis, levator veli pa.latini, tensor veli palatini mm. (SVE)
.. . . .. Sensory - pharyngeal region (mucosa of caud. 1/3 or tongue, soft palate, tonsils, pharynx,
auditory tube & middle ear; carotid sinus & carotid body) (GVA)
ANS - parasympathetic· parotid & buccal salivary glands (GVE).

Special Sense - taste {caud. 1/3 of tongue) (SVA)
·X. Vagua Mixed
Motor - pharyngeal &: laryngeal mm. (pharyngeal mm. & skeletal m. of esophagus,
caud. cricothyroideus m. [cran. laryngeal n.], intrinsic mm, of larynx except
cricothyroid m. [recurrent laryngeal n.J) (SVE)
Sensory - baroreceptors in aortic arch & chemoreceptors in aortic bodies. (GVA)

ANS - parasympathetic - pharynx, larynx, trachea, esophagus, thoracic & abdominal
· organs (GVE) .
XI. Accessory
Ext. br. Motor ~ trapezius, sternocephalicus, cleidocephalicue, omotransverearius mm. (SVE)
Int. br. Motor - intrinsic mm. of larynx via fibers traveling in the recurrent laryngeal n.
(CN X) (SVE)
XII. Hypoglo"al Motor - intrinsic & extrinsic mm. or tongue (genioglossus, styloglossus & hyogloasus
mm.) (GSE)
466
, \2 ~~A,r\J.,~,~- NERVES - HEAD
,: ! ;''- \
"
I If,
\
Hcad-468
\
,I. :: ••• \ :· ·;" :.
/
.. , :;i:i~ !lJ. ,1.,·. . "' 1
/I \
· Fig~~,~:,t!,:.- Horse - Supf1. ves~e! .It nerves of head
··t. ..,· .... ,_. - at. view }.
·'
. _ I' I
•
I
I
\\ Vll.~·Facial n .
.. , ;
, •, r ' • • a. Linguefacia] v.
'•
b. Angu°faris'oculi a.& v.
· ::;; · c. Dcrs. bucca! br. {CN VII)
-:::,:: .•::: d, Ventr. buccal br. (CN VII)
''·: ·· ;, 'e. Pa'rotid salivary gland
,:: · '::: f. Pasotid duct , ?_X-;,.••
~ ... . ..
· g. Buccinatcr m, ;--·'" ·.,
. .::·· . ,'. h. Zygon1aticus ,n .
.. ,.,,·.,.
<!. ., •
•
: ,;
. . ·:-...;
.. : . ;
. .....
.::..: . ';;~i~ .• .'·
... - :·:-t:-=_;· ::..'
, · . :<:;:.:· ·/ a .. . . . ··-~,. - :· ... ~. t
--~
•_. •, I -, .' ...
. ·'
. :. ·~.
.,.: 11 •
• .> : ..
.... · .
..
:~
J
. .-
· ... · -,:,::;.· -,s:., Ext. jug'ular·-v~".:.. .. · ..... ,.
HEAD • NERVE BLOCKS: Before general anesthesia al- crest. Run your finger dorsally. to the infraorbital foramen and
lowed animals to be. put down and ..recovered safely, nerve palpate the nerve under thelevator labii superioris muscle. This
blocks Of the head where commonly Used. There are several block only anesthetizes superficial structures from the point of
problems- of the equine head that require general anesthesia or the forarnen to the lip. Remember, nerves do not respect the'.
nerve blocks: teeth removal for abscesses, open tooth roots, so
mid line. do both sides to anesthetize the middle o(ipe '1PJ>er .
sinusitis, draining sinus. impactions .. Today general anesthesia lip. This can be used when repairing ~C.~f_ations .on:J~1e:·~fps ~r
· · is.used ins~; bi(f ·~1i'be 'supplemented by. specific nerve. lOO bridge of. the nose, .~nj~tu:ig into:-,ili,e.· foramen :''Qne;:mch, .
blocks. . . . . ;' !which.is difficult, .anestbeiizes th~ faceback to the orbit, .
. .
~· . - . .:
Mental nerve block: anesthetize the mental nerve as it comes
. \, ·. . ..
,
'l\{a~illary: nerve block:-..fi~d the caudal angle of the eye and

out of the mental foramen to anesthetize the lower chin. palpate the notch in the lower~ of the zygomatic arch, just
~ -below the caudal angle of the eye. Pass the needle under the
at
Mandibular alveotar.aerve block: injection the mandibular [.'notch and aim rostrally and ventially to anesthetize me maxil-
foramen. The foramen is on the medial side of che mandible, Iary nerve. where it enters into the maxillary fcramen. This
opposite the point at which a line across th~ occlusal surface of anesthetizes tbe,_upper.cheek teeth.
the cheek teeth crosses a perpendicular Iine from the caudal -··· ·: · ·
edge of the eye. Insert· a 6~ needle medial to the mandible .
straight up 10 this point and injeft.a~~etic. This anesthetizes'>' ·Supr~orbital block (a branch of the ophthalmic division):
':he lower lip •. but doesn't get the incisors because those fibers . palpate the foramen.in th~ zygomatic process of the frontal
are internal.This block can be used when repairing lacerations · bone. Inject a "bleb" of an~thztk: over the forarnen and rub it
.. of the lower Iip. . .." , · · in. This anesthetizes the area over the forehead between the
eyes. Do not inject into the foramen and thus the eyeball .. ·. .
·'
. Infraorbital nerve block: palpate the rostral end of the facial
~ .. ..-:
::' '. 467
,.
.' "
CRANIAL NERVES - HEAD Head-469
VII. Facial n.
Fig. X-29 - Ox - Structures of head,

second layer - Jat. view
XI. Accessory n.
~~~-3Vagosympathetlc
trunk _
(Vagus n. [X) &
----- sympathetic
trunk)
Common
carotid a.
Ext. jugular v.:
VII. Facial n .:
Vagosympathetic trunk
V. Trlgeminal n.
Fig. X-30 - Ox - Structures of the head,
third layer - lat. view
468
CRANIAL NERVES - HEAD r Head-473
",,.,
.
.'
',
VII. Facial n.
XI. Accessory n.
Common carotid a.
XII. Hypcglossa] a.
V. Trigeminal n •
Fig. X-31 - Ox - Structures of the head,.

fourth layer - lat. view
. .
A. Int. Jucular v, (X-2i) K: Comual a.

B. Maxillary v. a. Auriculopal))4tbral a, (VIJ)(X-2~) J. Palpebral br. ot
L. Inferior olveolar a. b. Dora. buccal br. (Vll) sy,omatk: br.(Vll}
C. Ext. carotid a. (X-SO) M. lnfraorbital a. e. Ventr. buccal br. (Vll) k. M:,lohyolcl a. M
D. Supf. temporal a.& v. N. Parotid duct (X-29) d. Auriculotemporal n. (V) I. Interior
E. Tramverae f~iaJ a. (X-29) 0. Thyroid gland ·
F. Deep facial v. e. Zygomatico&emporal n, (V) alveolar n. (V)
G. Buccal a.
P. Lat, retroph_aryngeal Inn. .
.Q. Med. retroph.aryngeal Inn. (X-31)
r. ComuAI it. (V) m. Linaual n. (V)
H. Linguotaclal v. ,. Buccal n. (V) a. lnfraorbital n. (V)
R. Mandibular duct . h. Caud .. auricular n. (VIl)(X-30)
:, I. Ancularia oculi v. · S. ParoUd 1alivary c)and (X~29) i. Zyaomatic br. of auricopalpebral n. (Vll)
~~ J. M1.id1Jary a. (X-30)
.
'
46~
. .,' ~·
SPl[\JAL CORD
411-Neck & Back-47 J
8. Gray matter
t
.·.·• -..:.··:·:·.
.·.·~::::::·::::::::::..
..··:·.······
-·- .·.····1
·:·:·:·:·~
·:·.········ .....
\.
.... .·•·•········
.······ . . . . . . •.·..-.-,..... c .·...:::::::::::::-~:: ..
...
. . . . ...
••··•····••··•
.....
:-........
. .
••••·•••···•··.·•·.·.··
•····· . .
. · · · · · . ·r· .
•.... ············ . . . .•. . .--: .. ·.·.······ ....
•.·.·· . ..·.·-.·.·······
.·······
.....
•,
•,•.•.·-·····.
·.·. ·•·.·
·.····:·.·.·.·.·.·
·.··••·•·.·•···· -:·:·.··············.
....·•·.·.·.······:·.
·.·.· ·.·.··············:•.·.·\
······:·:·.·.·.········
.·:·::::.:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·.:·:·:·:·:·::::::.:·:·:·.
. . . .
···.•·•······
.....·:·.:· ·...,:·:·: . . . .
.·.··
·=·=·=·········rn=·· . . :·:.:.:.:·.······.•:·:······:·:·:. ..
-~·-=·=·=··········:-:·=··
•.·.·-·······
·.
-.:· ~:...
.....
~-:·:·:·::::-:·:·:·:·:·:
·:·:·:·.: ······
·=·:·:·:·:·::::::p:·:·:···
. -
....
..
. .········:·.· ·······
........
~·-:·:·.·····
':).. ••••······•
..•......
. ··:·.·;!..i"'\. · ..· .
"
-------~·-----~
9. White matter \ 7. Ventr. median fissure
Fi2. X-32 - Spinal cord & spinal nn. • cross section (schematic)
SPINAL CORD: the long column of nervous tissue located 4. Filum terminale (FY-tum ter-min-Ak-ee): the fibrous cord
within the vertebral (spinal) canal that, along with the brain, derived from the pia mater, extending from the con us to the caudal
makes up the central nervous system (CNS). The spinal cord is the vertebrae. It helps anchor the spinal cord in the spinal canal.
direct continuation of the caudal brain stem (medulla oblongata) . -
beginning at the level of the foramen magnum. It extends only to 5. Cauda equina (KAW-da ee-KWY-na) ("Horse's tail"): the
the Jumbosacral region of the spinal canal because the cord grows structure fonned by nerve .roots leaving the caudal part of the C
slower than the spinal column ("back bone"), Because of this the spinal cord, traveling caudally to reach their exit from the verte- "
last spinal nerves must pass progressively caudally to reach their bral canal.
exit from corresponding intervertebral foramina.
6. Dorsal median fissure: the dorsal groove extending the length
Divisions of the spinal cord: divided into cervical (C). thoracic of the dorsaJ surface of thespinal· cord. Along with the ventral
(1), lumbar (L), sacral (S) and caudal (coccygeal) regions which median fissure, it divides the cord into symmetrical lateral halves.
give rise to the spinal nerves that exit between the vertebrae.
7. Ventral median fissure: the groove extending the length of the
. Spinal segment: a region of the spinal cord from which a pair of ventral surface of the spinal cord .
spinal nerves arise. The spinal. cord stops growing before the
spinal column resulting in the spinal cord segments not always CROSS SECTIONS of the spinal cord show the fissures men-
lining up with the corresponding vertebrae, The caudal thoracic tioned above and a central ff-shaped mass of gray matter sur-
and cranial lumbar cord segments lie over the vertebrae of the rounded by white matter.
corresponding numbers. The last lumbar, the sacral, the caudal
segments and the end of the spinal cord are more cranial to the • 8. Gray matter: the nerve cell bodies and synapses organized
corresponding vertebrae. · · into the shape of an "H". This is further ~tomically divided into
horns (columns).
I. Cervical enlargement: the enlargement of the caudal part of
the cervical and cranial part of the thoracic spinal cord regions; the • 9.. ~.itematter: the axons running up and down the ·cord in
spinal nerves serving the thoracic limb (brachial plexus) emerge specific tracts (fasciculi). These tracts connect the brain and
here. interconnect the various spinal segments of lhe cord. The myelin
around the nerve fibers gives the region its white color.
2. Lumbar enlargement; the enlargement of the spinal cord
where nerves to and from the pelvic limb attach. -Ascending tracts are the axons traveling up the spinal cord
carrying sensory impulses (infonnation) to the brain.
3. Couus medullaris (KOH-nus med-yoo-LAR-is): the tapered, ,
terminal end of the spinal cord. The location in the vertebral canal - Descending tracts are the axons of nerve cell bodies in the ..
. varies among the species. 'train. They travel down the spinal cord carrying motor impuJses. -
470
SPINAL CORD
Neck & Back-472
... · ..
- 1
b ~:-
1. Cervical
enlargement---..:
Spinal-._ _
nerve
2. Lumbar
enlargement
-.---D
3. Conus
medullaris
A. Atlu 4. Filum t.erminale

B. Axis
C. Inlervertebral forarnen Fla. X-34 - Spinal cord (schematic)
D. Sauum
E. Coccyceal vertebrae
F. Dura mater and arachnoid
G. Pia mater inveetinc cord
H. Dora. root Relationship to the L6 spinal cont segment and the end of Che
I. Ventr. root spinal cord to the venebrae ·
J. Denticu)ate lie.
K. Don. root pnclion L6segment End of spinal cord
a. Lat. vertebral toramen
of atlu. -- . fa Dog I.A L6-7
b. Lat. vertebral foramen Ruminant S2 Sl
of axil Swine . St-2
e, 'Spinal canai (X-SJ}
,. ~2~ etc. corrapond to
Horse LS S2
~ . . :live "!VU\)~ e,
Cat L7-S3
ll:~ '
~""
......;.\'
.,P .. .
•f' ...
,,., 'Adapt8d from Appfied Veterinary-Anatomy, Habel and de lahunta. 1986

t •• !
471
SPINAL NERVES Neck & Body-476
Fig. X-35 - Horse - Spinal cord & meninges

- transverse section (schematic)
'
.
·,;
.
~
FoB
3. Spinal ganglion
· 2. Dorsal root
1 Spinal nerve
. ... . .
.. . ..
: S. Dors. br. of
spinal n.
7. White
communicating I
. - - : .. .'
. . . .
4. Ventral ·,o~t 6. Ventr. br. of spinal n.

A. Epidural apace 7. Gray communicating hr~
B. Dur~ maier
C. Subdural apace
\
D. Aracbraoid ·::..
E. Subarachnoid space
F. Pia mater ,. '!
a. Spinal canal
.:: .
. .. :
.. •.
J'
-,
·.. ..:
1. SPINAL NER VF.s: the joined dorsal and ventral roots arising innervate deep muscles and skin above the transverse processes
from the spinal cord. They are mixed nerves carrying sensory of the vertebrae. It canies sensory
and motor fibers.
impulses toward the spinal cord and motor impulses away from
the spinal cord. Just after a spinal nerve emerges through an · 6. Ventral branch (rami) ~f·spinal nerves: supply the muscles
intervertebral foramen. it splits into dorsal, ventral, and commu- and skin of the limbs and ihe laterai and ventral areas of the trunk.
~icat~ng branches. It also carries motor and. sensory fibers.
• '
..
~ I
2. Dorsal (sensory) root: the root bringing sensory fibers to the 7. Communicating branches: connect the spinal nerves to the
spinal cord. autonomic nervous systerp (ANS) (sympathetic trunk) (pg. 524).
3. Dorsal root ganglion: a swe1ling on the dorsal mot containing SPINAL NERVE ORGANIZATION: lheendonewiwn, a deli·
the cell bodies of the sensory (afferent) neurons (pseudounipotar) cate connective tissue lhat surrounds individual fibers in a spinal
making up the dorsal root. nerve. The perineurium, a connective tissue ~th. surroun~
bundles of endoneurium-covered nerve fibers (fascicles). A fas-
4. Ventral ~t (motor): the root carrying.motor(efferent) nerve cicle is a bundle of nerve fibers surrounded by perineurium. The
fibers from cell bodies in the spinal cord to effector structures epineurium is the connective tissue covering the entire spinal
(organs, muscles, glan&, etc.) of the body. nerve. It is continuous with the spinal meninges at the interverte,.
bral foramen. , ..r.:
S. Dorsal branch (rami) of spinal nerves: extend dorsally to ('.:':
'·:~i.
•
472
VENTRICLES
469-Head-474
- ...
1. Lat. ventricle
4. Cerebral aqueduct 3. Interventricular

for amen
6. Lat. aperture
5. Fourth ventricle . '·

~-~'"!'!
~
•.-..:)
·-
..,,__~ ·:;?r·.-:;. ~:~
5. Third ve·~:fi-i{ie.,;
• ·a
Fig. X-36 - Ox - Ventr icles - craniolat. view
VENTRICLES (VEN-tri-kulz): a series of interconnected cavi- noid space: two lateral apertures (a).
ties in the cerebral hemispheres and brain stem. They are directly
continuous with the central canal (Fig. X-32,e) and the subarach- Choroid (KOH-royd) plexuses (G. choroid delicate membrane):
noid space between the meningeal layers (see meninges) sur- · the capillary network extending into the ventricles from their
rounding the brain and spinal cord.
walls. They secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The CSP produced
in the lateral ventricles circulates through the interv~ntricular
1. Late~~, ventrlcles: the largest of the ventricles. There is one foramina to the third ventricle where more fluid is added by the
located within each cerebral hemisphere. plexuses in its roof. The fluid then passes through the cerebral
aqueduct to the fourth ventricle, where its choroid plexus adds
2. Third' ventricle: located in the diencephalon, encircling the more fluid. The fluid then goes to the spinal canal or out through
interthalamic adhesion. ··
apertures in the roof of the fourth ventricle into the subarachnoid
space.
3. Interventricular foramina: the two channels connecting the
third ventricle with the two lateral ventricles. CEREBROSPINAL (se-:ee'broh-SPY-nal) FLUID (CSF): a
clear fluid produced by the choroid plexuses which circulates
4. Cerebral (mesencephalic) aqueduct: the small canal running through the ventricles, central canal and subarachnoid space
longitudinally through the midbrain to connect the third and surrounding both the brain and spinal cord. The.Jirain and spinal '
fourth ventricles. ·
cord (CNS) "float .. in the cerebrospinal fluid which acts as a
protective shock absorber. ·, ': "·
5. Fourth ventricle: located between the brain stem and the
. · .. overlying cerebellum .. it isJlirectly continuous with the central Arachnoid villi (granulations): projections of lhe arachnoid and
:.V:,t,
,-;..;..
canal of the spinal cord. ·n,
subarachnoid space into the sagittal dural sinus. They provide
1:~:
escape of the CSF into the general circulation.
· -~ 6. Openings between the fourth ventricle and the subarach·
>•
473
.. ' • • ,J •
MENINGES Head-475
/8. Outer layer
1. Dura mater
-. 9. Inner layer
11. Tentorium cerebelli
~
12. Dural sinus
3. Subdural space 7. Trabeculae
13. Cisterna magna
4. Arachnoid
5. Subarachnoid space
6. Pia mater
Fig. X-37 - Ox - Cranium & brain

- median section
,,
I~1f.I'1Ii~GES (me-NIN-jeez)(s.in.=meninx) (L. rnembranes): the 5. Subarachneid space: the cavity between the arachnoid and the
three membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. The pia mater where cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulates.
spinal and cranial meninges are continuous at the foramen mag- · ,.. . ..
num. 6. Pia mater (PEE-a-may-ter) (L. pius tender+ mater mother):
the innermost meninx, closely investing the spinal cord and brain. · ·
1. Dura mater (DYOO-ra may-ter) (L. dura hard + mater ....
mother): the outermost meninx made of strong connective tissue. Leptorneninges (G. leptos slender + meninges membranes):
The cranial dura mater has two layers, where the-spinal dura has refers to the pia and arachnoid together.
one. Pachymeniax (G. pachys thick+ meninx membrane) is
another name for the dura mater .. 7. Trabeculae (tra-BEK-yoo-lee) (L'beams): connective tissue
fibers spanning the subarachnoid space to join the arachnoid and
2. Epidural space: the cavity between the dura mater and the wall p1a.
of the vertebral canal. Because the cranial dura mater is fused with
the periosteum of the bones of the cranium, there is no epidural CRANIAL ~NINGES: thethree meningeal layers surround-
space surrounding
. ' the brain. ing the brain. The cranial and spinal subarachnoid and·pia mater
are similar and continuous at the foramen magnum.
3. Subdural space: a potential space located between the dura
mater and the arachnoid. • Cranial dura mater: the outer membranous covering of the
brain, composed of two layers: a tough, outer layer and a thin.
4. Arachnoid (a-RAK-noyd) ro. arachne spider+ eidos resem- inner layer. The two layers of the dura separate over the fissures
bles): the delicate middle meninx. of the brain; the inner layer extends into the fissures forming ;_.
::-.L·t;i.ions and dural sinuses. Thecranial dura rnat:~ ;~. conunuous '<
474
MENINGES Head-234
' .
. ..
', 12. Dural sinus
·. .. 10. Faix cerebri
'
Fig. X-38 - Ox - Cranium & brain - cross section
with the spinal. dura mater at the foramen

.. . magnum. spinal fluid (CSF) is transferred from the subarachnoid space into
these venous sinuses through arachnoid villi and returned to t~e
8. Outer (periostealj layer: the tough, fibrous layer attached to general circulation. Since secretion and absorption is usually
the bones of the cranium, forming the inner periosteum of the equal, the pressn-e ofthe cerebrospinal fluid is relatively cox-
cranial bones. stant.
9. Inner (meningeal) layer: the thinner layer. 13. Cisterna magna (L. reservoir+ large): an expansion of the
subarachnoid space located between tbe caudal surface of the
Partitions: the folding and protrusion of the inner layer of the cerebellum and the dorsal surface of the medulla, just inside the
dura into the large fissures between parts of the brain. foramen magnum. This is. a common site for· a CSF "tap"
(removal of CSF).
10. -Faix (L. "sickle") cerebri (falks ser'e-bry): the partition . .. ·.. ' . •. . . · :·· .. • .
extending into the longitudinal fissure, separating the right and ·CLINICAL:
. ··.. . ..·· . ··.:.:
left cerebral hemispheres.
11. Tentorium ~ebelli (ten-TOH-ree-um ser'e-BEL-Iee): the.

parti_tionextending into the transverse fissure between the occipi-
tal lobes ~f the cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellum. ·
~*- 12; Dural sin~: die venous spaces fonned where the two dural
\:.?:~layers separate from each olher. The dural sinuses are filled with
~ v~ blood returning to the hean from the brain. The cerebro-
-r
., 475
'. ..,
..
472-Neck & Back-477
2. Epidural
~pac~ ,.
'.< :,
'
1. Dura mater
3. Subdural space 14. Denticulate

lig.
5. Subarachnoid ·
space
B. Spinal cord
6. Pia mater 7. Trabeculae C. Dors. root.of spinal n.
D. Dors. root of ganglion n.
E. Ventr. root of spinal n.
Fia. X-39 - Spinal cord at 10th thoracic vertebra. - cross section F. Spinal n.
13. Cisterna magna G. Central canal
H. G1·ay matter
14. Dentlculate fig. 15. Filum terminale I. White matter
I J. Foramen magnum
a. 10th thoracic vertebra ·-
b. Epineurium of spinal n.
c. Ventr. spinal a.
d. Int. vertebral venous plexus
e. Lumbar cistern
Fig. X-40 - Ox - Spinal cord & meninges (schematic) - sagittal section
SPINAL MENINGES: the membranes surrounding the spinal Cal) or first intercaudal space (Cal-Ca2). This inexpensive,
cord, continuous with the cranial meninges at the foramen mag- simple procedure is commonly perfonned on cows, sheep,
num.
and goats for obstetrical manipulations and surgeries involv-
ing the tail, anus, rectum, vulva, perineum arid prepuce. Just
14. Denticulate ligaments (L. dentatus toothed): the membra- enough analgesia to block the sacral and caudal nerves is·
nous extensions of the pia mater connecting to the dura mater needed. If the analgesic travels further up the spinal column, .
between the spinal nerves;
,
anchoring the spinal cord laterally. of
it may couse loss locomotor function of the hind limbs.
Pump the tail up and down while palpating for the first
15. Fil um terminale: the fibrous strand formed by the meninges movable space. Thismay be the sacrocaudal (S5-Cal) or first
attaching the dural tube to the caudal vertebrae. inl;eicaudal space (Ca l-Ca2). In older cows th~ sacrocaudal
space ·ossifies with age. Insert a i 1/2 to 2" needle on lhe
median plane through disinfected skin between the S5·Cal or
r----.-..-.------------------' Ca1-Ca2 ventrocraniallyatanangleof100 to the vertical. Pass
CtiNICAL:
.. . the needle to the floor of the canal, then wilhdraw needle
.•' ·.·· . .
slightly to be sure you are in the canal. Inject 5 ml per 100
..c.auda( _epidural analgesia: inj~tion of a small volume of pounds of body weight. Success causes paralysis of the tail, ,· .
· ;..analgc~ic into the epidural space
. .at either the sacrocaudal (S5- in an animal that remains standing,
.· ·. : ' ··. ~
476
SPINAL PLEXUSES Neck & Back-478
.... .
(- -:: ''.\...
.... •,>"
3. Brachltti plexus 4. Intercostal n .
'
>
d e
l. Cervical plexus
2. Phrenic n.
F
5. Lumbosacral plexus
Fig. X-41 - Ox - Spinal plexuses - lat. view
A. Trigeminal n. (V} F. Ulnar n. K. Tibial n.

B. Facial n. (VII} a. Dora. br. of spinal nn.
C. Hypogloaeal n, (XII)
G. Digital n. L. Common fibular n. b. Ventr. br. of spinal nn.
H. Femoral n. M. Digital n. e. Coetoabdominal n.
D. Accessory n. (XI) I. Saphenous n. N. Obturator n.
E. Radial n. d. Iliohypogastric n..
J. Ischiatic n. 0. Pudenda) n. e. Ilioinguinal n,
f. Genitofemoral n.
SPINAL PLEXUSES (p/exus .. braid): the interlacing of the 4. Lumbosacral plexus: the ventral branches of the lumbar and
ventral branches of spinal nerves in every region, except the sacral nerves. It supplies muscles and skin of the abdominal wall,
thorax. The major plexuses so formed are cervical, brachial, and the pelvic limb, external genitalia, rump and perineum.
lwnbosacral.
5. INTERCOSTAL (THORACIC) NERVES: the ventral
1. Cervical plexus (L. cervix neck): the joining of many ventral branches of the thoracic nerves do not form a plexus, but pass in
branches of the cervical nerves, supplying structures in the neck. the intercostal spaces as intercostal nerves. They supply the
intercostal muscles and the overlying skin. The cosioabdominal
2. Phren~ nerve: arises from the cervical plexus and supplies (last thoracic) nerve runs behind the last rib and helps supply lhe
motor fibers to the diaphragm. This is why a broken neck can flank.
result in respiratory paralysis.
DERMA TOME (DER-ma-rohm): an area of skin supplied by a
3. Brachial plexus: a network formed by the ventral branches of single spinal nerve.
·-;\' -': . I.he Jut few cervical nerves and the first one or two thoracic
.
. . .
-~-
,_· /nerves. It supplies most of the muscles of the thoracic .. limb.
477
•
SPINAL NERVES & BRACHIAL PLEXUS ., NECK Neck & Body-End
Fig; X-42 - Horse • Spinal nerves & brachial

: plexus (schematic) - lat. view
6. Dors. cervical plexus
d
,.
·.
,; •I, I
• •
.'
\
5. Phrenic n.
,• t • ,...
8. Brachial plexus
Fig. X-43 - Horse - Neck - cross section
A. Acceuory n. (XI) a. Med. br. of dons. br. h. Br. to acceaory n. n. Intercoatal n.

B. Cran. cervical pnglion b. Lat. br. 9f 9on. br. i. Great auricular n, O, .Axillary n,
C. Hypogloaaal n, (XII) e, Cutaneous hr. j. Tran1vene cervical n. p. Radial n. ·
D. Bracbial plexus d. Spinal n, o1 k. Spinal n. C q. Median n,
f. Spinal n. o2 J. Supraclavicfftar nn. r. Ulnar n.
,. Major occipital n. (cutan. brs. of 11:)
(dora. br.] m. Spinal n, T
1
478
NERVES - THORAX 415-Thorax-END
J. Dors. hr.
. ':. · .:· ..
•
-·
•
. .. .
• I•
.
•
Fla. X-44 - Ox - Thorax (schematic)

2. Spinal n. •
- cross section
3. lntercostal n. (ventr. br. of spinal n.)
: Fig. X-45 - Ox - Thorax (schematic)

- lat: view
3. lntercostal n.
!. Dorsal hr.
A. Mixed ramus eommunicana

B. Thorade l)'mpathetic chain:
C •.Brachia! plexus.
a. Med. br. of don. br.

b. Lal. br. of dor9: br.
\ \
'C, IM. (prox.) eutu. br.
d. Lat. pmoratin1 br. of
lnMrco.tal a,
•· Lal. (dln~)cutan. br. J. Thoracodoraal n. (C·7-8) q. Ext. intucost,1 m.
f. Connec:tinc br. to lat. k. La\": thoracic n. (ca:.n) · r. Int. intercoatal m.
tboradcn. l. lntercotto.bra.chiala. . ,. Alcendin1 P41Ctoralm.
•· Ve!ltt. pedoratinc br. fti. Co.toabdonunal '1· (TIS) t. Tl'anlVenua thoraci1 m.
x of iDMrccebl n. a, Spinalis e\ Hmlapinalia 111. (X-«) u. 1th thoracic vertebra
~ h. Ventr. cutan, a, · e. Lonsinimm thoracia m. v. Sternum
t. tons thoracic n. (0'1-8) (X-45) p. mocottalis thoratja m. ', w .· Coital pleura
. .
BRACHIAL PLEXUS 421- Thoracic limb-481
BR.ACHIAL PLEXUS: the network of nerves fonned from the
ventral branches of lhe mst few cervical and first one or two SPECIF$ DIFFERENCES
t.licracic spinal nerves. 'The nerves arising from this plexus inner-
vate the intrinsic and some of the extrinsic muscles of the thoracic Horse: the radial nerve doesn't extend past the carpus
Jimb and, via the phrenic nerve, the diaphragm. The brachial
plexus has roughly the same organization and distribution in all Ungulates: the median and,musculocutaneous nerve appear
the domestic species. v-,ith the exception of the digi:ts. Clinical as one nerve in the brachium. except for the musculocutane-
infonnation can be obtained by knowledge of the muscles inner- ous muscular branches. The two nerves are separate in the
va'..ed, areas of cutaneous sensation. and the spinal cord segments carnivores.
ccntributing to each nerve.
1.Suprascapular nerve: extends from Lhebrachial plexus around

the cranial surface of the neck of the scapula to innervate the
infraspinatus and supraspinatus muscles.
2. Radial nerve: supplies t'ie extensors of the elbow, carpus and

digits (caudal ann muscles und the craniolateral forearm mus-
()~~5Af > .: , . . '~'.: ' ; ,,: :i:rn,ii,
:~ ~!Sw'ee1iey~','6r··i·snoulder seeifiifthd.'horie.:=W:;
slip'!. := a 'tondition,
• '·=:·: • • • -; • •• • . : .. ' ., ··: -, ·:,,:: .. :···::..·:::::·.·:·::-·!·.;:;:,;:: ·:·~ ::::-.:.-;,_;
••• ,•,: ·:, ·••. ··.;· .;:.·::. ,•:... ,,,... : ,· ·.... :: • ... • ...
cles). Extending from the b~hial plexus into the triceps brachii · ,. ·.-.·-. -~~ .. P.-"iiJar.
··.,dftetl'.fin'· ·. : ·ofilie,suP,,· rasca ·w - - nerve:
·
.. , .•....
Thisiesti1f$.:
,. -· ·,-;.,., -, , _.,_i.,.li· , .@ · -, ·P,· 1a/· _.,_,./,
muscle, it then passes.around the caudal aspect of the humerus to (a(1.ophy.
.. . ·: .·
of µi~
· . $0praspinatus
.•.. .
and'ihfr~i~tu~
. . . .•, . milS.~(¢$W.fii~
' •. .... ·-.·~ ..·..· ·:. :· : :J-' ·\
:·,.- ..
reach the lateral side of the a1m. Continuing distally. it branches =tpfpduf.~ l.PWni~qeiit scapular .spine; n·ef(>r~. ~qophy,,';t.lj~:/:
into superficial and deep branches to the forearm. The superficial :·sh. · ra--·:'· ;,.:.; :· -: bf·, and s 1··11>.s "late.
g... ~~-,.,~r '~,'.'.~n~~ ,~
1r·· ,.;.. :,:.;:_:_ ;: ;;.,-:,: .. ;;,:· .. · : :·i,e'"'''·'
· , -,~ .Y..~ .~w.mJ:J~t. ,,,. .t:/
branch of the radial nerve supplies the skin of the craniolateral
foreann in all domestic species. It is sensory to the dorsal surface
of the manus ·in all, except lhe horse. ·
:'. d~~l~~~~i::·. _"'. _: ,.:· :.-~· . · _: . . ·:. . ' . .- . :~i .
:~:._%if:;i:_:i;:'.: ~'._\?';?1!i--;:;~~~)t;!l~i
.:~fJi~l_,:{nerve )"paraJy~~: the most com'~(?((~~ :c)fµiC.~!y,/,
,; sigµµ'icarit nerve problem of the foreiuq1f'It1s:~~~iy.:·d~e'~;~':1
'·traumati.c.injury>C_t(nical manifesta~o~_vaiyjvfiiflo.¢~(iq_g:;:_,:J
~~= :":~ :~7~~1:'!:e":.:,:::~r:'!:i~anra.:
3. Ulnar nerve: motor to some caudomedial forearm muscles
o*}11)~'~i~; : : . . . . :; :~}; ::}1[:ff !{:{~
musculocutaneous nerves. At the elbow. it separates 'from these : '.!~jg~.~~'r~i.atnerve-paralysis: p_roximar~·:\\'.~~f.¢.th~-
~~·:::::/
nerves to reach the caudal aspect of the forearm. It is sensory to '·'ijm¢ryai'es di~ ·trj.~ps brachii muscle: Th.i$/~µl't$.:j1'(:-aji\/:
the caudal forearm and palmar manus. In the dog it is the : J~bility'til extendthe elbow, thus, ~nab~iittWJie;ir'.,~¢~j~j'~'(i~: :<~
cutaneous innervation to the fifth (most lateral) digiL . :;· ~/~~:(·):·: :-i")-·;_.:·
_·.-·- - -; . · _-·.. -::·,.}:;~:})(:;: (;~}ill :~li:~r:t}
4. Median nerveralong with the ulnar nerve. supplies motor ·· ~LQY:~-.-~~.41l~~v~__ paralysis: occurs ~~tj),1.-U),~~~:@~~:,;}~
innervation to the flexor muscles of the carpus and digits. It, with : :tnl)~fti\iQl,\~ · -fp~~~, '.\Y~~ih_t c~ ~- ·'~~ ·. o#·':~~:~·:~m~R/P,itt.:;
the ulnar nerve, is sensory-to the palmar surface Qf the man us. The ,:,'ext~il~{ri:fi,JS.~1~.~f~e carpus arid ~!gi~_areaJJ~.~f~@Q.k~:- : ~
median nerve runs with the brachial vessels and the musculocu- .-J~,~4;#J~fca.;i1y·Jn.."~n'uckling9"'.e(~(d.ragi4tjJpy.4.~f$·uro.9f}}
taneous .and ulnar nerves in the ann. It continues on the medial . ,~:'(og(Qi(~~groµrid)!.Mosr animals co.mP.t}~~Je_ §Y::~~1'11P7>E
side of the foreann to divide into medial and lateral pal mar nerves, ,'. :Pi~g~(~~~fqoffotw~d:· when mov1ng··~~,::i\~~: ~ i~e::t~/f
just proximal to the carpus. :· · · .: . ~~ i)_i: ~~P!Ol,ie:r _posjtion. · · . - -·- · ·._ · _.':-'. \\.:._ ·, ;,:,:;-_;,: ·= .://'.l-
s, Long thoracicnerve: inn~~.t~-~~_serra~ ventralis muscle. ·

-. ; ' . . ·., -.
;·-~~~6~~~-~~
a~.~bion: res~l~_-in ~~~:~: ~~~~~~~~~~~:
. . :(-.ottlfe.,iimb;..iesulting;in-a flaccid'iiriib'tlia(ls":.~~::_.;:: .,=::-·,.-::~.;
6. Thoracodorsal nerve: innervates the Jatissi~us dorsi muscle. = f '.\-{ · . ·. ·_: ;. . ; ·-,:· '} -·-_: ·. ·. . . ': .~ ,_- : - . · ·. -, ' . -: ·. .' . ,.:, . <=:):- :;.:.:.-: }t){:}'.\(t::.\'.,~::
·. . : ...
· ,rPJ,1.!•r;'
. , . , -. · · 9···r-_~~d1.a
. . . · · -... , .. .-'P- -:e.fv,·
·. . .d~..p3.g~::Jj~-
. . · ·. t~·we:Y . ,·.;,r...iw.. ··,a:r~"~~'t- ·,.,,,.·., _
. ,.. . ,.).,~w.,~t;::;
7. Musculocutaneous nerve: innervates the flexors of the elbow :'-: uftofr'due:·10··me,·ov ···1a' of 'iheii<motor'.inneff.at.Jon·'·','(:W?:';'\.':({t .
(biceps brachii and brachialis muscles) and the coracobrachialis ://(\:·'/?{;=: ·. ;:)_· ·_· :·_. ', './ .\: p - .:~:-.::-.·-:::: .:·tr·: -: ·: : ·.~: :·_:'·\/~(t'.()':-)~(:,~it~/t:~;J10:
muscle. It gives off the median cutaneous antebrachial nerve. '. -..~,9~i~ulu~ (¢q~~U$ µ-unci) re~~_:,ffin~-~w.·tP!:mf:t
,: : '· · -· · ·· · ' · ·. · · 1 ·· · · to ,. ., . ,. · · ·rr·1r,~V-
.- .- C~,@.~Jrun~_ i:n.u~ e tn response_ . ; ~ .:,e1..•t:P. ,.. };J ..,,.,... ~t e.
8. Axillary nerve: innervates the true flexors of the :~oulder '.;:' ~n~tY.~¥.~PO.llent<;>fthe re~~pa.sses.over:tJ!~)P.~~!~1Yf4~:~.;
(teres major. teres minor and deltoid muscles). lt dives between :-:tptJiespin~l~id.at the'level of th~ pin prick~·~~j~fQ'rmJ!~;/t•
the teres major and subscapular muscles medi~ly to reach the '.. ~)ipiije'· s_v.~pai:oor~·to.the motQr·u.er.yey::of_t~';f~~:j~
lateral side of the shoulder. Its cutaneous branch~ supply the :-.. tho~cic:,ierve.;in tlie caudal cervical regio~~:1.J.i~r~Jt49U.ft:-·_
lateralsurfaceofthe~andcranialaspectoftheforearm(lateral · sysiei#~cat1y· from caudal to cranial alQng··'fil~,-~~~-~~, _
cutaneous brachial and cranial cutaneous antebrachial nerves). . positive ·pailniculus respoose indicates the.. : spirwJ:oid _is..
·,; iiitact:.~om_'n;,ughly the l.evel of tne stimului.tci:~~:-~~1qi'L
LateraJ thoracic nerve (not shown): supplies the cutaneous ·~\~.'n¢gati.v.e p~n~ulus r~nse may ~di~~~: {~J~f
trunci mus;::le and cutaneous innervation to the ventrolateral : : of .SJ>f~- c.prd. dam;ige (see Appendix • pg.~· ,.· . :.:\/'.·\ . ·
abdominal wall. . . • ·:·::· •. . • • .. . .. ·. ::: • ··::=:·*:.• \ ( •
480
BRACHIAL PLEXUS - DOG
Thoracic iimb-482
·.)',!1
.... 1.,":,
.. ...
.....
...
1. Suprascapular n.
8. Axillary n,
7. Maseulocutaueous n.
.':
.
3. Ulnar n.
4. Median n. ·
2. Radial
6. Thoracodorsal n.
5. Long thoracic n.
. :..~ . ·.. .
Fig. X-46 - Dog .- Brachia} plexus

• ventr. view
\ I"
.
'
i
'
'
*
A. Phrenk n. a. Brachiocephalicus m. f. Tensor fasciae antebrachii m. • k. Supf. pectoral m.
B. Axillary a.& v. b. Supraspinatus m. g. Triceps brachii m. [. Deep pectoral m.
C. Subscapular n. c. Subscapular m.
l D. Supf. radial n., med. br. d. Teres major m.
h. Biceps brachii m. · ,n.
, Serratus ventralia m.
i. Extensor carpi radialis m. 'n. Scalenus m.
E. M'3d. cuean. antebrachial n. e. Latissimus dorsi m. j. ?ronator teres m.
481
NERVES· ""'. DOG - THORACIC LIMB Thoracic limb-483
1. Suprascapular n.
5.Long
thoracic n.
6. Thoracodorsal n.
7. Musculocutaneous n.
·s. Axillary n,
,,__g•
a. Subsc:apular n.
t
't
.
.I
•
•
b. Pectoral n.
• c. Lat. thoracic n.
d. Lat. cutan. brachia! n.
{axillary n.)
e. Med. cutan. ansebraehial n.
(musculocutaneous n.)
f. Radial n., deep br.
g. Radial n., aupf. br.
g' Lat. hr.
g" Med. hr.
h. Caud. cutan. antebrachial n.
(ulnar n.) · .. ,
l, Dora. digital nn. (X·48)
. :'• j. Ulnar n., dors. br .
k. Ulnar n., palm. br, (X·49)
l. Med. palmar n.
n ..,;,,,, m. Lat. palmar n.
S. Digital··nn. ~.. :.t
n. Palm. common digital nn.
Fig. X-47 - Dog - Lt. thoracic limb.

(schematic) - med. view
482
NERVES - DOG - THORACIC LIMB Thoracic limb-484
..... .
,.
..
4. Median n, -------rtt-
,.
. I
-· . ' '
3. Ulnar n. .'
• I
..
I~ .
- ·-:- 5. Digital nH.------;
- '. -n
~··. ,"·
t,·.
.. '
'
'
Fig. X-48 - Dog - metacarpus & digits

(schematic)-- dors. view
. -,
·.
. . :- .
Fig. X-49 - Dog • Lt. metacarpus & digits
. .. (schematic) - palm. view
\.
\ -:...~.. :-
•• 1
;
: ••
-, 483
't\ ....
•.
l_
NERVES - HORSE - THORACIC LIMB
Thoracic limb-485
1. Suprascapular n•
•
a. Subtcapular n.
b. Pectoral n.
c. Lat. thoracic n.
b d. Med. eutan. antebrachial
(mu1culocutaneoua n.)
e, Lat. cutan. antebrachial n.
f. Caud. eutan. antebrachial
(ulnar n.)
7. Musculocutaneous n, g. Ulnar n.,. dors. br. (X-51)
h. Ulnar n., palm br. (X-52)
i. Ulnar n., deep hr.
j. Lat. palmar n. (ulnar
& median n.)
k. Med. palmar n. (median n.)
'
I
1. Dora. br.
m. Palmar digital nn.
'
d:-.......r (med. & lat.)
n. Communicatmg br.
' 4.Medlan a,
NERVE DISTRIBUTION TO THE EQUINE ANTEBRA-

CIHUM: Understandingthe distributionof the nerves in horses
is very important in lameness diagnosis with nerve blocks.
Radial nerve: docs not extend past the carpus as it does in the
01her domestic species.
Median, the ulnar and the median cutaneous antebrachial (a

branch of the musculocutaneous): are the three nerves passing
1he carpus in the horse. · •
.
Median nerve: bifurcates into the medial and lateral branches
proximal to the carpus. ·
) Median palmar nerve: is a direct continuation of the median

nerve in the canon region.
Ulnar nerve: bifurcates just proximally to the carpus into

dorsal and palmar branches.
Dorsal branch or the ulnar nerve: wraps around the cannon .,'
\'.
484
,
NERVES - HORSE - THORACIC LIMB Thoracic limb-486
e-..;. . /-.!I 3. Ulnar n.
4. Median n. --
bone and descends on the dorsolateral side of
the cannon region to the fetlock.
Palmar branch of the ulnar nerve: joins g

wilh the lateral branch of the median nerve to·
form the late@) patmar perye.
Medial and lateral palmar nerves: · travel

down either side of the tlexor tendons. At the
·level of the fetlock they give off a dorsal g
branch and continue as the palmar digital
nerves.
Medial and lateral digital nerves: pass dis· . . .. .- ...

tally on the palmar aspect of the digit to • • • • I •
innervate the heel region of the foot They

form a triad along witll the digital vein and~
digital anery on each side. These ttiads are k
arranged vein, artery, nerve <YAN) from dor-
sal to palmar/plantar.
Dorsal branches of the digital nerves: passes

distally to innervate the toe region of the fool
Communicating branch: carries fibers from

themediaJpalmarnerve(mediannervefibers) . . ..
to the lateral palmar nerve ( ulnar and median
'.
nerve).
Dorsal branch of the palmar digital nerve

and the palmar digital nerves: travel to·
gethtt for a small segment past the fetlock.
This is important when trying to block one
wilhout getting the~·
Deep branch of the lateral_palmar nerve or

~ branch of the ulnar nerve: arises at the
carpus from the lataal palmar. nm:e then
dives deep and travels in close· association to
iilC metacarpal bones below the suspensory
ligament
Palmar llletacarpal nerves: are extensions
·or the deep ulnar nerve. They course distally
in between the splinl bones- and the cannon
bone. At the buttons of the splints they be-
eoote superficial and continue to the fedock
joint Fla. X-51 - Horse • Rt. metacarpus & digit
(schematic)· dors. view
Medial cutaneous antebradlial nerve: i$
Che cutaneous continuation of themusculocu·
taneous nerve. It ex~ dismUy to the fet· Fla. X-52- Horse - Rt. metacarpus & digit
loct.. (schematic) - palm. _view
485.
•
' .
NERVES - THORACIC LIMB Thoracic limb-487
SENSORY
..
NERVES MOTOR
••
Suprascapular motor - supraspinatus & inf'raspinatus mm.
Subscapular motor - subscapular m.
Pectoral an. ·. motor - pectoral mm.
Long thoracic motor • scrratus ventralis rn.

. .
.....
.,
,..~
.::
·.
Thoracodorsa'I motor - la tissim us dorsi m.
Lateral thoracic motor - cutaneous trunci sensory - skin, vcntr. thoracic & abdominal walls
~usculocutaneous motor - coracobrach iatis, biceps brachii & brach la lis mm.
medial cutaneous antcbrachial sensory - med. surface of forearm ..

..
Axillary motor - true flexors of shoulder (rercs major, tcrcs minor & deltoid mm.)
sensory - cran. aspect of arm & forearm
Radial·. motor - extensors of elbow, carpus & digits (triceps brachii, anconeus, tensor
. f'asciae antebrachfi.ext. carpi radialis, common digital extensor, .. lat. digital
',... .' extensor, lat. ulnar· m., obllquc carpal extensor
: .. ~ . . & . supina tor mrn.) ·•
'
Supf .. br. sensory - skin - craniolat. forearm in an species,
& dors. surface of manus in all except horse
..
'
Ulnar motor - to son1e flcxor mm, of f orcarrn & mm. of manus
..
Caud. cutaneous antebrachiat sensory • caud. surface of forearm
Dorsal br. sensory - lat. side of fore foot
Palmar br. . .. . . sensory • 'with median n., palm. side of forefoot

. I
..
.' ;, '
·-,·
Median . motor
: . . . . - to most. ~ of flcxors of f orcar m . ...
Medial palmar ·
•
Lateral palmar
1486
NERVES - OX - THORACIC LIMB Thoracic limb-48<.<
Fig. X-53 - Ox - Rt. t:i.;,acic limb
.. (schematic) - med. view
..
' 4 t-,;---3
' ' ' .
.. !
,.. .
l
·.· ·..
i.J---i:"i 9 m
\.
~ ' .f: v
r,
j t
.~ -. n n
1
0
¥
;•
l +-,
"' --
. ..
~·-
si---9,Q
..,:
•
.
.; .. ·,
.f
'~ ,
9 .......... r ·l{f
I !
'\" '
.
•
I
' ,· .;
•
t
•
'. .
Fi&. X-55 - Ox • Rt. metacarpus·
· & digits (schematic)
- palm. view ·•
"Fig. X-54 - Ox • Rt. metacarpus
& digits (schematic)
- dors, view
i. !.:··,
..,..
1. Suprascapular n.
2. Radial n.
a. Sub1capularis p: (X-5S)· . t. ~al- n., Supf. br, m. Palm. common digital nn.
b. Pectoral n. } 'a. Radial n., Deep br. n. Palm. abaxial dirital nn.
!. Ulnar n. e, Lat. thoracic n, h: '.Caud'. cutara. antebrachial n.
4. Median n.
-, o. Palm. axial digital nn.
d. Loop of muaculocutaneoua · . (ulnar n.) p. Dora. common dirital nn. (X-55)
5. Long thoracic n. n. before joininc .: · '. : i .. Ulnar n .• don. br. (X-54)
6. Thoracodoraal n •. q. Dora. abaxial diaital nn,
median n, -; . ·;: Ulnar n., palm. br. (X-56) r. Don. axial dirital nn.
7. Digital nn. (X-55) e. Med. c;utan. antebrachial n. .)t. Ulnar n •• deep br.
(mu1culocutaneou11iJ:. . ·. I. Communicating br .
. ..
NERVES - DOG - ARM Thoracic limb-489
. .. :. ..-.·... .: . .. ~.. : : .
-,
. . ... : .
1. Suprascapular n,
6. Thoracodorsal n.
Subscapular n.
5. Long thoracic n,
8. Axillary n.
7. Musculocutaneous n,
1
A. AxiJlary a.& v.
B. Brachia!'a.
C. Subacapular a.
D. Median a.& v.
E. Median cubital v.
F. Cephalic v.
C:. Deep antebrachiaJ a.
H. Supf. brachial a.
a. Caud: cutan. antebrachial n.

(ulnar~:)
b. Med. cutan. antabracbial n.
(muaculocutaneou1 n.] \L,,,,,--..--- 3. Ulnar a.
e. Supt. radial n., med. br.
d. Radial n., deep br. (X.58)
•· Supf. radial n., lat. br. . • <
f. Ulnar n., palm. br.

g. Ulnar n., dora. br.
b. Supraeplnatu, m, (X-56)
i. Brachiocephalic:ua m.
j. Supf. pectoral m.
le. LatiMimu, doni m.
1. Tentor taaciae antebrachil m .
. m. Tricepa bracbil ,:n., lone head ·
n. Tricepe brachli m., med. head D
o. Bi~p• bracbii m, c
p. Extensor carpl radiali• m.
q. Pronatoi' terea m.
r. Supt. dicital fle.xor m. (X-158)
•· l'lexor carpi ulnaria m.
t. Common dicital extensor m. q Fig. X-56 - Do& - Rt. shoulder &
arm • med. view
488
NERVES - DOG - FOREARfJj Thoracic limb-490
-, 2. Radial n. .. . • .' '; ' p_,·

. -. -: ...
~ .. v, "'": ,";'·~ ..;· • .... :
. ·,
. .... .-, ~ ..
. · 3. Ulnar ·n.
J
...
,. Fla. X-58 ·Dog· Rt. forearm

- lat. view
•,·,.
.., )
. Fig. -X-57 - Dog - Rt. forearm
. '
.~'
- med. view·
. .!
;:4:\i•!t _
• ·.: :!.i
. ..,,.~ .. - . "
.'f ·• - ' .
NERVES - HORSE - THORACIC LIMB ________ Thoracic limb-491
Fl1. X-59 - Horse • Rt.. shoulder & arm

- med. view
Subscapular n
. . , .
1. Suprascapular n, --.
8. Axillary n, -- .......... __
2. Radlal n. ---
7. Musculocutaneous n; --
.y
'
6. Thoracodorsal n.
...
4~ Median n. ---
'A, Axillary •· a. Med. cutan. antebrac:hial n. 'b~Med. palma.r diptal n,

B. Bnchial a. (mW1Culocutaneous n.) r. Coracobrachiali, m.
O. Median a.& v. i. Lat. palmar n. (X-e1) ,. Bicep, bracbii m.
b. Caud. cutan. antebrachial n. j. Lat. palmar di&ital n,
D. Median cubltal v. (ulnar n.) (X-60) • t. Exten,or carpi radiali• m.
It. Cepballc v. k. Sul»capular a. (X-59) u. Flexor carpi radiali• m.
c. Lat. cutan. antebrachial n. l. Collateral ulnar a.& v.
I'. Med. a.& v. · (radial n.) (X-61) v. Flexor carpi ulnarit m.
Q. Dltltal a.& v. m. Aceeuoey cephalic v. (X-60) w. Tricepa brachii m.
d. Radial n., deep br. n. Radial a.& v.
,. Ulnar n., don. br, x, Tensor fuciae antebrachii m,
o. Med. palmar a.& v.
f. Corrununicatinc br. p. Med. dicital a.& v.
y. Latiasimus dorai m. ·•-·,
I· Med. palmar n. (X-60) s. Tere, major m.
q. DHp pectoral m. (X-59)
NERVES - HORSE - THORACIC LIMB Thoracic limb-492
.
'·
4. Median n.---,
Ulnar n., e
:.·
,.•
__ _..-:--9. Di&italnn.--~
•j-~A'
--h ..-
..
·.: : .·
. . .,
Fie. X-60 - Bo,~e···.Rt. forearm
· -. .med, view
Fla. :l-61 - Horse - Rt. forearm
.......
...
- lat. view
491
.. .
NERVES ;.. OX - THORACIC UNIB
F\g. X-62 - Ox :. R-t. shop\der:;& arm
- \at. view
. f·,
:- · ·
. , . . . . .. .· .
: .., .;; .... :
e ."'.
. ~. • .l; •
..,;,.. ,. c-.
J •
,,
.· ..
.
... . . ..
. ·...
•
;.
' .
.. ...•. .
... ._...
: .- .
; : ••• J ••
- -
~.'
-- ..;....=c---
. -·· ·- •
.
'
...
:
.
;.........- '·' .
I . ~
:
.. .··..
.
. .
: .. :
s-
.. / .. .
.. . '. ..
' .·
.·,: .
•..
.
•
. ' .
., r .· .. , .
. ··
. spoulder &. arm

Fil· X-63 • Ox - Rt. j.
- med. view.. ; : .i ... .

. .. . ..... s
. .. . . .
.... .
' •
6------
. ...
492
NERVES - OX - THORACIC llrv1B Thoracic limb-494
H
. · ......... · .'•.
., .· ..
•
I
.. . '' .
: '1,.;
. . ~-..
.. • ;~:,,
. tl
:-~:.b
• • :,!,
• t'
. -
-:...
••
•t; + ~;·
• ,_J.,' ?';f-
. "• }l ••
,.,.
. ..
·! Fig. X-64 - Ox - Rt. forearm

·med.view
:' ..
.. . .
Fig. X-65 -· Ox - Rt. forearm
- lat. view
1. Radial n. (X-62) A. Cephalic v. (X-62) a. Cran. cvt:.m. antebrachial n. j. Deltoid m, (X-62)

2. Subscapular n. (X-63) B. Median cubital v. . (axillary n.) (X-62} k. Brachlccephelicue m.
3. Suprucapular n. C. Axillary a.& v. (X-68) b. Radial!),, ,upf. br. l. Brachialis m.
4. Thoracodorsal n. D. Brachial a.& v. , e. ·Med. cu,!Ul. ant,t:>ra.cJtlal n. : s : • , m, Triceps brach.ii m.. .
5. Axillary n, E. Median a.& v. (X-64) . · (muacul(?Cutaneo~ n.) (X-63). n, Exten1or carpt radtaha m.
6. Median n, F. Sub1capular a.& v. (X-63) .d. Caud. cutan. anttibrachial n. · · e, Supraspinatue m,
1. Ulnarn. G. Thoracodorsal a.& v, . (ulnar n.) (X-64) p. Subscapularia m. (X-63)
8. Mu1culocutaneom n. H. Collateral ulnar a.& v. e. Supf. br, of palmar br. q. Terea major m.
9. Diptal nn, (X:..64) I. Radial a.& v. (x-64) (ulnar n:)'"{X-65) r. Cora.cobrachiali.s m.
J. Accessory cephalic v. £. P.alm. common digital nn. ·. •· Biceps brachii m. ··· ·
(lat. & med.) (X-M) t. Lacertu11 fibroaua (X-64)
.. g. Palm. abaxial di&ital nn.
·· h. Palm. axial diiitaf nn. ·
..
· '
u. Flexor carpi radiali.a m.
'v; Flexor carpi ulnaris m .
• ·!
-i, Dors. common
diaital nn, (X-65)
.
' . . ; : .. ~. . . . .. 493
NERVES - HORSE - FOREFOOT ·
Thoracic limb-495
I .- ,
.. ' ·k
...
.'· . .
. ::
-,
.•>. •:.-.
Lig. of ergot
' .
Fla. X-66 - .Horse· Rt. forefoot· med. view
. --
'• ..
·.....
.. •,
.
'
. .. , -
NERVE SUPPLY TO THE MANUS: differs between the
. species due IO the difference in the number of digits. In die Medial and lateral palmar _nerves: descend on eithe.r ~id,e,of 1:
. carnivo~ and pig, there· is little clinical -significance .IO tf\e the digital flexor tendons to become the meitisit and lateral
digilal nerves. · · · .
nervous distribution to the digits. , .
' ,,
~
• Medial palmar
- ·'
nerve (c): is tbe'clirecl continuation-of the

HORSE- innervation to the forefoot: · median nerve.
, ..
'.:J - i ,·
Median nerve:.divides just proximal to the carpus into lateral • Lateral palmar nerve (h): isformed by the lalelal branch of
and medial branches. .. ·
t. the mediajl, and the palmar branch of lhe ulnar nerve. ....
~,
-, ~ II
. ·~
· Ulnar nerve: bifurcates into dorsal and palrnar nerves above 3. Medialand lateral digital nerves (e,i): the direct continu-
.. the carpus.
ation of~ medial and lateral palmar nerves past the level Qt~ 1
a .•
-, ·•··
-··~. ....
··49.4... . . ,,. :
~ .... .
..
I·.
NERVES - HORSE - f OREfOOT Thoracic limb- 496
Ulnar n., f
1. •••
~· .
r-
t: \ ..
:, -,
,....~ 1"
Median & ulnar nn.,h ..:.....$-....;_~'\'tttti

,,.
....
:.,;
..
-,
i. : ..
:l
a. Med. cutan. antebrachial n.

(musculocutaneous n.) •
b. Med. palmar metacarpal n.
(ulnar n., deep hr.)
e. Med. palmar n. Lig. of ergot
d. Dora. hr.
. e. Med. palmar digital n.
\ t. Ulnar n., dons br. (X-67)
· g. Lat. palmar metacarpal n.
{ulnar n., deep br.)
h. Lat. pa,lmar n.
(median & ulnar nn.)
i. Lal. palmar digital nn.
j. Med. palmarv. (X-66)
k. Suepemory lig.
l. Med. digital a.& v.
m. Coronary venous plexue
n. Lat. digital a. (X-67)
. "::
.: .
Fig. X-67 - Horse - Forefoot
. I
the fetlock. They continue distally with the similarly-named Deep branch of the later~l palmar nerve or deep branch of l
arteries abaxial to the sesamoid bones and penetrate the hoof the ulnar nerve: arises at the level of the carpus. It dives deep J
to innervate theheel region of the foot. to the suspensory ligament and branches into lateral and medial !
metacarpal nerves: ·· II
Dorsal branches or the digital nerves (o): arise near the .. . ' l
fetlock and cross the abaxial surface of the proximal palmar Lateral and medial metacarpal nerves (b,g): travel along the f
sesamoid bones with the digital nerves. They then extend metacarpal bone and emerge under the buttons of the splints ~, I
dorsally and distally to innervate the toe of the foot. reach the fetlock. .,~ 1
Dorsal branch of the ulnar nerve (f): continues down the

lateral side of the limb to the fetlock.
~-~.. ..,,
-:,.
:·:t1
.:vi ........ _
..
495
NERVES - OX - FOREFOOT
Thoracic limb-497
\.
\
3. Radial n.,a :-::!---~·•
r-------- 1. Median n.,b
Fla. X-68 - Ox - Rt. forefoot

- dorsomed. view
....,__c
r----11
A. AecH,ory cephalic v.
(dor,. common dicitaI v. ID)
B. Median a.& v.
C. Palm. common dlsital aa.
D. Palm. axial dicital aa.
E. Palm. abaxial cticital aa.
F. Don. axial dicital "'·
a. Supf. br. (ndlal n.)
b. Palmar br. (ulnar n.) (X-.69) -,
e.Oo~br.to
ulnar n. (x-e8)
d. Don. common cUaital nn. (x-68)
•· Dor,. mal disital nn.
t. Don. abaxial diJital nn.
,. Palm. common disital nn.
h. Palm. abaxial dicital nn.
L Palm axial dicital nn. (x-69}
J. Common dicital ~
tendon (X-68)
k. Dor,. br. (ulnar a.) (X-70)
I. Supf. disltal aten.or t.ndon
m. D .. p dllftal fltxor t.ndon
n. In~1oaa m.
o. '&xhneor br. of k.
p. Larp metacarpal boM
q. Disl. phalanx
r. Tendon of ecc:111ory dlsit
<
OX - inaervatioa to th forefoot:
1. Median nerve: supplies most of the pahnar~of the fOOL (abaxial digital nerve IV). The dorsal brancll (t) supplies the
Itdividesabovetbefetloctintofourpalmardigitaibranchesthat dorsal abaxial surface of the lateral digit
descend co the four sides of the two digits.
• 3. Superrlclal branch of radial nerve: supplies most of the
2. Ulnar nerve: has palmar- and dorsal branches. The palmar dorsum of the foot as common digital. and axial and abaxial
branclaisjoioedbythemostlateralofthemedianpalmardigital dorsal digital nerves.
nerves. It descends the abaxial surface of the lateral digit
496
NERVES -~ OX - f OREFOOl~ Thoracic Hmb-E~~
. ·I
.i 2. Ulnar n.,k IJNl/1 I

•
I .
I
!
I
1/ \"
'
! ' 2. Ulnar n.,b

. :, ·! \
: .
:.
. ' ~-,.
·, ...
....-,. ,,
./
•
II \'
I P
).---,r
\· ~r----~.-1v
c
. . g
. '
-.. ·,. ... .
: . <.
~ r •.
·.... _
....
.... .
' .
. ~ ·,
q
. .
Fig. X-69 - Ox - Rt. forefoot -Ftg. X-70 - Ox - Rt. forefoot .. ·~
,. "· .
- caud. view ." ... - lat. view •
. - ..-_ : •'
. ·.
· CLINICA'L: . · .. the dorsal ulnar nerve and inject ~~~ the intero~~~(~:
:t~erve blocb·-'·ir the. tbo~~ic limb - ox; muscle and deep digital flex or tendoii; . '. . . . .:: · ... ::. .' /f)
, 1: ~upe,;.ii.i ;;/;~ . netve; ;pal pa~ the nerve at the mid,
.:ineta~us and inject anesthetic medial to thel:,1:,,
:.: .. ·.,.'': •..•..• :·:
common digital
.••... :. ,,·l'• : _,_.,1
• IV. Dorsal ulnar nerve: inject ar~"f>!'!Weell ihe
bone and the mterosseous muscle: · ,·:,. ·:
;~lj'
.v :· .. , .. _ • :=::=::):
•'•' . •. • • •• i .
~.
jbAJendon ot meJte~p·digita:i flexor tendon. _
:/:~ ,: .. }: : ·. :.: ·. ·. }=:.'-,: ..=:.\,-:.:·' .'::. <:>. · .. ·.":·.. . .
·intraveno~~ technique:: use~·toiitniqJe~~ ~
.
.
. ·.·
.
(A'>,'. f th ~..· :'i", cfdi ,·.,'L •. ··'t=~·::·::::,..:,:::::.ilietic 'enf.iti·m&ifm~:,
.
tlie·ii~i~TuiI:· t
~·~.!',. ·,.,··,: ... ~ .:. , . ; . .' ... ·,·:-,: ..,'=.·;<:.,t,.>,.. , .. , .. . .=. · .. -, . ·. . • Q. ~ _.a.~ ~ ... en }!}J~ ... . ....~~.·.·= ... ag ,...... ,:·.···<,'=·=·=%·=·='=·=·=·===~'=·:·"'~''="
:~..,J'f ..~-:• :lll· '·P.almai'imm.cii'o..t·: ...w·.•::..,;:-::nattiervtf
.: : ..;:::.:'...:.... :.. :-. ::.~:::.::::::.:::~.·:::-,~::-:::.:.;
redirect tbe''needle used for : :anesihetire:'the lower'limb' ih'a t~'
..:.:: :,·.::::<-~:::·=.t:.:-:::.;:< ·:·.=.·.-' ·..
•! -: • • •• :.. -.,,, : •••• •
ade.''..fa.wQn/(:=
:,::.::,:!:••,;,:.:.:::::::::,:·:,:t
·: .' • •• •• .. • '•' •• •
~i::,:: ,~:,:~:~%~:t:,w:
:,.. • .: •• ·:::·~J!t:~::. :t~f~;~:~:~J:: ~~;{~~~;:
..: ••.; '·, ••• ::· •• ••,::.: •• • .:·: ••• • ,·, ,, • ;,;;:-••:.-.;
. .. . ..
. : . .49'1
,, ...
LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS 203-Abdomen-499
'. ·~ Spinal n.
i'
· Ven tr. hr;• of spinal- o•

... .
~ :-·
a. Spinal cord
flt. Donal root
c:. Donal root pnglion p ...
cl. Mixed -ramua communicana · .·
e, Lumbar sympathetic trunk
f. Med. br. of dora. hr.
g. Lat. br. of don. br.
h. Lat. br. of ventr. br. ' ..•: •.
I. Med. br. ofventr. br. ,
j. Costoabdominal n, (T13) (X-72) ....... ' .
k. Iliohypogastric n. (L1) ....-, -;·.
l. llioinlt\linal n. (L2)
m. EpaxiaJ mm. (X~71)
n. Hypaxfal mm.
e, Cutan. trunk nun.
p. Ext. abdominal oblique·m.
q. Int. abdominal oblique m.
r. Tran.yel'IIUI abdominia m.
•· Rectua abdomloia m.
t. Transverse faac:ia
u. Parietal peritoneum
v. 13th thoracic vertebra ·
Fig. X-71 - Ox • Thorax

•
~ cross section . .
:
LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS: the ventral branches of the lum-

bar and sacral nerves. The first three or four lumbar ventral abdominal muscles and send lateral and ventral cutaneous branches
branches and the last thoracic branch supply the abdominal wall. to the skin.
The lumbosacral plexus to the pelvic limb is formed by the ventral . •
·. ~..
I •
~·.
, \ <
.
branches of L4 to S2• Nerves to the pelvic cavity and the genitalia Costoabdominal nerve (Tl3) (J): not a part of the lumbosacral
arise from the ventral branches of the sacral nerves (pudendal, plexus, but, along with the first couple of lumbar nerves, inner-
caudal rectal, perineal and-dorsal nerve to the penis). vates the abdominal wall.
Abdominalnerves:ThefU"Stthreeorfourventrallumbarbrancbes lliohypogastric Jierv~ .(L. or Ll &2) (k): in animaJs with six
are distributed to theabdominal w~ (iliohypogamic,ilioinguinal, lmnbar vertebrae (ox and horse). it is formed by the ventral
genitofemoral, and lateral cutaneous femoral nerves) along with branches of L.· In animals with seven lumbar vertebrae (carni-
the lut thoracic (costoabdominal) nerve. These are important in vores) there are cranial (L) and caudal (L,) iliohypogastric
flank surgery in the ox and horse. These branches travel in a nerves.
caudoventral direction -. They pierce the transverse abdominis
muscle at the transverse processes and travel caudoventrally Ilioinguinal nerve (L2 or LJ (1): in animals with six lumbar
between it and the internal abdominal oblique. They supply the vertebrae. fonned by L2; with seven lumbar venebrae, L,. (
498
LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS .A.odomen-26~
Fig. X-'73 - f)x - Lumbar vertebrae
. •·,•,. - dors. view
Fig. ~-72 - Ox - lat. view : . ;''
.!
- :. .
• •
.. . . ...
.1
. . .. .\ .. c, .. ':
• . '
\ . . : ,.
. ~· - . ~ ·. . :;.
' Fig. X-74 - Ox - Flank

.• \.
. . . .. . - lat. view
.. m
3,
J_. Fig. X-75 - Ox - Ist lumbar
vertebra - .eross section
Ventr. br.· '·. • • - ., , 1 ••
Spinal n. 1. Inverted "L" block

•;.
2. Psra-vertebral block
8. Ma14i block
. ·:.
Genitof emoral nerve {L3 & 4): divides into a genital branch
supplying the external genital organs . and the inguinal region
(cranial part of the udder in the cow) a femoral branch and
supplying the skin over the medial thigh •
....
· ,.CLINIC~L· .. (see.Appendix for more)
. . ..
:';,:;~tanding·~ s~~~ty i'n the ox: opening the paralumbar fossa
?'io deal witlfsuch . problems as "hardware disease", dystocia,
::)lisplaced:aijoffi3$wn·,etc. The first threeor four ventral lumbar
. )nerves arid··:futflast-5thoracic 'nerve are anesthetized in flank
f?.::!~::r.. /::i·:·.. ; ··· ,:, '6f'ult6x ·~:;:,)~·hhlse:·, · . ·. '·. · · ·
?':"'!:~ !: .. µIJ.~. -:-·.·.:·.. ::: ::·' . . :. ~~ '. .·.· . . .
~ .
•, •• I
•• •
"-• •
"1
. • • ~ 4.
.'
. ' 499·
.•
. .
NERVES - PELVIC LIMB
437-Pelvic limb-SOI
NERVE SUPPLY to the PEL VIC UMB:consist.,oftbe \'eDlral
branchesof lhe fourth lumbar nerve to the second sacral ncr~(L, (OYel' fibula). It 11•ppies the cnaiolaraa1 muscles of the CIUS
- SJ of the Jmnbosacral plexus (caudal ClllaDCous femoral. femo. (deep pen>neaI branch} and the skin of die craniolateral crus and ,.-,
dolsal foot (superfacial peu,neal branch). ~
ral, cranial gluteal, caudal gluteal, caudal cluniaJ, obtmator,
ischiatic, tibiai, common (fibular) peroneal. and podeadal}.
Deeppeao,al (fibulm-) ner.ic (n. peaCNleus pmfundus): supplies
l. Femeral aei· +e (Lj. inoervadon of lbe exlellSOr muscles of motorinnecvation lo tbecraniolateralmuscJes ofthe leg. It travels
the stifle (quadriceps femoris). It pass e:s tbrougb die pas mus-
wilhlhecranialtibialarterybetweendlecxtensormusclesanddle
tibia.
cles, out of die abdominal cavity and through die femoral canal to
die quackiceps femoris muscle.
S11perlldal p nmal (ftbelar) •ne:.msrioly a sensory nene. It
2. SaplleDOIIS llen'e: the superficial llfancb of die femoaJ net~ divkb on the dorsal uface cl the. pes into the dorsal cor,11non
supplyingcutaneousinnel'Yationrotbe_medialsideoflbelimband
digilll nerves.
moror innervation to the sartorius muscle.
3. Qbmator nerve (L..j: innervates most of the medial adduc-

tor muscles of the thigh. It extends f1om the lumbosacull plexus
through die pelvic cavity on &be body of the ilium and obturator.
fonunen to the mooial side of the thigh.
Lnmbosacral trunk: (L,-SJ: leav~ die pelvis over &he 11.wer

ishialic notch to continue as the ischiatic nerve. It gives duec
branches - cranial gluteal, caudal gluteal and caudal ananeous
femoral nerves.
7. Cranial gluteal nerve: supplies flexors and extensors of the

hip (tensor fasciae latae, middle and <kq) gJvteal m111Cle.1 (also
the superficial gluteal in some species]).
8. Caudal gluteal nerve: suRJ)lies the supert:"1eial gluteal muscles· .

and the proximal pan Qf ~ hamstring muscles, thus, the exten-
sors of the hip.
Caudal cutaneous femoral nerve: supplies cutaneous innervation

over the caudal aspect of lhe thigh.
4. lscbiatic (sciatic) .nerye (L,.,-sz>: the largest ncne of.lhe

lwn~ ~xus; supplying the caudal dugh muscles and, by
its tenninal branches-.(tibial and common fibular [pcrooealJ), lbe
muscles of the crus and pes, It continues.the lumbosaaal lrunk
caudal to the hip joint, tonm distally caudal to the femur and deef>
to lhe biceps femoris m~le. It supplies the hamstring muscles
andlhepelvic~on (int.emalobturator [e.xceptinruminanrs
and pigs). gemeDi and quadnuus femoris). It branches mid-thigh
into tibial and common (fibular).~~
. .
5. Tibial nene: ~ of the twoterminal branches of the iscbhMic
nerve. Itruns between the two Inds of the IUtrocncmius muscle
IO reach and supply .Jhe caudal muscles of the c.nn. It splits at die
level of lhepointof thehock'into medialandlataalplantarnerves.
The plantar nerves ·continue down the plantar a.,pect of the pea
mainly ~ying
::;
sensation. ,.
Caudal. cutaneous sural nerve: cutaneom branch of the tibial

nerve arising above lhe stifle. • ..
• Flbulat nerve may be used inslad of peroneal ro avoid conn.ion
,.common perone•I (fibular•) nerve: theOlherterminal branch with lhe ~ branches of the pudenda1 nerve of the pelvis. It also ...
of the ischiatic nerve, coursing around die lateral side of the crus helps dislinaubh it &om the libia because itplSSes over die fibula (lateral ~:·~··
side of limb, 'Olis option is allowed by the N. A. V. ·,~
500
NERVES - HORSE - PEL ViC. L~rv1e
Fig. X-7e - Horse - Lt. pelvic ti,nb (schematic)
d •
O
med. v1e~.v
8. Caud. gluteal n. 7. Cran. gluteal n, -v.
... .. ..,
S. Tibial n.
4. Ischla tlc n.
6. fibular n.
3. Obturator n,
e
,·.
.'?""'·
.
f
n
I
~--- 2. Saphenous n. 1-+-l
~-s .. ..
J
·,
c
S. Tibial n. . ... ..
6. Cotttmon ffbular 'n,
. . ··
' .
"':;,-
.' . -"' .
,·· .
,. )
')
Fig. X- 78 .. Horse - Lt. pes

• plant. view
Fig. X-77 - Horse - Lt. pes

.- dors, view '
'!.• :•. It,
a. Caud. cutan. f'emoral n, b. Lat. plantar n. (X-78)

b. Lat. cutan. femoral n. (tibial n.)(X-76)
c. Caud. cutan. aural n, i. Med. plantar n.
(tibial n.] {tibia!~.)
d. Supf. fibular n. j. Communicatl.nc br.
e, Deep fibular n, k. Lat. plant. diaital n. · -,:
f. Lat. dors. rnetataraal n. 1. Med:..pJant. dicital n.
(br. of deep fibular n.)(X-77) m. Don. brs.
I· Lat. plant. metatanal n, n. Deep br. of lat. plantar n.
(br. of deep fibular n.) o. Plantar metatanal· nn.
..
·, •• t •
.' '· .
50!
f
..
••
. ,.
,,
.•
.•, ,
. . ~· \ •:-~ J~ •• c- . • t'i{ :-·.,.:
NERVES - DOG - PELVIC LIMB·
Pelvic limb-S03
7. Cran. cluteal
b
.-
l.Sapheaousn.---...-,.--.J
I
3. Obturator n.
I
6. Common fibular n. 5. Tibial n.
Fig. X-79 - Dog • Lt. pelvic limb

· (schematic) • lat. view
DOG •. NERVF.S of the LEG and PES:
Superficial peroneal (fibular) nerve: supplies motor

innervation to the peroneus brevis and lateral digital f
extensor, and then continues as a sensory nerve. It
divides on the dorsal surface of the paw into die dorsal
common digital nerves.
• Donal con11nOQ dipal nerves n. m. md IV: extend distally
between the metatarsal boots to be joined by the dona!~
nenea. . '
Deep fibular (peroneal) nerve: supplies rnoto: inner.

vation IO lbe craniolatenll muscles of the leg. It passes
between the muscies
.' to reach the tibia and travel dis·
rally widl the cranial Ul)ialartery. At the tarsus it divides
into medial and lateral branches that continue as the /
I
/'
dorsal metatarsal nerves Jl, ID, and IV.
~ Donal proper digital nerves U. ID and IV: formed by~ joiub,a of

the dona) common diptal neives and the donal metaaasaal digiial
• .:»: . ./- I
I I
nerves at the level of the melalarsq,halangealjoinlS. These branch .•!

......
into axial and abaxial digital nerve,.
502
NERVES - DOG - PELVIC LIMB
-7.. •
S. Tibial n.
6. Common fibular n.
Fla. X-80 - Doa - Lt. pes (schematic)

- dors. view ·
:,,- ...
7. Digital nn.
7. Digital nn .• g
Fla. X-81 - Doa - Lt. pes (schematic)

- plant. view
a. Caud. culan. t.monl n. . .

•· Supf. fibulw a, - I, Med. plantar n, (dbiaJ n.) (X-81)
b. Lat. cutan. femoral n. f. DNJ> fibular n.
e, Lat. cutan. aun1 n. ,. Dora. COlii! MID cUcilal nn. (X-80)
J. Lat. plant. •• (tibial 11.)
d. Oaud. culan. aunl a, k. Plantar dlal&al nn.
b. Don. meta&anal nn. I. Plantar mnatanal.nn.
• Axial and abaxial propercfigilal nervesn. m.and IV: taminal • Medill pl 1 11r nuve: lhe tmll1er ba..:h ol ltle tib 'a that bnnc:ha to foan the
branches of the dcnal poper digital nerves to lhe correspond- m
plN'lw cw ........ cfiaital DCNa II. IDd IV.
ing sides of the digits.
• l.atenlpl.,.,•nerve: larprandde r:pcrlhlnthe medialplantar~hdividea
into pl1111ar me1a1at1a1 nerves I. II. mud IV which join the plamar ccmmon
Axis: passes between lhe third and fourth digits. ..., • 1
cna•nava. .
·. . Tibial nerve: supplies all die muscles of the candaJ leg and
. SCIISOI)' to ~ plantar aspect of•thc pes, Just proximal to lbe
• Axial and abaxiaJ proper digital nerves: arise from lbe joined
.~;.
., .·· , talocrural JOID
. • t die tibial. nerve divides into medial and latenl cammon and metatmsal digital nerves andextend on the pJanra,
~~:~ planlar DC1 ves. sides-of 1bc digits.
~·-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
503 ·
.NERVES - PELVIC LIMB
Pelvic limb-SOS
NERVES MOTOR
SENSORY
Lateral cutaneous motor - paou major m.

femoral 1en1ory • akin or craniomed. thigh & cran. ,tine
Fer.:ioraJ (Ll-6) motor - extenson of stifle (quadriceps Cemoria) & iliopeou rnm.
motor - 1artoriu1 m.
1en1ory - med. aspect of limb from stifle to
metatanu.
Obturaior (I.4-6)
motor - to adducton or thigh (ext. obturator, pectineu,, adductor & pcilia mm.]
•.
(int. obturator m. in pi1 & ruminant,) .•
j,.
..
.,
Cranial cluteai motor - extensors & flexoiw of hlp (1upf., middle & deep gluteal mm., &
te:naor faacia lata m.) (some apecia - aupf. cluteal m.)
Caudal 1luteal motor - extenaora of hip {aupf. gluteal, bicep, femoria & aemitendino,ua mm.
Caudal dunial nn. aensory • akin of caudomed. & caudolat. face of

thigh
lachiatic motor - dffp cluteal, int. obturator, 1emelli mm.
Common fibular motor - biceps femori1 m.

. (peroneal)
L~teral cut~oua sural aenaory - akin on lat. aspect of leg

Superfitjal motor - lat,:,:4ili.tal extensor m.
fibular Hnaory - skin on dora. aspect of crua & pea (hur&6
just to fetlock)
Deep fibuJ~r · ·
motor - dorso!at. ftexora of hock & extensors of senaory - atructurea of foot
digit• (cranial tibial, third fibular, lon1 digital
extoneor, lat. digital extensor & 1hort digital extenaor mm.] ~
Tibial .. ~Qt9r ~ hamatrinc mm. (bicep, femori.a, aemitendinoeu,
& aemirnembranoau,) to extenaon of hock & flexon ot
diifli (rutrocnemiu,, popliteaJ, aupf. diaital tlexor
~ deep digital flexor mm.}
•
Caudal cutaneoua aural
aenaory - to skin of caud. aspect of le, (cru,).
Medial plantar •..
.... . .. ~: •; . ~. . , .. Hntory • akin on medioplant. face of metatanu,
Digital nn.
aensory - med. dipt, or med. tide of horse•, diaft
Lateral planta:r: . motor - interoueu, m.
aentory - akin of lateroplant. surface of metatanua
Digital nn.
aensory - lat. diJita (horse, lat. tide of di.lit)
-; • -s -." •
Caudal. rectal. motor - coccypu,, Jevator ani, ext. anal

•~hinc&er mrn. ': · · tensory - iachiorectal fosaa (not carnivores)
Cranial dunial
,.n,ory • skin of cr~oJat. hip & lat. thigh .
•
Middle clunial
aenaory - 1kin of doraolat. hip & thigh.
-----------------------------------------------------; I'
~:.:
~
S04
NERVES - OX - PEL VIC LIMB Pelvic limb-506
Fla. X-84 - Ox - Lt. pelvic limb (schematic)

Fie. X-82 - Ox - Jt. pes (schematic) - med. view
- dors. view
5
...
·....... -.
... . . ... ·- t•
·,
3--1--
t---P
. .. .·.;.,
. .. .
: ·.. ·
q-N
2 1-+--8
I
r-,
..:-··' . .....
n~-, ·..
..·:~..-· •
."
~ ';:• l •
,
...
m.
0
Fla. X-83 - Ox - Lt. pes (schematic)

(schematic)· plant. view
1. !'4lm0ral n. (X-84) L Cran. dunial nn.(X-84) b. Supt. fibular a, o. Oommunicatinc br, ~
· 2. Sapbenoua n. b. Middle dnnial nn•. i. DHp fibular a. plant. axi~ dicital nn.
a. Ob&urator D.• e, Lat. cu&an. femoral n. j. Don. commondicital n.(X.Q) p. Med. plant. (tibial) n.(X-82)
: ,. lac:hiatic n. d. Oaud. culan. femoral n. k. Don. abaxlal 'atci&al a. q. La&. plant. (tibial) n.
~,. I. Tibial D. •· Caud. dnnial DD. I. Don. axial dljlial D. r. Plualv cornDi'Oll diai&al im.
:. -re:~. Common fibular n. f. Mucular bn. m. Commvnlcatiaa br. to .. Plantar ebaJCialdicital DD,
~· f.Ona. chaMaJ D. I· C.ad m&u. sunl D, Mtptlbalarn. ,. Plan&v axial cficital·na.
8. Oaud. sha&nl n. (tiWalL) a. Don. m 1tatan:1l a. m
.) )
sos
NERVES - DOG -- PELVIC LIMB Pelvic !lmb-507
E F G
,
'
.. ~'
•
....~}"
.......
··:·:
,,
'
1. 'Femor al
,<;-, ''
": :: .
··~.. . ,.. D·
. . ...
. ~ rn.
'
'· '
' .
:'1.. ~·
..... ,1
' .
2. Saphenous n.
J
,,
•'
I ,
t
Fig. X-85 - Do.g • Rt. hip & thigh

·.' <, - med. view
,·
A. Aorta
B. Caud. vena cava
a. Caud. cutan. aural n. .. k. Pectineua m.
.'
(tibial n.) (X-87) l. Adductor rn. . ·.. .
C. Ext. iliac a. , b. Lat. cutan. aural n. m. Gracilia m.
D. Femoral a.& v, (ischiatic n.) .. n. Semitendinosus m .
E. Int. iliac a. , ..
c. Deep fibular n. o, G astrocne~~s m.
F. Int. ·pudendal a. :- · · -:- d. Sup£. fibul~r n, . p. Deep digital flexor m. (X-86) ,
G. Urogenital a:: · ' · e, Lat: plantar n.' (?{-86)' q. Long fibular m. (X-81)
H. Pudendceplgastric trunk , '.-. : f. Med. plantar n. · · r. Long digital _extensor m. (X-86.}
I. Saphenoua a. g. Plant. common a. Levator ani m.
J. Med. aapheno{is v. digital nn. (X-87) t. Coccygeus m,
K. Caud. femoral a.& v. (X-87) h. Don. common digital n. u. Sacrum
L. Lat. aaphenoua v. i. Sartorius m. (X-85)
M. Median sacral a. (X-85) j. Vaatua medialia m.
N. Deep femoral a.& v.
506
NERVES - DOG - PELVIC l9MB Pelvic l irnb-Sus
,,
,-<'.
-,
... .
~
.
~,..._ ---·2. Saphenous n.
5. Tibial n ... _.-~--
. . .
5. Tibial n.,e
Fig. X-86 - Dog - Crus

- med. view
Fig. X-87 - Dog - Crus & pes
· - lat. view
507
NERVES - HOP.SE - PEL VIC LIMB
Ischiatic n,
, ..
e
c: '
...
-;'
Cran. gluteal n.
Tibial n.--,
..
. .
•
. .
Fie. X-88 .• Horse • lfip, deep layer

508 · - lat. view
Pelvic limb-510
·..
. :
i •.
d ....
....'
'r:
. '... ..
' ..
Tibial n., f
Common fibular n.,g· · ::...· :

A. Cran. tibial a. (X-89)
B. Great metatanal a.
C. Lat. plantar a.&t v.
D. Lat. plant. digital a.& v.
a. Caud. cutan, femoral n, (X-88)

b. Muscular bra.
c, Caud. cutan. 1ural n.
(tibial n.)
d. Deep fibular n.
e. Supf. fibular n.
t. Lat. plantar n. (X-89)
g. Lat. don. metatarsal n.
(deep br. of fibular n.)
h, Lat. plant. digital n,
(tibial n.)
i, Communicating br.
j. Gaatrocnemiua m.
k. Long digital exten.10r m .
. · ..
...
.,,..
..
.
. •. . .• Fi:~ X·-89 - Horse - Lt. pelvic limb
~.'·"
'or;,··
\;.;.\......
.,
.
,'
. ·'
- lat. view
~(#
.. !
509
NERVES - HORSE - THIGH Pelvic limb-S 11
4. Ischiatic n.
3. Obturator n.
,,, .
. .. . . .
• OQ> ••
,. /'
.. ~- .
. ..
.
".
~~
- ~· .
•. ·--!.': ..-·: .
. . . ::~""......
. . ~ ·Ill ~ .
.... . ...., ,. . . d -, ·~ •
": ·.~ ·· .... •:
1. Femoral n. ·
F -".
.
;:
'
2. Saphenous n.
Fig. X-90 - Horse - Rt. pelvis

& thigh - med. view
I,•
510
Pelvic limo-512
•·
' .. ·~ .
.... .
_
.. ·.·. .
,.·
• • 1:'
A.Aorta
B. Ceud. vena cava
C. Ext. iliac a.
D. veep femoral a.
E. Pudendoepigastric trunk
G. Femoral a.
H. Int. iliac a.
I. Obturator a.
J. Int. pudenda! a.
K. Genital a.
L. Median aural a.
M. Umbilical a.
N. Saphenous a. {X-91)
0. Cran·. br. of med.
saphenous v.
P. Don. common digital v. II
Tibial n.,j Q. Med. digital a.& v -.
a. Lat. cutan. femoral n. (X-90)

b. Genitofemoral n.
c. Caud, gluteal n.
J d. Pudenda! n.
e. Caud. cutan. femoral n.
Fig. X-91 - Horse - Lt. leg .
..,-~ f. Br. of obturato,· n .
- lat. view i· Med. plantar 11. (tibial n.) (X-91)
h. Med. ders. metatarsal n.
(deep fibular n.)
i. Communicating br,
j. Med. plant. digital n.
(tibial n.)
· k. Sartoriua m., eut
l. Vaatus medialis m.
, , m. Gracilia m., cut
· n. Gaatrocnemiua m.,
511
Pelvic timb-513
NERVES - OX - PELVIC LIMB

. :·": .
..• .
•
1·
:---5
v . •
Fla. X-91 -. Ox • Lt. ·'hip - lat. view
512
NERVES - ox - PEt ViC L~fv1a Pelvic Hmb-514
Fig. X-90 - Ox - Lt. leg

- lat. view
4
,; . .'
1. Sciatic n.
.,
2. Cran. gluteal n.
. S. Caud gluteal n.
•· Tibial n.
6. Digital nn. (X-93}
Fig. X-93 - .9x • Lt. leg
; • lat. view A. Cran. gluteal a.& v.
B. Caud. gluteal a.& v.
C. Med. circumflex a.& v. (X-93)
D. Caud. femoral a.& v. (X-92)
·!f E. Lat. aapbenoua v.
F. Lat. plantar a. (X-93)
G. Dora. pedal v.
(continuation or E.)
a. Caud. clunial n,
b. Caud. eutan. femoral n.
... ' .; c. Muscular bra .
d. Caud. cutan. aural n.
e. Lat. cutan. aural n.
(common fibular n.}(X-93}
•. )~ . f. Supf. fibular n.
g. Dora. common digital n.
h. Don. axial digital n.
i. Dora. abaxial digital n.
j. Lat. plantar (tibial) n.
k. Plant. common digital nn.
l. Plant. abaxial digital nn.
m. Greater trochanter of humerus (X-92)
n. Third fibular m. (X-93)
o. Lon, fibular m.
p. Lat. digital extensor m.
q. Iachi&.tic In. (X-92) ,•.
.r. Popliteal In.
1 -•; Broad aacrotuberous lig.
·· ·« t. Greater iachiatic foramen
~ i.~ JJ, Leaaer achiatic foramen
:'
' . \ '•
:; ;,: 513
• I•
...... .
NERVES - OX - PELVIC LIMB
Pelvic limb·SlS
.. !
1 !: ·:
~
B--
A 2
,.
I
,·
Fig. X-94. - O~ ~Rt.thigh
- med. view
, .
'
1. Sciatic n, ·.A.Aorta
2. Obturator n. a. Prox. cutan, br. n, beep fibular n.
B. Caud. vena cava of pudenda} n.
a. Femoral n. C. Ext. iliac a. b. Dist. cutan. br.
o. Supf. fibular n.
4. Saphenou, n. p. Rectws femori, m.
D. Pudendoepicastric trunk of pudenda! n. · q. Vutua medialil m.
· 5. Common fibular n. (X-95) E. Femoral a.& v.
6. Tibial n. . e. Deep perinea! n. r. Gastrocnemiua m.
F. Med. saphenoua v. d. Supf. perinea! n. a. Third fibular m.
'I. Digital nn. G. Saphenoua a.
". · H. Median sacral a. •
e. Caud. rectal n. · t. Long digital extensor m.
f. Lat. cutan. femoral n.
I. Int. iliac a. g. Genitofemoral n.
J .. Genital a. h. Med. plantar (tibial) n. (X-95)
K. Int. pudenda} a. i. Lat. plantar (tibial) n.
L. Med. plant. a. j. Plant. common digital nn.
(aupf. br.) (X-95) k. Plant. abaxial digital nn.
M. Dors. pedal a. (X-96) I. Dora. common digital n.
N. Digital a. (X-95) m. Dore. axial di1ital n.
514
Pelvic limb-516
, Fig. X-95 - v JA. ~ Lt. leg

- med. view ·, . ·..,
5
': ~,, -~
..• ~-:',. 4.-
I
'
s"
..i. .
,·"~
.... . e
,..
:
. .
. .
:,.i ••
• t
.,,)
·:1t;· ",'. •
~
•I,
_.
•
•
t .
-~ . )ff
~.
..;~~
">'._•
.:~
4 _ .
-~
,:.·
. .,:
i . _,
',
.r
'·
·- . ·...
' .· .·
.
• • •:'i_
'1;. •
..
Fig. X-96 - Ox - Lt. leg
- craniolat. view
. .
,;...
.·
...
' .-~.. : . ... 515
' ;
NERVES - HORSE - HINDFOOT
Pelvic limb-S 17
A
I
1,...----Tibial. n.,c
Common fibular n.,a
;:{~f.::·:;.:..:: ·::-
}\}1t} {:
d
\ Digital no.
/
/ •.·:.
r.
lt}·
...
e
i::.:..... ,
. n
:.
Fig. X-97 - Horse - Rt. hindf'oot - med. view
·..-; .'
NERVE SUPPLY TO THE PF..S: pro~ to the tarsus, the
tibial nerve divides into lateral and medial plantar nerves. These corresponds to the deep branch of the lateral palmar (deep
nerves descend the pes on either side of the flexor tendons. hi"the branch of the ulnar). TIM? plantar digital nerves correspond to
horse, they continue on either side of the digit as the medial and the palmardigital nerves and tlieirdorsal branches. ThecaudaJ
lateral digital nerves. In the domestic species with more than one cutaneous sural and the saphenom nerve correspond to the
digit, the lateral and medial plantar nerves divide into digital median cutaneous antebrachial and dorsal branch of ulnar
nerves to supply the plantar sides of each digit. This distn'bution nerves respectively.
is similar to the medial and palmar branches of the median nerve
of the forelimb. The superficial fibular and saphenous nerve also Medial and lateral dorsal metatarsal nerves, branches of
supply pans of the pes, the deep peroneal nerve have no counterpart in the thoracic
r-------------------__J
HORSE: has similar nerves in similar places of the forelimb.
limb. Theypassbetweenthedorsalsurfacesofthesplintbones
and cannon bone to the fetlock and hoof. The superficial
The plantar and metatarsal nerves correspond to the palmar peroneal may send branches down to the fetlock. (For nerve
and metacarpal nerves. The deep branch of the lateral plantar blocks see Appendix, pg. 584-591)
NERVES - HORSE - HINOFOOT Pelvic limb-51~
• ..
F ....,,.., ~'I,;...:;
Tibial n.,i -----.,.;;;r-;lm;- ----Common

fibular n.,g
~__.;.-:--f
;
·......
-;
'
,..----,- Tibial n.,h
:····
.• •
·. ' J-----;
~·
Di&ltal nn. ~
.e
Fig. X-98 - Horse· Rt. hindfoot - lat. view
A.. Don. common diailal v. D a. Med. dora. metatarsal n. • f. Supf. peroneal n.(X-98) k. Communicatinc
(med. aaphenousv.) (deep fibular n.). (X-97) g. Lat. dors. metatanal branch
B. Med. plantu a.· b. Med. plantar n. (tibial n.) (deep fibular) n, I, Supf. digital
C. Med. plaat. qtal a.&v, e, Med. plant. metatarsal n, h. Lat. plant! metatarsal n. 'ftexor m.
D. Coronary venoua plexua (deep br. of lat. plantar (deep br, of lat. pl~t. m. Suapenaory Jig.
E. Dora. metatanal a.(X-98) n., tibial n.) n., tibial n.) · n. Llg. of ergot
F. Lat. plantar T. .. d. Med. plantar digital n. I. Lat. plantar n. {tibial n.)
G. Med. plant. qtal a.& v. e. Doraal br. j. Lat. plant. digital n.
517 ·
. {: . .... . . . .. .. t•; .,
NER,/ES - OX - HiNDFOOT
Pelvic limb-519
~ !
i:...·...\4~ir
:..;....---Tibial n.,d
Supf. t Ibular n. --:-----!J .
....:!"J.
'
Common fibular n.,a

: l
firm ...
~
,(
..•. .
"i,.....:~
Fig. X-99 - Ox - Lt. hindfoot

- dorsolat. view
. - Digital nn.
NERVE BLOCKS· OX
I. Superficial peroneal nerve: inject on either side of the

dorsal branch of the lateral saphenous vein at mid-metatarsus.
The deep peroneal isblocked: . through the same site by going
deepto the extensor tendons. · . . ··,
..
n, i11. Medial and lateral plantar nerves: inject next to the
flexot tendonson both sides. • '. ~J
... r. .
A. Lat. 1aphenou1 v. (ersn, a. Dora. common digital nn.(X-99}
br.) (dors. pedal v.} h. Med. plantar n.{X-100) m, Tendon of deep digital
b. Don. axial digital nn. I, Tendon of long digital
B. Lat. plantar a. (eupr. br.) flexo!' m.
e, Dors. abaxial diii,t~ nn. extensor m.(X-101)
0. Med. plantar a. (aupf. br.) (X-100) d. Lat. plantar -!!. n. Aeceuory digit
D. Plant. common diaital a. j. lntero11eou1 m.(X-99} o. Diatal phalanx
e. Plant. <=!::rrunon digital nn. k. Su11pen1ory br. of j.
E~ Plant. abaxial digital a. f. Pl.~~. abaxial digital nn, I. Tendon of 1upf. digital I~IV - Oici,tal nerve blocks
P. Plant. axial digital a.
g. Plant. axial digital nn.(X-100) flexor m.
SIS
r= . ,· fig. X-10'5 - 0~ - Lt. h:n<ifoot
- plant. view
\.. . ..· ..
''
,I,.
I
f
i I
r !
I
i I ·I
Tibial n.,d- • '' I
: • II
iI
I
i I .;
c ;jJ
I
i
t
I
'
' .
i.
I \..
I
' \\
'
!I I' . I' .
;\
\
I
.:' /
•
~
~
..,
.
~-;._
e
I
'
I
.I
I' .
D
Fig. X-101 - Ox · Lt. hindfoot

·med.view
.
_ _.. ····- .. --- .
NERVES - PELVIS
431-Pelvis-521
1. Pudeodal o. 3. Caud. rectal n,
Fig. X-102-. Cow - Pelvis

g .· · ·- lat. view
. ... -
--··-· --··
. - ... . .- ..
' . .
. c.
..'
•
\
. ..
.e-
.. - '
a. Prox, cutan. br. of pudendal n. · ..
b. Di~. cutan. br. of pudendal n.
c. Deep perineal n. .
d. Dora. n. of clitoris (penis) :":
e. s~,;rum
f. Al.uc . ..
g. Labia
. .
;:. ·.:· · Fig. X-103 - Horse. - Sacral plexus - la.t~ ~iew
...
' .
t. PUDENDAL NERVE: suppli.es the internal and external
genitalia, rectum and perineal area Arising from the ventral
branches of the sacral· nerves, it travels obliquely through the
pelvic cavity . .Its main branches are the supe~cial and deep
perineal Def\'.~·and the dorsal nerve of the penis.
2. PELVIC NERVF.S: the parasympathetic (ANS) nerve supply

to the pel vie area.
3. CAUDAL.RECTAL NERVES: nerve supply to the anus.
520
PUDENDAL NERVE - ANESTHESIA - OX
_ ;,_;. X-105 - Ox - Needle pla·ctri..1:.: nt
.-, . :
s-. (schematic) - dors. view
.•
1
'
. ,( ., #/
I..._A
13 »:
'
10 I
Fig. X-104 - Ox - Needle placement

(schematic) - lat. view
11
1. Pudsndal n. ($2-4)
-
The int. pudenda! a. is
2. Pelvic n. palpated rectally an inch
S. Prox. cutan. br. of 1 (.:!!.t) in front of the cran, don.
4. Dist. c:utan. br. of 1 (cut) end of the leaser iachiatic
5. Deep perineal n. foramen. The pudenda! n. is
6. Supf. perinea! n. dora. to thi1 point.
1. Dors. n. of penis
8. Scrotal br.
9. Caud. rectal n. (dl-5)
a. Broad sacrctuberal lig.
b. Leaser ischiaeic forarnen
..
10. Aorta e. Rectum (opened dorsally) Fig. X-10t - Ox - Needle placement
11. Ext. iliac a. (cut) d. Penis
12. Int. iliac a. e. Sacrum (schematic) - med. view
13. Int. pudendal a. (on !. Fir1t caud. vertebra
med. aspect of broad g. isehium
tacrotuberal lig.) h, Pubic symphysi11
) i. Coccygeua m.
A. Needle in deepest part j. Levator ani m.
of ischiorectal fosaa k. Intrapelvic part of
B. Gloved hand in rectum ext. obturator m,
521
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM 451·General·523
AUfONOMIC (aw' -toh-NOM-ik) NERVOUS SYSTEM · 4. ~~cingfionk ~:.::-~ii:also an ANS motor (efferent) neuron
(ANS): that portion of the nervous system operating involuntarily
whose fiber extends from a. ganglion to the visceral structure
or automatically to keep the animal's body stable. ~1:liilout (visceral effector) innervated. .
conscious effort, it regulates smooth muscle, C~".'~~ muscle and
glands (visceral structures) in the mairtcaance of normal internal The motor (efferent) outflow of the sympathetic division comes
stability (homeostasis) of tt>~ organism, and, when needed, deals
from thethoracolwnbarsegmentsof thespinal cord. Preganglionic
wilhemergency~i~;:.~ns.ltregulatesheanrate,intestinaJmotility, motor (efferent) cell bodies are located in the 134nl gray.:eolurnn
oody lt'~~rature. and blood pressure, among other visceral (a)ofthespinalcord. Themotorfibersleav~~sp1nalcordbythe
..cuvities, The ANS, although said to be involuntary, is still ventral root (D), pass through the spinalnerves and the white
comrolle.d by higher centers in .the brain, such as the cerebral communicating branch (E) to reach the gangimof the sympathetic
cortex, hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. These centers trunk (G). In the ganglion the fiber has three possible pathways:
interconnect and connect directly to the two divisions of the ANS.
.' I. Synapse with.postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic trunk
TWO· DMSIONS of the ANS: the ANS is divided into two . ganglion. Postganglionic fibers then return io the spinal nerves by
divisions, the sympathetic and parasympatheuc. The visceral
the communicating branch to be distributed to the periphery.
structures (smooth, muscle, cardiac muscle and glands) usually . . . -.
have a dual innervation (sympathetic and parasympathetic). The
Il. Ascend or descend within lhe sympathetic trunk to other
action of the two divisions usually have opposite effects, as in the ganglia where they will have the same three choices.
heart where the parasympathetic slows the rate and the sympathetic '
speeds it up. This allows a finer control of such activities. · Ill. Pass through the ganglion to a peripherally located collateral
ganglion-to synapse on postganglionic neurons (e.g., splanchnic
Reff ex arcs: Autonomic functions are mainly controlled by reflex nerves [IJ)(4).
arcs. Sensory (visceral afferent) fibers enter the spinal cord or
train stem via spinal or cranial nerves. These fibers carry sensory Ventral and dorsal branches ofthe spinal nerves: (not roots) carry
impulses from smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands ( visceral visceral and somatic sensory (afferent)fibers.
eff ectecssnuctures ). as well as from specialized visceral receptors
throughoutthe body. In the spinal cord or brain stem, they synapse
A. Spinal nerve: the nerve carrying both somatic and autonomic
with ANS motor neurons whose fibers (visceral efferent fibers)
sensory and motor fibers between the periphery and the spinal
innervate t,he visceral structure (smooth or cardiac muscles or
cord. These fibers include visceral sensory (afferent) fibers towards
glands), In the somatic nervous system (dealing with voluntary
the spinal cord, and visceral motor (efferent) fibers back to ,-
skeletal .muscles), there is usually only one motor (efferent) effector organs. ~·
neuromthe autonomic nervous system has two.The first is the
pregangliomc motor neuron whose fiber leaves the spinal cord or B. Dorsal root: carries somatic
brain stem to synapse with a postganglionic efferent neuron in fibers entering the spinal cord. .
and
visceral sensory (afferent)
ganglia. The postganglionic motor fiber. innervates the visceral
structure: - ..
C. Dorsal root ganglion: the location of cell bodies of sensory
neurons.
Ganglion (pl=ganglia): collection of nerve cell bodies outside
the central nervous system. . - · · . ·: · ';
D. Lateral gray column: area where the preganglionic »er ve
cells are located.
1. Visceral [effector} structures: the smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and glands being controlled by the ANS.
• • \ > E. Ventral root: carries somatic and visceral motor fibers leaving
the spinal cord.
2. ANS sensory (af'ferent) neurons: carry stimuli from a visceral
effector or other receptor to the spinal cord via the dorsal root of
P-G. Communicating branches*: connect the spinal nerves
the spinal nerve or to the brainstem via cranial nerves. ANS with the sympathetic trunk.
sensory (afferent) cell bodies are located in th~':!~.-~~ root gang lia
of spinal nerves or ganglia of the er anxaJ nerves, located outside
the brain. G. Sympathetic trunk: the series of connected ganglia (H) lying
• There are two types of communicating branches, white and gray, which ate
ANS motor (efferent) neurons: carry motor impulses/to a indistinct from ~chother in most domestic animals. Thoracic and cranial lumbar
visceral effector by two motor (efferent) neurons. This is different nerves have both white and gray communicating branches. The other spinal
from the somatic system, where reflex arcs have only one motor nerves only have gray branches. White communicating branches are formed by
(efferent) neuron. myelinatcd rui:ganglionic fibers, connecting thoracic and lumbar spinal nerves
with the ganglia of Ute sympathetic trunk. The myelin of the fibers gives the
3. Pregangflome (pree' -gang-lee-ON-ik) neuron: an ANS motor branch its white color. Gray communicating branches connect the sympathetic
neuron whose fiber extends from the CNS lo synapse in an trunk to all spinal nerves. They carry unmyelinated (thus, a gray color) .; ,
autonomic (motor) ganglion with apostganglionic neuron. ~Mglionic fibers from t.he chain ganglion to the spinal nerves to innervate !:~:.
"(.
vessels and skin gl~ni.~. '<.:
ANS - SYMPATHETIC DIVIS!ONS
C<
B
A
/
2. Visceral sensory neuron
•
0
\"
~ . .,,,,.. _,_,, .... ....-- .........
. -~
' ·,
"'r~u~j 7-f . ',
.
•,
Collateral ganglion .
\
,
\ \ '' ,
4. Postgan·glionic neuron
: ..
3. Pregangllonlc neuron
G 1. Visceral effector
A. Spinal n. F. Gray communicating br.
B. Donal root G. Sympathetic trunk
C. Dorsal root ganglion H. Trunk ganglion
D. Ventral root I. Splanchnic n. ·. ·
E. White communicatin1 hr. a. Lat. gray column
Fig. X-107 - Sympathetic supply (schematic) ..

..
on either side of the vertebral column. It extendsfrom the base of

the skull to the sacral region of the vertebral column. The ganglion
only receive preganglionic fibers from the sympathetic
(thoracolumbar) division of the ANS. Preganglionic fibers that
pass through the sympathetic trunk form the splanchnic nerves (I)
that pass to collateral ganglia around the unpaired branches of the
aorta.
S ~ ..
-··
r..,~.
.
ANS - SYMPATHETIC DIVISION ..
General-525
SYMPATHETIC DIVISION {thoracolumbar [thoh-ra-koh- 9.Cranialcervicalganglion:thetenninalendofthesympathetic
LUM-bar] division) of the ANS: an energy-expending system trunk near the base of the skull It receives preganglionic fibers_
that counterbalances the ~ympathetic system to maintain
homeostasis when the body is at rest In an emergency, this
from the sympathetic thoracolumbar , outflow and ttansmits 1
postganglionic fibers to the head. These fibers pass through the \t
division overrides the other and spends the body 'senergy reserves. middle ear.
Its activation dilates ~e pupils, increases the bean rate, opens the
lung's airways, decreases gut motility, dilates the blood vessels. in 10. Splanchnic (SPLANK-nik) nerves: the preganglionic fibers
the skeletal muscles. increases glucose in the blood, and erects
passing through the sympathetic trunk without synapsing.· They
hair on the back. All these prepare the animal for "fight or flight". leave the sympathetic trunk at the caudal thoracic and the lumbar
regions. to pass to collateral ganglia. They synapse in these
THORACOLUMBAR OUTFLOW: The motor (efferent) ganglia with postganglionic neurons that innervate the abdominal
outflow of the sympathetic division comes from the thoracoJumbar and pelvic viscera.
segments of the spinal cord.
11. CoUateral ganglia (prevertebral): the large ganglia located
1. Sympathetic trunk: iheseries of connected ganglia lying on away from the venebral column around the unpaired branches of
either side of the vertebral column. I.t extends from the base of the
the aorta (celiomesenteric ganglion and caudal mesenteric
skull to thesacra! region of the vertebral column. The ganglia only ganglion). Collateral ganglia receive preganglionic fibers that
receive preganglionic fibers from the sympathetic {thoracolumbar)
division of the ANS. ·
pass through the sympathetic tru,ik without synapsing, and send
postganglionie fibers to the viscera along vessels arising from the
unpaired branches of the aorta.
2. Trunk ganglia (GANG-lee-a): the ganglia located in the
thoracolumbat:.regionof thesympathetic trunk. They are connected -
12.Hypogastricnerve:thesympatheticinnervationtothepelvic
by preganglionic fibers passing between the ganglia. thus forming region. Postganglionic fibers extend from the caudal mesenteric
the sympathetic trunk. Postganglionic fibers arising from these collateral ganglion in the mesocolon to the pelvic plexus on the
ganglia innervate the heart, bronchi, lungs and abdominal organs. · sides of the rectum. .
3. Cervicotboracic (stellate) ganglion: the largest autonomic

ganglion in the body. It is located near the vertebral column
medial to the first rib. fn:ganglionic fibers reaching this ganglion
can synapse on postganglionic nerves to the heart and neck (blood
vessels, sweatglands,etc.) orpass through it. If they pass through,
they can synapse in the middle cervical ganglion or continue up
the cervical part of the sympathetic trunk to synapse in the cranial .
cervical ganglion.
4. Vertebral nerve: postganglionic fibers arising from the

cervicothoracic ganglion. It travels up the neck through the
transverse canal and sends fibers (gray communicating branches) . . ..
to the cervical spinal nerves to supply vessels and skin glands.
S. Ansa subclavia: two cord-like structures that connect the

cervicothoracic ganglion and the middle cervical ganglion. They
pass around the subclavian artery and are made of preganglionic
fibers.
6. Middle cervical ganglion: a group of sympathetic

postganglionic cell bodies located at the thoracic inlet.
I
1. Sympathettc trunk (cervical portion): the preganglionic fibers
passing from the middle cervical ganglion up the neck to synapse
in the cranial cervical ganglion. These fibers travels with the
vagus nerve.
8. Vagosympathetic trunk: the combined vagus and sympatheuc

trunk in the neck. These are fused together. Fibers of the vagus
pass down the trunk while sympaiaenc fibers pass up the trunk.
The vagus leaves the syrnpathe.ic rrin.k at the thoracic inlet.
524
ANS - SYMPATHETIC OiViSfON
·: .
' . .
Cranial cervical ganglion

I
Cervicothoracic ganglion Splancbnic n.
Hypogastrlc n.
Thoracic trunk ganglia
'
.. • j ' .• d
. . " . ..
'
3. CoH:~~~ral ganglia
Fig. X-108:. Ox - Sympathetic division (scbematic)
.,
a. Brain
b. Otic: pngllon
e. Vertebral n.
d. Cardiac canclion
•· Cran. m11enteric pn.glion
:,, f. Cellac 1an&lia
~:? I· Caud. maent.ric: ganglion
'' h. lntermeeenteric plexus
525
.ANS - PARASYMPATHETHIC DIVISION Gcneral-527
PARASYMPATHEl'IC DIVISION (craniosacral division) of either side of the rectum. The pelvic plexus also receives the
the ANS: the energy-<:ODServing system. It is mainly concerned hypogasmc (sympathetic) nerves. Postganglionic sympathetic
with homeostasis ("day-to-day living"). It slows the heart rate and and parasympathetic fibers extend to the tenninal colon. rectum. l
increases the motility of the GI tract so food can be absorbed and ureters, urinary badder and reproductive organs. \
utilized or stored. It also brings the body back to rest after an
emergency sympathetic stimulus is over. Acetylcholine (a-see-til-KOHL-leen) is the ~trammiuer of
the parasympathetic division' s nerve fibers. These cholinerg.ic
CRANIOSACRAL OUTFLOW: the parasympathetic division (koh'-lin-ER-jik) fibers result in more specific action than those
has its outflow through certain cranial and sacral nerves. Thus, it of the sympathetic division. because their preganglionic fibers
has a "pair a" outflows.
synapse on fewer ganglionic fibers. postganglionic
parasympathetic fibers are less widespread in their distribution to
Terminal (intramural) ganglia: the ganglia of the 'effector organs, and acetylcholine is deactivaled quickly.
parasympathetic division located close to or in the wall of the
organ they innervate. They receive Jongpreganglionic fibers from The sympathetic division's preganglionic fibers also use
the parasympathetic division of the ANS and send. short acetylcholine, butthe postganglionicfiberssecreteoorepinephrine
postganglionic fibers to the effector organs. (nor' -ep-ee-Nlift-rin) (noradrenalin) and are called adrenergic
(ad' - ren-ER-jik) fibers. The effects of the sympathetic division
Cranial outflow: the parasympathetic fibers carried by cranial are more widespreadand longer lasting because:a. itspreganglionic
nerves III, VII, IX and X (oculomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal fibers synapse on many postganglionic fibers; b. postganglionic
and vagus). The brain stem contains motor nuclei of the cell fibers have widespread distribution to effector organs; c.
bodies of the ~anglionic parasympathene fibers. The fibers norepinephrine is degraded slowly; and d. norepinephrioe enters
leave the brain stem via the above cranial nerves to synapse with the blood. These effects help the parasympathetic division go
postganglionic fibers in terminal ganglia. about its day-to-day specific chores, while thesympatheticdivision.
when called upon, can charge the entire body for"fightor flight".
Cranial nerves carrying AN~motor fibers:
-, .'
1. Oculomotor nerv~ (Co III): carries preganglion·i~ 'fibers to the
ciliary ganglion to synapse on postganglionic fibers to the smooth
muscles that constrict the pupil and "accommodate" (adjust the
shape of) the lens of the eye. •
,.
'
2. Facial nerve (Co VII): carries preganglionic fibers to the
pterygopalatine (ter'i-goh-PAL-a- tin) (B) and the submandibular
ganglia (C). Postganglionic fibers extend to the lacrimal gland, the
glands of the nasal mucosa, palate, pharynx and the mandibular
salivary gland.
3. Glossopharyngeal nerve (Cn IX): transmits preganglionic

fibers to the otic ganglion (E). Postganglionic fibers extend to the
parotid salivary gland and zygomatic salivary gland in carnivores.
4. Vagus nerve (Cn X): themajorityofthecranial parasympathetic

outflow. It carries long ~anglionic fibers to synapse in the
terminal ganglia of the organs of the thorax and abdomen. Short
postganglionic fibers extend to the viscera, such as the heart, . ::·_,, ..• •.. <. . ·. ·-::::.::/?:: .: \/.: _·.
lungs, liver, stomach, pancreas, small intestine, kidneys and part Clinical
of the colon. ...;: -,: ·::: :;!~·.(~i .
I
-· •,•
.· . . . ~(:t
... ... ·.. ..,. ...
Oculomotor dysfunction:· will .affect the. pilp~I~. ~f)h~ieye.:.'
The sacral parasympathetic outflow: has its motor cell bodies (see Appendix - pg. 574.) · · ·· ·. ·. · · '·
in the sacral spinal cord. The fibers leave the spinal canal by the
ventral roots to unite as the pelvic nerve. The pelvic nerve Facial nerve paralysis: due to ear infectionscan ~Y?!C ~-
branches into the pelvic plexus which contains terminal ganglia.
From the ganglia, postganglionlc neurons pass to the organs of the
lacrimal gland and the orbicularis oculi QlUSCl~ au~~g ~e .
eye to dry severely. · · · ·. · ·
pelvic cavity. .;..:
VagaJ dysfunction: is usually not a ctir~ical problem except

5. Pelvic nerves: formed by parasympathetic preganglionic fibers in the ruminant where it can cause vagalindigestion and bloat , .·
~··
from the sacral spinal cord. They branch into the pelvic plexus on L_ _ <;
<I:
.} ..)6
ANS - PARASYMPATHE1.BC rJfVISIOr'>J Generat-530
. "'~.... Glossopharyngeal P. (IX)

..
. -· ,•
Facial n, (VII)
Oculomotor n. (III)
Fig. X-109 - Parasympathetic supply Vagus n. (X)

• head (schematic)
Pelvic n .
. ···· ...
..
~
<·
•..
,.
:··
Pelvic
·~ plexus
,'
Fig. X·llO • Parasympathetic division (schematic)

..
·~·
A·F. Terminal pn1Ua a. Brain h, Celiac pJexu, q, Liver
A. Ciliary 1an1llon b. Brainttem i, Ventr. va,al trunk r. Omaaum
B. Pteryl()palatine gan11ion e. Ventr. root of j. Eye 1.Abomuum
C. Mandibular ganglion ,acral spinal n. k. Lac~imal gland t. Intestines
r- D. Sublinrual pnglion d. Paruympathetic l. Mandibular salivary 1land u. Kidney
' E. Otic pn1lion nuclei m. Sublingual 1alivary gland v. 'Rectum
F. Terminal ganglion· e, Va1al cardiac n. n. Parotid salivary gland w. Uterua
f. Dora. vagal trunk o. Larynx x. Ovary
g. Br. to' celiac plexu, p. Heart
527
'7 ~
..
...~.
"'
.I...
-.,>.
•
'
'
··- ;,~.
,,, .(; 0
Chapter XI
Common Integument
. ~ ......
.
..
-..
. .. Eye - Ear
' .. ' '
..-~.
·-.
<,
'· <, . . ..
' ..,. . .
'
' ..·.
. · 529
·.:...- ,_.
COMMON INTEGUMENT 527-General-53 I
COMMON INTEGUMENT (in'TEG-yoo-ment): consists of 3. SUBCUTANEOUS LA YER or superficial fascia (sub 'kyoo-
the skin, hair, skin glands (including the mammary glands). TA Y-nee-us), hypodermis or subcutis: the layer of areolar con-
claws, hooves, and horns. 1~
nective tissue and interspersed fat connecting the skin to underly- Ff·:
ing structures, such as bones and muscles. This layer is often ."· '
Skin or cutis: the thin organ covering the body, protecting called subcutaneous tissue or superficial fascia.
underlying tissues from injury,.drying, and bacterial invasion. It
helps regulate body temperature, excretes water and salts through APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN~ the hair, hoves, c' iaws, seba-
sweat glands, · senses the environment and synthesizes vitamin ceous glands, and sweat glands associated with rt-...1e skin.
D3.
4. Sweat glands or sudoriferous glands (~·,yoo'doh-RlF-er-us):
STRUCTURE of the SKIN: consists of lY'O layers - a superficial simple, coiled, tubular glands of the skin ~ · Jtat open independently
epithelium (ep'i-THEE-lee_-um) (epidermis) upon a deeper, fi- ofhairfollicles. Merocrine (MER-oJ-.;-krin) (eccrine) sweat glands.
brous layer (dermis or cerium), which lies on a layer of loose the predominant type of swe;,::.c glan~~man, are restricted to the
connective tissue (sebcutis).. ·. footpads of carnivores. tJ.t1c frog of the horse, the nasolabial region
pf ruminants ~nn ~ swine, and the pig carpus. Apocrine (AP-oh-
1. Epidermis: superficial layersof theskin,consisti~g of continu- krin)
. sw~.:at glands. predominate in the domestic species and are
ally renewed stratified squamous epithelium. The epidermis is distributed throughout the skin. Sweat glands help maintain body
divided into five layers. Cells divide in the deepest layer. push, out temperature of the domestic species. The horse sweats the most
to form the more superficial layers. As they grow out: they die. ("lathering up") of the domestic species, the cat and dog the least.
become keratinized, and are finally shed from 1l;1e outermost
layer. The basal layer (stratum basale) is the r'Jeepest layer and S. Sebaceous glands or oil glands (se·BAY-shus): simple alveo-
consists of a-single sheet of cuboidal to columnar cells capable of lar holocrine. glands usually connected to hair follicles. The cells
. cell division. These cells multiply, pushing out to form the more lining the glands disintegrate to form the secretion sebum (SEE-
superficial layers. The layer above tbf.; stratum basale is the spiny bum). Sebum is an oily substance consisting of a mixture of
layer (stratum spinosum) .. '.;omposed of polyhedral cells. When cholesterol, protein, and inorganic salts, which is released into the
prepared for microsc~1i1c examination. the cells may take on a hair follicle to lubricate the skin and prevent excessive evapora-
"prickly" or "spiP:/·• appearance. This layer varies in thickness tion. Sebum of the fleece of sheep is called lanolin.
from one tcg.1on of the body to another. Often. the stratum
the
SpinOSUIT I and Stratum basaJe are collectively Called germinal HAIR: the long, slender, filamentous appendage of the skin
layer \stratum germinativum). The granular layer (stratum composed of keratinized (dead) epithelial cells. Each hair consists . : :· :·
gra:1ulosum), the third layer, is composed of squamous cells in of a shaft 31\d a root. The root is contained in a depression (hair:.::·.
d:1fferent stages of degeneration, and contain keratohyalin gran- follicle). Associated with hair follicles are sebaceous glands and ""'
ules involved in forming keratin. The clear layer (stratumlucidum), a bundle of smoolh muscle, the arrector pili muscle. connecting
an inconsistently present fourth layer, is made of flat. dead the side Qf -the hair to the dermis, During stress, cold or fright the
squamous cells containing translucenrdroplets of eleidin, which muscle· .Pulls· the hair into ~ vertical positiont resulting in
give this layer its name (lucidum = clear). Eleidin comes from "goosebumps" · in humans. In domestic species. this produces a
keratohyalin and becomes. keratin. The outermost .:layer,:tlie trap for insslating air or making the animal appear more intimi-
horny J:iyer (stratum corneum), consists of flat, dead, comifled dating.
cells completely filled with keratin, a waterproofing protein.
Hair follicles:- horses and cattle have single hair follicles. Dog •
2. Dermis (DER-mis) or corium: the layer of skin directly below has compound hair follicles with a single primary hair and a group
and separated from the epidermis by a basement membrane. It of smaller secondary hairs. Pigs - have single follicles grouped in
consists of collagenous and elastic connective tissue containing clusters. Cat - has a single follicle with a primary guard hair
blood vessels, nerve fibers, glands and hair follicles. The papillary surrounded by clusters of compound follicles. The compound
region or layer is the dermis immediately beneath the epidermis. follicles have three primary hairs with many secondary hairs.
Small finger-like proiecuons, dermal papillae, project up into
the epidermis greatly increasing the surface area between the two Types of hair;
layers, thus holding them together. The deepest layer of the
dermis, the reticular region or layer. is responsible for variations • Bristles: the hair coat of the pig; the cilia (eyelashes). vibrissae
in skin thickness. It is named for the arrangement of coUagenous (hairs of the nostril), and "beard" (hair of the submandibular
fibers into a network (reticulum). region) of the goat.
CLINiCAL • Guard hairs: the outer coat C'topcoat") of the domestic species,
except the sheep and pig.
Blister: a fluid-filled separation between the epidermis and
dermis. • • Wool hair: the wavy, fine, short. inner coat ("undercoat"). This
is lhe hair type of the fleece of sheep.
530
SKIN General-532
.'•
Sfr.atum corneum .' .

Stratum lucidum
.---Hair shaft
Stratum granulosum
-,---
1. Epidermis
Stratum spinosum
-..
Stratum basale . -- .-
-:
~i,,,._kf--r._ 5. Sebaceous
gland
2. Dermis
Sweat gland -,---,;----;.
d
.. b
··,. Hair root

I
'
s
Fig. XI-1 - Human skin • section
~
a. Sweat pore11 e. Adil)9N tiuue i. Autonomic motor n. (ANS) • I. S~retory portion
b. Pacinian corpuele t. Sensory nerve (ANS) j. Dermal papiliae of ••eat 1land
e. Papillary repon g. Vein k. Duct ot sweat itand
d. Reticular recion b.Arlery .. .
, I
. '"'-.
. ,
-~
531
SKIN
General-End
• Long (horse) hair: the long hair of the horse - foreloc~ mane,
tail, and "feathers" (behind fetlock). chin. It has both ractile and secretory (matting) functions.
,r::
• Tactile hair: stiff, sensory hair in some of the domestic species ~eputial glands: located in the prepuce. their secretions ~i~ ... ~'.
on the upper and lower lip. chin, cheek. around the eye and the with degenerated cells to form a substance called smegma, whach -~~
caspus, is significant in the horse.
Subcaudal gland: in goa~ the two glands below the tail that are
Color of hair: determined by complicated genetic factors govern-
ing the amount of pigment (melanin) in the hair. There are only
said to be responsible for the buck's characteristic smell.
three hair pigments: bJact, bro~and yellow. The great variation
in color is ,Jue to comb_inationsorabsenceof these three pigment.1.
Gray hairs of aging result from loss of pigment; white hair is due
to absence of pigment and 'presence of air in the hair shaft.
SPECIALIZED GLANDS of the SKIN:
Carpal glands: in pigs just proximal to the carpus on the ·.

caudomedia) side of the leg. They produce sexual pheromones to
sexually stimulate the matjng 'partner. They also mark the sow
during mating as the boar's "property",
Caudal (coccygeaJ) glands: in carnivores on the dorsum of the

root of the tail.
Ceruminous glands: in all domestic species, f!'Wld in the wall of ·

the external auditory canal. They produce ..ear wax" which
protects the tympanic membrane from foreign bodies {pg. 551).
Circumanal glands: in carnivores around lhe anus. lbey can

become neoplastic (perianal adenoma).
.~~
Circumoral or perioral glands: only in cats, located in the skin ~
around lhe mouth, especially the lower lip. Their functional
significance, although called lhe "cleaning glands". is probably
for marking. · ·
Glands of the anal sac: in carnivores, .in the walls of the 'anal
sacs, they secrete into the anal sacs for storage.
· Glands of the inguinal sinus: in sheep on either side of the udder

or scrotum. The odor may help the lamb locate the udder.
Glands of the infraorbital sinus: in sheep found in theinfraorbital

sinus just rostral to the eye. used for marking •.
Glands or the interdigital sinus: in sheep between the digits,

used as "trail markers".
Glands of the nasal skin: in artiodactyls (even toed animals) in

the skin of the nose.
Horn glands: in goats and some sheep just caudal to the base of
the horn {similar location in hornless animals).
Mental (chin) glands: in pigs a wart-like skin eminence on the
Fig. XI-2 - Dog • Section or skin (schematic) : . ·;:--;

~ ·..
... . . .
··;;;.~
532
MAMMARY GLAND 355-Pelvis-S34 .
-
r-.....<'~
..., ~.. I I
I Fig. XI-3 - Cow • Udder
,: . :'
·- .
,,
• I
) I • . cross section
. . ·~~.. ':•
,f •
I
1. Mamma . \ . . '.
I
1,. /.
I •
'
• >
~ . : 11 · I
J I I I I
f, • '\
•
I,
': :- ' I
~
I
I " 1
;,
2. Milk sinus
'
3. Teat
~r--- 4. Teat canal
~.,, ·· ...
Intermammary groove
5. Teat opening
\ :.,_.,
MAMMARY GLAND: a modified sweat gland that nourishes containing part of the milk sinus. It is lined with a double layer of
the young. It consists of the mamma and the teat Undevelope.d in columnar epithelium.
both the male and female at birth, the female mammary gland
begins to develop as a secondary sex characteristic at puberty. 4. Teat canal, papillary duct or streak canal: the duct leading
With the birth of lhe first Y9Wl8 and the first lactation, the from the milk (teat) sinus to the teat opening. It is lined wfth
mammary gland attains its full size and function. When suckling stratified squamo~ epithelium thrown into longitudinal fofds.,..
by the young stops, milk production ceases and the gland re- The cells prodocea sebaceous plug in the teat canal.
gresses. Shortly before the next and subsequent parturitions, the
gland is stimulated by honnonal changes to produce milk. With S. Teat ope~ings: the openings of the teat canal, .
advanced age, the mammary glands regress, their tissue is re--
placed by connective tissue and loses its function. Sphincter muscle: the muscular fibers around the teal ~ing
that prevent r · ik flow, except duriug sucking or milking.
1. Mamma (pl. = mammae): the glandular structure associated
With 8 teat.
Lobes: ·the internal compartments of the mamma, separated by MAMrdARY GLAND· COW: the mammatygjand o( &he
adipose tissue (fat). The lobes are divided. into lobules. Lobules cow taJceson added significance due to tik, in~.:.ceof milk
consist of connective tissue containing alveoli, the grape-like as a human food source. ·
clusters of milk-secreting cells of the mammary 'gland.
Udder: the term designating all the mammae in the ruminanl
Miik (lactiferous) ducts: large ducts conveying milk from the and the horse (sometimes used for~ sow also.)
alveoli to the milk sinus.
Quarters: the foar parts.of the bovine udder. each ~sociated
2. Mnt Oactiferous) sinus: tllelarge milk storage cavity wiiliin with one teat All four quarters are completely sep.a.rat.ed front
_,,:;<ft·, the teat and the glandular body. i r.ach osher, The iDtermammary groeve (o) f s tbe iex.tema'!
j mrucation of the separauon of the ttvo nr..J,i~ t:i me udder.
• • i.,~. lt 4 •
J.i.-1,;.' 3. Teti~ ,}[ ~·~~iiia: the vro.;cetu'.g pan of d1~ nia."l!trifJ)' g!,ntl I
i--.. --------- ---.-.. .,.,.,._..,,.__ ~·----·.....
.
I~
. ,
•.J• S33
MAMMARY. GLAND Pelvis-535
-------
a Fig. XI-4 - Cow - Suspensory apparatus
of the udder '{schematic)
'
7. Med. lamina
I
.
•
-
1: .
Fig. XI-S - Cow - Suspensory apparatus

- lat. view
·9, Secondary lamina
a. Pelvic symphysis
b. Symphyseal tendon
c. Body wall
d. Udder
e. Intermammary groove
:,
Mammary gland- cow (cont.) teats angle laterally (helps prevent them from dragging on the
ground).
Furstenberg's rosette: fold of teat canal mucosa that extends
into the teat sinus. 2. Lateral laminae: two collagenous sheets arising from. the
pelvic symphysis. · · · · ::
Anular fold: a constriction between glandular and teat parts of
the milk sinus. It consists of muscular fibers, connective tissue 3. Secondary laminae: seven to ten sheets arising from the
and circular venous channels ("Furstenburg's venous ring"). primary laminae to enter the mammary gland and divide it into
This is variable in size and may occlude the connection between lobes.
the two sinuses ("high spider"). Sometimes it has to be cut to
allow milk into the teat sinus. · Blood supply: the external pudenda! arteries are the main blood
supply to the cow's udder. They branch into cranial and caudal
"Furstenburg's venous ring": venous circle surrounding the mammary branches which anastomose to form a ring around the
base of:the teal base of the udder. The internal pudenda! enters the caudal part
of the ring. The cranial mammary artery (caudal deep epigastric
SUSPENSORY APPARATUS: the specializedattachmentof artery) travels cranially on the ventral abdominal wall to anas-
the udder to the symphyseal tendon (below the pelvic symphy- tomose with the caudal mammary artery (cranial superficial
sis) and the ventral abdominal wall. It is best developed in the epigastric artery). The venous drainage travels with the arterial
cow. supply.
Primary laminae: four sheets of connective tissue applied to MILK VEIN: the large caudal superficial epigastric vein that
the lateral and medial side of each half of the udder and meeting runs along the ventral abdomen, draining the udder. In dorsal
at the teats to form the capsule of the udder. recumbency the milk veins disappear, thus, should be marked
before any dorsal recumbent surgery.
1. Medial laminae: two elastic sheets arising from the ventral
abdominal wall near the linea alba and extending ventrally Nerve supply: the iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerves to the
between the two halves of the udder. Due to its elastic fibers, as skin of the cranial udder and by the genitofemoral nerve to the :-
the udder fills, it stretches more than the lateral laminae and the skin of the caudal udder.,.
534
MAMMARY GLAND
Pelvis-356
.. """""'""'.. . .- """' .
.... ~ ..._. . ,. - .. ,..._~ ,-
'
1. Mamma
2. Milk sinus
3. Teat
4. Teat canal
6. Teat opening
-------
I
Fig. XI-6 - Horse - Udder - parasagittal section
SPECIES DIFFERENCES
between or cranial to them. These extra teats can be associated
-----------------------,
Mammary position: with extra glandular complexes (polymastia).
1----.. . ,.-. .,.-.------------:-...:.._---i Bulls, rams and ·bucks: accessory teats, if found are usually
•Thoracic·'-,.. man. monkeys & elephants cranial to the scrotum.
• Thoracoabdominal cat
• Thoracoabdominoinguinal
,
dog and pig .
• Inguinal horse and ruminants Polymastia; extra mammae.
Bitch: usually-10 mammae, 5 (4 -6) mammary complexes on Each mamma is p-;:·:iily separate from the other mammae.
each side separated by an intermammary groove. Teats of
animals that have been pregnant are always larger than those of LYMPH DRAINAGE • DOG: the cranial 2-3 pairs drain
animals which have never been pregnant through the axillary lymph node and the caudal 2-3 drain
through the superficial inguinal lymph nodes.
Queen: 8 marnmae, four on each side of the ventral abdominal . . . .
wall. .
Sow: 14 (10- 18) mammae, seven on each side.

..
Cow: 4 mammae, two (quarters) on each side, all bound
together to fonn an udder.
Goat and sheep: 2 mammae forming a pendulous udder.
Mare: 2 mammae forming a small udder.

: •.
Male • teats: usually have the same number as females.
~ . . .
535
FC)o1· - HORSE
89~ Thoracic limb 5370
((f
Fie. XI-7 - Horse - Hoof, It. side
~~i
untrimmed, rt. side
3. "Heel" trimmed - view of
ground surface (for
R.Kaincr, ·Vet.
Clinics 2.f :N. Amer,)
S. Sole
1. "Toe" h
. . '
9. CC>ronet
d
Fla. XI-8 - Horse - Hoof

- lat. view
1. "Toe"
.
2. "Quarters"
FOOT of the HORSE: the hoof and the structures within iL The 2•. "Quarters": the medial and lateral wali parts.
foot skeleton consists of the middle and distal phalanges (pastern I
and coffin bones). she coffin joint. the navicular bone. ~ the 3. "Heels" (or angl~): the palmar or plantar mpect of die wall.
lateral cartilages of the third phalanx. Many ligaments and ten-
dons of the common/Jong digital extensor and deep digital flexor 4. "Bars'': the extension of thewall from the back (palmar/pJantar
muscles insert on the ~ of the foot · .side) of the foot towards the toe. They are seen oo either side of
· · · . the frog from the ground surface.
HOOF (ungula): the horny epiclennis covering the digit's distal '. ·
end: divided into the wan. sole and frog. • 5. Sole: the concave surface facing the ground between the frog
· · and walls. The medial and laterai angles of the sole arc located
· Wall: the visible part of the standing horse's hoof. between the bars and quartm.
,., ..
(,-·.
1. "Toe": the dorsal part of the wall.
1. Frog: die wedge-shaped structure between the so~c, bars, andi~
FOOT- HORSE
Thoracic limb-538
A Fig. XI-9 - Horse - Hoof & associated

.:.:-.. ". ·· D bones. dermis removed
- sagittal section
•
1
,.
'
1. "Toe" .,,,,,.
2 •. Frog
10. White line ,,
A. Middle phalanx
B. DisL phalanx
c. Coffin joint .:
D. Navicular bone ,, .C:-- _
',, ~~-~ . :
a. Angle of sole
b ." Collateral groove .. (paracuneal sulcus)
c, Water line
d. Periople (XJ-8)
e. Crus of frog
f. "Central groove of frog" (central cuneal sulcus)
g ... Apex of frog" (cuneal apex)
h.WalJ
i, Laminar. surface of wall (Xl-9)
j. Coronary groove
k. "Spineoffrog~ ., ·
I. Solar foramen
m. Digital cushlon (Xl-10)
n. Perioplic groove (XI-9).
o. Deep digital tlexor tendon (Xl-10)
· 10. White line
p. Extemor tendon
Fig. XI-10 • Horse - Digit - axial .section (for R. Kainer,

Vet, Clinic~ 2.f. ~ Amer,) fl-. •,·
bulbs, It points towards the toe. It is often called the "heart of the 9. CORONET: the junction of the hoof'and the skin.
horse' s foot" because its compression forces blood out of..the foot
back toward the body. T1,te frog is homologous with other species' 10. WHITE LINE or white zone: the junction between the wall ·
digital pads.
and sole on the ground surface of the foot This is the external
indication of the sensitive internal structures. The NA V uses
. 8. Bulbs: part of the hoof just proximal and palmar/pl9nlar to the white zone to avoid confusion with the linea alba of the abdomen.
::r.:-·· frog.
·..
i:f.;. ..
In practice. most horsemen wouldn't be confused. because they" re
rever heard of the linea alba, and couldn 'i translate it if they had.
·. 537
.J'' !
.-:~ • : I _,.• >•
. . .. ,;.
FOOT
I. Perioplic dermis · Thoracic limb-539
2. Coronary dermis
2. Coronary dermis
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,, ..... .
c .b
,".:;oronary epidermis
Fig. XI-11- Horse - Hoof wall, coronary

region - three dimensional
dissection (modified from
J. Daugherty's illustration
in Adam's Lameness in
Horses, Stachak for R.Kainer,
Vet. Clinics Qf. N. Amer.)
a. PapHlz:
b. Tubular horn
c. Non-tubt:.h.r horn
d. Primary Iamina-
e.S~ondarylarninae
STRUCTURE or the FOOT: The covering of the foot is modi- (dermal papillae), the epidermis· builds tubular and non-tubular
fied skin (integument) and like the ski!], consists of an outer horn. The-tubular horn develops from the epidermis around the
epidermis (me hoof) and an underlying dermis (corium). The papillae as it grows away from the papillae. The nontubular horn
subcutis connects the dermisto the internal structures of the foot develops from the germinal epithelium between the papillae. The
.. vascular subcutis attaches the corium (dermis) to the periosteum
CORJl)M or DERMIS {K;O-ree-um) (pl. = coria): the highly of the distal phalanx. · · ·
vascular part. of the integument providing nourishment for the
overlying epfdennis (hoof). Nerves are located in the dermis, but 1. Perioplic corium: the dermis <>1thefoot that is continuous with
not in tli.e horny hoof (epidermis), making the dermis ("quick") the dermis of j,e skin. It widens out over the bulb of the heel, and
the sensitive part of the foot By attachments to the deep structures produces the thin, shiny, external layer (stratum extern um) of the
of the foot, the dermis holds the hoof in place. The cotium walJ.
(dermis) is divided into five parts: periople, coronary, laminar,
sole and frog. &.:::~:, cerium (dermis), except the Jami nar, has pegs .2. Coronary conum: the thick band of dermis just distal to the{.· ... :
..-v"
(papillae) extending into the horny epidermis. Around these pegs perioplic corium, located in the coronary g.·oove (Fig. XI·9J) oi'·,..:.
538
FOOT - HORSE
Thoracic limb-540
.
.,,,-,;-, .. .
:. : -, :.~ Fig. Xl-12 - Horse - Dermis of foot,
hoof removed • lat. view
j
1. Perioplic
•
corrum
/
/
2. Coronary
dermis
S. Dermis of frog _L-.:-----.-~
3. Laminar dermis
Fig. Xl-13 - Horse - Dermis of foot,

hoof removed - dist. view S. Dermis of sole
the hoof. The coronary cerium' s papillae provide the template for away to form the hard hoof.
tubular and non-tubuJar horn of the wall's bulk. The corium 's
deep surf ace connects to the ligaments and cartilages of the distal
'·"7~..•.
6. Perioplic epidermis: the light band marking the junction
· .phalanx by a very vascular connective tissue layer (subcutis). between the hoof and skin (its dorsal edge is the coronet). It arises
around the papillae of the perioplic corium. Growing down
3. Laminar corium {sensitive laminae): the dermis connecting
towards the ground as a shiny, thin, external layer of the hoof wall
the distal phalanx's lateral and dorsal sides (parietal surf ace) to the in young animals, it usual1y is worn away in older horses.
hoof wall, Its papiUae are modified into elongated primary lami-
nae (sheets) (Fig. XI-11,d) oriented perpendicular to the parietal 7. Coronary epidermis: the middle, highly keratinized hoof wall
surface of the distal phalanx. Secondary laminae extend off the layer extending distally from the coronary corium that nourishes
primary laminae at acute angles. The laminae interdigitate with it This layer forms the bulk of the· wall of the hoof.
thelaminae of the laminar epidermis of the hoof, tightly binding . '
hoof (epidermis) to corium (dermis), The deep surface of the 8. Laminar epidermis: the inside layer of the hoof that interdigi-
laminar dennis is attached by the subcutis to the periosteum of the
distal phalanx. · tares with the laminae of the dermis, connecting the hoof to the
parietal surface of the coffin bone (PIII). Overlying the dermis's
·. primary and secondary laminae, the germinal layer of the epider-
4:, Cerium or the sole: the derm is underlying and nourishing the mis multiplies, pushing the cells perpendicularly away from the
horny sole.
laminar dermis Lo join the coronary epidermis. The arrangement
of interdigitaung laminar corium and epidermis greatly increases
S. Corium of the frog: the dermis underlying and nourishing the
the surface area and strength of the bond. As the laminar dermis
horny frog. The deep surface of thedennis blends with the digital (sensitive) rounds the toe of the distal phalanx it becomes the sole
cushion (Fig. XI-10,m).
... flermis. The non-pigmented Jaminarepithelium (insensitivejcon.
tinues from this turning point to the ground surface of the hoof,
Coronary band: consists of the coronary and perioplic coria and forming the white line.
the germinal. l!yer of the epidermis overlying these coria. The •.
· coronary cushioo. is the modified. elastic subcutis under the 9. Sole epidermis: similar to the coronary epidermis, consisting
coronaty'l>and. ·
of pigmented tubular and non-tubular horn.
· EPIDERMIS or hoof: the pan of the integument overlying the 10. Frog epidermis: similar to the coronary epidermis, but more
[~:dermis: (cerium). The epidermal layer next to the corium.is the elastic and not fully keratinized. Its tubular horns are slightly
&ygemiinaiJayeras would be expected in a skin structure. Here cells wavy, thus, softer.
'divide and push away from
the dermis, hardening as they move
539
Thoracic limb .. 5~ 1
3. Laminar dermis
. ..
...
. Lamluar epidermis
(t
11. Subcutis Toe
2. Corouary epidermis
1. Perioplic
epldermis
:rr.~~-,..-c
3i"iff--J-_ b
12. Digital cushion
g ...
.
Fig. XI-14 - Horse· cross section of . ...

digit at level P III
a. Dist. phalanx d. Frog :,
b. Space between e. Tubular horn

frog& bar f. Non-tubular horn
e, Bar g. Periople of heel
..
11. SlJ.BCUTIS: the layer of connective tissue joining the dermis CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE'S FOOT
to the coffin bone, cartilages of the hoof, and tendons.
Foot axis: the angle. of the foot ·in relation to lhe ground surface.
12. DIGITAL CUSHION: the wedge-shaped mass of white When viewedfrom the front all legs should be perpendicular to the
elastic fiberf ~d fat overlying the frog and attaching to the ground, When
. viewed. from the side the dorsal foot surface should
cartilages of the hoof; form an angle (foot angle) with the ground of roughly: 45-SO°
front foot. 50-5.5° - hindfoot,
BULBS: the two soft prominences behind and above the frog.
With the frog they_ (onn the pad (torus ungula) of the horse. Pastern axis: the angle ot die proximal phalanx (long pastem)
wilh relation to the ground. This axis should be in the same plane
·tcw··nn-r.rA· L.
· : ·..· . -:_.. : .:·_.~;_:·
.: ·:._:·:.~:.·
· ·.· .-, ,· as the foot axis.
·: ...... ~ . :: . . . . ..· . . . .. . .
,,&'-,, .
' : : . : \. :
. ·:t:=··.:~:.: :.. ~~:;·;:~::.;,:, ··... :·_ .:·::_:: ,.; ..;~·.... . ..... . : .~ }' :"': .· •' I
. . • •
.:",:u:·W1i1te·line: the junction betweenthe wall and sole on the · Foot/p~tern ~i.s: .should be equal and fonn a continuous line. If
\~ surface ·or lhe:'foot. ···n is. formed by the insensitive the angles of the foot and pastern axises are not equal then lhe
>:,;-:taminae reaching t11e·grb_P'1<lsuifa¢~;-it.is an important land- a
horse has broken foot-pastern axis. This is more important then
/mm. ~orse iJi sboelrig; 'tcfinsure the s~nsitive laminar cerium the f90t"axis. The foot axis can be manipulated by horseshoers to
~.,is:nbfirivaded,
'• .·:·: ...... ·. a. nan·isdriven
.. . into the hoof
. on lhe outside of make a straight foot-pastern axis even if this deviates from the
. :)ms limt;wilh experience i nail can be driven inside the line ideal foot angle .
Land~g~ across it ~i~ou{~eaching where it interdigitates
.··~-::....\:'':vidi......the" sensitive laniiilae;:. ..
.. .
••
-
'·
l.
·.: . . . ~ .·: Level foot: a foot with equal length IO the medial and lateral ··:·-, :, ·
quarters and heels. ~
540
FOOT- HORSE
Thoracic limb-542
:~
10. Froa epidermis
Fla. Xl-15 - Herse • Rear hoof, trimmed

• .dist, view
'.
. ,.,.
~:..-.'-
9. Sole epidermis
ABNORMAL FOOT CONFORMA noN· .:
Club r~ steep foot or upright foot: a foot with a dorsal angle~

&he ground of 60° or greater.
Low toot or sloping foot: a foot:witb an angle of less than 45°.
Broken root: when the foot and pastern axis are not the same from
the lateral view. :This increases sw~ on the distal .limb and can
bd to many problems. The foot-pastern axis s.liould be corrected
if possible by shoeing. : :¢.9ij~~fe(l'.' :h~~j(f~:~~·~'~o~etJtW.fnsml!'mt.mJ~.:f'
. . .
Coc,n foot: a broken foot-pastern axis in which the foot axis is
steel)a' than the pastem axis. ·
Butta ess foot: a foot with a swelling on the do{sal COroneL This . . .·. :·:{ .:., ....~:,.., . .-.·. · ....... ,· '··.fl.a ...... ,.. of'tlf ·J~teta'faflifa''·· :es:<o.t'f:'
may be tears of the extensor tendon's auacbem~l to the extenscr
process of the distal phalanx or to low ringbond. .
· Flat foot: a foot with little concavity to the sole.

'
- footona flat
Drooped down
pushing foot due to rotation of the distal phalanx
the sole. ., .a c- • er crac .·.. . eta( ,., -*'«"
~- . .
l:on-level
quarter.
a
foot: ~ foot ~th lower quarter ihan the opposite
• ..
541
FOOT- OX Thoracic 1imb·S43
Fla. XI-16 - Ox· Foot - lat. view
Dew claw
Coronet
-Bulb
Wall
-;-· ·..
:; . ;' ·~:"'
. . .
'~
Sole
Fig. XI-17 - Ox - ground
a. Axial wall surface of foot
b. Abaxial wall
I
1. Interdfaital cleft
FOOT or the OX and PIG: the ox and pig have two weight
bearing digits. the horse one. Otherwise. they are basically ana-
tomically the same. The foot skeleton is formed by the middle and
distal phalanges, the distal interphalangeal joints (coffin joints)
and the distal sesamoid bones. Many ligaments and the tendons
of the common/long digital extensor and deep digital flexor
muscles attach to these two phalanges.
Hooves: the epidermis of the wall, sole and heels; similar to the
horse. except they have no frog. bars or secondary laminae.
Oerm~ or corium: the sensitive vascular layer underlying the

hoof consisting of perioplic, coronary, laminar, sole, and bulb_
dermis.
] . Interdigual cleft: the space between the two hooves.
f{oof padsor bulbs (tori ungulae): highly ~terat•nize<l.:ushions on

ffle palmar/plantnr aspect of the foot.
FOOT - OX - HOOF & CORIUM
Thoracic Jimb-544
...~·:·' . · Laminar epidermis

Perlopllc dermis
Coronary dermis
----Laminar dermis
'sole dermis b
Fla. Xl-18 - Ox - Foot, hoof removed Fla. XI-19 - Ox • Hoof
showing dermis· lat. view • dorsomcd. view
Fig. XI-20 - Ox· Hoof

• mcdiovcntr. view
Wall
Fla. XI-21 - Ox • Hoof

• ventr. view
Bulb
>
Peri op le Sole
White line
: ..
.,. . .
.
'; . . ··.
.'
...
~ . .. .
Fla. XI-22 - Ox· Hoof
·lat.view
: ~.:·
:. .
. : ' • ! . ,:,11 • ! ."':
a. Perioplic croov• •· Axial wall
b.T~ · f. Parapedal aroove
·' : . :;
'•
• • • f• ••
c~ Qoronary croove .(area of thinn•t

d. Abmda1 wall ..orn)
• ..... '.__j ~-
. · ·:-:df , .... · 543
. . ,• . ..
CLAW - ERGOT - CHESTf'JUT
b Thoracic lim h- ! 10
I p III
.. .
. •' . •,.
.
2. Ungual process
• .
/ •
1. Horny claw t: Horny claw
Fig. Xl-24 - Cat • Phalanges - lat. view

3. Metacarpal pad
a. Ungual crest
4. Digital pad 'I;,. Extensor process
c. Flexor procees
Fig. XI-25 - Dog - dist. forelimb·
1. ·cLA W: a modification of ahe epidermis in the carnivores, Carpal pad: located palmar to the carpus. The carnivores lack·
confonning to and enclosing the ungual process (2) of the distal tarsal pads.
phalanx (P Ill). The claw consists of a wall and a sole growing
away from the underlying dermis. The dermis nourishes the wall
and connects it to the ungual process.
Ergot: a small mass of horny material on the palmar/plantar

surface of the fetlock. They are buried in the "feathers• (long hair
behind the fetlock).
PADS .. CARNIVORES (tori): the hairless. cushion-like pads
· · · on die palmar/plantar side of the limbs. The toughest skin on the Chestnut or "night eyes": a small horny mass on the forearm's
dog. lbe epidermis is thick and highly keratinil.ed with·~ rough medial surface above the carpus and on the medial surface of the
swface due to many papillae. The underlying dem-ti.s contains tarsus. The tarsal chestnut is usually absent in donkeys and
sweat glands almg with the fibroelastic ~$SUC and fat, occasionally absent in horses. -·.·. ~
~-.......
· ...
544
1. Horn
HORN -OX 317-Head-546
Fla. XI-26 - Ox - Horn 2. Cornual process of
:) • longitudinal section frontal bone
:,,.''.
1. Soft horn '
'
')
•
B )
A. Peri01teum E. Epidermi1
B. Frontal 1inua I
F. Hair .
C. Cornual diverticulwn G. Mucous membrane
of frontal sinus of frontal bone
D. Frontal bone
Cattle: the horns are located at thecaudolateral end of the head.

Sheep and goats: the horns are located behind the orbits.
. . .. 545
' '
.... . ·~ ... '
EYE
Hcad-547
'
.....
. ..
.
10. Retina
"z; • ... ",':. ·,
...
.,
•.,\_..
.....
12
:r---11. Optic disc
2. Cornea
•
7. Suspensory Fla. Xl-27 - Horse - Eye

Jig.
- vertical section
4. C~Ji~ry. body. ..
1.·Sciera 3. Choroid .!·.
-, : ;·
.,_ .;:
ic;~rr, (L. oculus, G. opthalmos): the organ of sight, consisting of man's") membrane, substantia propria, posterior limiting
--
the eyeball and its accessory structures. Light passes through the ("Descemet's) membrane. and posterior epithelium.
transparem structures of the eye (cornea, aqueous humor, pupil,
lens and vitreous humorjto reach the receptor organs (rods and • Limbus (Fig. XI-29,e}: the junction of the sclera and cornea.
cones) of the retina. The resulting nerve impulses are then
conducted by the optic nerve to the visual center of the brain. Vascular tunic or uvea {YOO-vee-a): the middle layer of the
eyeball (choroid, ciliary body and iris)con~sting tnainly of blood
Descriptive terms: the eye is one of the few areas
where the vessels and smooth muscle that supply nuttition to the eyebaJ],
human nomenclature is used· anterior, posterior, superior and and control the ~hape of the lens and the size of the pupil. :
inferior ..
. .
• 3. Choroid (KOH-royd): the posterior partof the vascular tunic.
EYEBALL (L. bu/bus oculi): the eyeball can be divided into It is a thin, dark. highly vascular membrane inside the sclera. It
three layers - fibrous tunic, vascular tunic and nervous tunic supplies the retina and serves to absorb lig~t not reflected out of
(retina). the eyeball.
Fibrous tunic: lhe outer coat of the eyeball. It is divided into the -·Tapetum lucid um: specializedreflective~of thechoroid.
.sclera and the cornea. ·
It is the reason animal's eyes glow when light is shined in them at
night; not present in man and pigs.
• .!. Sciera (SKLE-ra)(G. scleros hard) or "the white of the eye":
the caudal part of the fibrous coat consisting of fibrous tissue. It • 4. CDiary body (Sll.--ee-ar•ee): the thickest portion of Lite
gives shape and protects the inner structures of the eye.
vascular tunic between the choroid and the iris. It consists of the
' ciliary muscle and the ciliary processes.
• 2. Cornea (KOR-nee-a): the transparent anterior part of the
fibrous coat that lets light into the eyeball. Its collagenous fibers
- 5. CHiary muscles: the smooth muscles that alter the shape .....
are organized in a series of layers i~a~ don't interfere with the of tlie lens (accommodation). ({-:;·;
passage of light - an~::-ior epuhetusn, anterior limiting ("&,w- "·-. ... .
~ ...... " ....
546.
'
EVE
.... _..
r:>.
- . ·.
. .. . I
·.:: 9. Pupil
------T·· \ 12. Lens
2. Cornea
Fla. XI-28 - Horse - Anterior part.

of eye - vertical section 4. Cillary body
... .
,,-,;.-..
. ,.-: -:;:_-":.
-,. Ciliary processes: folds on the inner surfaceof the ciliary of neurons: photoreceptors, bipolar neurons. and ganglion neu-
body that anchor the zonular fibers. rons.
7.Suspensory ligaments or zonular fibers: attach the lens to the • Photoreceptors: the light sensitive. first layer of the retina
ciliary body. hold the lens in position. and allow the shape of the Dendrites of photoreceptors are the cones and rods.
lens to change due to actions of the ciliary muscles. Contraction
of the muscles causes the ciliary ring to shrink towards the lens -Rods: dendrites sensitive to dim light (night vision) and
takingtensionoffthefibm. 'Ibisallowsthelenstotakeonaround shapes.
appearance when focusing on close objects. Relaxing the mus·
cles, as when gazing at the horizon. puts tension on the fibers - Cones: dendrites sensiuve to color and sharpness of vision.
which stretches the lens thin.
• Bipolar neurons: the intenriediate layer of the retina receives
I. Iris! die colored, doughnut-shaped part of the eye surrounding .. impulses from the rods and cones and passes them to the neuronal
the pupil It has two layers of muscle reacting to light to increase · ganglia. .
or decrease die si7.c m the pupil. regulaling the amount of light
entt.ring lhe eyeba1J. The circular, SIDOOlh pupHaa smmi&JQ( • Ganglion neurons: the inner layer of the retina which pass the
muscles cons1rict die pupil when stimulated by the parasympa- impulse in their axons to the optic nerve.
thecic fibers. The radiaaog. SIDOOlh mmHJacx djLarpr mum
dilaae the pupil when stimnlated by the sympathclic fibcn. The • 1L Optic disc: the area on die retina where the axons from the
color of the iris is cletamined by lhc nmnbcrt of pigmeiit cells iii ganglion neurons leave the eye as lhe optic nerve. Having no rods
it. A high number gives a brown color. a very low number a blue or cones. this area is called the "blind spot".
cokw. ; . ..
• !• l . .
12. LENS: the transparent. biconvex body of the eye suspended
9. Pupil: die cenaral opening of the iris that Jets light into the eye. bd,ind (posterior) the iris by the suspensory ligaments. It consti-
tutes part of the refractive mechanism of the eye. ~ lens bas a
!}~
10. Retina (RET-i-na)("na 1/0tJS•caat): die inner coat of die eye. dense capsule and. is·ammged in layers of tra~t dead cells.
~· fnnctioning in image f'olntarioo. 1be imna rmtains three layers like an onion.
541
'
EYE
Hcad-549
24. Granula iridica

17. Upper eyelid
23. Third
eyelid
19. Lacrlmal
caruncle
18. Med.
angle
18. Lat. canthus ·

17. Lower eyelid
. '.
Fig. Xl-29 - Horse • Rt. eye

.. ' .
·,
INTERIOR of the EYE: the cavity of the eye. divided by the lens 15. Vitreous chamber: the larger space lying between the tens
and iris into three chambers. and retina. Ir is filled with vitreous humor.
~ ···<
13. Anterior chamber: the space between the cornea and the iris. • 16. Vitreous body: the jelly-like substance that fills the vitreous
.
. . . .. chamber, maintains the shape of the eye and holds the retina in
14. Posterior ~bamber: the space between the iris and lens. place.
• Aqu~ous humor: watery fluid. similar to cerebrospinal fluid. ACCESSORY STRUCTURES or the EYE
filling the posterior and anterior chambers. Aqueous humor is . ..
secreted by the ciliary processes into the posterior chamber, flows 17. Upper and lower eyelids or superior and inferior palpe-
through the pupil into the anterior chamber. and drains at the brae: the two movable folds protecting the rostral surface of the
periphery into the scleral venous plexus which leads to the veins eyeball. The tarsus is a fibrous plate supporting the margin of the
of the eye. It functions to maint3jn the intraocular pressure and as eyelid. Tarsal C'Meibomian") glands open in series onto the . :
a nutrient and w~e tr:iilsport medium. margin of the iid. i:
54~
EVE Head-550
.
.. .
.. ••!,..~
22. Bulbar
conjunctiva
14. Posterior
chamber
Fig. XI-30 - Ox ->A~terior part
of eye - vertical section
.==--- - ~
. . ~-···-· 15. Poster}or

.a cavity I
----= - --.
1. Sciera
2. Comea
S. Choroid
.. 1.2 .....
4. Ciliary body
S. Oiliary m,
. .
6. Ciliary proceaa
1. Suepenaory lig.
8. Iria
9.Pupil
10. Retina
11. Optic disc
12.Lent
a. Cilia
/
b, Palpebral fiuure
. c. Fornix of the conjunctiva
... .
d. Taraal glands
17. Lower eyelid ;
..... :
23. Third eyelid

: ,
Cilia or eyelashes: hairs coming out of the eyelids. There are SPECIES D.FFERENCES j
•'
sebaceous and ciliary glands associated with the cilia.
24. Corpora nigr.a (L. black body) or granula iridica:
18. Lateral and medial commismlres or canthi (sin.= canth us): several black massesat the upper and lower edges of the iris
the point where eyelids meet. The lateral and. medial angJes are· i·n the horse and ruminants. ·
the areas near the canthi.
19. Lacrimal caruncle: a triangular prominence in the medial C~I~~AL . .· .°::_:. .-:· .( .it:, ·.{ti?~:t.· ·{:'.'.;~tirt:~:,
angle. Cataract: the loss of lens transparency, The)nost'conjnl_~·.:/;/
cause. agin~. :, .
15. . . =:·:_~';,::.}=i~\\~:;.t., );jf'J:[\~~f.
f ;i)?~!/i!t
20. Lacrimal puncta: openings into Jacrimal canals on upper and
lower eyelids near the medial angles (pg. 558). Glaucoma': a group of eye diseases characte~ed ·:i~y)1~':_: :,: :'-
increase in intraocular pressure whicb.causes pfiy~ioiogs~f::'.}:
Conjunctiva: the special mucous membrane lining the eyelid and changes in the optic disk and m,i~·defec"l$"in)be·'fi~W:··~t.,~ii'
the eyeball.
. vision. :- ·.· -, . . . ·, . '. :; ::/ i/~t:;:.:){\)f:;:.:}~f:tJ{tt~J
• 21. Palpebral conjunctiva: Jines the inner surface of the eyelid. -Enti'opion: the inversion of~~~ otilj~~~Y.e.Uds~(;\.;.-: :; .:J
tiva onto the eyeball.

.
· . . ..
~:,. _t·i··.,·!J
• 22. Bulbar conjunctiva: the reflection of the palpebral conjunc-
· ·· , ·
.· ~r."fioni the eversion of the
St.·~:~~._:ljord~lum:··mf1arn~ati~:;:~i.1Jk::g1~~$.::!· · :· /:-:;:-;l~IJl~~~
~~·9".~~~i~11
·;;g · h}i;J7Jlll
.
23. Third eyelid (palpebra tertia) or "nictitating membrane": the
fold of conjunctiva, reinforced by cartilage, located between lhe
· wlm.~~,iu~; . · · , · , .
~ eyelid's mr~liaJ angle and the eyeball. Retraction of the eyeball clui~f~'f ttcitiffimii:t%
Enucieation of"thee· ebali: -comrri61t:in
f causes the third eyelid to move across and protect theeyeball, The
&land of the 1hird eyelid is a 1acrimal
. gland.
.
;~i:~~:i.: }:-. .· . . <:.~~tl'l,11-II'!i'JII
..
( • ~.. !.
549
.v
.. .•.. · ..
.
... ' .. . • '"'"... ' ..!it. :
• I
. :.
. '
..
..··.
.
~- ....
~.. . ..
I:'•,•
.
vr-»
~~ . ...', :
. ' .. .
'
EVE - MUSCLES
Hcad-551
A B
Fie. XI-31 - Horse - Eye
- rostr. view
c
D
D
Fla. XI-32 - Horse - Extrinsic eye
muscles - lat. view
..
A
Fia. Xl-33 - Horse - Extrinsic· eye muscles
."
:• ,•
c
A. l>on. oblique m. ( CN JV)
F B. Don. rectua m. (CN III)
C. Lat. rectu1 m. (CN VI)
D. Ventr. rectum. (CN m)
E. Ventr. oblique m. (CN Ill}
F. Med. rec*ua m. {CN Ill).
G. Retractor bulbi m.
(CN IV)
a. Trochlea
E b. Corpora nig?'a
MUSCLES of Che EYE: divided into intrinsic and extrinsic Levatorpalpebrae superioris muscle: does notauach to the eye,
groups. Intrinsic muscles consist of the pupillary sphincter. pupil- but to d1e upper eyelid. It elevates the upper eyelid and is ·
lary dilator and ciliary muscles which deal with size of the pupil innervated by the oculomotor nerve (CNDI).
and· 1ens shape (accommodation). Extrinsic muscles move the .-- , .. .
eyeballandarelQCatedbehindit. Theyarethefourrectusmuscles. Orbicularis oculi muscle: surrounds the eye and functions to
(dorsal, ventral, medial, and lateral},-two oblique muscles (dorsal close it It is innervated by the palpebral branch of the facial nerve
and ventral) and the retractor bulbi muscles. Humans lack a (CNII). ·· , .. _ : .
retractor bulbi muscle. The muscles in the legend are followed by · r· ._
nerves
lhe .in~~ ~m: . . · ... -
Memoryaidi for the 1nnervauonof the exrnnStC muscle of the eye:;.
~,,~~ftik\i\,F'
,,;·-1=;~
1==17ii··
; ~ i \ ' : ;i~!~iJ~; l ~i f ?JI
· ·,s«i'b . '-~-' -'·' =i(fijt~{factit'~i::,:
='=-,,.,,::f-:.:,···Hif=·='··'···=
~:::··:,.
' . ·
Do4(LrRb)~. The lrochlear(CnlV) innervates the muscle ~t =itc·~m.:.:~1;.,~&:,~-. :·'·:\~~ieh·J'-::6:'ihe::b.-~j
~ses
(cnvl)~und,the ~htea <a> - dorsal oblique. Toe abducens . :·Jl<i:,te..·,: ~U~tf::A:· ~uru~0~i· nifibant!~iem:·.is'. .....,..it·· 1,.,~:1
= --.......,a...... !.. :..muscle•L-tabductstheeye
, !;ih"'4Y· -U~a UU!
lateralrectus
, •
the retractor bulbi, Th~ oculomotor (CnIII) innervates~! the

· · · · ..... ···· ·· · .. · · ··· · ·
'
t
Y · g · · · ~~
i:'ot6itul'a.n~,.;:-·uit'rih1seteis·atreciooandtheioit6alcan'tsliut:ttsr
'.~r.~~: tnti-~.;)~~t~-:~~ous·-~mg pf ~cf~i~ : ·: . , ·.<.·,_:=:\. tj:~tI: (
'
.. · ···
sso
EAR Head-552
•
.. . ..
~ .. ...
1. Auricular cartilage <,

/ 1.
a . .• .
•
....
·.,
.. ... .
,:, '
• ·-.!·..
•,t,
. .I • • ... ! ••. l.
·~
·.,,. ·, . ·. {:
::. ....,.
.. ...
~··
"··.
Fig. Xl-35 - Ox • Auricular -carfilage
& skull"
Fig. Xl~34 • Doa -: Auricular cartilage

.
1
a. Helix f. Tragws
b. Apex g. Intertragic notch
c, Med.. crue of heli,c h. Antitragua
.. , . d. Lat.·crus·ofbelix'" -, ' i. Anular cartilage
e -, Pretr~c n.otch ·
.. , ".
EAR (L. auris; G. ous): the organ of hearing and balance. It is external auditory meatus, covered on both sides 'wil;h.skin.
divided into three portions - the outer, middle, and inner.
External auditory meatus: the passageway from the pinna to the
OUTER EAR: the pinna and the external auditory meatus. eardrum.
Pinna (L. a feather, wing, or fin) or auricle: the fleshy appendage
· attached to the side of the skull by muscles and ligaments, making
it very mobile. It functions to catch and direct sound waves toward
the middle ear (ear drum), · ·
t]f:~..
v.. . -.r.".l-~
c14:;."!".:1o
("
~· · 1. Auricular cartilage: the elastic framework of the pinna and
551
EAR
Head~SS3,· .. ·,,.
.. ,
.,
'· . . .
..... ..., .
.: . . ~..
S. Stapes
~·. ·" . ,: .
6. Oval window
2. Tympanic membrane
..
7. Round window
8. Auditory tube
.,
7. Tympanic cavity
Fig. Xl-36 - Middle ear & Inner ear
(schematic)
·.:\ A. Ext. auditory meatua

B. Utricle
C. Saccule
D; Cochlear duct
--
1. MIDDLE EAR or tympanic cavity: the part of the ear inside

of and including the tympanic membrane. It contains the auditory 6. Oval (vestibular) window: one of two openings between the
ossicles and the opening to the auditory tube. middle and inner ear, It is filled by the base of the stapes, which
pushes inward.
2. Tympanic membrane (tim-PAN-ik) or ear drum: the thin,
7. Round (cochlear) window: the other opening between the
semitransparent partition between the external auditory meatus
and die middle ear. The ear drum is vibrated by sound waves. middle and inner ear, located below the oval window and covered
by a secondary tympanic membrane. which bulges outward with
fluid movement.
Auditory osslcles (ear bones): the three bones extending across
the middle ear from the ear drum to the oval window of the
cochlea. They transmit and amplify vibrations of the ear drum to 8. Auditory tube (eustachian tube): the passageway between the
middle-ear and nasopharynx. It functions to equalize pressure on
the oval window. setting up vibrations in the fluid of the cochlea.
both sides of the ear drum, protecting it from rupture. Swallowing
• 3. Malleus (ttie "hammer"): the small bone connecting the inner or yawning opens the auditory tube, allowing air into the middle
ear.
surface of the tympanic membrane and the incus.
CLINICAL ·•. '::'°::

• 4. lncus C'anvil"): the ossicle between the malleus and stapcs. .·:,: -:,
. . . - ·. . ·...
. . . ~,
• S. Stapes ("stirrup"): the smallest bone. in the body. Its base fits Auditory 'tube {8):· a potential path for spread of infectio~· · .
into the oval window. from the nasopharynx to the middle ear. ·
552
'
GUTTURAL POUCHES
\ ....
2. Auditory tube
1. Guttural pouch
(/ 0 .
1
.: .
";.·
.•
Fig. XI-37 - Horse - Head - cross section

2. Pharyngeal opening of
the auditory _tube
t , .. l
a. Lat. compartment of f. Epiglottis

.,.... · the guttural pouch g, Na.aopharynx
... · b'.' Med. compa~tment of h. Larynx
·"' the guttural pouch i.'Baailar part of
c. Stylohyoid bone . ... :., occipita] bone
~· Opposing medial wal~:. :·· · j. Atlas ·
e. R..ectu, capitis & .''' .k. Ma.ndible
Iono-
.... capim
1• mm. :,~i.· ' . . ,~- ". , .•..
· ·...
r ~,l,• t<· ,
. ..:. .
. ;
•'
.·'(
.1j ••
.:
' ... ..
Fig. Xl-38 - Horse • Head - sagittal section
.·,,·.
2. Pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube: small slits in the

lateral nasopharyngeaI wall that open into the auditory tubes,
thus, into the guttural pouches.
553
EAR
Head-5.55
Fig. XI-39 - Bony labyrinth

,...' ,
6. Semicircular canals
I
•
S. Vestibule --
2. Scala vestibull -.
9. Semicircular ducts
10. Ampulla of
semicircular ducts
8. 'Round window
4. Cochlear duct 1. Cochlea \ \ •\ \p I • I '
3. Scala tympani
.
11. Saccule
12. Utrlcle
Fla. XI-4'0 - Membranous labyrinth
Ii\lNER EAR: consists of the bony (osseous) and membranous e Perei~-mpf~: flui.<f within the bony labyrinth, surrounding the
labyrinth. membranous labyrinth.
Bo;~y (osseous) labyrinth (Fig. XI-39): a series of cavities in the ~1e3t~fuir~nous 22byrinth (Fig. XI-40): a series of tubes and sacs
temporal bone; lined with periostcum and divided into the vesti- w!thi!1 L'le bony labyrinth.
bule, cochlea, and semicircular canals. ,.
,
,.
~
• En<lolympb: fluid within the membranous labyrinth.
554
'
EAR Head-556
. . •'.
r•
Fla. Xl-41 - Cochlea - cross section

11. Scala vestibuli
6. Cochlear duct
..
6. Cochlear duct
12. Scala tympanl :
A. Cochlear br, of.veatibulo-

cochlear n. {CN VIII) (Xl-40)
- 12. Scala tympani
B. Vestibular hr. of vutibulo-
·, cochlear n, ( CN VIII)
a. Basement membrane (XI--tl) J

b. Reiaaner'a membrane
e, Tectorial membrane
d. Hair cellt
1. COCHLEA (KQHK;Jee·a) (L. snail shell): the snail shell-like Membranous labyrinth: a membranous tube separating the two
part of the inner ear associated with hearing. The cochlea consists canals of the bony labyrinth and forming the cochlear duel
of an outer bony coil and an inner membranous cochlear duct.
• 4. Cochlear duct or scala medla; the spiral canal extending
Bony labyrinth - cochlea (Fig. XI-30): a bony. spiral canal from the base to the apex of the cochlea, between the canals of the
making a number of turns around a central bony core, the bony labyrinth. It is filled with endolymph and contains the spiral
modiolus (moh-DY-oh·lus). The membranous cochlear duct di- organ.
\ides the bony spiral labyrinth into two channels - the scala
vestibuli and the scala tympani. • Spiral organ or organ of Corti (Fig. XI·33): the organ of
'• hearing consisting of a series of hair cells on the inner surface of
• 2. 'Scala vestibuli: the canal of the bony labyrinth communicat- the membranous labyrinth •.Bending of the free ends of hair cells
ing with the vestibule, the middle ear at the oval window, and the by vibrating endolymph generates amechanical signal ttansmii-
scaJa tympani at the ·apex of.the cochlea ted by the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve (CN
VIII) to the brain where it is perceived as sound. · · · · .: '
"?:;:,. • 3. Scala tympani: the continuation of the scata vestibuli from
ff;} the apex of the cochJea to the-round window.
. ..
555
.: . '•. • ,I' •• ". : . /.
EAR - HEARING
Head-SS7
S. lncus
9. Scala tympani
7. Oval window 4. Malleus
8. Scala vestJbull 6· Stapes
10. Perllymph t, Ext. auditory meatus
:f
12. Spiral organ

15. Endolymph 2. Tympaalc membrane
13. Tectorlal membr2'ne 16. Round window

17. Auditory tube
3. Middle ear
Fig. Xl·42 - Ext. auditory meatus, middle & Inner ear (schematic)
PHYSIOLOGY of HEARING
Sound waves reaching the ear are directed by the pinna to the The round window (16) bulges into lhe middle ear and then back
external auditory meatus (1) and then to the tympanic mem- into the scala tympani, reversing the fluid wave movement
brane (2).
Vibrations of the scala vestibuli and scala tympani genenu.e wave
The tympanic membrane (2) is Vlorated by the sound waves.
motion of the endolymph (15) within die cochlear duct (11),
displacing the hair cells of the spiral organ (12).
The malleus (4). connected to the tympanic membrane•s inner
surface, pas.,es on and amplifies vibrations via the incus (5) and · The movementef the hair cells (14) of the spiral organ devel~
stapes (6) to the oval window (7). • a nerve impulse.
\!ibratior&S of the oval window by the stapes sets the perilympb
The nerve impulse passes through the cochlear branch of the .i.::-'.'
(10) into a wave motion that travels throughthe scala vestibui~ (8)
vestibulococblear nerve (CNVlll) to the hearing centers in the ji,:;
and~~ tympani (9) to the round window (16). brain, ~
SS6
EQUILIBRIUM Head-SS8.
-·. ,. .
-· .b
• ·- · Fla. XI-43 - Membranous labyrinth, utrlcle,
saccule and one ampullae opened
4. Semicircular ducts
Fig. XI-44 - Macula

I"'
3. ~laculae
1. Saccule
I
a. Otolithic membrane Fig. XI-45 - Crista
b. Otolitm
e. Hair celle
d. "Hairs" (kinocilla) ·-
e. Cupula .
-'..· .!
:,:/
VESTIBULE (Fig.Xl-39): the central. expanded portion of the potential. The impulse is carried by the, vestibular branch of the
inner ear. vestibulocochtear nerve to the brain.
Membranous labyrinth of the vestibule {1.2): consists of two SEMICIRCULAR CANALS: the three bony canals arising
sacs called the utricle and the saccule. from the vestibule, arranged at approximately right angles to each
other.
L Saccule: a sac of the membranous labyrinth.
Ampulla: an enlarged swelling at the end o( each semicircular
2. Utricle: connected to the saccule by a small duct. canal.
3. Maculae (MAK-yoo-lee) (sin. = macula): static equilibrium Membranous labyrinth (fig. XI-35): lines the bony labyrinth.
receptors located perpendicular to each other in the utricle and
saccule. 4. Semicircular ducts: the membranous labyrinth of the semicir-
cular canals communicating'with the utricle. ·
Hair (receptor) cells (c): the receptor cells of maculae carrying
impulses to the vestibular branch of the vesubulocochlear nerve ' s. Crista: the receptor organ found in the ampulla of each
(CNVIII). The otolithic (oh·toh-LmI-ik) membrane (a) is a semicircularduct.Composedofhair(receptor)cellsandsupport-
gelatinous layerover the hair cells in which the •• hairs .. (kinocilia) ing cells, it senses motion of the head. The copula (e) is a
(d) are embedded. The otoliths (b) are calcium carbonate crystals gelatinous mass covering the crista.
forming a layer over the otolithic membrane. ·
PHYSIOLOGY of DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM: When the
PHYSIOLOGY of ST,~ TIC EQUILIBRIUM: The otolithic head moves, endolymph pushes the cupula (e) bending the hair
membrane (a) is moved by the weight of the otoliths (b) under the cells (c) which send impulses via the vestibular branch of the
.:~ pull of gravity. Thus, static equilibrium is concerned with "body vestibulocochlear nerve (CNVIII) to the brain, thus, detectmg
i: (head) position" relative to gravity. This bends the hair cells (c) angular (rotational) acceleration or deceleration of the head.
embedded in the otolithic membrane, generating a nerve action
SS?
LACRIMAL APPARATUS
1. Lacr!mal &land
'.
·.
2. Lacrlmal puncta
3. ·Lacrlmal canaliculi
b'
4. Lacrimal sac
; . .,
Fig. XI-46 • Ox - Position of

lacrimal apparatus
b
5. Nasolacrimal duct --~
a. Med. anpe of eye

b. Bone
I
c. Nual mucoaa .~:
r l
d. No•tril -:
\
Fig. Xl-47 • Ox - Lacrimal

apparatus
(schematic)
LACRIJ\1AL A~PARATUS: the group of structures thatmanu- mucosa before opening into the rostral nasal cavity.
facture and drain away tears.
Innervation: parasympathetic innervation by the facial nerve
1. Lacrlmal gland: the pink g)and lying OD thedorsoJateral aspect (CnVII). These fibers are in the area of the middle ear along with
of the eyeball. It releases its seromucous secretions via a number the sympathetic innervation. ·
of ducts onto the surface of the eyeball.
2.Lacrima! puncta: the openings of the lacrimalcanaliculion the

upper and lower eyelids near the medial angle (canthus). ·
3. Lacrimal canaliculi: the small canals from the lacrimal puncta

to the lacrimal sac.
Lacrimal sac: located in a fossa in the lacrimal bone's orbital

surface, it marks the beginning of the nasotacrimal duct ·
S. Nasolacrlmal duct: the duct extending from the lacrimal sac

to the rostral part of the nasal cavity, first traveling in a bony canal
in the lacrimai and maxillary bones and then deep to the na58J
Appendix .'
.,
l i' • •• • .. .... ••
;,.,. • • • .•• l. l ·-: ., .
'
:.
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: •· ! ...
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., .' ',
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' . ,· ·.·.;'· (,
.·
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..
,
559
..
TYPES OF NERVES
SIMPLIFIED FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION of
classification to the actual "complicated" functional classlfica-
NERVE FIBERS. The functional classirecation of nerve fib. tion.
ers is confusing (complicated); with the words special, general.
visceral. and somatic meaning different things for different neu-
rons. Students have ditTteulty learning the complicated method MOTOR (SVE, GSE) and SENSORY FIBERS (GSA): the
.and soon forget it if not constantly. used, For learning purposes. somatic motor fibers (SVE and GSE) supply striated skeletal
this text simpJifies dtis classification by dividing the nerves muscle. The difference between SVE and ~SE is the type of
consisting of cenain fibers into three groups: l. Motor and em~ tissue the muscles from which they innervate are
sensory fibes, 2. ANS fibers. and 3. Special sensory fibers. The derived. GSA fibers carry sensory information from SVE & GSE
simplified and old "complicated" functional CW&fications are supplied muscles. GSA fibers also carry sensory infonnation
from skin and other deep structures other than muscles and are
compared as a reference for books that use the complicated
method. called sensory fibers. The simplified method groups all these
(SVE, GSE & GSA) into motor and sensory fibers.
1. Motor and sensory fibers: somatic motor fibers to skeletal
muscle and somatic sensory fibers from skin and deeper somatic • Special visceral efferent (SVE): motor fibers supplying striated
skeletal muscle derived from embryonic branchial arch meso-
str_uctures (skeletal muscle. skin. tendons. bones, etc.),
- -· . denn. These are found in only a few cranial nerves:
1. ANS fibers (motor and sensory): fibers to and from smooth
viz. - Muscles of mastication (Cn V)
muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands. These fibers, both motor and
- Muscles of facial expression {Cn VII)
sensory fibers, are pan of the autonomic nervous system (ANS).
- Muscles of palate, pharynx. esophagus, & larynx
They are subdivided into fibers of the sympathetic and parasym- (Cnn IX. X & XI)
pathetic divisions. Sympathetic fibers are carried by branches of
- Trapezius muscle (Cn XI)
all spinal and most cranial nerves. Parasympathetic fibers are
restricted to some ~I spinal roots (pelvic nerve) and only a few • General somatic efferent (GSE): motor fibers supplying striated
cranial nerves (Cnn ill. VIl, IX and X):
skeletal muscle with the exception of those derived from branchial
arch mesodenn. Such fibers are found in branches of all spinal and
3. Special sensory fibers: fibers carrying taste, smell, vision, some cranial nerves:
hearing & vestibular function over a few cranial nerves (Cnn I, II.
VII. VIII, and IX.
viz. - Extraocular muscles (Cnn Ill, IV, & VI);
- Muscles of the tongue (Cn Xll)
NERVE FIBERS: nerves can have any combination of these
- Striated muscles of the neck, trunk, tail, diaphragm,
fibers. Nerves that innervate skeletal muscle carry sensory infor-
thoracic and pelvic limbs (spinal nerves)
mation from the muscle. The sensory component is understood.
• Striated sphincters of the urinary and gastrointestinal
but ignored in naming motor nerves. All spinal nerves and most tracts
cranial nerves possessing ANS sympathetic motor fibers are
ignored in this classification. The initials indicate the complicated
• General somatic afferent (GSA): sensory fibers supplying the
functional classification of fibers carried by each type of nerve.
body surface (skin and subcutaneous tissue) as well as deeper
structures (bones, skeletal muscles, tendons, etc.) derived from
• Mixed nerve: a nerve consisting of both somatic sensory and embryonic somatic mesodenn. Fibers are found in branches of all
motor fibers (SVE. GSE, GSA). It also possesses ANS sympa- spinal nerves, but only a few cranial nerves.
thetic motor fibers (GVE).
viz. - Skin of head and face, and lining of the nasal and oral
• Motor nerve (SVE, GSE): a somatic nerve consisting of motor cavities (Cn V)
fibers to (and sensory fibers from) voluntary (skeletal) muscles. - Skin of the rest of body, tendons, ligaments, joi(lt
It also possesses ANS sympathetic motor fibers (GVE).
capsules and skeletal muscles throughout the body. •
• Sensory nerve (GSA): a somatic nerve consisting of only
somatic sensory fibers. It also carries ANS sympathetic motor
ANS FIBERS, motor (GVE) and sensory (GVA): C"11Y motor"'
(GVE) and sensory (GV A) fibers to and from smooth muscle,
·' fibers (GVE).
cardiac muscle. and glands, respectively.
• Special sensory nerve (SV A, SSA): a nerve possessing special
• General visceral efferenrs(GVE): motor fibers supplying smooth
sensory fibers dealing with smell, vision, hearing, or taste (special
senses). muscle, cardiac muscle. and glands throughout the body. This
fiber classification may be subdivided into sympathetic and
parasympathetic components, which are pan of all spinal nerves
• Autonomic (ANS) fibers (GVE. GV A): a pan of all spinal
nerves and some cranial nerves. and most cranial nerves (sympathetic GVE). Some may be
restricted to sacral spinal roots forming the pelvic nerve and a few
cranial nerves (parasympathetic GVE):
Ou!.!.~r.ed below is the relationship of the "simplified" functional ~··
5f>O
'
TYPES OF NERVES
viz. Parasympathetic G VE: / - Blood vessels, glands, & viscera of cranial cervical,
- Smooth muscle of theciliary body and iris (Cn Ill)
c
-... .
- Salivary, nasal, and lacrimal glands (Cnn VII &
IX)
thoracic, abdominal & pelvic regions
• Blood vessels & glands of the limbs
- Smooth muscle of cervical, thoracic & abdominal SPECIAL SENSORY FIBERS (SVA .. & SSA): carry .special
viscera & cardiac muscle (heart)(Cn X) sensory infonnation of taste, smell, vision,.hearing & vestibular···.·
-
-Smooth muscle of the pelvic viscera (pelvic nerve)
Sympathetic GVE (cranial nerves & spinal nerves):

function.
.
·
• Special visceral afferents (SV A): sensory fibers responsible for

- Smooth muscle, glands, and blood vessels of the carrying to the brain informatioi,.related_ to taste and smell. All ··
skin of head, trunk & limbs such fibers are associated with cranial nerves:
- Smooth muscle of cranial, cervical, thoracic &
· -pelvic blood vesselsand viscera' viz. -Taste receptors ("taste.buds") in the tongue, palate &
~ Cardiac muscle of the bean epiglottis (Cnn VII, XI & X)
- Olfactory receptors on the nasal epithelium (Cn I)
• General visceral afferent(GVA): sensory fibers supplying blood
vessels and. viscera. throughout the head ·and body. and the • Special somatic afferent {SSA): sensory fibers responsible for
endodermally-derived mucosa of the respiratory and carrying to the brain information related to vision, hearing and
gastrointestinal tracts caudal to the nasal and oral cavities. Such vestibular function (balance, body position, etc.). All such fibers
fibers are carried in branches of every spinal nerve and probably are associated with cranial nerves; ·
most cranial nerves:
viz. - photoreceptors in the reuna (C~ II)·
viz. - Chemoreceptors and baroreceptors associated with the - Auditory receptors of the cochlea
in the ear inner
internal carotid artery & aortic arch (Cnn IX & X) . (Cn VIII - cochlear part) ..
- Mucosa of the nasopharynx, oropharynx & laryngopha- - Receptors in the vestibular apparatus in the inner ear
ynx (Cnn XI & X) (Co VIII - vestibular part)
. '
Classification Somatic ANS ~, . . Special senses '.

Simplif iecf function al Motor Sensory ANS (Motor & sensory) Spe<;:iatsenory
fiber classlf icatlon I
.. . ,,
Complicated functional (SVE)(GSE) (GSA) (GVE)·(GVA) (SVA) (SSA)
fiber classification
.
.. '
'..
561
'
..
NEUROANATOMY . .
Neuroanatomy and neurology. biscorically, have been portrayed The cerebellum uses proprioceptive infonnation to coordinate
as requiring an elne knowledge to master. This section attempts posture and movement. Loss of propdQCepti.on can indicate a
to simplify neuroanatomy for the future practicing veterinarian, lesion anywhere along this path: in a peripheral nerve. the spinal (
notthefutureneurologist.Abasicunderstandingofthe "skeleton" cord. brain stem, cerebrum. or cerebellum. Postural reactions are
of neuroanatomy will help the "countty" vett.rinarian to 1ocaJize used to evaluate proprioception.
neurological lesions without facy equipment This is an . .
introduction to build on. thus. touches only on a limited number • 7. Superi'scial and deep pain sensory fibers: travel up the
ofstructures.OJK:etheseareleamed,themoreadvancedliterature peripheral nerves. spinal cord, and main stem to the cerebrum to
will hopefully be a daunting to the student LoatJizing lesions be perceived.
in the nervous system requires a b$ic understanding of how the
nervous system is organized, its structures, and connections. The Myotome: the muscles or muscle groups innervated by a spinal
nervous system can be divided into a central nervous system nerve (LMN).
(CNS) which includes the brain and spinal cord; and a peripheral
nervous system consisting of the cranial and spinal nerves and Dermatome: the area of skin innervated by one spinal nerve
ganglia. The nervous system is also organized in a segmental (sensory). Knowing the spinal segments innervating myotomes
fashion consisting of peripheral_spinal and cranial nerves and the and dennatomes can be used to localize lesions.
part of the central nervous system from which they arise.
•• BRAIN: also organized into ~ts. although less distinct.
SPINAL CORD: can be divided. into segments.
. .: : :. .. . !
Functionally, it can be divided into cerebrum, thalamus, brain
stem. vestibular system, and cerebellum.
1. Spinal cord segment and its.pair of spinal nerves: A spinal
cord segment is demarcate.d by the pair of spinal nerves that arise 8. Cerebrum: includes the cerebral hemispheres and basalnuclei.
from it. Spinal nervescoosistof sensory and motor fibers that pass It deals with voluntary motor control, behavior.and mental status.
over the dorsal (sensory) and ventral (motor) roots. respectively. It interprets vision and audition. ptoprioception, and general
sensations.
2. Renex arcs: the functional units of the nervous system. They
are programmed motor actions. A reflex arc consists of a receptor. 9. Tbalam us: a part of the brain stem. Functionally, it is closely
a sensory neuron. usually one or more intemeurons, a motor related to the cerebrum to which it relays information. It also
neuron, and an effector. controls the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the endocrine
system.
3. Lower motor neuron (LMN): the efferent neuron of a reflex
arc lhat connects the spinal cord to the muscles and glands of the 10. Brainstem: functionally includes the midbrain, pons, and
body. The lower motor neuron can be spontaneously active. medulla oblongata
Modification of the reflex arc by higher centers produces specific
actions. • Walking motion reflex centers: located caudal to the midbrain,
Higher centers initiate and stop the motion through descending
4. Upper motor neurons (UMN): pass in descendin& moror motor tracts that cross over in the midbrain. A cat with its
tracts that connect higher centers (the brain and brain stem) with cerebrum removed (decerebrate) can be made to walk/run by
the lower motor neurons of the reflex arcs. They usually act to putting electrodes into the brainstem.
inhibit the spontaneous activity of the lower motor neuron until an
action is desired. They then stimulate the lower motor neuron to • Reticular activating system: Housed in the brain stem, it is
produce a programmed action. concerned with the conscious level (alertness, depression, stupor,
and coma).
S.Ascendingsensory tracts: carry sensory (afferent) infonnation
up the spinal cord to higher·centers in the spinal cord and brain. • Cranial nerves II to XII: associated with the brainstem.
Sensory (afferent) neurons carry such inf onnation as pain,
temperature, touch, and proprioception from the periphery up the 11. Vestibular system: controls posture and balance in relationship
spinal cord to the brain. The main information used clinically is to gravity; and eye movements in relationship to head movements.
superficial pain, deep pain, and proprioception. It is divided into peripheral and central portions.
• 6. Proprioceptive fibers: sense the position of different body • Peripheral vestibular centers: located in Lhe inner ear, they
pans in relationship to each other and to the environment. Th.is consist of the labyrinth, receptors, and the vestibular nerve.
sense is carried from receptors in the skin, fascia, muscles, and
joints up peripheral nerves to the spinal cord. Proprioceptive • Central vestibular portion: includes the vestibular nuclei in the
fibers then travel up the spinal cord to pass through the brain stem brain stem ar.d centers in the cerebellum.
to reach the cerebellum and cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex
interprets this information and sends motor information dq-:;r1 12. Cerebellum: concerned with coordinating movements, but
descending tracts to reflex arcs to make adjusun~'1ti in posture. does not initiate them. It also hascennections to the vestibular
562
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Fig. NS-I -Nervous system (schematic)

•
•
l •••
I' 4. Upper motor
neurons (UMN)
-I- 2
•
I 3. Lower motor_ _.
••
•
/
1. Spinal cord segment and its
pair of spinal nerves
• 7. Deep pain sensory fibers
8-12. Brain .
I neuron {LMN) f"'-.
2. Reflex arcs
3. Lower motor neuron (LMN)
4. Upper motor neurons (UMN)
8.Cerebrwn
9. Thalamus
10. Brainstem
r-6 ) 7
S. Ascending sensory tracts 11. Vestibular system

• 6. Proprioception 12. Cerebellum
•7.Superficialpainsensoryfibers
,.,,-:- · system to help coordinate balance and posture. • Paraparesis or paraplegia: only the pelvic limbs.
D~FINITIONS: Once the organization and functions of the Flaccid paresis or paralysis: decreased orno tone with paresisor
different pans of the central nervous system are understood, paralysis due to lesions of LMNs.
lesions affecting each pan can be discerned. First, some terms
need to be understood: , Spastic paresis or paralysis: extra tone {hypertonicity) with
paresis or paralysis due to lesions of UMNs.
Analgesia: the absence of pain perception.
Hypertonicity: excessive muscletone (not tetany which is rigid,
Depression: an awake animal lhatis relatively unresponsive to i~ fixed muscle contraction).
environment.
Ataxia:alackofCO<X"dinatedmovemen~withorwithoutspmticity
Stupor: an animal that sleeps unless aroused by a strong stimulus. pr paresis. Lesions of the entire nervous system neuroaxis may
cause ataxia. Although not specific, it shows up frequently and is
Coma: an-unconscious animal that can't be aroused. Complete indicative of the nervous system.
disconnection of the reticular activation system from the cerebral
cortex causes coma and is usually due to a severe brain stem Tremor: small, rapid, alternating movements at rest.
lesion.
• Intention tremor: a tremor that becomes worse with iniriarion
Paralysis: the complete loss of motor activity. · of a movement and disappears at rest. It indicates ceret eUar
disease.
Paresis (weakness): the partial loss of voluntary motor activity.
Paresis and paralysis are due to partial or complete loss, Myoclonus (flexor spasm): coarse jerking moments of muscle
respectively, of voluntary motor stimulation due to damage of groups at rest,
either UMNs or LMNs. The suffix -paresis and -plegia are used
to describe paresis and paralysis, respectively: Dysmetria (Gr. dys, abnonnal + metron, measure): improper
• Monoparesis or monoplegia: one limb is involved. measuring of distance in muscular activity, either too short or too
. . .. -~. • Hemiparesis or hemiplegia: both limbs on one side. long a range of motion ( e.g., goose stepping). Cerebellar dis~
. ·:.
.;
• Tetraparesis/quadraparesis or tetraplegia/ quadriaplegia: causes dysmetria (especially hypennetria) .
all four limbs are involved.
563
LMN I UMN- .
UMN or LMN: spinal cord and peripheral injuries wi!J have extended limb with spastic paresis or paralysis.
characteristic signs. The concept of UMN and LMN helps
differentiate peripheral from central lesions; and, if central, helps
Damage to the spinal cord will result in dysfunction to the area C
,/ .
innervated (LMN damage), and hyperactivity to muscles ...
localize the level of the lesion. The central nervous system will
not regenerate. If the cord is severed, f unction below the lesion
innervated from segments caudal to the lesion (U.MN damage).
will not be restored. Partial damage to the spinal cord may recover
in time, but after a certain period it will not improve. Damage to a spinal cord segment will show LMN, not UMN,
signs to peripheral structures its reflex arc innervates. This is
. . because UMN signs require intact LMNs.
LOWER MOTOR NEU.RON (LMN): the final .common
pathway from the central nervous system (brain or spinal cord) to LMN disease signs {thumb down)
a muscle or gland. These arejhe motor parts of the reflex arcs. The • Decreased or absent tone (hypotonia toatonia)
somatic nervous system has one LMN perreflex arc, the autonomic • Decreased to absent reflexes (hyporeflexia to areflexia)
nervous system has twoLM'Ns (preganglionicand postganglionic). • Flaccid paralysis
The cell bodies of a LMNs are located in th~ brain and spinal cord. • Rapid atrophy (neurogenic atrophy) within 5-7 days
They leave the CNS over the ventral roots, spinal nerves, and
cranial nerves to reach the periphery ..
UMN disease signs (thumb up) .
.. • Normal to increased muscle tone (normotonia to hypertonia)
LMN damage: can affect the nerve in the periphery or its cell • Normal to increased reflexes (hyperflexia)
~Y in the spinal cord segment or brain stem, causing Joss of • Spastic paresis to paralysis
-activity of the muscle or gland innervated, resulting in paresis or • Slow (disuse) atrophy
paralysis. This is a flaccid type ("limp as a dish rag") paresis or
paralysis due to loss of the spontaneous stimulation of the LMN.
SHIFF·SHERRINGTON SYNDROME: hyperextension of the
Partial or complete damage to a lower motor neuron results in fore limbs with lesions to the thoracic spinal cord. Neurons (border
decreased (hypotonia) to no tone {atonia) and decreased reflexes cells), located in the L1_. spinal cord, ascend to the forelimb
{h¥pore0exia) to absent reflexes (arehexia). LY"T damage results centers to synapse on intemeurons (Renshaw). These intemeurons
in fast atrophy (neurogenicattophy) within one week. These signs synapse on and inhibit extensor lower motor neurons in the
are very valuable in localizing lesions. (With lower motor neuron cervical enlargement, This inhibition of the extensors coordinates
dysf unction point your thumb to the fl9()r to indicate that everything
decreases or disappears). · walking movements between the limbs of quadrupeds. Lesions to
this 'pathway remove inhibition, so the forelimbs are slightly
. ·1'
hyperextended. Lower and upper motor neurons are still intact to /rf
UPPER MOTOR NEURON (UMf'4: a central nervous system the thoracic limb. therefore, thisisneitheranupperorlowermotor \'~ I.' ••
neuron that effects lower motor neut6ns. UMNs are responsible neuron sign. This is the only time a 'spinal cord injury will show
fOT initiating and maintaining CODSCiOUS movements and for tone signs cranial to the point of the injury. It is usually a bad sign
in the extensor muscles to maintain posture. Located totally in the prognosucany, indicating a serious lesion of the spinal cord . The
central nervous system, they project down descending motor hind limb would show UMN signs (activity goes up) when Shiff-
tracts onto lower motor neurons, either ·.:directly or through Sherington signs are seen in the forelimb. This often causes
intemeurons. The ultimate UMNs are in the cerebral cortex confusion in localization.
(voluntary center, the seat of true consciousness). There are two
populations of UMNs • excitatory and inhibitory. The excitatory UMN/ LMN • locali1.ation of lesions: Knowing the difference
UMNs, under normal conditions,.~ kept inactive, thus, the between LMN and UMN signs can be used to localize a. spinal
descending tracts usually inhibit~'MN activity. LMNs are 'cord lesion. LMN signs always take preference to UMN signs
spontanoo~s!y active without the input of UMN. If the UMNs are clinically. If both are affected, the signs will be LMN because
damaged,
. the Ll\.!lNs increase their
. activity. UMN signs require intact LMNs.
UMN damage causes loss of the a6ility io initiate voluntary Example 1:
'motor activity, and possibly uncontrolled hyperactivity due to
decrease of inhibition on LMNs. (The~efoie;point your thumb up Signs: flaccid paralysis, absent reflexes, decreased tone and rapid
with UMN damage to indicate that.~vi~'goes up). In UMN atrophy to the pelvic limbs with normal thoracic limb.
diseases tne tone will be.normal to~~. Reflexes will tend
to be normal or increased (normoreflexia or hyperreflexia). They .' .
Indicates a L4 -SI spinal cord lesion (Area 4) (LMN signs to plevic
will show a spastic paresis or paralysis, The atrophy is a disuse limbs).
type (not neurogenic ), because the I;MNs are intact. These LMNs
still stimulate the muscles through reflexes, thus, the atrophy will Example 2:
have a slow onset An animal with a minimal UMN loss and the
ability towall; rnaynot deveiopsignificant atrophy. To compensate Signs: spastic paresis.-incre.ased reflexes and tone to the left peiv'c
for posture, the extensors h~ve more tone than the flexors, So with
less 01,. upper mtr:-.Jr ll':.'.•.~.;n input
. limb and flaccid paralysis, increased reflexes and tone to the left
orr I ewer motor neurons toe
.
thoracic h~ilb. .. ,.~
extensors me f2:c~~i:.iltc.J. mere lh&ri u1e fle:ii.ors, resulting in an ........·:.. :; '.
564
/
.
LMN/UMN
, .. .
( ··4·
.
. ...
Area2
Area4
Area3
~ <, \ C,T2 \
' Ti-Li I L,S1
I
I
•
·.. .. .
.
:·· ..
· UMN·-
.,.
Upper motor neuron
LMN-Lowermotorneurons
Fig. NS - 2 -· Locali7.ation - ~N/LMN • : .. ·~4-·
{'~;.,
u~·''r··.::·
,-..1,:;-...
"'.:"·.·.:: :. L-------------~--,---------:----------~- . . . . . . . .~-~-,,..· ·---
~t • • •
.. .;.
Indicates a unilateral C -T spinal cord lesion (Area 2) on the left reflexes and tone 'in the pelvic limbs.
(LMN signs. to the left th~cic limb and UMN signs to left pelvic
limb). Indicates: a T -L spinal cord lession (Area 3 )(UMN signs in
pelvic limbs a:id ~ Shiff-Sherington sign in Jhe lhoraci~fun~) ..
Example 3:
Signs: spasticparesis,inc~sedreflexesandincrea.sedtonetoall
limbs. Table 1 LESSION - LMN/UMN • LOC.AUZATION •
.
Indicates a C1•5 spinal cord lesion (~rea 1) ( UMN signs to all Lesion 1 - transect spinal cord from C,.s:
limbs). • No LMN signs to either limb
• UMN signs & proprioceptive deficirs to all limbs
Example 4:
Lesion 2 - in cervical enlargement, C, T 2:
Signs: ~tic paresis, increased reflexes and iaereased tone to the •· LMN to thoracic limb
pelvic limbs, and normal thoracic limbs. • UMN signs & proprioceptive deficits to pelvic limbs
Indicates a unilateral T. -L spinal cord lesion (Area 3) on the left Lesion 3- damage in T3L3:
(LMN signs to the left ~cic limb and UMN signs to left pelvic • No effect on thoracic lilnb (+/- Shiff-Sherington)
limb). • UMN signs & proprioceptive deficilS to pelvic lilnb
Example5 Lesion 4 - damage to L, - S1

A~. • No effect on thoracic limb
~~ ::· ~~~; Signs: hyperextended thordCic limb and spastic paralysis, increased • LMN to pelvic limb. even if UMN are also damaged
~t"
S65
SENSORY
Cutaneus trunci m.
Lat thoracic n.
Fig. NS- 3 - Cutaneous trunci reflex (schematic)
OBSERVATION or PAIN: may be diagnostic. Sensory loss to Proprioception damage: loss of proprioception is usually the.
a dermatome (which .would occur with damage to a peripheral first sign in spinal cord compression. Therefore. testing
nerve along with LMN damage) can be used to localize lesions. proprioception will indicate problems before other signs (UMN
Assessment of pain is in three parts: (1) Presence or location of and LMN) are present. Ataxia may be noticed which is different
pain. (2) Perception of superficial pain. and (3) Perception of deep from cerebellar ataxia. The animal doesn't know the position of its
pain. 'History and palpation will help locate pain. Lesions to the limbs, thus, can't adjust them. The animal may stand with its distal
nervous -system will cause decrease in pain distal to the lesion. limbs spread .(base wide stance), may knuckle over, and may
Therefore, palpate from distal to proximal. Palpate just strong delay initiation of movement. For localization. losses of ..- ·
enough to elicit pain. Palpate the limbs and the trunk in a proprioception are interpreted the same as LMN/UMN signs (i.e., ~
systematic manner. loss of proprioception in the thoracic limb indicates a lesion in the
• Limbs - palpate from distal to proximal. spinal cord segment Cs-T1 or cranial to Cs>·
• Trunk- palpate.
" Vertebral pain - palpate. Cutaneous trunci reflex or panniculus reflex: a normal reflex
• Lumbosacral region - press over the lumbosacral junction. where a stimulus (e.g., a fly) to the lateral trunk causes the
or extend the hip to stretch the ischiatic nerve. cutaneus trunci muscle to twitch. Sensory fibers extend from their
• Neck - flex and extend the neck carefully. dermatomes (bands of skin sensation) obliquely craniodorsally to
synapse in the lhoracolumbar spinal cord segments. Ascending
Ascending sensory tracts: carry sensation up the spinal cord to sensory tracts extend up the spinal cord to the cell body of the
higher centers. Clinically, the loss of these sensations (superficial lateral thoracic nerve in spinal cord segment c,. The lateral
pain. deep pain and proprioception) can help localize lesions in thoracic nerve supplies motor innervation to the cutaneous tnmci
spinal cord compression and provide prognostic indicators. muscle. The dermatomes are one or two venebrae caudal to the
point of origin of the sensory nerves. If a panniculus response is
Superficial pain sensory fibers: These are lost about the same absent caudally and then appears cranial to a specific point (e.g.,
time as motor functions. Superficial pain perception is evaluated transverse plane through L1) the lesion is in the spinal cord up to
by using a gentle pinch of a pair of hemostats to the skin. If two vertebrae cranially (at T12-T13)~ This response is not found
superficial pain is perceived, deep pain will also be perceived. over the sacral or cervical areas.
Perception causes a behavioral change such as looking toward the
stimulus or attempts to bite. A withdrawal of the structure (limb) Hyperesthesia: abnormal increase in sensitivity. Lesions to a
from the stimulus is a reflex, it DOES NOT require perception. spinal cord segment will cause a focal hyperestbesia to the
dennatome supplied.
Deep pain: the first sensory fibers to show signs and the last to
disappear (first to show, last to go). Loss of deep pain is a bad Diffuse or multif'ocal pain: often due to inflammation.
prognostic sign. Deep pain is evaluated when superficial p~n is
absent Increase the pressure of the superficial pain pinch and Focal pain: often due to compression of the spinal cord or nerve
watch for a behaviora! change (attempt to bite). . ,·:
root (/:
'
\. •'
/
PERIPHERAL NERVES
PERIPHERAL NERVE LESIONS: problems localized to Sympathetic nerve damage: although not part of the brachial
(';~t-;, only ~ne limb (monoperesis) by LMN signs. The problem is in the plexus, their preganglionic fibers travel over the roots of the
\..: :,'; 'J specific nerve roots, nerve or group of nerves or muscles they brachia! plexus and can be damaged with the brachial plexus
·' . ::-' innervate. Thesecan be evaluated by knowing the motor and the nerves. Signs are miosis, ptosis, and enophthalmia (Hornel's
cutaneous innervation of the limbs, then mapping the deficits. syndrome). ·
~~etoindividual nerves will result in little gaitabnonnalities.
except in the case of the radiaJ, femoral. ischiatic, or peroneal Avulsions or the roots or the brachial ple"us: the pulling off of
nerves. All peripheral nerve damage.will show Joss of cutaneous the spinal roots from the spinal cord due to ttauma (hit by car).
sensation (analgesia) to the dennatomes they innervate. Signs exhibited will depend on th~ numberof roots involved. If all·
rootsofC,-T1areinvotved,thelimbwillbeparalyzedanddragon
BRACHIAL PLEXUS the ground, along with Joss of sensation distal to the elbow.
Suprascapular nerve damage (C"' ): causes marked atrophy to LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS:

the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles. This is called . ,
"sweeney" in horses. Before atrophy. this will cause lateral Obturator nerve damage (L44 ): will cause lateral slipping on a
slipping of the shoulder in the horse. slick surf ace due to loss of adductor muscle
. . control.
. ..
Musculocutaneous nerve damage (Cu): analgesia to medial Femoral nerve damage (Lu): will result in severe gait deficits;
surface of the forelimb and inability to flex the elbow. the animal can't bear weight on the pelvic limb because it can't
extend dle stifle. Analgesia occurs on the medial surface of the
Radialn~vedamage(C,·T2):dependingontbelevelofdamage. Iimb,
will show different muscular deficits. If above the innervation of
the triceps brachii muscle. the animal will not be able to bear lschiatic nerve damage (L5-S2 ): results in knuckling over
weighton thelimbbecauseitcan'textend the elbow.and the paw (peroneal nerve). but has the ability to bear weight (intact femoral
will knuckle over. Damage distal to the triceps brachii will result nerve). There will be loss of sensation below the stifle, except on
in knuckling over because the paw can't be extended, Analgesia the medial side (saphenous nerve). ·
will be to the dorsal surface of the paw and forelimb in the dog.
In horses, the radial nerve only reaches the carpus. Peroneal damage (L5·S2 ): results in knuckling over due to
inability to extend the digits. Cutaneous sensation is lost to the
r.· -~. Median nerve damage (C1• T 2): will haveliUle gait abnormalities, dorsal surface of the leg and pes.
:· maybe a liute sinking of the carpus and metacarpophalangeal
joints. There will be partial loss of analgesia to the palmar surface Tibial nerve damage (L5·S2): results in dropping otthe J)ockand
of the paw. analgesia to the plantar side of the paw. ·
Ulnar nerve damage (C, •T2): analgesia to the lateral digit (V) of . SYSTEMIC or MULTIFOCAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
the paw. DISEASE: do not have signs consistent with.a single focal lesion;
have diffuse or multifocal signs (e.g., inflammation, nutritional, · · ·
Table 2 - Peripheral nerves - thoracic limb toxic. or metabolic diseases). Inflammation usually causes diffuse
or multif ocal pain.
Nerve & spinal cord Clinical sign of damage
segment Table 3 • ~eripheral nerves - pelvic limb
SuprascapuJar C'"' Motor - atrophy of supraspinatus Nerve & spinal cord Clinical sign of damage
and infraspinatus muscles · segment
Musculocutaneous C'"' Sensory loss - med. side of limb
Motor - inability to flex elbow Obturator Lu Motor - lateral slipping
Radial C6·T2 Motor • Femoral Lu Motor - inability to bear weight
High - inability to bear weight Sensory loss - med. limb (saphenous)
Low - knuckling ~ver Sciatic Ls·S2 . Motor - nuckling over
Sensory loss- dors, forelimb (only Sensory loss- aJl leg and pes, except
to carpus in horse) med. surface
Median C,-T3 Motor - little effect Peroneal L S ·S2 Motor - knuckling over
Sensory loss, partial - palmar pa" Sensory loss - dorsal leg & pes
Ulnar C1-T3 Motor - little affect
Sensory - analgesia fifth digit Tibial Ls·S2 Motor • little affect
. . ..
-,: "lt' •
---:t. '• Sympathetic C,-T.., Miosis, ptosis & enophthalrnia Sensory loss - plantar leg and pes
-:_~:. ..·
567
· BRAIN !,~ . . .
. I.. •
. . .
.~...
·, .
. ,Lesions of the brain.stem (midbrain, ponsandmedullaoblongata): stem, resulting in postural deficits (proprioception) and paresi§ .
by aff'ecting the reticular activation system, will decrease degrees (UMN). Depression is also seen with central lcsions:Peripheral ,
of consciousness from depression to stupor to coma. Deficits in vestibular disease willnotproduceUMN sigm(paresis). Peripheral ;'_.-
cranial nerves Ill to XII, arising from the brain stem may indicate lesions also don't affect proprioceptive fibers, but th~ postural '·:. .
brain stem lesions. ·Walking motion reflexes are generated in reactions appear abnormal (ataxic) because of loss of balance.
centers caudal to the midbrain. Higher centers initiate the motion
through descending motor tracts that cross over in the midbrain. Cerebellar lesions: causeincooroination of movements (ataxia),
Th~refore, the midbrain is a clinical localization point for most intention tremors, and abnormal movements of the head and
motor tract systems. Lesions rostral to the midbrain (cerebro- body. Lesions can alsocaasesignsot vestibular disease, including
diencephalic disorders) affect the contralateral (opposite) side of head tilt and nystagmus,
the body with proprioceptive deficits, but a normal gait, Lesicns
caudal to themidbrain (brain stem and spinal cord) causeipsilaleral Cerebral lesions to the cerebral hemispheres or basal nuclei:
(same side) proprioceptive deficits with an abnonnal gait. An may produce alterations in behavior and seizures •. A nonnal gait
animaJ withanonna).gaitand proprioceptive deficits on both sides (the walking centers are caudal to the midbrain) with abnonna1
has a lesion in the midbrain. ·
postural reactions may be seen because proprioceptive fibers pass
. to the
cerebral cortex. Damage to the occipital (vision) iobe will
Lesion to the vestibular system: affects the ability to control result in loss of vision, with n~al pupillary responses.
.postureinreJationshiptogravity;andeyell!Ovementsinrelationship
to head movements. Head tilt, nystagmus, ataxia, possibly circling, Lesions to the thalamus: ftmctionally related to the ceiebrum,
andsuabismusareaJlsignsofvestibuJardisease.CentralvestibuJar showing similar signs. Autonomic and endocrine abnonnalities
disease will alsoaffectother motor and sensory centers in-the brain (polyuria, polydypsia, altered sleep patterns) are alsopossible.
Table 4 - Lesions of brain • signs

,,•:
Brain stem: Proprioceptive deficits with a normal gait indicate a lesion in or rostral to lhe midbrain
~
· · .Proprioceptive deficits with abnormal gait indicate a.lesion caudal to the midbrain r-::·
··.Proprioceptive deficits (unilateral) and normal gait, a lesion rostral to midbrain on contralateral side .'4..
t v., "..
• _Proprioceptive deficits (bilateral) and normal gait, a lesion probably in the midbrain
• Proprioceptive deficits (unilateral) and abnormal gait, a lesion caud. to the midbrain on ipsilateral side
• Decreased levels of consciousness (depression, stupor, coma)
• Deficits in cranial nerves III - XII
Vestibular system: • Head tilt, nystagmus, asymmetric ataxia with possibly circling, and strabismus
Central vestibular disease
• Postural deficits (proprioception)
· . • Paresis (lT~ .. _
• Depression' . : --: . :
Peripheral disease · '·
• No paresis
• Postural deficits (balance)
• No depression
Cerebellum: • Incoordination of movements (ataxia), tremors, abnormal movements of the head

• Vestibular disease signs, including head tilt and· nystagmus
Cerebrum: • Alterations in behavior

• Seizures
• Normal gait with abnormal postural reactions (proprioception Joss)
• Loss of vision (occipital lobe) with normal pupillary responses ·
Diencephalon: · • Cerebral signs • .

· • Autonomic and endocrine abnormalities (polyuria, polydypsia, altered sleep patterns)
568
/
NEUROLOGIC TESTS
We discussed the segmental c;;s~ .aization of the nervous system, to all four limbs, looking fora=;j··)~,e!.ry between any limb and the;
~ '
. ·. the general functions of each segment, and the signs that lesions other three limbs. With a large animal, lift one limb and push so
'• produce at each segment, Now we will discuss ways to evaluate the animal has to hop on the other limb, or push it laterally while
different clinical signs. standing and walking so it has to step laterally. Pulling the tail
laterally can also be used to test the rear limb. This provides
POSTURAL REACTIONS: although not very specific, they are information about motor, sensory or cerebellar circuitry.
very sensitive indicators of abnormalities. If an animal doesn't • Weakness may result in collapse after just standing or after one
have a profound gait deficit or ot;>v,jeus paralysis or paresis, or two hops. ··.
postural reactions can establish the presence of slight paresis • Proprioceptive lesion: results in extremely delayed initiation of
(weakness) or a proprioceptive deficit They .d2!121 localize the the hop. ; - . ·
problem. All postural reactions should be done on carpet or grass • Cerebellar lesion: results in an exaggerated step when they hop.
to keep the animal from slipping, Some of these reactionsdon't This is because the main cerebellar output is inhibitory.
belong together physiologically speaking, but are convenient to
do at the same time.
Screening postural reactions: hopping and proprioceptive

positioning are more sensitive than other postural reactions. If
they are normal, all other postural reactions will be normal.If they
are abnormal, checking other reactions may be helpful. .··.
Proprioceptive: ·posi~i~~ing: tests proprioceptive (sensory)

information passing up the spinal cord to the cerebral cortex.
Place the foot knuckled over (the dorsal. surf: ~ace
. . ,.,of.the
\ . ·:. paw down)
'
on the floor. The animal should immediately reposition the foot

to the normal position. To avoid touching the limb of. small
animals, the animal'spaw can be placed on a';f9lded, pi~e of
paper. Hold theanimal's head up so they can't see its foot, and , .·
slide the paper laterally. The animal should immediately replace
~-- the limb properly. Proprioception tests are extremely sensitive
? }t· ·. tests, especially IO evaluate the integrity of CNS proprioceptive
';,._ · ·::·· tracts. If there is a consistent deficit with this test, there is a
nervous system problem. ,.
• A normal gait and proprioceptive lo~tindicates a lesion rostral
to the midbrain; it can be in. the sen~ry cortex. 1·
• Proprioception is the first thing los1tin spinal cord compression. . ... _ ;__ NA • S • Hopping reaction · ·
fig. ,. - __.,.I
:
If the animal has a normal gait and proprioceptive loss is indicated

\ l' by the hoppingreflex, the lesion isrosualto themidb~n1 Itthere
-' isan abnormal gait and proprioceptive loss, the~ the lesion is ir!
'j
/. to
or caudal ilie midbrain. An animal that shows deficits in the
., ,.,. .-./ /
·// . a
right forelirrihhoppµig reaction may have lesion on the left si<:Je,
?.r:
._(
~.. . -./ I I' CJ rostral to the midbrairi; or a lesion on the nghtside, caudal to the
midbrain.
These two screening pos~ reactions. hopping and proprio-

ceptions, are the most~vetests. If normal, the other postural
reactions will be normal. Ii'abnormal, then the follow jng postural
Fig. NA- 4 - Proprioceptlve positlonlng tests can be perfonned.
"J. •
. •
.
. '
Extensor postural thrust: f,olding the animal up by its annpits,

· Hopping reaction: evaluates motor function, proprioception · lower the hindlimbs to the floor. Norinal animals will extend the
· (both conscious and unconsciousj.and cerebellar function.Thus, rearlimbs andmove them c~dally:·: Pressing down may cause
although very sensitive, it doesn't localize a lesion . .Suspend the collapse in mild 'hindlimb wesis (paraparesis).
dog (arm under belly) and allow one limb to touch the ground. • Weakness, may result in collapse .
,·~~
,~.. Force weight on the supporting limb to check for' weakness, while • Proprioceptive iesioos.: result in extremely delayed initiation
:\/:;; supporting the chin. Hop the animal forward and laterally. Do this of the caudal movement. '
~t/
569
:
, .
NEUROLOGIC. TESTS
'
hopping gait (the fmeleg jumps fmward and takes position and
then the rear limb jumps forward and takes position).
• ~lays or improper placement may i~icate a proprioceptive f
ICS1ons. · ·~
• Stumbling or collapse may indicate a motor lesion.
• A cerebellar lesion may be indicated by a hyperexaggerated gait.
PLACING REACTIONS: Placing reactions and postural

reactions test fm- different things. They are placed together
0 because they are convenient to perform together. Placing reactions

are highly specific tests. unlike postural reactions. The two types
of placing reactions are tacti:e and visual. .. · ·
Visual placing reactions: sensitive evaluations of visual deficits,

not proprioception. A sighted dog moved toward a table will
anticipate it by reaching out A dog held in a vulnerable position,
not cuddled, will be more likely try to reach for the table. Do this
Fig. NA - 6 - Wheelbarrowing on all four limbs.
• Tests the visi°" ~way
Wheelbarrowing: tests the integration of the forelimb walking Tactile placing: belongs in minal cord evaluation because it
mechanism. Suspend the animal on its forelimbs by elevating the specifically tests for seasation. Hold the dog' s head up so it can't
abdomen. Push on each shoulder to evaluate strength. Walk the
animal forward. The animal should have a normal, alternating
gait Wheelbarrowing tests motor, proprioception and cerebellar
fW1CliPl,1§, Problemsmaybecenb'alorpeiipheral. Wheelbarrowing
should be done with the animal ·sighted and unsighted (head
ele~ or blindfolded). Vis.ion may compensate for placing a
limb.
• Strength
• loo>ordination wilh hypennetric steps seen in cerebellar disease. .. '.,.
\
• Abnormal orde~yedlimb placement is typical of proprioceptive
probtem.s,,
• Wobbler syndrome: common in Thoroughbred horses,

G~t Danes. and Dobermans. It is a cervical vertebral column
abnormality, wliich ultima,tely results in minimal to severe
compression on the spinal cord. If minimal, there may be a partial
lossof sensory and motor function. Severe deficits in lhe hindlimb,
but nothing obvious in the forelimb. may be seen even though the
white matter tracts to the forelimb are also effected. If a young
Great Dane comes in with rear limb deficits, the first rule out ~ Fig. NA - 7 .. Tactile placing
"wobbler" due to breed.predilectio]'.l. Wheelbarrqwing an animal
blindfolded will bring out subtle deficits (forelimb) lhat sighted see the table, and touch the dorsal surface of its forepaw.to a table
wheelbarrowing doesn't. If a dog with hind limb deficits stumbles edge. The animal should place its paw on the table. This tests the
on its thoracic limbs when bli.n<l .fQ.l~, it is tetraplegic, not ~l!~ry branch of lhe radial nerve (specific tesl). Touching the
paraplegic. To bloc~ vision, sorn:~.~ple eleva~ the head, but la~ side of the fifth digit tests the ulnar nerve. It is harder to test
never elevate the head if a nee~ lesion is.suspected. Two human on the hindlimbs, because when their dorsal surface touches. the
eye patches. a surgical mask, or ev,~n you; WUi.d will do.nicely. animal will reach with its front limbs.
• Tests specific sensory nerves
Hemis.tanding • hemiwalking:. done if weakness on oneside
(hemiparesis) is found with other postural tests. Support one side RIGHTING REFLEX: tests the vestibular apparatus. Normal
of lhe body and both limbs on that side, while the animal stands connections between the vestibular apparatus by way of the
and walks on the opposite limbs. Then alternate to test both sides eighth cranial nerve (vestibulocochlear) to the spinal cord are
of the body. A normal dog should be able to stand this way for 3 required. An animal placed on its side will usually try to maintain
minutes (but they usually get bored in 20 seconds). Have an at least stem a! recurnbency. This is a specific test for the eighth
assistant press down on lhe hind limb and then the forelimb to cranial nerve, not proprioception. •·
assess strength. Then move it forward to see an alternating • Tests vestibular pathway
570
NEUROLOGIC TESTS
Extensor motor neuron
Fig. NA - 8 - Myotatic (stretch) reflex
SPINAL REFLEXES: controlled by reflex arcs, consisting of a segment or whole peripheral nerve.
sensory neuron, usually at least one intemeuron, and a motor • Normal - intact reflex arc, including its spinal cord segment
neuron (LMN). They receive input from higher centers by way of This doesn't say that the spinal cord.(UMNs) is intact cranial to
UMNs and send sensory infonnation up the spinal cord to higher this segment
centers. They d.Q ru}l require higher center input and will be
present even if the spinal cord has been severed cranial to the • Extensor carpi radialis reflex: a stretch reflex that tests lhe
reflex. The animal is put in lateral recumbency to evaluate the radial nerve, its roots, and spinal cord segments C,-T2• With the
spinal reflexes. animal in lateral recumbency, the elbow is supported with the
elbow and carpus flexed. Tap lhe extensor muscles just distal to
Myotatic or stretch renex . the elbow. This will result in extension of the carpus. Less reliable
than the quadriceps reflex, it is the most reliable myotatic reflex
•Patellar, quad~iceps or knee jerk reflex: A stretch reflex that of the frontlimb.
tests the femoral nerve, its nerve roots, and spinal cord segment • Exaggerated • UMN disease cranial IO C.,
L4-6. With the dog in lateral recumbency, the stifle is supported • Absent or depressed - LMN disease, can be due to dis,::uption
with the tarsus slightly :lexed. The patellar ligament is struck with anywhere in the reflex arch, sensory fiber. motor fiber, spinal cord
an instrumentjplexor). There should bea brisk contraction of the segment or whole peripheral nerve.
quadriceps muscle, causing extension of the stifle. Taping the • Normal - intact reflex arc, including its spinal cord segment.
patellar ligament stretches the muscle spindle. The sensory, nerve There may still be UMN disease cranial to C1•
passes to the spinal cord and synapses directly on a motor' nerve
(without an intemeuron) which causes the muscle to contract. Other stretch reflexes are the cranial tibial, gastrocnemius, triceps
• Exaggerated with or without clonus - UMN disease cranial to L4 and biceps reflexes. The books say these are harder to elicit and
-:"'. • Absent or depressed - LMN disease, can be due IO disruption more difficult to assess. The withdrawal (flexor) reflexes that
• : . ~-.1 anywhere in the reflex arch, sensory fiber, motor fiber, spinal cord
·~ -: r
.:......:: ~~
follow are easier to evaluate than these.
. •,
NEUROLOG!C TESTS
Nonnal UMN lession .
. -Lesion
Contralateral Flex or
extensor inhibition contraction
byUMN •'
' "\
~
\
Noxious
stimulus
'
F~g. NA • 8 • Flexor and crossed

.. extensor reflexes
Moditie<:l from Kip Carter's illustration in Veterinary Neurology, Oliver, Horlein, Mayhew; W.B. Saunders Co., 1987
. . ~; ."
Withdrawal (ffexor, pedal) reflex and pain perception: with • Normal ~ith perception: normal spinal cord segments and spinal
the animal in lateral recumbency and the limb extended, pinch a cord.
~ of U,~ h.i.'?~lirnb first and then the forelimb. A normal response · • Withdrawal reflexesdon'trequire the~imal to feel the stimulus,
is flexion of the joints. with withdrawal of the me from the they will be elicited with UMN disease- and may even be.
stimulus. This works by reflex arcs. The stimulus is cutaneous or exaggerated. They are decreased in LMN. disease or wilh a
deep pain, depending on the (orceof the pinch. Use the minimum sensory nerve lesion.
amount of force to elicit the reflex. Sensory fibers synapse on
interneLiIDJiSin the spinal cord segments. These synapse on motor Crossed extensor· reftex; nonnal in the walking animals; but
neurons to the flexor muscle to cause contraction, thus. flexion of abnormal in the recumbent animal. During walking; when one
thejointsofthelimb.Siinuhaneouslyassessifthepainreachesthe limb is picked up(flexed) the other limb extends to bear the added
cerebrum by noting behavioral changes (biting, looking towards weight, In the recumbent animal, this reflex is not needed and is ·
stimulus). This assesses: · inhibited by higher centers through UMNs. Pinch a paw to elicit
O Nonnal withdrawal • intact peripheral nerve and spinal cord a withdrawal (flexor) reflex. Extension of any otbet limb is
segment abnormal and indicates blocking of descending. inhibitory
Hindlimb: L6S2 pathways. A positive result:
•
Forelimb: C7 T2 • Indicates a chronic, potentially severe spinal cord injury
• Depressed or absent • disruption of the reflex arc Unilateral crossed extensor reflex. lateralizating the lesion
Unilateral: peripheral nerve lesion to the same side.
Bilaleral: spinal cord lesion ' -··.
~
CRANIAL NERVE EXAM
Extensor thrust reflex: gently spread the digits with your finger. LMNs. Pressing on the limb will slightly incttase the rooe in the
.... Normally this will cause extension of the limb. This is hard to limb due to the pad pressure reflex. After a moment of cootinual
~~\ assess, but may be exaggerated in UMN disease.
' pressure, the limbcoJlapse.sabnrpdy. This isa india.tionofupj,«
motor neuron syndrome... ~
•
,•
<·.
. '
.. .. .
...':
'
Fig. NA. 9 • Perineal reflex
Perineal ref1ex: pain stimulus to the perinea} region will.cause ..

contraction of the anal sphincter and Hexion of the tail. The
perineal region and anal sphincter are innervated by the sacral
,. spinal cord segments and the pudenda! nerve, the same segments . .
:::·:- innervating the urinary bladder. The tail is innervated by the
J caudal nerves. Assesses: .·.: · ·
• Sacral spinal cord and cauda equina. Good for bladder and
sphincter problems. · · · ... :
.
'• ,1 ••
Extensor toe (Babinski) sign (pes sign): an abnormal reflex.of

the pes (hindpaw). Scratch, with-a blunt instrument, the plantar
aspect of the pes from hock to toe. No reaction or withdrawal are
normal reactions. Fanning the toes or e~tending the limb is
abnormal, This reflex can also be Qb'bined on the manus.
EvaJuation:
• Indicates a chronic and potentially severe spinal cord lesion.
. .
Cutaneus trunci reftex or panniculus reflex (see pg·: 566): is a
normal reflex to twhch the skin. Sensory fibers extend-Crom their
dennatomes (bands of skin sensation) obliquely craniodorsally to
synapse in spinal cord segments T8-L4• Ascending sensory tracts
extend up the cord to the cell body of the lateral thoracic nerve in
spinal cord segment C8• The thoracic nerve supplies motor
innervation to the cutaneous trunci muscle. Thedermatomes are
one or two vertebrae caudal to the point of origin of the sensory
nerves. If a panniculus response is present caudally and then
disappearscranialtoaspecific point thelesionisinthespinalcord
two vertebrae cranially. · ·
Cutaneous trfrnc~.·reflex - see pg. 566
.. ... . -'•
CLASP-KNIFE RESPONSE. UMN: adelayed,abruptcollapse

~t, of a hyperextended limb. An animal with upper motor nerve
. t :(UMN) problems will have an extended limb due to release of the
•'
. I
. . ,,
•~ ·, : • •• J ·~·. '1.:.
..• .
-vr- .-;,:;:··.:i·: !. 573
··,: s , :·~ .• ::z.,: .·)
•••' r.• •
. ,,
. ..
. •' \ .
OLFACTORY NERVE, Cn I: carries the special sense of smell. visual pathway, facial nerve (Cn VII). and ettebellum are at{
Olfactory receptors, localed in the neuroepithelium of the nasal involved, this response doesn't localize the lesion. It is another
mucosa, pass through lhe cribrif orm plate to synapse in the sign for visual dysfunction, facial nerve problems. or cerebellar (:,.~
olfactory bulb. Second order neurons then travel down the lateral dysfunction. If blind, there will be no menace response. ·~
olfactory stria to the pyrifonn lobe. OJfaction is tied into the
limbic (emotional) system.
To evoke a response use a volatile non-irritating substance.

Proper responses would be sniffing, licking, interest if pleasant
. smell; wincing, backing away from unpleasant ones. Irritating
substances (e.g. alcohol) to the nasal ,,avity will evoke a response
which may look Ii.Ice smelling. Food is exceJJent if not in a
recognizable container or not presented with a recognizable
approach. Bring food from a remotesoun::eonatonguederpessor.
Destruction of any pan of the pathway will cause a problem with
smell. Nasal tumors may affect smell, but this is insignificant to
the tumor. Clinically smell is not very significant. except in cats Couon ball
which depend heavily on smells and will show various bouts of Fig. NA -10 • Menace response
anorexia if they can't smell.
OCULOMOTO,R :NERV~~ _Cp. ill: ~str.tcts the pupil in
OPTIC NERVE, Cn II: special sense of sighL It has no motor response to elevated light levels by innervation to the constricter
component Light striking the retina passes over the optic nerves papillae muscle; It also innervates some of the extrinsic muscles
to the optic chiasm, then on to the optic tracts to synapse in the of the eye.
lateral geniculate nuclei. Neurons then pass over r .. ~ optic radiations
to th.v occipital lobe for visual interpretation.
Cn II and Cn III are tied together and can be evaluated together by
checking the menace response, size of the resting pupil and the
Damage can affect any part of the pathway. Loss of vision can be palpebral light reflexes. First check for vision in each eye by the
due to ocular diseases, nervous system diseases, or bolh. Corneal menace response or visual placing reaction. Then look at the
diseases will affect vision by clouding the Jens. Diseases of the resting pupils·(without shining a light in them). Finally, check the
lens, e.g., cataracts, affect vision. The retina can undergo atrophy. pupillary light reflex. Practice drawing quick schematics by
More than Cn II is necessary for proper vision (accommodation, incorporating the visual pathways and pupilJary light reflex ·,. ..
~pi!size (CNIII), blinking the eye, tear film (CNVII),conjugation pathways as done on the following pages. Draw an X through the ·,_
of eye movement (CN III, IV, VI). However, if an image can't be structure affected. Using the schematic and Chart S (pg. 576)'will
formed (CN II), the animal is blind. help to characterize th~·l~ion. ... .;. ·
. .
In the dog, 75% of the optic fibers of one optic nerve cross over • Pupillary light renex: used to monitor patients with head ·
to the opposite (contralateral) optic tract and 25% stay in the trauma, to determine the degree of trauma, to localize the lesion,
ipsilateral optic tract In cats there is a (?5% cross over. Therefore. and to monitor degradation or improvement ofan animal A rapid
the optic tracts carry mainly vision from the opposite eye to the change from one fonnat to another· may warn of deleterious
occipital lobe. Clinically, animals behave as if all fibers cross . changes that require immediate intervention to. reverse. The
over. If the right occipital lobe is damaged, the animal will appear pupilJary light reflex involves ~ central visual light pathway
blind in the left eye. · before the thalamus. Therefore, cerebral diencephalic disease
· ;·.. will not abolish the 'reflex, but may alter it,
History: animals can be fairly blind before many owners realize
u. Stumbling on stlnr cases or poor night vision is often the first Shine aJight onto the retina. Impalses pass over .the optic nerve.
sign of visual degeneration. Visually observe, from a distance, the optic chiasm and optic tracts. Coll~s ~ofthe optic. tract peel
the animal at rest and moving while raking the history. Obstacle off at tberostraJ end of themidbrain to synapse on midbrain nuclei
courses: u~ing objects from your clinic. A dimer switch may be (pretectal nucleus). These neurons synapse ipsilateral or
helpful to evaluate day and night visions. contralateralin the~cc~ry oculomolornuclei (parasympathetic
nucleus,F.dinger-Westphal). Whichevercrossatthechiasrn ~
Visual placing reacnon: evaluate vision although it is placed in the midbrain to end up affecting the sameeye in which the light
with postural reactions for convenience (see placing reactions). was shone. Preganglionic fibers travel in the ocuJoniotor nerve
(Cn III) to synapse in theciliary ganglion. Postganglionic neurons
Menace response (Cn II • CnVII): blinking in response to innervate th.e constrictor pupilJary muscle, constricting lhe pupil.
potentially harmful objects advancing toward the eye. Make a
threatening gesture toward the eye without windpuffs or noise. A Light shone in a dog's Imeye will cause more constriction in the
positive response is blinking. For unknown reasons, absence of left pupil (directside)than in the right pupil (indirect or consensual), ,..: -; ::.
connection from the cerebellum abolishes the response. Since the because 75% of the optic fibers cross swice to affect the same eye i),~. · ·
'cl...._,.>:
574.
PliF'~~lAAV LIGHT REFLE}{
•
. .. .
• • • • •• •
•
• • •
.. • •. • •
• • • • • •
• . ·...... ! .
. ...
•
. .•
• •• ••
.. • •
• .
. '(.'~
.. . • ..i ~ •••
Retina & optic nerve

c
~ -,
Orbit {Cn iI & Cn III) . . . .
". Oculomotor nerve
. .. • .#. : •
Optic tract · '
.. . . . . .! •••
Parasympathetic nucleus.{Cn ill)

Optic radiations ·.•
... •
•• •••
••
• • •
••
.
• •
• • •••
• • •••• •
• ••• • ••
• • • a. Preteetal nucleus
b, LaL geniculate nucleus
c. Ciliary ganglion
Occipital cortex d. Preganglionic fibers
· . e. Postg.anglionic fibers
Fig. NA -11- Vision an~ pupillary light reflex pathways.
and 25% end up in the other eye. Therefore, the left pupil should Sympathetic innervation to the iris: arises from the hypothalamus
constrict quicker, more efficiently, ai;id to a greater degree than the and travels down the cervical spinal cord. The preganglionic
rigbt(dynamiccontractionanisocotja). Thisisnonnalindogsand fibers arise from the first three thoracic spinal cord segments.
cats. Direct and indirect pupillary reflexes are named for the eye They travel through .the sympathetic trunk and then the
in which the light is shone, not for the eye that responds. The vagosympalhetic trunk up the neck to synapse in the cranial
direct pupiUary light reflex constricts the pupil in which a light cervical ganglion: Postganglionic fibers pas through the middle
is shown. The indirect pupillary light renex constricts the pupil ear and then into the orbit to reach the pupil These innervate the
-:--._.'.. in the opposite eye in which the light is shone. pupillary dilator muscle to dilate thepupil. Injury anywhere along
·. ::;
;,_t;;,.1 this pathway will cause the pupil to be more constricted.
515
,·
...
PUPILLARY LIGHT REFLEX
Complete lesion Menace response I vmon Resting pupil Pllpillary light reftexes
.
LEf1'side Lt.eye Rt.eye Lt.eye Rt.eye Light in ~ eye Light in rt. eye
Retina or optic nerve Blind N Slightly dilated N No response N*
Oculomotor N N Dilated N Constrict rt. Constrict rt.
Orbit (bolhCnll & CnIII) Blind N Dilated N No response Constrict rt.
Optic chiasm Blind Blind Dilated Dilated No response No response

.
· Optic tract N Blind N NorSlightly N• N*
dilated -
Parasympathetic nucleus N N Dilated Dilated Nor~ponse No response
(bilateral)
Sympathetic nerves N. N Constricted N N* N•

.
Optic pathway past optic N Blind N N N* N•
tract
• N (nonnat) for the pupillaty light reflexes is constriction of both eyes when the light is shone in the eye.
Damage to the left retina or left optic nerve (prechiasmatic

damage): Clinically. although not the same diseases, they have
the same effect to the visual and pupillary pathways. When light
is shone in the left eye. neither pupil will constrict because its
pathway. is blocked. Light in the right eye will cause both to
constrict because crossover at the optic chiasm is not blocked. The
menace response will be absent in the blind, left eye. The right eye
will have sight and show a menace response. At rest. the left pupil
will only be partially dilated because it is still getting indirect tone
from light coming into the right eye. If the right eye is covered the
dilation will become total.
Lt. RL
Cn III Fig. NA - 13 - Left oculomotor nerve (Cn 1m damage
Left oculomotor nerve (Cn lll) damage: light can get to

accessory parasympathetic (ANS) nuclei and cross over ~an
occur. Thus, the right pupil will constrict with light shone in either
eye (direct and indirect response). Parasympathetic innervation is
lost to the left eye so it will be unresponsive to light shone in either
eye. The resting pupil will be totally dilated due to the loss all
parasympathetic innervation. Both eyes have normal vision, thus,
Fig. NA - i2 - Lt. retina or optic n. damage menace responses.
s
PUP~llARY LIGHT REFLEX
intact in the contralateral nasal fie!d (temporal retina). Pupils will
still cccstricr with light shc,w,· ; :i ei,1\:;· eye because the minor
pathways are still present The resting right pupil will be partially
dilated (still has minor crossover) and cevering the eyeswill not
I • <o. •
.
have an effect. The menace response will be absent in _the blind
right eye.
,-,•.-,·~
{
' . Midbrain lesion effecting the parasympathetic nucleus: rarely
Fig. NA - 14 - Left unilateral. It will not effect the visual pathway, thus, the animal
postorbital problem can see. It will eliminate all parasympathetic innervation to both
(abscess) eyes, thus, the pupils will be dilated and have no pupillary
responses.
Fig. NA • 17 - Midbrain
Left postorbital probiem (abscess): affects both the optic and
ocuJomotor nerves on
lh_at side. The right eye will be normal, lesion effecting
parasympathetic nucleus
except it will have no indirect pupillary.response (light in the left
eye).Thelefteyeisblind(nomenaceresponse)w.ithnooculomotor
innervation (no pupillary response), therefore totally dilated. The ··
only response will be the direct pupillary (on the right-normal-
side).
· sympathetic fibers
....·...
Fig. NA - 18 - Lesions of left

'
Fig. NA - 15 • Total sympathetic pathway
Parasympathetic nucleus
chlasmatlc.lesions
Lesions of the left sympathetic pathway: result in constriction
of the resting pupil on the side affected. They will have no affect
on vision or the pupils. The lesion can be anywhere along the
sympathetic pathway. from the hypothalamus down the cervical
Total chiasmatic lesions: less common in animals than in humans. spinal cord to segment T2, over the sympathetic and
Vision and crossover are blocked so the eyes will not see (no vagosympathetic trunks from the thorax to the cranial neck, or in
menace response) and there will be no parasympathetic innervation the sympathetic r<lStgangliooic fibers passing through the middle
(both pupils totally dilated). With subtotal lesions there will be ear and orbit.
progressive degrees of these signs.
' .. , '
· · Fig. NA - 19 • Left lesion to the

visual pathway : past the optic
tracts
. '.
• . ~! ••
Fig. NA • 16 • Llffi' ... •
optic tract
· (postchiasmatic)· Lert lesion to the visual pathway past the optic tracts (lateral
lesions geniculate nucleus, optic radiations and primary visual [occipital]
cortex): lhe animal acts contralaterally blind (blind in right eye).
Left ~ptic tract (postchiasmatic) lesi(1ns: 75% of thefibers in the There will be no effect on the pupiUary light reflexes because the
opticjract origiriattffrom'lhebpposfte' side. animals with lesions lesionis~tthispathway. Itmaycausesomepupiltaryconsmceon
,.,,... postchi1\smatically' tend to' act a,ntialate'ral\y '(opposite side) because of loss of occipital inhibition (UMN) to the para-
~ -.,\\ blind although' precise arid carefut·:evaluation may show vision sympathetic nucleus.
i ·. I
~
·
.· · . .:
577
!":. .•
CRANIAL NERVES
j
f
C. Abducentparalysis- med.
strabismus
A. Oculomotor paralysis
ventrolateral ~is~us ·· 1
•! •..
. •,
B•.Trochlearparalysis ~ dors. eyeball

rotated laterally.
Fig. Na - 19 - Strabismus due to lesions of Cn 111,,Cn IV, and Cn VI.

Modified from L SadJers illustration in Veterinary Ne11rok>gy. Oliver. Hoerlei.n., Mayhew, W .B. Saunders. 1987
OCULOMOTOR, TROCHLEAR and ABDUCENT, Cn DI, field and note if the animal follows it with his eyes. A cotton ball
I1V and VI: evaluated together because they all function to move is easy to see and doesn't make noise when if lands. An object .. -
the eye. The parasympathetic innervation of the oculomotor nerve which makes noise could cause an auditory folJ~wing, thus. ai __.
(Cn Ill) was considered previously. To evaluate, observe the false positive visual following. . · · ,L
resting position of the eyes, test)he ability to move the eyes by
following something (throw a cotton ball across the animal's field Nystagmus at rest is always abnonnal and is usually due to a
of vision). Vestibular eye movements are evaluated by moving vestibular system problem.
the head up or down and from side to side.
TRIGEMINAL NERVE, Cn V: three main divisions -- the
The oculomotor (Cn Ill) and trochlear (Cn IV) nerves originate ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular-which are all sensory.
from the midbrain; the abducent nerve (Cn VI) from the pons. All The mandibular division is also motor to the muscles of mastication.
three leave the orbital cavity through lhe orbital fissure. The
vestibular nuclei in the medulla connect to the nuclei of these Pinching or touching the face with a hemostat will test for
nerves and voluntary motor centers by the medial longitudinal sensation. Look for a reaction. Use a tissue forcepsif you can 'tget
fasciculus(MLF)Iocatedinrhecenteroflhebrainstem.Movement a reaction from a light touch. The last resort is scarification of the
of the head stimulates the vestibular receptors of the inner ear nasal mucosa ( very painful). Test all three branches - ophthalmic,
which pass to lhe vestibular nuclei and through the MLF to the the medial canlhus of the eye; maxillary, the lateral canthus,
cells bodies of these three eye muscle nerves. This causes a maxillary region or nasal mucosa; and mandibular, the chin.
normal nystagmus wilh the fast phase in the direction of the head
movement. Palpating the muscles of mastication (temporalis, masseter and
digastricus muscles) for auophy and manipulating lhe jaw for
Strabismus: abnormal position of the eyeball. Lesions to Cn m, tone tests the motor division of the mandibular nerve. These
IV and VI will cause strabismus. muscles are massive and paralysis results in significant atrophy
• Oculomotor lesion - ventrolateral strabismus and loss of mass. Whereas, in facial nerve paralysis, there is no
• Abducent lesion - medial strabismus loss of mass in the thin muscles of facial expression, just facial
• Trochlear paralysis - not detectable in round pupils. Dorsal deviation.
side of the eyeball is rotated laterally.
The sensory neurons are located in the trigeminal ganglion in the
Voluntary following: determine if an animal can see or not, cranial cavity. Their fibers enter the pons. The motor nucleus of . ··
visual placing is a better test. Throw a cotton ball across the visual Cn V is located in the pons. Motor fibers project down to the spine. .· ·
·.... .
•.:_....J'
CRANIAL NERVES
and up to the facial nucleus for the corneal and palpebral reflexes. division. This happens without any other deficiencies and is
usually self limiting; most animals return to normal in 21 days.
(}}~;>.; Corneal and palpebral reflexes: used clinically ro evaluate the The client usually thinks the animal has a broken jaw. The main
~.s.;;.Y depth of anesthesia. concern is hydration since the animal has difficulty swaUowing
with • its mouth open. .;
Trigeminal n. (Cn V) ,· .::
• Damage to.one of the diyisions past their separation into three

branches will cause sensory loss to the~ innervated.
• Damage proximal to the separation will came loss of sensation
to the face and loss of 'the palpebral and coreeal reflexes.
• Unilateral disease of the mandibular division will irii~IJy result
in deviation of the jaw to the side of the lesion. Witit"~pby
(chronic) of the pterygoid muscle, it will ·deviate away from the
side of the lesion. · ' · · ·
Facial n. (Cn VII) • Brain stem nuclear damage can happen to either l'>r bodi of the
- sensoryormotornuclei,resultingin sensoryormQtorlossorboth.
There should be signs of other brain stem damage.
Fig. NA-20- Palpebral reflex FACIAL NERVE, Cn VIl: has many different functions, motor
to the muscles of facial expression, taste, lacrimal and salivary
Palpebral renex: a Cn V-VII reflex (trigeminal - facial nerves). innervation. Taste has little clinical significance. Atrophy of the
Touchingtheeyelidsendssensoryinformationoverthetrigeminal muscles of facial expression isn't noticeable, but results in
nerve (ophthalmic nerve of the maxillary division) to synapse deviations and deficits of facial reflexes. ·
with the facial nerve in the brain stem. Motor fibers of the facial
(auriculopalpebral) nerve cause the obicularis oculi muscle to
Facial n.
. contract (blink). Blinking before the eyelids are touched is a
menace response, therefore, repeat a number of times for a
positiveresponse. This reflex isusedtoevalwuedepthof anesthesia;
especially when an animal is becoming too light
. . - '.
.,..ot~-'".
.,,. ::
Trigeminal n; (Cn V)
J.
i.
~
• 'Muscles of facial
Abducent n. (Cn VI)

\. expression
· Salivary glands
.
Fig. NA • 20 • Corneal reflex
Fig. NA • 20 - Facial nerve.
Corneal reflex : Cn V - VI reflex (trigeminal - abducent): touch
only the cornea to stimulate the maxillary nerve (long ciliary The facial and vesubulocochlear nerves (Cnn VII & Cn VIII)
nerve of the ophthalmic division). Retraction of the globe is due travel from the brain together through the internal acoustic meatus.
to connections to Cn VI (abducent) which innervates the retracta Then Cn VII leaves Cn VIlI and crosses the middle ear cavity.
bulbi muscle. l:llinking will also occur and is partly due to a Therefore. an ear infection can cause severe facial nerve problems.
menace response. Look for retraction of the globe. A corneal The facial nerve leaves the skull through the stylomastoid foramen.
reflex is abolished at a deeper stage of anesthesia than the The branches of the facial nerve innervate the muscles of facial
palpebral reflex. Therefore, it a danger signal for an animal expression. Theauriculopalpebral branch innervates theobicularis
getting too deep in anesthesia oculi muscle to close the eyelids. The ventral and dorsal buccal
branches cross the masseter muscle superficially. Autonomic
-.~::-. "Dropped jaw" (idiopathic trigeminaJ neuropathy): a common, fibers· leave the facial nerve internally and come out the orbital
>;{/ acute problem caused by bilateral disease of the mandibular
:.,;.J.;.-" fissure to innervate the lacrimal gland.
-"'.
. 579
•
.... J:.. I , .
. \. ..• • I
•"'.
,r ·• I
.. • •
.
CRANIAL NERVES
• Peripheral lesions distal to the stylomastoid foramen result in behavioral changes (looking towards noise). A central lesion
paralysis to the area supplied. They do not affect lacrimation. usually doesn't cause extreme deficits In audition in a conscious l'5
-Paralysis of the auriculopalpebralbranch, thus, theobicularis animal. Therefore, look for the problem in a deaf dog's ears. ft
oculi muscle, causes widening of the palpebral fissure in small ~
.--~~~~~~~~~~~~---~~~~~~---.
animals and ptosis (bulging eye) in large animals and some dogs
(Pekinese). -
- Buccat branches: paralysis would result in deviations of the
face (drooping lip or ear and pulling of the nose to the normal side.
Chronically, it will result in deviation towards the lesion from
fibrous·atrophy).
• Inner ".at infections can damage all the branches. resulting in
facial deviations, loss of lacrirnation and salivary function, and
taste. This is often accompanied by vestibular signs (close
proximity of Cn VIII) and Homer's syndrome (if the sympathetic
nerves are affected).
• A lesion in the cranial cavity between the brain and the internal . ..
acoustic meatus will affect"all branches of the facial neree, This
is usually accompanied by vestibular signs (Cn VIII). but not
Homer's syndrome.
O Brain stem damage to the facial- nerve affects all or some of the
components, depending on the size of the lesion. It is accompanied
by other brain stem signs (paresis, proprioceptivedeficits;alteration
of level of consciousness, and other cranial nerve deficits).
Buccal nerve damage (peripheral) is common in horses when the

horse's head is left on an unpadded surface during surgery. (The
buccal nerve
. in the horse is located under the
.
buckle of the halter.) Vestibular proprioception: perceiving position of the head in
relationship to gravity and motion. The vestibular apparatus has
Palpebral nerve damage: the animal can't close the eyelids, five components, the three semicircular canals, the utricle and the
resulting in secondary exposure keratitis. saccula. The saccula and utricle are responsible for static position rt
and linear motion. The semicircular canals are responsible for~
Lacrimal deficieney: very serious due to drying of the cornea. angular motion. From the receptors in the semicircular canals,
utricle and saccula of the inner ear, most of the nerve fibers pass
Salivation problems: compensation from glands on the opposite to the four vestibular nuclei in the medulla oblongata and
side and by the glands on both 'side. innervated by the cerebellum. Fibers for these nuclei pass tornany other structures:
glossopharyngeal nerve. · ·
• Down the spinal cord to facilitate extensormuscles on both sides
'
Menace response: gives you information on the facial and optic and inhibit ipsilateral (same side) flex or muscles. This is important
nerves. It is better for Cn II . in maintaining posture against gravity. ·
• To the cerebellum (flocculonodular lobes)
Palpebral reflexes: Cn V - VII reflex, response to palpebral • To motor nuclei of Cn III, IV, and VI to control vestibular eye
touch, causing blinking, movements (by medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF).
• Cerebral cortex through the thalamus
Trigeminaf f'acial r!;nex: .Iacial movements when touching the • Reticular formation to mediate motion sickness. Overall, animals
face are mediated by .the mgeminal nerve (sensory) and the facial seldom vomit ·in the face of vestibular disease.
nerve (motor).
Signs
Shirmer te~r test: filter paper
put in the comer of eye for a period
of time to wick tears, The amount of . .wick· is compared to a · • Head tilt is a classic sign of vestibular disease. The tilt is usually
standard scale to measure relative amouncof lacrimation. . . . toward the side of the problem.
., • Leaning toward the affected side; due to loss of ispsilateral
VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR NERVE: has two divisions, the extensor tone in limbs and vertigo.
cochlear dealing with hearing (audition) and the vestibular dealing • Circling and falling to the affected side. Dogs and cats will lean
with movement of the head in relation to gravity and movement. and walk against a wall.
• Reluctance to lie on the good side because it worsens the vertigo
Cochlear division: deafness must be bilateral in an alert animal to and they do not like it.
evaluate completely withoutelectrophysiologic instrumems. Test • Ataxic gait due to cerebellar connections.
by making a loud noise out of the animals vision and note • Brain stem lesion - Altered proprioception and motor pathways
580
CRANIAL NERVES
. resulting in abnormal gait and abnormal postural reactions. gJossopharyngeal nerve also innervates the parotid and zygomatic
• Inability to right themselves, alter their posture. salivary glands, but salivation isn't a clinical problem because
(1:>: • Nystagmus due to connect.ions to the nerves of the extrinsic eye
~~·,.· · muscles.
other salivary glands compensate and there is dual innervation on
both sides. Taste to the root of the tongue also is not a clinical
probl,em.
Nystagmus; at rest is always abnormal and·us.ually indicates
vestibulardysfunction. Itis repeated, involuntary.rapid movement Pathway: IX, X & XI leave the cranial vault through lhe jugular
of iheeyeball. which may be honzontal, vertical, rotary or mixed, foramen and exit the skull by the temporooccipital fissure.
i.e .• of two varieties. Bolh eyes are effected and usually move ..
together (coojugare). The eyes will move to the same side as the Gag renex test: stick a tongue depressor or a laryngeal scope .
lesion and snap back. Nystagmus is named for its fast (snap) paddle down the throat, Do not use a wooden swab or something
component. H the animal's eyes move to the left and snap back to the animal can bite in half. ·
the right it is a right horizontal nystagmus, even though the lesion
is (Jll the left. In ~cal.nystagmus the eyes move up and down. VAGUS, Cn X: since it supplies innervation to the-pharynx,
Rorary nysaagmus is deviation ·around the central axis. larynx and esophagus, clinically look for pharyngeal~ :laryngeal
. and esophageal problems. Megaesophagus is a ptjmesign o~CnX'
Perlp'1ffal vs central lesion: .differentiated by the type of paralysis. This results in regurgitation of formed esophageal
nystagmus. A vertical nystagmus indicates a central lesion (99% masses (tube of food).
oftime). Horiwntal and rotary nystagmus can be peripheral or
central. Disconjugate nystagmus, different nystagmus in the Left recurrent laryngeal nerve: peals off from the vagus nerve
eyes (e.g., horizontal in one and rotary in the other) is caused by in the thorax and passes around the arch of theaona. It then travels
a central lesion. Nystagmus thatchaiiges from one form toanother up the neck to innervate most of the laryngeal muscles, most
(e.g., horizontal to rotary) with changing head position is due to notably the cricoarytenoideus dorsalis. The cricoarytenoideus
a central lesion. dorsal is is the only muscle that opens the glottic cleft Paralysis of
the recurrent laryngeal nerve results in "roarers", laryngeal
Positional nystagmus: inducing nystagmus in an animal without hemiplegia in horses. The primary complaint is Jack of exercise
spontaneous nystagmus by changing head position. This can be tolerance. (The roaring is sounds irritating but running out of gas
due to a periplietal lesion as long as the nystagmus is not vertical, _near f,he finish line costs money.)
is conjugate and doesn't change to a different type with various
61"?';, head positional change~. Par~ympathetic motor: rarely do true cardiovascular or
I ;: i.;::;:._-.
,.:r... • ':.. . gastrointestinal signs point directly to vagal nerve lesions except
'-.z.-,: ,• Unilateral otitis (ear infection): affecting the inner ear gives in the ruminants. Vagal indigestion in ruminantscauseseructation
classical vestibular signs: head tilt, circling, leaning, falling, and failure and bloat. Such animals are often culled for slaughter.
· possible nystagmus. These may be accompanied by Homer's
syndrome(syrnpathetic nerves)and facial paralysis because these SPINAL ACCESSORY, Cn XI: arises from a nucleus (nucleus
nerves aiso pass through the middle ear. Facial paralysis is critical ambiguus) in spinal cord segments C, to C5• Its fibers leave the
because of lacrimal problems {dry eye) and inability to close the spinal cord and travels up to enter the cranial vault through the
eye, not because of the distortion of facial features (dogs aren't foramen magnum: and then join the vagus, Cervical roots from
vain). The loss of lacrimation requires constant artificialtears or XI innervate neck muscles, omotransversarius, brachiocephalic,
· surgical relocation of the parolid duct. trapezius and stemocephalicus (muscies that move the head).
With accessory nerve damage:
Idiopathic vestibular disease: an acute disease of unknown • 'Cervical muscle atrophy. If chronic, you may get fibrous
atnse in animals. The presenting signs are severe unilateral : atrophy and tonicollis. Observe and palpate for symmetry of
vestibular signs indistinguishable from vestibular disease due to muscles on both sides of the neck.
trauma or inner ear disease. The animal may not be.able to'stand,
lies on the· floor paddling its legs, with nystagmus and total HYPOGLOSSAL NERVE, Cn XII: motor to the musclesofthe
disorientation. A self limiting disease, it resolves spontaneously tongue. Prehension of food and water is done with the tongue. If
without treatment in a few weeks with the only residual sign a the tongue is paralyzed the animal can't lap correctly.
possible slight head tilt Many of these old dogs are probable • Unilateral paralysis will cause deviate to the side of the lesion at
· needlessly put to sleep. first and then over time away from the lesion as muscles atrophy.
GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL and VAGUS NER~ IX & X:

Cnn IX & X arise together from a motor nucleus in the medulla
(nucleus ambigus). They leave the skull together and do not
diverge until they are some distance from the skull. It is almost
impossible to have a lesion in one without the other. Therefore,
jl.~ when an animal has pharyngeal paralysis it indicates cranial nerve
:( ~:. IX and X. With pharyngeal paralysis first think RABIES! The
~;·
• 581
'
.i
Test and poitive response (+) Lession localization . ;,
. CRANIAL NERVE EXAM

,. . ..
•
I
I Olfactory ' ,. • Odor stimulus Usually nasal cavity ;
----- .. v
Il Optic nerve • Obstacle courses: vision, Seechart4 '

,,.
• Placing reactions . .
• Menace response .
--- •
. . Seecbart4
i II; &
. . ..Ill
.. '. , r \. '.
... . . .. • Pupillary
•
light reflex • .
... ..
l
I
I
III, IV and vr,
oculomotor, trochlear &
Strabismus \: ,
Oculomotor lession • ventrolateral sttabismus
Abducent lesion - medial strabismus
!
I abducent nerves Trochlear paralysis - ~ot detected in round pupils, do~1
I side rotated laterally
~
I
l V Trigeminal .,
l
Muscles of.mastication • Past their separation sensory loss· to area innervated.
lI • Palpate the muscles of mastication • Proximal to separation :- loss of sensation to face & loss of
fi
I • Open jaw, check tone the palpebral & corneal·reflex.
l l •
I!' Sensory ·,
• light. touch . ..
• Brain stem nuclear - sensory or motor loss or both and other
brain stem signs .
.. Palpebral reflex.- V -Vll.reflex ·
: !
:
· -Comeal reflex : Y - VI reflex . . .t~f !;;.. {!''
·. .... '
t-
I
l
. ~··~~,~
'.
>
l vu facial • Schirmer tear test • lacrimation • Peripheral- facial paralysis No effect qn:lacrimation.
l . • Palpebral reflex: a Cnn V - VU reflex - Auriculopalpebral branch - widening of palpebral
''
.r
I
' • Trigeminal facial reflex: V ~VJI reflex fissure.small animals & piosis, large animals .
.• Check symmetry of face - Buccal branches - deviations of face
f
•
'I • Menace response - Cn II·VII • Middle ear infections • ail branches (eyelids, loss of ..
I
lacrimation +/- vestibular signs & Homers .
l
! .
• Cranial cavity between brain & internal acoustic meatus .
''
' -affecr all branches, + vestibular signs, no Homer's /" ....
. ...· . ~
'
1
• Brain stem· variable facial branch signs, accompanied.by ..
i' . other brain stem signs.
i
l
VIII Vestibulochoclear
' Cochlear division •
l .. Deafness bilateral in alert animal
.
I!I
Vestibular proprioception
;
-Observation of signs
• Head tilt '
• Nystagmus
- Vertical· - central lesion (99o/o of time).
- Horizontal and rotary - peripheral or central,.
1 • Leaning towards the affected side
• Circling & falling to affected side - Disconjugate ny.stagmus - central lesions.
I'• . • Ataxic gait Unilateral otitis
j
• Abnormal gait·& posture Classical vestibular signs+ Homer's syndrome & facial
I • Look for nystagmus paralysis (in middle ear disease)
• Righting reflex
.
XI & X Glossopharyngeal • Gag reflex test - pharyngeal

. .paralysis is seen
. ~ think Rabies •.
& vagus
X Vagus • Evaluate clinical signs • Parasympathetic - ruminant vagal indigestion - eructation

• Laryngoscope failure & bloat
• Esophgoscope • Recrrent laryngeal nerve - laryngeal hemiplegia in horses
and Bouvier de Flandres dozs.
XI - Spin~l accessory • Palpate cervical muscle atrophy. .. •
chronic • fibrous atrophy and torticollis.
I
XII· Hypoglossal • Pull on tongue
• Observe tongue deviates toward lesion, chronic (..· . .
fibrosis away from lesion
I
..• - -- -
,
•. .
·-
'
Equine . Nerve and . . '. . . ~
Join·t Blocks
. .. . ~ .
. .
' .
''-·
,·
NERVES - DISTAL LIMB - HORSE
NERVE - EQUINE ANTEBRACHIUM: Understanding the 13. Pal mar metacarpal nerves: continuations of the deep branch
distribution of the nerves in the horse is very important in of me lateral palmar nerve. They course distally in the junctions
lameness diagnosis with nerve blocks. Draw a simple, line sche- between the splint bones an~ the cannon bone. They pass under {
matic of the nerves to the distal thoracic limb. Once this can be the buttons of the splints to become superficial and continue 10 the
quickly done then placing the nerve blocks and what they block fetlock.
wilJ be easier 10 understand.
14. Medial cutaneous antebrachial nerve: the cutaneous con-
1. Radial nerve: does !!2l extend past the carpus as it does in the tinuation of the musculocutaneous nerve. It extends distally to the
other domestic species. fetlock.
•• --: • • J ,I •
. ..
ti'!
Median, ulnar and medial cutaneous antebrachial (a branch of .: . BLOCKS .. LAl\fENESS DIAGNOSIS: Pain causes lameness.
the muscuJocutaneous): the three nerves passing the carpus in the the visual consequence of pain. Nerve blocks and inttasynovial
horse. ._ · ~·anesthesia (s¢e pg. 132) stop pain perception, thus, lameness
(animal goes sound), therefore, help localize the problem.
2. Median nerve: bifurcates into the medial and lateral branches
proximal
... 10 the carpus . The lame limb should first be identified by observing the animal
at a rest and in motion. Once the limb has been identified, nerve
3. Ulnar nerve: bifurcates just proximal 10 the carpus into dorsal blocks may be performed in a systematic order, starting distally
and palmar branches. (lower) and moving proximally (higher) to localize the problem.
Block nerves above the area to be anesthetized because the nerve
4. Dorsal branch of the ulnar nerve: wraps around the cannon branches spread out as they move distally. Block bilaterally
bone and descends on the dorsolateral side of the cannon. region because pain doesn't know where the midline is. lf a limb is
to the fetlock. · blocked sound (no lameness) and the other limb is also affected,
that limb will then appear lame. You are not necessarily looking
5. Palmar branch of the ulnar nerve: joins with the lateral for I 00% soundness with a block, but for changes in the amount
branch of the median nerve to form the lateral pal mar nerve. of lameness. If the animal does not" go sound" with a block, then
block higher. If two or more blocks are needed for the animal to
l5. 7. Medial and lateral palmar nerves: travel down either side go sound, the problem is located between the last two blocks.
of the flex or tendons. At the level of the fetlock, they give off a Blocking to soundness localizes the source of lameness, but is not
dorsal branch and continue as the palmar digital nerves. The a definitive diagnosis, a thorough radiographic examination must
median palmar nerve consists of only median fibers. The lateral follow.
palmar nerve is a combination of ulnar and median fibers.
Procedure for nerve blocks: The horse should be restrained, the
8. Communicating branch: crosses over the pal mar aspect of the handler and the veterinarian standing on the same side of the
flexor tendons about halfway down the metacarpus, where it is animal. I& nQt tranquilize as this will mask the effects of the
palpable. It carries fibers from the medial palmar nerve (median blocks. Use a very small needle(25 gauge 5/8th inch) to minimize
nerve fibers) to the lateral pal mar nerve ( ulnar and median nerve). pain. Clean the injection area; a surgical prep is not necessary.
Insert the needle quickly upward so if the horse moves, the needle
9, 10. Medial and lateral digital nerves: pass distally on the won't be jabbed into the limb. Let the animal calm down, then
pal mar aspect of the digit to innervate the heel region of the fool attach the syringe using both hands. Inject a litlle anesthetic
They form a triad along with the digital vein and the digital artery subcutaneously. then move the needle lO the area of the nerve.
on each side. These triads are arranged vein, artery and nerve Inject the anesthetic solution at a moderate rate. Lifting and
(memory aid: VAN) from dorsal to palmar/plantar. flexing the leg gives control for most blocks.
11. Dorsal branches of the digital nerves: pass distally for a Types or nerve blocks: point, line. and ring blocks. A point block
short distance with the palmar/plantar digital nerves and then pass (perineural anesthesia) is blocking a specific nerve directly at one
dorsally to innervate the toe region of the fool The relationship site. This blocks the nerve and its branches past the site of
between the digital nerves and their dorsal branches is important injection. A line block is produced by infiltrating the anesthetic
when blocking only one of the two. along a line. This numbs the nerve branches crossing the line. A
ring block or field block is achieved by injecting anesthetic in a
12. Deep branch of the lateral palmar nerve or deep branch or complete circle around the limb. Infuse anesthetic as closely as
the ulnar nerve: arises at the carpus from the lateral palmar possible 10 the desired nerves in order ao produce a limited field
nerve, dives deep and branches into the palmar metacarpal of anesthesia. Aspirate bef ore injecting to avoid injecting into a
nerves. Some call this branch the deep branch of the ulnar nerve vessel.
because they believe that even though it comes form the nerve
formed from both the median and ulnar nerves, it carries only Test the block: 3 to 5 minutes after block, push a ball point pen
ulnar nerve fibers. This is academic and not of much clinical (dull, not sharp, object) into the skin of the area that should be
usefulness. anesthetized. No response will be elicited with a successful block.
:584
NERVE BLOCKS
,,.-~
....... ,..,,.
·- .g. N·B·
, .. 1 Nerves <L"' •.·. ,... ,.=.,~,c. I'1m b ,
(. ....,:
.. :~:
'
'
j,11 I
palmar view (schematic

. • ,_ "t'r ll'l,...,. ~·~ • '•.
' ' .; .
..... ...
l .:
. .
2. Median nerve Fig. NB~2 - Nerves of thoracic limb,

Dors. view (schematic)
'!'- ·,
.. ,,• ~·-!i ] l. Radial n.

·~-
~i,'1·.·
.
.,,
;') ,. ;
·.. . ;
5. ·Pal mar br, of ulnar n."
I '
~- t,4'. .Med.. cutan, . antebrachial. n.
12. Deep br. of lat, palmar n. .
.' : .. · '. · 4. Dor. br. of ulnar. n. ·
7. Lat palmar n.
' ..
.' •,
" ~-
11. Dors. br. of digital n.

11. Dors. br:. of digital n.
10. Lat digital n. 9. Med. digital n. ,;..:,.
ti,·.
1. Radial n. 8. Communicating br.

2. Mediann. 9. Medial digital n. . ., .. '
3. Ulnarn. 10. Lateral digital n.
4. Dorsal br. of the ulnar n. 11. Dors. br. of digital n. ,
5. Palmar br. of ulnar n. 12. Deep br. of lat. palmar n. ·
6. Medial pabnar n. 13. Palmar metacarpal nn.
7. Lat. palmar nerve 14. Med. cutan. antebrachial n .
. :·,
,; . . .'
Block success: once the block has been performed and tested, Distal to the carpus and tarsus, nerve blocks are performed in the
exercise the horse in the same manner lhat showed the original same manner since the neuroanatomy is roughly the same.
lameness and look for any change. ·
: ~' I
585
.·
SPECIFIC NERVE BLOCKS:
I. "Heel block" or palmar digital nerve block: anestbeti.zes the
palmar/plantar digital nerves innervating the palmar/plantar as-
pectofthe foot The structures blocked are the navicular bone and
.
its bursa, the frog, the digital cushion. the bulb of the heel. the .
flexor tendons, and the paJmar portion of the coffin joint. The ~ '
dorsal portion (toe) of the foot is unaffected.
Procedure: Flex the limb and lift the foot with your left band.
Search for the neurovascular bundle along the dorsal border of the
flexor tendons. Palpate the. ungual cartilages. Place the hoof
between your knees. Insert the needle just proxi_mal to the ungual Area desensitized
cartilage at I.he level of the pastern joint, Aspirate and inject 1.5 by a toe block
to 2.0 ml of local anesthetic ·(5/8 inch 25 gauge needle) across the
vascular bundle. (Make sure you aspirate first.) Use a small . abaxial sesamoid block. The structures blocked are most of the
amount of anesthetic so it doesn't diffuse to the dorsal branch. An laminar corium, the dorsal and dorsolateral surfaces of the coffin
alternative is to push up the ergot and locate the tensed ligament bone. the extensor tendons, and the coffin bone. Inject 3 to 5 ml
of the ergot Inject through the middle of this ligament to get the (518.. 25 gauge needle) anesthetic subcu1aneous~y in·either a ring
nerve passing under u, Three to five minutes after in~ting, test:' ·or line block at the Jevel of the pastern, dorsal' to the heel block
the block by pushing a ball point pen iri,t() the skin over the bulbs injection site. ··
of the heel. Also test the coronet over the toe to check that the
dorsal branches have !!21 been blocked. Hoof testers are also good Injection: Dorsal to heel block
for testing to see if deep structures (navicular bone) are anesthetized.
Blocks: Toe
Boundaries Palmar/plantar - flexor tendons
Distal - ungual cartilage
Dorsal - Digital artery
Blocks: Heel
,,:-
·.·~ - .
Area desensitized by an abaxial sesamoid block

m. Abaxial sesamoidean block, high digital block or pastern
block: blocks the pastern joint area and below by blocking the
palmar digital nerves and their dorsal branches. Some people
Area desensitized by a heel block move ro this block after the heel block. Anesthetized structures
You may be able to predict the therapeutic success of a palmar
are the pastern joint and the structures associated with it, The toe
and heel are also blocked, however. these structures were already
digital neurectomy according to the animal's response to a heel
block. ruled out with the appropriate heel and toe blocks, respectively.
~·
Procedure: flex the limb and hold the foot between your knees.
Pal mar digital neurectomy or "Nerving a horse": iransection ·
Palpate the palmar digital nerve and its dorsal branch over the
of the palmar digital nerve in·order to relieve pain in the palmar ..
sides of the proximal sesamoid bones ("pop" them under your
aspect of the foot. This will have the permanent effect of a heel
fingers). Move distally aricl locate the base of the sesamoids.
block. This often relieves the pain associated with navicular
Inject 3 to 5 m I (5/8" 25 gauge needle) of local anesthetic in a short
disease. Do not cut the dorsal branches or there will be D.Q feeling
line at this level. Blocking distally from where the nerves can be
in the foot, resulting in a tendency to stumble (dangerous to the
rider). palpated prevents the anesthetic from going too far proximally,
possibly anesthetizing the fetlock area.
II. "Toe block" or dorsal branch of the palmardigital nerve block: Injection: Abaxial sides at distal end of proximal scsamoids
blocks the toe area by blocking the dorsal branch of the palmar
digital nerves. Many people bypass this block and move to the Blocks: Pastern and below .
'·-,. .
'
..... ..,
- .U
HEEL • TOE • ABAXIAL SESAMOID BLOCKS
' . . :-, . . ..:
.":
:
·'
Med. cutan. antebrachial · ·

or Dors, br. of ulnar n. · · · i.-
Palmar nerve (med. or lat.)

... .
. Dors. Br.
VAN (digital v., a .• & n.)
III. Abaxial sesamoid

.
..'
·:,:·· '. '>
•' · block
II. Toe Block Lig. of the ergot_
Pamar digital n. (med. or lat.)
I. "Heel block~'
,.
Fig. NB-3 • Distal thoracic limb
. . . ~"
,.~ .....
·•.·. ~,. ..
. . . . . 1...------------------------------------'
~,
~"'· ;\:
_,:,-r ,·.::...
. . ·... ,: --~:
.
587
,'
FETLOCK BLOCK . '•
IV. Fetlock joint block, low palmar (volar) block. or 4 point · additional nerves that are blocked. It is done the same way. but the
block: blocks the fetlock joint area~ belt,w by blocking the six nerves have different names (these are followed in parentheses by
I • • •
nerves innervating iL This block is pelf~ at about a hand's the c~~bl~ nerve in the front limb):. ~
width above the fetlock (where the epiphysis narrows down to the. , ~
diaphysis). Nerves blocked include,: .. , • Medial and lateral plantar nerves (medial and lateral palmar)
·:' ' · '= • Medial and lateral plantar metatarsal nerves· (medial and
1 & 2. Medial and lateral palmar nerves: located on each side, lateral metacarpal)
between the tlexor tendons and the suspensory ligament. . . • Medial and lateral dorsal metatarsal nerves (no comparable
. . nerves in the thoracic limb - from deep peroneal)
3 ·& 4. Medial and lateral palmar ·metacarpal'nerves! found • Caudal cutaneous sural nerve(found laterally on the tibia)
emerging beneath the buttons of the_splin.t bones. ·. , (dorsal branch of ulnar)
S. Dorsal branch of the ulnar nerve: crosses jus~dorsal to where • Sapheoous nerve (on medial side) (medial cutaneous antebra ·
chial)
the lateral metacarpal nerve emerges from beneath the button of
the lateral splint
Medial and lateral dorsal metatarsal nerves (additional nerves 'in
the pelvic limb): pass between the dorsal surfaces of the splint
6.Musculocutaneous nerve brandl (medial cutaneousantebra-
chial nerve); travelling on the medial swface of~ antebrachium bones and cannon bone. Anesthetize with a line block to get the
near where the medial metacarpal nerve becomes subcutaneous cutaneous branches (caudal cutaneous sural and saphenous).
near the button of the medial splint ·· Many practitioners use half ring blocks to get the whole dorsal
surface in ·the 'hind limb.
·Procedure:.Hold the limb up and flex the fetlock·,taldng tension _Inject
off lhe flexor tendons. · · Plantar nerves between the flexor tendons and the
suspensory ligament
Metatarsal nerves under the buttons of the splints ·
• Medial and lateral paJmar nerves: inject 3 ml (5/8" 25-gauge, _
Cutaneous nerves with a line or ring block of the
needle) of local anesthetic between the flexor tendons and the
dorsal surface of the cannon bone
suspensory ligament on each side. It is critical to stay in the
subcutis to avoid
. injecting
. into the tendon sheath. Blocks: fetlock and below of the rear limb
• Medial and lateral metacarpal nerves: pass a needle (5/8" 25-
gauge) under the buttons of the splints and infuse the area with 3 ...
Ii-'~
;.~
ml of anesthetic. I ,.
......... .
''-.l;.
• Dorsal branch of the ulnar and the medial cutaneous antebrachial

nerves: block by leaving a '.'bleb" subcutaneously as the needle is
withdrawn after performing the metacarpal nerve blocks.
Alternate procedure: direct the needle (3" 22-gauge) from the

palrnaraspect of the limb dorsally to the palmarnerve between the
flexor tendons and the suspensory ligament. Inject the palmar
nerve (3 ml). Without removing the needle, push the flexor
tendons to the side and direct the needle dorsally under the button
of Lhe splint (3 ml). Inject the metacarpal nerve. As you pull the
needle from underthe splint, leave a "bleb" of anesthetic under the
skin to get ~ cutaneous nerve. Repeat this on the other side.
Check after 3, to 5 minutes, by poking a ball point pen into the skin
around the fetlock.
Inject: Palmar nerves between the flexor tendon and ·

: suspensory ligament
Metacarpal nerves under the buttons of the splints
Cutaneous nerves as you withdraw from the buttons
Blocks: fetlock and below
.
Area desensitized by fetlock block
tow plantar block: performed on the hind limb. It is similar to
the low palmar block of the forelimb, with the exception of two
1'
~·,.,:
.,. ,~ ~
.. 3
FETLOCK BLOCK
. .
-~
'.
IV. Fetlock block Metatarsal n. (med. or lat.)

Plantar digtal n. (med. & lal)
Dors, br. ..,

. . '
·i-"} ! •
. .
·.·'•:,-i . :~ '
. ..
- . ... .. :·.~~ /
.. ·-
e .
·~ '
.. ,:
'· • •• i
~got.
III. Abaxial sesamoid block

II. Toe block
Lig. of ergot
:
I. Heel block
.,
'
)~
'.
Fig. NB-4 • Dist. Hindlimb (med. or lat)
Since 90% or all·lameness is in the foot, most lamenesses will nicating branch between the medial and lateral palmar nerves.
be isolated with these blocks ("heel", "toe" ,abaxial sesamoidean, The communicating branches can be felt on the palmar surface of
~ and low palmar/plantar).If the horse is still tame, continue up the the superficial digital flexor tendon.
~ limb. The mid-cannon region is avoided because of the commu-
589
..
r-" -·
HIGH PAL"'AR/ HIGH METACARPAL

.
:BLOCKS
. .·
....,
Dors. hr. of uJnar a
..
V.Hfgb.
palniar~s
-,.,, ".
..
V. High palmar block VI. High metatarsal
block VI. HJab. -..m VI.High
metatarsal_, metatarsal
•
block block
, ·."':
.:.· r:r~ · . .
•• • ::r
a .:,
Fig. NB-6 - Schematic -o

nerves
L Communicatingbr.
b. Supf. digital flexor tendon
e. Deep cllgital tlexor tendon
d. Suspensory Jig. .
e. Prox. sesamoid bone
f. Button of splint Fig. NB-5 - .Thoracic limb, lat. view
V. High· palmar block; used to anesthetize the superficial meta- cmpus, insena needle(S/8" 25-gauge)between the splints (meta-
carpal struc~ by blocking the medial and lateral palmar carpalllandIV)andthesuspemory.Jigamentcf9.wntothecannon
nerves at the middle of the mecacarpm. Insert a needle (5/8" 25 bone (metacarpal Ill) on boch sides. Inject 3 to 5 -,JOI of local
ga~ge) below the carpus through the deep fascia to the palmar anesthetic.
nen,e located between the deep digital flexor and the suspensory
ligam~~ I~~.~ m.l of local anesthetic and repeat on the other Inject: the me&acarpal nerves in the junction between the cannon
si~.1bisw.iJ' m;dgA all of the deep $tnlcturcsof the metacarpus. bone and the splints; deep to the suspensory ligament
Injection: palrnar nerves on the sides of the flexor tendons. ~locks: Deep structures of the metacarpus
Blocks: superficial metacarpal region. -- .
s
V ·VI.Combination high palmar and metacarpal block:
bJocks both superficial and deep structures of the metacarpus,
VI. High metacarpal block: anesthetizes the metacarpal nerves.
except the origin of lhe suspensory ligament and the proximal
dws, most of the suspensory ligament and the interosseous ends of the splints.
ligaments of lhe metacarpal bones II and IV. Just distal to the :
(. •
S90
DEEP BRANCH OF LATERAL PALMAR NERVE
.·
(
>.
;_
'> •·.
'·\
• ' . ..;:..: ·.
:
:~ !.,•
Fig. NB- 7 - Carpus , .•:. ...

lat. view
VII. Deep br. of"·,· <,
lat. palmar block

e
VII. Deep br,

of lat. pal mar b ,·
block Fig. NB-9 • Schematic
nerves, palmar view
. ,.. . :
r.-
'}
Fig. NB-8 • Area /.

a. Tendons of digital flexor tendons
b. Accessoriometatarsal Jig.
Desensitized
c. Accessory Jig. of deep digital flexor tendon
d. Suspensory lig.
e. Accessory carpal bone
.
VII. Deep branch of the lateral palmar nerve ("Deep ulnar" the carpal bones. Inject 5 ml of anesthetic.
nerve) block: The lateral palmar nerve passes in the carpal canal
before it gives off its deep branch (deep ulnar branch) at the level Inject: lateral paJmar nerve and its deep branch (deep branch of
of the heads of the splints. The deep branch bifurcates into the the ulnar nerve) in the carpal canal
metacarpal nerves that pass against the palmar surface of the Blocks: origin of the suspensory ligament, and proximal end of
metacarpal bones. Structures anesthetized by this block are the the splint bones ··
origin of the suspensory ligament, the interosseous space. inter- . ·.
osseous ligaments, and the proximal part of the splint bones. This V ·VII.Combined high paJmar·and deep branch (of the ulnar
block is useful for deep seated osseous lesions associated with the nerve) lateral palmar nerve blocks: anesthetizes all the struc-
cannon and splint bones (e.g., splints, fracture, avulsion of the tures of lhe metacarpus.:
suspensory ligament. or exostoses, periosteitis between the splints
and the cannon bone). Inject palmar nerves and the deep branch of the ulnar nerve
. .
Procedure: from lhe lateral side; insert a needle (1" 20 gauge) Blocks: all lhe structures of the metacarpus
midway between the accessory carpal bone. and the head of the
fourth metacarpal bone. Pass medially to the ligament on the Blocking nerves above the ·level of the carpus is ~ot very
-plantar aspect of the carpus-between the accessory carpal bone valuable. It is difficult to isolate the nerves iri this region and
"---< and metacarpus (accessoriometacarpal ligament), through the mu~les can !.>e paralyzed, .I~d~~g t~injui:>'. To isolate joi~t pain
· ·:.. .....{~
.. , flcxor rctinaculum and lateral to the deep digital flex or down to proximally, intrasynovial mjecuon IS easier (rec next page) .
..... :.;.,.
'
591 ·
'
.
JOINT BLOCKS ,.
Arthrocentesis (ar•tJuo.sen-'IEE-sis): the puncwring and aspi- desirable, but not.always ~ible. Prottusion of lhe joint capsule
ration of a joint. . (pouches) sometimes allows a needle to enter the joint cavity
.
,·
~
. '"
~·.:#,
away from the articular cartilages. If it becomes necessary to enter
Rt~O..AS :!o in,ieiet a ,jcl!!lt
between the articular cartilages, use ~.sMaD. reedle ar:ti restw.h:t?.-e
• T0 :e. T:Ovc a ·:'::'J7Ir!c ~:,r visualization (e.g., viscosity of synovial 31lirnai to minimize movement and possible scariftcation of the
fluid)_. ~}t mb work cartilage. ·
• T~ a~fiuistt.:1· aherapcutic d.rugs-·(e;g·.-;antibiotics).
• To (.<C.~ll!xdster a diagnostic substance (dye) for ·radiographic To lecate the injection site:
~ To admiraister an anesthetic. l. Locate the level of the joint by palpatmg the regional
structures. .
Jei~ts and bursae are blocked to localize pain to a specific join~
or t'e.li'Sa. The higher risk in these injections over nerve blocks 2. Locate the injection sites by palpating their boundaries.
necessitates tlte observation of toial surgical asepsis to prevent
CO:ltfJr.•k:.at.ioo. There is also the danger of damaging articular 3. In~P.t if!~: ueedle and aspfrate synovial fluid. If you are
cartilage. thus, caesing degenerative joint disease or acute arthri- inji~::;:;~~ ~;::i;tg<c quant~ty (';f local anesthetic, remove the same
tis. Nevertheless, they are very valuable diagnostic tools. ainouiit of synovial fluid.
.. . ;',
. ....
An injection of an anesthetic into a joint of· a lame horse which vm. Navicular (podotrochbiar) .bursa b,ock: anesthetizes the
then goes sound, localizes the problem to that joint If the horse navieutar bursa and. by diffusion, the navicu1ar bone. This block
remaios lame, that joint is not the problem; or it was not properly is difheult. Make a subcutaneous injection under the skin on the
anesthetized. midliae, just above the bulbs of the heel. Direct a needle (2 inch,
20~gauge) through this point and direct it dorsally parallel to the
Surgical access to aj~int: arthroscopic surgery is becoming very groend until it hits bone (navicular bone). Back off slightJy and
popular and requires knowing where to access joints. More than inject 5 mJ of anesthetic into the bursa.
one entrance may be necessary for surgery.
Boundaries: Skin above the bulbs of the heel
Joint pouches: focal points where the joint capsule protrudes Direct needle parallel to the ground
between osseous and soft tissue structures. The pouches may or
may not be swollen, thus. may or may not be palpable. The joint Blocks; navicular bursa and navicular bone
is accessable thro11gh pouches. A voiding the articular cartilage is .
i
'
Dors, pouch
IX. Dors. approach

• coffin joints _ _.,.
d
VIlI. Navicular
bursa block
Navicular bursa Fig. JB-2 ·Digit, palmaromedial v· w

Yag. JD -1 • Saggital section • digit
a. Extensor p1oc:ess of PDJ d. Deep digital ftexor 1endon
b. Navicul• bone · · · e. mterbulblr fossa
c. Heel t Ex1cn11or tendon
592
COFFIN, PASTERN AND FETLOCK JOINTS
X. Dors. approach - pastern joints .__.,
X. Dors. approach
• fetlock joint Common/longdigital e~tt:._
XI. Dors. approach
. .. • coffin joints--1
. .
,
X. Dors. approach • pastern joint
XI. Dors. approach

• coffin joints· ·
Fig. JB-5 • Saggital section • digit

l
XII. Palmar approach • fetlock

Fig. JB-3 - Digit, dorsolat •. view · Suspensry lig.
... : .
. . ·.
Extensor tendon
Fig. "JB-4 • Digit, med view
IX, X, and XI. Dorsal approach to the fetlock, pastern and Block: either the fetlock, pastern, or coffin joints.
coffin joints: injecting into the dorsal pouches of all joinis. three
Use the same procedure for all. Flex whichever joint you. are Xll. Pafmar approach to the fetlock: an easier alternative to the
injecting. Insert the needle (1 1/2" 20-gauge) proximal to the joint dorsal approach. Flex the fetlock and palpate lhe boundaries of the
and under the common/long digital extensor tendon laterally, and palmarpouch. Insert the needleft" 18·gauge) in the area between
pass it obliquely into the dorsal pouch. Inject 5 ml of anesthetic. these boundaries. The needle must go dorsal to the suspensory
' ligament and palmar to the cannon bone in order to access this
I
The coffin joint is within the hoof wall, therefore, it cannot be joint Inject 5 ml of anesthetic. .·
palpated, but mentally visualized. Insert the needle above the
coronet, lateral to and under the extensor tendons into the dorsal Boundaries: Proximal - button of splint bone
pouch. Dorsal - cannon bone
Distal • proximal sesamoid bone
Location: Proximal to the joint Palmar - suspensory ligament
....,,.., Obliquely under the extensor tendon
. -; •'f-r~
. .,·~ 'J:i,i., Blocks: fetlock joint
~~·'
. ... ·. ... . . . . .
. . ,• .. '
593
.' '
." . •
CARPAL JOINT
., BLOCKS
... c
II
-:
•'
•
J •
Fig. JB-6 • Carpus.. ctors. v • ~
a f
~.·••
•
I •.. .,
xm. ~· approaches
• antebrachiocarpal"
/' ..
Antebracheocarpal joint- .
- ....
..
" \
, ;
Middle ca,pal joint ' • f
•
"' XIV. Dorsal approaches
; l .... -- I ...
• middle carpal joints
\ /
.t
• tll"' I
-~.
,,
I
Carpometacarpal joint
.
~
a. Lal digital extensor ...
b. Oblique carpal ex.tensor
e, Radius·:
cL Metacarpal bone m
'
'•
•
!
•
JI Extensor carpi radialis tendon
Carpus anesthetic injections: there are three joints in the carpus medially or laterally to the tendon and into the depressions. Put a
- antebrachiocarpal, middle carpal. and carpometacarpal joints. syringe on the needle. aspirate 10 ml of synovial fluid, and inject
10 ml of anesthetic.
• Antebrachiocarpal or "Radiocarpal" joint : doesn't commu-
nicate with ~ other carpal joints. Dorsally, it opens wide when Location! Depressiononeithersideoftheexcensorcarpiradialis
the carpus is flexed.
Blocked: either the antebrachiocarpal joint or the middle and
• Middle carpal joint (fonnerly intercarpal joint): also opens carpometacarpal joints.
dorsally on ftexion, and communicates with the carpometacarpal
joint. Palmarolateral pouch approach to the antebrach.iocarpaljoint an
alttmate technique lhat is safer for the anicular cartilage, but is
• Carpometacarpal joint too small to access with a needle. more difficult to perform. Locate the depression between the
Fortunately it communicates with the middle carpal joint and is accessory carpal bone, the tendon of the ulnaris lateralis muscle
blocked when the middle carpal joint is anesthetized. as it inserts on the fourth metacarpal bone, and the caudal surface
of lhe radius. Insert the needle (J" 20-gauge) obliquely and
XIII., XIV. Dorsal appl'08Ches to the antebradaiocarpal and distoaM"Aluilly into the depression. Remove synovial Bu.id and
middle carpal joints: flea &he carpuscoopcnlhcjoinL Palpate die inject 10 ml of anesthetic. This can be done wi1h the animal
deplesskn ot l,odt joiaas on eidle, side G die tendoa or the Sllnding. minunizina tho clanger or dlmlging &be articular caru- ·
exlienlOr carpi ncH1Hs 8IUICle. lmat a nec41e (l" 20-gauac) lrge..
594
'
ELBOW JOINT BLOCK
•
Fig. JB ..7 - Lat. view of elbow
.
,
XVI. Lateral approach

- elbow .. ·-:,
:· ,,
Lat. collateral lig. ,• ....
• •
i11 ,, •. ·
. ! I
..:._
--... I I
J I -
f. :· .: .
.,
....
~ ....
. . ·,_;
0 ••• l, - ...
, I
,
.;.
,,...._ XVI. Lateral approach

·elbow
t
• ..
a. Lat. epicondyle of humerus .
b. Lat. ruberosity of the radius Lat collateral Jig
I
I
,. .. . . '
Fig. Lat. view of elbow • I
Elbow (cubital) joint: rather difficult ti l anesthetize. Fortunately,

it is seldom needed as elbow problems are quite rare.
XV. Lateral approach to the elbow: Locate the lateral collateral

ligament between the palpable lateral epicondyle proximally and
the origin of the lateral digital extensor distally. Feel the space
cranial to the lateral collateral ligament and slide the needle (2 1/
2" 18-gauge) into this space. Aspirate and inject 10 ml. of local
9.JA
"°....·:r.·,
~!·;,n
anesth•euc .
. . .,
-~~·
~ ..
. .
59S
,'
SHOULDER BLOCKS
. .
Fig. JB-9 • Shoulder joint, lat. view
XVIII. Intertubercular bursa
a
Notch in greater
.bercle
.ireater tubercle
Area desensitized (schematic)

\
· XVI. Shoulder joint block: Palpate the notch between the synovial fluid and inject 10 to 20 ml. of anesthetic.
cranial and caudal prominences of lhe greater tubercle of the
humerus. The greater tubercle extends proximally and cranially Site: notch in greater tubercle
above the level of the joint, so insert the needle (3 lfl" 18-gauge
spinal) through lhe notch at an angle caudal, distal, and medial in Blocks: shoulder joint
order to get into the joint space. Aspirate a liberal amount of .·.
...
~
596.
SHOULDER BLOCKS
. ,,,
:i
. Shoulder joint
Greater tubercle
Tendon of infraspinatus m. _,
e
Notch in greater tubercle
a. Shoulder joint
b. lnfrupiruuus bursa
e. lntertubercular bursa
d. Tendon of origin of biceps bradili m.
e, Infrupirwus 1Jursa injection
Fig. JB-10 • Shoulder joint, lat. view
XVU.lntertubercular (bicipltal) bursa: The shoulder joint and tendon. Back-off and aspirate synovial fluid, then inje(t 10 ml of
the intertubercular bursa in the horse are separate sttuctures that anesthetic. (In a large horse this procedure may require a six inch
do not communicate. Access to the bW'sa is blocked from the needle.)
latel8J side by the greater tubercle. Insert the needle (2 l(l." IS.
gauge) at the level of the deltoid tuberosity and slide it up the Injection: In at deltoid tuberosity
cnmial swfaceof the humerus, deep to the biceps brachii,and into Slide needle up cranial humerus
, the intenubercular groove and the bursa. If the needle goes past
~\
~:.-
oorsa,
r'.:,; 'I the resistance will be met as the need1e enters the biceps Blocks: intertubercular bursa.
597
,·
....... -·-·· --- ... . .. .. . . . .., ..
TARSUS
TARSUS • HOCK: has four joints :... tarsocrural,
proximal intertarsal, distal intertarsal and tarsometa-
tarsal joints. Fig. JB-11 . Tarsus,
T · dorsal view
Tarsocrural, talocrurat or "tibiotarsal" joint: the .' (schematic)
articulation between the tibia and the trochlea of the.
tahs. It communicates with tJ:ie proximal intertarsal
Joint. .It has three pouches where the Joint capsule ·
,:" ' _prp~udes subcutaneously: dorsal, medioplantarand 1. Tarsocrural
. ~-
i.
~
!aterqplantatJThese are all connected, therefore,.in-
;H ~ · ·Jection in. . 11J1y 'one anesthetizes all three and the
~.oximalintertarsal joint . . . ...
Tal ··•··
>..VIII. Dorsomedial pouch: easily palpated .. iPal- Cal. ,
;Jate the medial malleolus cranially to the calcariean-
uiberosity. Palpate the tendon of the peroneustertius 2. Proximal intertarsal.joint
cranially to the medial malleolus. Move distally ~ntil
'}l feel a large, soft spot. Insert· a needle {1 n- 20- :
i ..*1ge) into this soft SJJ-Ot, aspirate and inject 20 ml of J
;~n'esthetic. Distally the cunean tendon crosses the 3. Distal intertarsal joint, DIT
tarsus. The medial saphenous vein crosses this pouch
and must be avoided by inserting the needle behind IV
... ~ -·," (plantar to) it.
, · ·.P.ot:ndaries: Proximal - medial malleolus .. ,

e ! \ . '..,.
. Cranial - peroneus tertius muscle or
,~,-~<\
medial saphenous vein 4. Tarsometatarsal joint
IvfcIV'
Blocks: tarsocrural and proximal intertarsal joint . . Melli
·i:- ... --·
·I Mell
~i..ateral plantar pouch (a): rarely injected. Inject into .
;: .
the soft spot in the "V" shaped area bet ween the lateral .
•.-:,,
rnalleolus and the body of the calcaneus.
'\'1edial plantar pouch (b): harder to palpate, it also is

rarely injected. Palpate the deep digital flexor tendon so has to be injected specifically. It is extremely narrow and hard to
between the medial malleolus and the calcanean consistently inject. Palpate.the gap between the fused 1st and 2nd, 3rd, and
tuberosity. Pass the needle between the caudal edge central tarsal bone on the medial side of the hock with a finger nail. Inject a
of the tibia and the tendon of the deep digital flexor little anesthetic subcutaneously at this site. Insert a needle (I" 22-gauge) into
muscle at the level of the medial malleolus. Avoid the this junction. This may require redirection of the needle. Inject 5 ml of
synovial sheath of the deep digital flexor tendon by anesthetic. If the gap can't be palpated, draw a straight line from the palpable
going dorsal to it. distal tubercle of the talus to the palpable space between the heads of the 3rd
and 4th metacarpal bone. Palpate the proximal border of the cunean tendon
.~oximal intertarsal joint: between the talus and and inject where it crosses the line.
calcaneus proximally and. the central and 4th tarsal
bonesdistally, Itis in direct communlcatlon with the
Boundaries: Junction of central, 3rd and fused 1st and 2nd
. WSOCr!Jraljoifikµierefor~;never injected. directly. tarsal bones,(medial side) \
.'
:DistaHn,tertarsal an~~sometatarsaljoints:These Blocks: distal intertarsal joint
. are ..plane joints with little motion, thus, the joint
.. spaces are very narrow and difficult to place a needle Tarsometatarsaljoint: located pet ween the distal
row of tarsal bones (3rd, ,
in. They are, however, most often affected by bone
4th, and fused 1st & 2nd, and the metatarsal bones). .,
spavin and need to be injected for diagnosis more
of ten than the easier to inject talocural joint.
Medial approach to the tarsometatarsal joint (d): injected distal to the sile for
the distal intertarsal joint where the 3rd, fused lst and 2nd tarsal bones and lhe
XIX. Distal intertarsal joint, DIT: located between
large metatarsal bone meet. This site is so small that it is difficult to hit Put
tbe cemral and the 3rd and fused lst and 2nd tarsal
hones. It docs not communicate with any other joint
of
a bleb anesthetic under the skin and repeatedly redirect the needle lO find
the site.
.<, .
TARSUS
•
..·'
,
a
,
' Fig. JB-12 .. Tarsus, lat, view
..
Jt\
> •
I
I
I
Fig. JB· 13 • Tarsus, med. view
I I
I
I
I
• I
\I
I
•
. '\
\
3
4 \\
I
XVI. Lat.plantar
approach
,.:~J•. ·. XIV. Dorsomedial pouch
- tarsometatarsal joint
1. Tarsocnual XV. Distal ~ntertarsaljoint, DIT

2. Proximal intertarsal joint, PIT
3. Distal intertarsal joint, DIT
4. Tarscmetatarsaljoint
a. Lat. plantar site (tarsocnual joint\ 3

b. Med. plantar site (tanocnwl join1)
c. Med. approach to d!Sl inlC1WSll joini 4
T. Tibia
Tai. Talus
Cal. Calcaneus
- 1+11. fused
- first and seoond tarsal bone
m. Third tarsal bone
IV. Fourth tarsal bone
XX. Lateral plantar approach to the tarsometatarsal joint: Cakanean tendon: the medial tendon of insertion of the cranial
Palpate the tubercle on the 4th tarsal bone and the head of the 4th tibial muscle. It inserts onto the fused 1st & 2nd tarsal bone. It
metatarsal bone. Insert a needle (I" 20-gauge) in a sagiual plane crosses the dorsomedial surface of the tarsus where bone spavin
between these two processes in a dorsodistal direction (obliquely usually occurs.
towards the front and down). Inject 5 ml of anesthetic.
Cunean bursa injection: slide a needle (1" 22-gauge) under the
Boundaries: 4th tarsal bone palpable distal border of the cunean tendon on the dorsoQlediaJ
4th metatarsal bone side of the hock. Inject 10 ml of anesthetic. This wilt differentiate
--."
-···:' ~-
s-. ; "\ cunean bursitis from bone spavin. If a lame horse improves within
·='4f·
·.'li':; Blocks: tarsometatarsal joint 20 minutes, it is a bursitis problem.
599
.. •
'STIFLE
"
XIX. Femoropatellar pouch
i w-- XVIII. Lateral femorotibial pouch

• XVII. Medial remorotibial pouch
•.
,,'
·)
f d
l
c a. Femur '
r• b. Patella
i
!
c. Tibia
d. Fibula
•' Fig. JB-14 ~ Stifle, dors. view
l e. Miniscus
', (Schematic)
' I
l
!
I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--
!NJECTION OF STIFLE JOINT POUCHES ..,'
The stifle joint has three separate compartments - medial and

~-'
: -,
two prominences of the extensor groove of the tibia to visualize

iateral femorotibial and femoropatellar pouches. The medial
f emorotibial and femoropatellar pouches always communi- where the two extensor muscles run. Palpate the lateral collateral
cate through a small slit. The lateral femorotibial pouch com- ligament between the lateral epicondyle of the femur and the
origin of the lateral digital extensor. Insert a needle (3" 18-gauge)
municates with the femoropateUar pouch only 25 % of the time.
caudal to the tendons, pointing proximally. Aspirate synoviaJ
'Ihe medial and lateral f emorotibial pouches never communi- fluid and inject 10 to 20 ml of anesthetic.
cate. Inflammation of the stifle may close all communications.
therefore. each joint has to be individually assessed. First, identify
the level of the stifle joint. (Students often mistake the medial Boundaries: Cranial - combined tendon of peroneus tertius
lrochlear ridge for the patella Flex the limb and move the patella. and long digital extensor
Caudal - medial collateral ligament
It is usually more distal than the student first thinks.) Second,
identify the specific boundaries of each pouch.
Blocked: lateral femorotibial pouch and 25% of the time the
other two pouches.
XXI. Medial femorotibial pouch: insert a needle (3" 18-gauge)
between the medial coUaieral and the medial patellar ligaments at
the level of the joint. Aspirate synovial fluid and inject 10 to 20 ml. XXIIl. Femoropatellar pouch: easy to access. Extend the stifle
of ane~thetic. and grasping the patella pull it to widen the joint space. Insert a
needle (2" 18-gauge) on either side of the intennediate (middle)·
Boundaries: Cranial - medial patellar ligament patellar ligament. Advance the needle 2 inches between the
Caudal - medial collateral ligament patella and the patellar surface of the femur. Aspirate and inject
20 ml of anesthetic.
Blocked: medial femorotibiat and femoropatellar pouches.
Boundaries: Intermediate patellar ligament
XXII. Lateral femorotibial pouch: protrudes between the lat- Either medial or lateral patellar ligament
eral collateral ligament and the common tendon of origin of the
long digital extensor and peroneus tertius muscles. Palpate the Blocks: femoropatellar and the medial femorotibial pouch and
25% of the time the lateral femoropatellar pouch.
·~
600
STIFLE
Fig. JB-15 - Stifle, med. view

• ,,, . ..
•
Fig. JB-16 - Stifle, lat. view
Med. collateral lig.
..:. .. . -.:'-~ ... ':..

~ .
. Med.
\, . patellar lig.
. . .
c I Lat. collateral
Combined tendon of long I
lig.
digital extensor & peroneus l\1tt-Hl--ll....:
tertius muscle .. ,....,...-,,
XVII. Medial femorotibial
injection
XVIII. Lateral femorotibial injection
Med. patellar lig.
Intermediate patellar lig.
XVII-
Fig. JB-17 -Stifle,dors. view Combined tendon of long digital extensor &_
peroneus teruus muscle
. .
.
601
.. .'
,,
,....
'·~
HIP JOINT BLOCK ·~

-~ · ... .. .
. ··:~.=:
·: .
..
J:;
.
'
XX. Hip joint injection
/,
Notch of greater trochnter
Fig. JB-18 • Hip joint, lat. view

a. Head of femur
b. Summit of greater trochanter
c. Convexity of the greater
. trochanter
. · ·
.. r
. .
.!:
,.
.'"~ ; .... ; .. /
. '•
XXIV. HIP JOINT INJECTION: very hard to achieve, espe- between the accessory·gluteal muscle (of the middle gluteal) and
cially on well muscled horses. Palpate the summit of the greater the greater trochanter. Palpate the cranial pan of the greater
trochanter two thirds of the way from the tuber coxae to the trochantet, the convexity. Insert a needle (3" 18-gauge) 2 inches
ischiatic tuberosity. Palpate or estimate the location of the con- distal to the convexity and direct it dorsomediaJly over the
vexity. Then estimate the location of the notch between the two convexity into the bursa. Inject 10 ml. of local anesthetic.
(not palpable). Insert a 6 inch needle (16-gauge) through the
notch distally and slightly cranially. Walk the needle up the neck IM injections into the hip: done in the gluteal musclescranially.
of dle femur into the joint Aspirate synovial fluid and inject 10 to closer to the tuber coxae than to the midline. In a thin horse the
lS ml of anesthetic. This block is difficult and may require ischiatic nerve can be paralyzed if the injection is to close to lhe
redirecting the needle. midline.
Boundaries: Notch of greater trochanter Hamstring injection: should be made into the muscle. not into
the intennuscular septum. Injections into the fascial planes greatly
Blocks: hip joint decrease the efficiency of the injections. Make injections into the
caudal side of the semitendinosus muscle. Do not inject into the ...
XXVI. Trochanteric bursa injection: The trochanteric bursa is lateral thigh, thereby avoiding the ischiatic nerve. \,
• ·,
602
RADIOGRAPHY - INTRODUCTION
Radiology: the branch of medicakscience which deals with the fixer. leaving only the transparent bluish piece of plastic. It is
use of radiant energy in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. called "white" because fibns are looked at on a white viewer.
This section is to help students start to understand radiology. It is
not meant to be an in-depth presentation, but an introduction.
Radiology, as a diagnostic modality. is selected when the history
and physical exam suggests a possible benefit. Radiology seldom •
yields a final diagnosis, but• comributes in the creation of an
adequate differential diagnoses list.
Radiography: The study of the physics, photochemistry and

electronic technologies used to form a high quality radiographic
image. • Exposed; undeveloped; fixed: a film that had a vinual image
from exposure to light or x-rays, but was not developed, no silver
Radiograph: a visible image fi roted by passage of ionizing was precipitated so it all was removed by the fixer, resulting in a
radiation (energy)'through the y, interaction of the escaped clear sheet
radiation with intensifying scree s, the action of subsequent
emitted light with film and the effect of developing chemicals. • Exposed; developed; unfixed: a film with an image that~
made visible by the developer, but because the unreacted silver
X-ray machine: An X-ray beam is generated by passing an halide was not removed by the fixer, the image is black and green
electron beam through a vacuum between a cathode and an anode. instead of black and white.
The positively charged anode attracts the electrons (opposite
charges attract). A few percent of the electrons will pass close to • The radiograph is basicaJJy a negative, therefore,.the·whiter the
the nuculi of the anode, interact with the electrostatic charge and film, the more underexposed it is. The darker a film, themore
convert their kinetic energy in to X-rays (photons) while the rest overexposed. . ·
just create heat The tube enclosure is shielded and a series of lead
shutters allows the diagnostic beam to exit Viewer: a fluorescent light source for viewing radiographs.
Cassettes: hold the radiograph film sandwiched between inten- Spotlight or bot light: a strong source of light placed behind the
sifying screens. They come in a number of sizes: 8"xl0", film to view over-exposed areas (darker than desired). A spot-
10"x12" 12"xl4" and 14"x 17" (or metric equivalents), The light can make these areas still readable in some cases.
. .\.
object to beradiographed is placed on the cassette, between it and
". . . .. ' the tube head. FLASHLIGHTANALOGY:Youcanleamalotaboutradiog-
raphy using a flashlight, Radiant (x-rays) energy is a form of
Collimator (misnomer for Beam Limiting Device): the part of energy having many of the same properties as visible JighL Both
the x-ray machine allowing restriction of the size of the beam are generated from a source and transmitted as a primary beam.
leaving the machine. The primary beam is propagated until it strikes an object. where
three things can happen: reflection (scaner), further transmission
X-ray film: a piece of plastic· with a bilayer of silver halide (penetration) or absorption.
emulsion. When exposed to light or x-rays, the silver halide is
activated, which makes it reactive with the weak reducing solu- • ReOection or Compton scatter: the redirection of a percent-
tion of the developer. Silver halide which is reduced becomes age of the primary beam striking an object's surface. Scatter
microscopic crystals of silver metal, which appear black. The radiationisahazardtotheoperatorasitisnotlimitedtotheregion
reduced silver metal is insoluble in the weak solvent of the fixer between the tube head and the cassette. InCompton Scatter the
so it remains. The unreacted silver halide is soluble in fixer and original photon interacts with an orbital electron which is accel- .. ·
will be removed (cleared). A film may be seen in several states: erated and ejected from the atom. A secondary photon of x-ray
is produced wilh less energy ~ the original and at a different
• Exposed; undeveloped; unraxed: a film removed from the box direction of travel.
in daylight (looks the same unexposed, but YOU cannot see it in
the dark)'. It will be opaque with a greyish-green cast due to the • Penetration or transmittance: the passing of part of the
emulsion (silverhalide) covering it. primary beam through the object, Light can be seen through a
piece of paper. If more paper is added to the first. a smaller
• Exposed; developed; faxed: film that has been subjected to percentage will be transmitted. On the other hand the same
light or x-rays and developed (i.e. a typical radiograph, exposed thickness of tinfoil will transmit much less than paper (density).
areas are black, unexposed regions clear). Therefore, transmittance is influenced by both thickness and
density (atomic weight). ·
• Unexposed; developed; fixed: a film removed from the box
and developed in the dark room without being subjected to light • Absorption or Photoelectric effect. the third possibility for the
or x-rays. All the inactivated silver halide is washed away in the x-ray. This can be felt when the paper held in front of a light
603
. ....
RADIOGRAPHY • INTRODUCTION
source gets warmer. The x-ray photon ceases to exist and its in the appearance of overlapping densities also. Two bones that
energy is converted to kinetic eneisY of an orbital electron which cross will appear whiter where they cross due to the greater
is ejected from the atom (i.e., heat): . thickness. ·
. .
. .. . :
Inverse square law: Intensity varies with the square of the Markers: Iead.'.'R!'s and " L"s placed on the cassette are used to
di~tance. With visible light or x-rays, doubling the distance tell which side of the animal has been placed on the film (down).
~ ~ effective power. Therefore, any change of the dis- These also designate which limb is radiographed if only one limb
tance between the x-ray emiuer and the cassette film will greatly is shown. In addition to these markers, the film should have a label
change the exposure. The use of standard distances for different identifying the client, animal, date and facility perf onning the
techniques eliminates.distance as a variable.
study. and if a time study, the time elapsed after the procedure was
,.. ····~. :··. . ;-.
started.
Divergence: the spreading of the primary-beam as it moves away
from the source. Scatter also diverges. Therefore, thecloser the Patient preparation: radiographs must be taken with a minimal
object is to the cassette, the Jess divergence, thus, the smaller and amount of movement. For some animals this may be minimal
sharper its image. The farther from the cassette the larger (mag- resnalnt, whereas others will have to be sedated or anesthetized.
nifAcation eff~t},~4·. fuzzier, (geq~~tr:i·C. blurring) ').Viii be the For- some procedures (e.g., radiographs of the spine) the animal
image. Shin~,a· lighJ c;>_!ryour.ha.t\~ _Qe.Jlto,1,:Watl.,The.oloser to.the musrbe anesthetized. Sand bags can be used to properly place the
wall, the smaller and sharper the shadow; the f urther.from.the animal .in relanon tb the beam direction. Some studies, such as
wall the larger and fuzzier the shadow. Parts placed on the abdominal radiographs, are compromised by food and fecal
cassette will be sharp and almost actual .size: pans away from-the material in the GI tract These patients are prepared by with-
cassette wiJI beabnormaUy enlarged and fuzzy. Always place the holding food 12 hours prior to radiography and perhaps using an
side of the animal you are interested in against thecasseueso it enema,
will be sharp and close.to actual size. · .
Artifacts: (definition: made by human hand) things seen on a
Radiographic density: the actual penetrative ability of x-rays to radiograph that are not part of the animal. These can be due to a
pass through a object and reach the film. Radiographic density of number of causes. Dirt. wet hair, ointments or iodine (radiopaque
. ,J pan is determined by its thickness and its atomic weight A piece
material) can cause artifacts on radiographs. Therefore, clean the
of tin foil is denser (higher atomic weight) than a sheet of paper, animal first.Artifacts are also caused by static discharge, process-
thus, will stop more transmittance of lightorx-rays. But paper can ing mistakes and physical damage to screens or films.
be stacked (thicker) sufficiently to stop as much transmiuaace as
the piece of tin foil. Therefore, atomic weight and thickness go SAFETY: should be fore most in your mind whenever
hand in hand. Although fat feels and looks more dense than water, radiographing. Although invisible; X-rays are very dangerous
it is not (fat floats). Air and fat have liule reflection, little and additive over time. Never place any pan of your body or a
absorption, and a high degree of transmission to the film; thus, helper' s body in the primary beam. Wear lead aprons, gloves and
their images on the film will be black. Bone and metal have little stand behind a lead shield when ever possible to block secondary
transmission allowing less x-rays to reach the film, making their (scatter) radiation. A common misconception is that lead aprons
· images white. Water densities fall between these in transmission, and gloves protect you from the primary beam. This is not true.
appearing as shades of gray. Water densities are the soft tissue They only protect from scatter radiation. The beam should always
densities of the body (viscera, muscles and fluids). Soft tissue be collimated to no larger than the size of the casseue or region
radiographs are differences between very close densities, there- being studied.
fore, shades of grey. If a water density is thick enough (liver), it
can appear as white or whiter than bone. Thickness plays a part
ALARA: As Low As Reasonably Achievable. The USNRC
regulation concerning radiation exposure to human beings.
BASIC SCHEME OF RADIOGRAPHIC DENSITIES Any use of ionizing radiation MUST be controlled by the
Commit this to memory!!
operator to limit human exposure to be As Low As Reason-
ably Achievable,
• AIR: Less radiodens than fat - black
• FAT: less radio-dense than water - black
• WATER: less radio-dense than bone - gray BEAM DIRECTION: named for where the beam first passes
• BONE: less radiodense than metal - white into the body or pan of body followed by where it exits the body
• MET AL: most dense ~ white · or part to reach the film. Films shot from opposite direction are
difficult to differentiate without markers on the film. A caudal/
A<F<W<B<M or M>B>\V>F>A cranial and a cranial/caudal view will look identical in small
animals because radiographs have no depth. J;?o not try to read or
Memory Aid for radiographic densities mnemonic Bubbles, see depth in a radiograph,
Blubber, Blood, Bones and Bullets, corresponding to the
.
~ .- ..... __
s densities Gas; fat Water; Bones {t"1incral); Metal.
.
.._ .._...... . -----·----- • Lateral medial (LM) view: the beam enters the lateral side and
l,;Ji·.1es 1;1,, :-;ir·.!· • ,: .. ;. Small animal extremities are usuaH~!
RADIOGRAPHY - INTRODUCTION
exposed as Medial-Lateral projections. tant by jumping at the most obvious. Determine what region is
radiographed (shoulder or thorax etc.). Knowing the anatomy is
:-~~,.
:.:.·:; ""'. • Lateral projection of major body cavities (abdomen, thorax): necessary for reading films. Anatomical landmarks help you
~
:..... ,: named by the exit surface or that surface closest to the cassette .
i:t:. ·~. orient the views and indicate the direction of the beam .. ff late.ral
An animal in left lateral recumbency (right side up. left side and medial structures are silhouetted (on the edges of structure),
down) when radiographed produces a LEFf LATERAL projec- thenthebeamwasdirectedcraniocaudal,dorsopalmarordorsov-
tion. · entral depending on what was radiographed (i.e .• a view showing
the outline of the radial [lateral structure] and ulnar carpal bone
• DV or dorsoventral: the beam enters the dorsal surface and [medial structure] or the lateral edges of the ribs [lateral struc-
exits the ventral surface. This is the position.for small tures]). Silhouette.d caudal and cranial structures indicate beam
~· animal body cavity images with the patient in rsal recumbency was directed lateromerlial or mediolateral (i.e., accessory carpal
..-- (back up. tummy on table). bone silhouetted or chest with spines of vertebrae and sternwn on
the edges of the film).
• VD or ventrodorsal: the beam enters the ventral surface and
exits the dorsal surface. CHECKLIST: Do not look at the lines, grays and shadows of a
radiograph and try to identify what· anatomic structure they
• CraniOcaudal or anterior/posterior (AP): the beam enters the represent Instead work from a list of the sttuctures that you
anterior (front) side of the limb above the carpus and exits the expect to see and locate each in a specific order, The first
posterior surface (back) of the limb. approach will 'miss' agenesis (absence) of an organ, because
there is nothing to see.
• Caudocranial: the beam enters the back of the limb and exits
the front Difficult(impossible) to differentiate from acranlocaudal
Two-dimensional I three-dimensional: A radiograph is a two
view. dimensional representation of a three dimensional object. 'To
extrapolate the third dimension at least two radiographs must be
• DP or dorsopalmar (dorsoplantar): shot from the front to the taken at 900 to each other. A dorsoventral view of the abdomen
back of the limb below the proximal extent of the carpus. will have the medial to lateral and cranial to caudal dimensions,
but will lack the dimension in the plane of the beam. dorsal to
• PD or palmar dorsal (plantar dorsal): shot from the back to ventral. The lateral view will have the cranial to caudal and the
the front of the limb below the proximal end of the carpus. dorsal to ventral dimensions. bot iack the lateral to medial
dimension. With both views (lateral and DV) all three dimen-
~\ ANATOMICAL LANDMARKS: certain organs o; structures sions are present and three dimensional infonnation can be
c}l' with specific locations are used to ascertain the side of the body exttap<>lated. If, in the DV view, a buckshot shows up superim-
or limbs in a film. Anatomical landmarks should always be used . posed on the kidney. itcouldbeanywhere in theplaneof thebeam
to check if the markers are correct. (Nature put on the landmarks, (subcutaneous, below, in. or above the kidney). Another view is
people put on the markers, who do~ trust?) Use radiographic needed to place the buckshot in three dimensions. A lateral vie\y
landmarks lO get your bearings. A few of the common radio- showing the buckshot overlapping the kidney would now place
graphic landmarks are: it in the kidney.
Anatomical Landmarks
• Apex of the bean - left
• Gas bubble in the fundus of the stomach - left
• Descending colon - left ··:
• Cranial kidney - right; Caudal kidney - left
• Anticlinal vertebra - vertical vertebrae, usually T11 in dogs.
• Head of humerus -. caudal . ·· · ·
• Radius - cranial · . · .. ·
• Olecranon - caudal
• Distal end of ulna - lateral and caudal
• Accessory carpal bone - lateral and palmar
• Dew claw - medial
• Patella - cranial
• Fibula - lateral
• Calcaneus lateral and plantar
READING FILMS:
~ Survival Law!: Read in a systematic manner. Extract maximum

. •h
t;·.• I information from the entire film. Do not miss something impor-
~:
605
,·
..... ,1"1
.. ,
SKtJLL - FILMS
.r.
r ':
15
.
~+.-16
. ; ••
~~8
. .. . 1 .· rJ-:. ' :,/ ~/

N ( 9 / .. Fag. R-1- Dog
Lat. view
17
-~~-)~ .. Fig. R-2· Dog
.. ' . VD view
1. Teelh 6. External occipital protuberance • 11. Coronoid process 15. Nasal septum (VD)
2. Nasal cavity 7. Zygomatic arch • 12. Articular condyle 16. Conchae (VD)
3. Ethmoid area 8. Mandible (condyloid process) 17. Ex ternal auditory canal ( air filled)(VD)
4. Frontal sinus • 9. Body (horizontal part) 13. Tyrnpanic bulla
5. Cranium • 10. Ramus (vertical part) 14. TM (temporornandibular) joint
Skull radiographs are difficult to read because of the confusing oilier.

overlap of structures of different densities. Use a skull specimen
to help read skull radiographs and position shots. All skull Cat differences; The cat's skull is constructed differently than ··,
radiographs should be done under anesthesia because they need the dog and these differences need to be known. Cats have greater
to be perfectly positioned. There are 3 types of skulls in dogs doming of the frontal and nasal bones, smaller frontal sinuses
relative to the proportions of the facial bones and the cranial vault. (may be absent in Persians), more complete bony orbits and wider
This variation must be taken into account when viewing normal skull because the zygomatic arches are wider
skull films - doliocephalic, larger facial component (i.e. long
nosed breeds, such as the collie) - mesaticephalic: (i.e. beagle) -
brachiocephalic: shorter facial component (i.e. Boston Terrier).
Some indications for the skull radiographs are neurological
problems (hydrocephalus), nasal or mandibular problems (frac-
tu(es), maxilla (rhinitis, neoplasm), primary tumors of skull (soft
tissue swelling), mass behind the eye, teeth diseases, and middle
ear problems. ·
Many different positions are used in skull radiography to look at

the diff ercnt structures. The dorsoventral and lateral are standard
views. Open mouth, lateral oblique of the mandible or upper jaw Fig. R-3 - Cat
views are shot at 45° angle to separate the teeth of the opposite
jaws. Occlusal views are shot by placing the cassette in the mouth Lat. view
and directing the beam in a DV or VD direction. This isolates the
upper or lower jaw respectively from the other jaw. The lateral
oblique (to see the TM joint), frontal or fronio-occipital (for the
frontal sinuses), opened mouth VD or DV and foramen magnum
arc all diff crcnt views to highlight specific structures.
Fig. R-4 - Cat
Sc able to identify the structures listed after the different views. DY view view
l .ook for symmetry on the DV view by Cl"~1~?:ring one side to the £
,• ••.. vo._...-.......... -· _ _..._. . __ .._
-~
·,:.
SKULL - FILMS the larynx in the lateral projection.
E. Hyoid bone$: suspend the larynx from the skull • stylohyoid,

epihyoid, ceratohyoid. basihyoid, and thyrohyoid. Asbones, they
are visible radiographically. The most common clinical radio-
graphic finding~ are fractures.
Nasal septum •
• G. Basihyoid: seen end on in the-lateral projection; making it
appear very white (dense). · ...
Conchae H. Laryngeal cartilages: make up the skeleton of the larynx •

epiglottis, thyroid, cricoid and arytenoid. With age the cartilages.
can mineralize, especially in large <X' chondrodystrophic breeds.
The cricoid cartilage is the first to become calcified.
• I. Cricoid cartilage: the easiest to see, ..

Fig. R-1- Doi, Nasal cavity VD view
• J. Epiglottis: also easy to see at the rostral end of the larynx. In
Nasal cavity: in the DV view, compare each side for opacity or the horse the nonnal position of the tip of the epiglottis is dorsal
r... lucency. Increased soft tissue caused by inflammation or a mass to the soft palate.
may increase the opacity. Wh~ there is a difference in the density
of orehalf of the nasal cavity. (heminasum) compared with the The pharynx is evaluated for decreased or increased contrast and
other, look for the fine detail of the nasal conchae. If conchal displacement Decreased contrast can be due to inflammation,
detail is present on both sides then the densest side is diseased masses, or a nonnal finding in brachiocephalic breeds. Increased
(exudate, blood, tumor). If conchal·detail is missing from one contrast is due to air around the pharynx (retropharyngeaiair)
side then it is the diseased side regardless of whether it is dense (e.g., penetrating wounds or rupture of the structures of the
(exudate, blood, tumor) or lucent (usually fungal rhinitis). pharynx or esophagus). Ventral ~lacement can be due to
retropharyngeal masses. Laryngeal, tonsillar or thyroid In$SCS
-,
can displt~x laterally. With fractures of the hyoid
apparatus the x can be displaced caudally. The pharynges
Fig. R-6 -'-T90tb in of brachiocephalic dogs are difficult to interpret because there is
alveolus less air, therefore, less contrast in the pharyngeal region.
; D. Laryngopharynx
.·
B. Nasopharynx
Teeth: locate the crown, root and pulp cavity. Note the presence
orabsenceof thelaminadura. It is the side of the alveoli the beam
.t. .•
· passes through. This makes it appear as a white line separated by
a space (periodontal space) from the tooth root If this is eroded
. or missing, it indicates a problem with the tooth. The periodontal
·space is between "1e lamina dura and the tooth root and is
occupied by the periodontal membrane.
..
Pharynx: Radiograp~ically. its soft structures are contrasted
against the air opacity. The pharynx is located ventral to vertebrae
C1 -C, and is best visualized on a lateral projection. Structures of
the pharynx:
A. Sort plate: separates the oropharynx from the nasopharynx

and can be seen radiographically.
G. Basihyoid I. Cricoid cartilage
B. Nasopharynx: air -illed area above the soft palate
J. Epiglottis
C. Oropharynx: air-filled continuation of the oral cavity below
the soft palate.
Fig. R· 7 • Pharynx, lat. view
~ D. Laryngopharynx: the common part of the pharynx filled by
,~- . .-- . l
607
•
'
;·,;· . ··.; .. ·· ..·.
: ;. " 1 !
l~MBS ·..
.
f.:.'.ndochpndral ossification: the formation of long. bones by
a
aansforming cartilaginous model into bone. Bone replacement are breaks in it.Know the locations of the nutrient foramina so
they are not mistake for lytic (dissolved) areas.
i~~es place in.three primary ossification centers - the cliaphysis ,,
and the twoepiphyses. This results in a bone capped with articular ...
Radiographirr1tlimbs:
cartilage and two cartilage discs (metaphyseal growth plates or
physes) between thediaphysisand the two epiphyses; Lengthen-
ing of bone occurs at the epiphyseal side of lhe metaphyseal plate. •inLong bones of the limbs: include the proximaland distal joints
the film.
Lengthening- stops when the epiphyseal plates are completely
replaced by bone. During growth •. radiographically, the epiphy- •' Joints of the limbs: center the joint in film.
;;ial cartilage appears as a radiolucent line (dark line), called the
physis by radiologists, separating the diaphysis from the two
epiphyses, . • Comparison films: take the opposite limb if there is a question
as to what you are seeing and compare the two. · · ··
I. Epiphysis VIEWS OF THE LIMBS: Lhemostcommonare the lateral view
and the craniocaudal.or"dorsopalmar/plantar. The different views
silhouette different sides· of the bones and can be identified by
what is in silhouette:
t Lateral view of limb bones and joints: place the affected limb
' on the casseue. Pull the affected limb forward and the unaffected
limb backwards. The lateral view silhouettes the cranial and
caudal surf aces of the bones. ·
J
if~
CraniocaudaJ or anterior-posterior (AP) or dorsopalmar
2. Diaphysis -.- view: silhouettes-the medial and lateral structures of the limb.
Structures silhouetted· - thoracic limb
Lat. view Cranocaud or dorsopalm. view
.' Cran. structures Lat. structures: ..·'
• Greater tubercle • Spine of scapula .:' f
,I.....
I
!
• Radius .
: "J •• ·.- : • • Greater tubercle
,;;-,,
.(_
·.;.
1;
I . ,. ' • Distal end of ulna
Caud. structures:
. . • Accessory carpal bone
l
~\
4. Metaphysis_ ~~, ~ 3. Physis • Head of humerus .

I
I
• Ulna
• Accessory carpal bone·
Med. structures:
I Fig. R-8 • Long bone' I. Epiphysis • Radial carpal bone
•Dewclaw
Accessory ossification centers of large processes of individual
bones also display these dark lines in young animals. These (and
sesamoid bones) should not be mistaken for fractures. JOINTS - synovial ( diarthrodial): consist of the following com-
ponents:
" Anconeal process of the ulna
1. Joint space: in a radiograph, is actually the joint space inQ the
• Sesamoid bone of the lateral collateral ligament of the elbow
• Accessory ossicte of the caudal scapula · anicular cartilage, since the cartilage is invisible in radiographs.
•· Sesamoid bones of the stifle
Patella 2. Articular cartilage: caps the ends of the bones making up the
2 Fabellae joint It can't be seen on the radiograph, only inferred.
Sesamoid of the popliteal muscle
·• Sesamoid bones of the digits 3. Joint capsule: surrounds lhe joint space and attaches at the
• Os penis: sometimes has two ossification centers and can appear edge of the articular cartilage. It can't be seen on radiographs
to be a broken penis. unless calcified.
Evaluating radiographs of the limbs: recognize different ana- Degenerative joint disease (DJD): a disease affecting synovial
tomical variations for the bones. A German Shepherd humerus joints due to mechanical problems and degrading changes in the
looks diff erent than that of a chondrodystrophic dog (Dachs- articular cartilage. It can be caused by congenital or acquired
deformities of the bones and joints, inf ection or trauma. Some
'"tnd). Follow the cortex and sec if it thins or thickens or if there
important terms relating to DJD follow:
--
'.
SHOULDER JOINT
• Osteophyte (OS-tee-oh-fyt): an osseous (bony) outgrowth. (covered below). Remember to look at all the film, noticing
structuresother than the shoulder joint - neck, cervical vertebrae,
~t'\ • Sclerosis (Slee-ROH-sis) (Gr. sklerosis hardness): hardening, ~-filled trachea, ribs, and lung fields (air-filled).
.. ,,,Vi
. in bone, ref erring to the increase in density of a bone .
• Ankylos~ (ang1d-LOH-sis): immobility andconsolidation of a

joint due to disease, injury or surgical procedure.
\ • Lysis (LY -sis) (Gr. lysis dissolution): destruction or decompo-

'.\ sition, seen as reduced density in bones (blacker).
Caud. aspect of head
Radiographic possibilities in DJD (degenerative joint disease):
• Narrowing or disappearance of the joint space. ·
• Osteophyte formation, most often at the articular margins
• SubchondraJ bone.sclerosis
• Joint deformities
• Lytic and proliferative changes where the joint capsule and
ligaments auach around the joint
• Ankylosis (complete or partial) Joint mouse
SHOULDER JOINT or scapulohumeral joint the synovial

joint between the head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of
the scapula. The lateral and craniocaudal views are standard for Fig. R-10 - Osteochondritis oftbe shoulder
the shoulder. Take the lateral view by placing the dog in lateral
recumbency with the affected leg down on the cassette. Push the
affected limb dorsally and pull the unaffected limb ventrally and Osteochondrosis: a defect in endochondral ossification which ('
caudally to separate the limbs. To take a craniocaudal (AP) view causes the deeper layers of the articular cartilage to die. If
of the shoulder, rotate the limb medially to pull the scapula away something goes wrong in osteochondraJ ossification. the carti- \
from the thorax. lage continues to grow and thicken. Beyond a certain
thickness, \.
diffusion from the synovial fluid can't reach the deeper layer.
~
. . ~ ·:....:.
.. Joint space + cartilage which dies. The etiology is unknown. Excessive nouition and
stress may have something to do with it It tends to be bilateral.
It is seen in 4 to 10 month old, rapidly growing, large breeds. It
may occur as a subchondral bone cyst, which is a misnomer
because it Isn't a secreting membrane, rather a wad of necrotic
cartilage with a sclerotic layer around it Osteochondrosis tends
to happen in predictable anatomical sites.
Sites - osteochondrosis
• Shoulder - caudal aspect of the head of the humerus

Head of humerus • Medial humeral condyle - bears more weight
• Medial or lateral femoral condyle
• Trochlea of talus
The caudal aspect of the head of the humerus is the primary site
forosteochondrosis.Radiographically,cartilageisnotseensothe
Fig. R-9 - Shoulder joint radiograph (schematie) subchondral bone is checked to see if it indicates that the cartilage
is damaged. This may appear as flattening or cratering of the
caudal aspect of the head of the'humerus with subchondral bone
When viewing shoulder films the joint space should be of equal sclerosis (thickening). The lateral radiograph shows this best
width all around the head of the humerus. The head of the
humerus should be· smooth and round, with no flattening. Check Osteochondrosis dissecans: a form of osteochondrosis that has
for fractures of the spine of the scapula in the craniocaudaJ view. a dissected flap of cartilage. The cartilage above the dead carti-
Do not confuse the accessory ossification center of the caudal lage fractures and forms a flap. Dissecans means a dissecting flap.
aspect of the scapula with OCD (osteochondrosis dissecans) The fragment can calcify and/or break off and float around in the
which occurs on the caudal aspect of the head of the humerus synovium and is then called a " joint mouse" .
•
.
.. .
.. ' . • • . ~.h•. • . i
., . ,. .. . ',: ,. . :
ELBOW JOINT: a complicated joint between the humerus,
radius and ulna. Three important radiographic structures are Fragmented medial coronoid process: believed to be, a. syn-
'
listed below: drome of osteochondrosis. It is incorrectly called an··n'nunited
I Anconeal process
coronoid process because it is not a separate ossiticauon center. ~
The cartilaginous precursor undergoes improper development f't..:.-
and fragments. It is cartilage so it can't be seen. Rounding off of .. ""~
I the medial coronoid process may be seen. Rarely is the cartilage
joint mouse seen, unless it calcifies. Most of the time you only see
secondary degenerative joint disease (DJD). The earliest site of
DJD is bone proliferation on the cranial aspect of the olecranon
process. Bone build up (sclerosis) can also occur where the joint
capsule attaches. Of ten it is a diagnosis of inf ere nee • a young dog
d with some kind of elbow dysplasia (developing DJD) with no
evidence of otherosteochondrosesor ununitedanconeal process.
OFA will now certify elbows. A flexed lateral film is sent in for
Med. coronoid processes evaluation.
l Premature closure ot the physis: usually due·to trauma This is

I most common in the distal physis of the ulna or radius. Compare
a. Humerus the opposite limb's physis on radiographs. Closure of either the
I b. Radius
c. Olecranon
d. Trochlear notch
physis of the ulna or the radius will cause deformities in the other
bone and subluxation and/or degenerative joint disease of the
join ts on either end of these bones. Look for loss of the radiolucent
physeal line on radiographs.
I Fig. R·lO • Elbow joint with a physis (c Smo.) or an
I
I
ununited process {> 5 mo.)
• Anconeal process of the ulna: the proximal projection of ..

trochlear notch. It is an accessory ossification center in most
dogs.
;
• Coronoid processes of the ulna: medial and Iateral processes

of the distal end of the trochlear notch. The medial coronoid
process is larger and is not an accessory ossification center.
• Sesamoid bone in the lateral collateral ligament of the elbow:

present in some dogs, do not mistake it for a fracture. Radio graph
the other limb if there is doubt.
Un united anconeat process: failure of the anconeal process to

unite with the ulna. It should unite at about 5 to 6 months of age.
It tends to occur in large breed dogs (German Shepherds) and
tends to be bilateral. This disease is now fell to be related to OCD.
Ifit has not united after5 months of age it is considered ununited.
You see a straight or ragged radiolucent I ine. The precess may or
may not be displaced. There may be degenerative changes in the
'elbow (DJD). The best view is the flexed lateral elbow which
pulls the anconeaJ process out of the olecranon fossa of the
humerus.
-. Osteochondrosis of the elbow: failure of endochondral ossifica- Fig. R-11 • Premature closure of the dist.
tion on the medial condy le of the humerus. The cran iocaudal v iew physis of the ulna
is taken to try to see a subchondraJ lucency. This often accompa-
nies ununitcd anconeal process.
''<.. __
PELVIC LIMB • HIP JOINT
Wing of ilium
4_
Edge of acetabular cup Head
. ·~
Signs of hip dysplasia:
• Luxation or subluxation of the head of the

femur (worst sign)
• Flat acetabulum Dors. rim
• Flattening of femoral head acetabulum
-Thickening of femoral neck
• Different degrees of how much of the head
of the femur is inside the acetabulum.
• DJD - degenerative joint disease· Obturator forarnen
_ HIP JOINT: a ball-and-socket joint allowing great range of of the acetabulum. Look for congruency (parallel lines) between
ft~-:)
•• '-Ai
motion, but sacrificing stability. ·. ·· the head of the femur and the acetabular cup, especially in the
:::..,.;,.~ cranial third. A tangential line drawn from theedgeofthecranial
A cetabular rim: the craniodorsal ridge is an accessory ossifica- acetabular cup should be as close to perpendicular to the axis of
tion area. This can be mistaken for a chip fracture. the skeleton as possible. A non-perpendicular line would infer a
shallowacetabularcup.Degenerativechange(DJD,osteoarthrosis,
Physeal scar: normal remnant of the closed physis. osteoarthritis) first shows upasosteophyte proliferation along the
neck of the femur. This may look like a thickened neck of the
Fovea capitis: an indention on the head of the femur where lhe femur. Osteophyte proliferation tends to occur where the joint
round ligament of the head of the femur attaches. This appears as capsule attaches. Lastly, you ca)t-see some spurring (proliferation
a nonnal flattening of the femoral head on radiographs. Rotation along the edges of the cup of the acetabulum). Any signs of DID
of the limb medially will hide it in VD films. indicates problems. There are a number of treatments for hip
dysplasia, ranging from aspirin, cutting off the head of the femur.
Hip dysplasia view: Place the dog in dorsal recumbeney with the to hip replacement. ·
limbs pulled caudally and rotated slightly medially to place the r; '-· •
femurs parallel to each other, the patellas (orpatelae) centered in Pelvic fracture: "rule of thumb" -jf one fracture is seen, look for
the trochleaof the femur. Superimpose the femur and the ischiatic two more (one may be a luxation of the hip). The pelvis is a box,
tuberosity similarly on both sides. The film should include views if it breaks in one part. it has to break in two more locations in
from below the stifle to just above the hip bones. The pelvis must order to displace.
be level (no rotation). Rotation will make one acetabulum look
very deep and one very shallow, therefore, one joint will appear Legg perthes: avascular aseptic necrosis of the femoral head and
better. Rotation can be checked by looking at the symmetry of neck. Lessor blood supply to the head or neck causes the head to
obturator foramen. Rotation will cause the "up" foramen to become irregular (dissolve away). Over time it will collapse and
appear rounder and larger, and the "down .. side smaller and more become flattened and deformed. Treatment is to remove the head
elliptical. Rotation also causes the width of the wings of the ilium and neck. which small dogs tolerate very well. Etiology is
tobedifferenL TheOFA will notcertify a dog until it reaches two unknown. It occurs from 3 to 11 months of age and is usually
years of age. unilateral. but can be bilateral. This disease occurs in small
breeds (Poodle).
~) 50%-60% of the head of the femur should be inside the dorsal rim
~:'
..
611
.
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STIFLE \ ,,
J ·'., . ..
f
I
I
.I
Fabe Ila
•
Se:S3111oid of popliteal
tendon
of.
I
t
Patella
Fig. R-15 - HOD, dist ulna and radius
HOD, hypertrophic osteodystrophy: occurs in 3 to 7 month old.

dogs. It tends to occur in the distal end of Jong bones,.especially
Fig._ R-14 - Stifle, lat. view the ulna, radius and tibia. The etiology is unknown, but felt.'°
involve an excessive plane of nutrition. The animals present with
swelling around the metaphyseal region of the long bones of the
limbs, fever and lameness. The classical radiographic signs are
STIFLE: a composite joint between the.femur, patella tibia and bone cuffing around the metaphyseal region and double physes.
fibula . ' This is a self limiting disease that resolves with time. The animal
is treated for pain.
Sesamoid bones or the
stifle: the patella, two fabellae and the
sesamoid bone in the popliteal tendon. HO, hypertrophic osteopathy: lamellarperiosteal proliferation
on the long bones of the extremities, causing lameness and pain.
Tibial tuberosity: in young dogs, has a growth plate which looks The etiology is unknown, but it is associated with space occupy-
like a fracture. ing lesions of the thorax - tumor or chronic pneumonia. Radio-
graphically there is periosteal proliferation around the diaphyses
S~yline view: place the animal in sternal recumbency. Flex the of affected bones. It usually starts in the metacarpal and metatar-
stifle and place the animal on its knees. This view shows the depth sal bones and then progresses to involve the long bones of all four
of the trochlear groove, the patella and the femoropateHar joint limbs and the carpus and tarsus. Treatment of the associated
space. The groove is shallow in dogs that have patellar luxation, thoracic lesion usually results in regression of the bony lesions.
This can be repaired by deepening the groove surgically.
PANOSTEITIS: occurs in 5 month to 2 year old dogs (German
Subpatellar Fat Pad: On the mediolateral projection of the stifle Shepherd). They present with shifting leg lameness. It tends to
there is a rad.iolucent (fc;Jt) density seen in the triangle formed by occur in more than one bone at more than one lime. It can be
the f~mur, ti~ia ~n~ dis~ pate~lar ligament A small gray area is almost anywhere, but it tends to occur in the humerus, ulna and
seen 1~ the stifle Joint apex, which represents the synovial fluid of femur. Classically what is seen are nodular opacities to complete
the stifle. Intra-~cular di~es, most common: Cruciate liga- opacification of the medullary cavities. With time there may be
ment rupture, will cause effusion of the joint and this is seen as the smooth periosteal and endosteal reactions. Reactions are most
water density (gray) encroaching on the fat density (black). prominent near the nutrient foramen. When it goes away it tends
to leave a vacant look to the medullary cavity (dark) with a course
trabccufar pattern. You may find any stage of this on different
bones. The etiology is unknown. This is also a self limiting
disease.
"'~t!iog1·2ph placement on viewing screen: come up with a

·':-' 2
SPINAL RADIOGRAPHS
It is critical to have quality radiographs taken of an anesthetized a swelling of the spinal cord. A break appearing to be pushed
animal to evaluate spinal problems. It is essential that the spine inward could be due to a mass outside the meninges (herniation
s. is aligned straight without rotation. Rotation of a VD(DV film is ofadisc). Athinnerdorsalcolumncanbenormalifbalancedwith
:;}~ evaluated by seeing the sternum superimposed over the spine. a thicker ventral column. Contrast medium is heavier than CSF,
so gravity can be used to move it up or down the subarachnoid
TRIADS: Look at general aspects and compare each vertebra space;
with others. Look at them in triads (3' s ), comparing each vertebra
·· to the. one in front and to the one behind. Compare the size, shape
and opacity of adjacent vertebrae. Check the alignment of the
vertebrae by tracing the dorsal and ventral edges of the vertebral A
canal. It should be smooth and continuous. A step defect occurs
when one of the vertebrae is out of alignment, causing a "step" in
one of the edges of the spinal canal.
B
INTERVERTEBRAL DISC SPACES: evaluated to get an
indication of the state Qf the intervertebral discs. The radiolucent
intervertebral discs themselves cannot be visualized. Narrowing
.of.the space may indicate a protruded disc. The intervertebral
space between T10 and T11 is normally narrower than the other c
---- , ....... ...,.
spaces. Cervical intervertebral spaces are normally wider than
other spaces. A space further from the center of the film, due to
divergence of the beam will be viewed obliquely, thus, appear Fig. Mylogram contrast lines, A) normal: B) pushed
narrower than it is. Thus, only the 6 to 8 vertebrae in the center of outward; and C) pushed: inward .
the film can be evaluated for joint space differences. Do not take
long films of the entire spinal column to save time and money.
THORACOLUMBAR MYELOGRAM: direct the needle be-
INTERVERTEURAL FQRAMINA: Called the "windows" to tween the spinous processes of L5 and L6• The spine of vertebrae
thespinalcord",(looklikeSnoopy'slittlebirdbuddy, Woodstock, L6 is palpated in front of the line drawn between the tuber coxae.
in profile), should not abruptly change size from one to another. Pass it through the ligamentum flavum into the spinal canal.
-::-~. The radiolucent spinal cord can't be viewed. A calcified. nuclei or· Staying on the midline is critical. The needle is then advanced
' :_··. disc is a major finding and is a radiopacity found in a intervene- through the canal until it contacts the dorsal surface of the
brat disc space or spinal canal seen through the intervertebral . vertebral body. This usually goes through the conus medullaris,
foramen. but causes few neurological problems. Withdraw the needle a
little-into the ventral subarachnoid space: Remove the stylette and
Cats - lumbar vertebrae are relatively longer and narrower than hopefully C.SF will flow out the needle. If unsure of the needle's
in the dog. position, inject a small amount and then· take a film. The most
common error is placement of the needle in the epidural space
DENS: the cranial projection of the axis that articulates with the (epiduralgram).
ventral arch of the atlas. The dens may not develop (agenesis) or
it may be fractured .. It may be imaged with a lateral, a D V, or an CERVICAL MYELOGRAM: The cisterna magnum 1s entered
open mouth radiograph. to do a cervical myelogam. This is a relatively large space where
a CSF sample can be taken and contrast medium can be placed.
" SLEDS" or transverse process of C,: in three parts, making Flex the head and palpate the wings of the atlas, spine of the axis,
it a landmark for cervical films. and the occipital protuberance. Draw a line between the wings
. · and aline from the occipital protuberance to the spine of the axis.
ANTICLINAL VERTEBRA: theupright vertebra.usually Tq, Place the needle on the midline 1(2 inch in front of the line
where the incline of the spinous processes change from caudal to between the wings. Go roughly parallel to the caudal wall of the
cranial. skull and feel for the "pop" of resistance as the needle passes
through the dorsal atlantooccipital ligament. Stop when through
MYELOGRAM: the injection of a positive contrast medium the ligament. Do not pith (needle through the brain stem) the dog.
into the spaces around the spinal cord (subarachnoid space). This Pull out the styleue and look for CSF flow to tell if you are in the
will make the subarachnoid space visible as two white lines right place. Pull the styleue out any time resistance is felt or you
separated by a space (the invisible spinal cord). These contrast are unsure if you are in or not, and look for CSF fluid. If you hit
lines should be smooth. reflecting the smoothness of the spinal bone, either pull out and start again or walk the needle off the
canal. Remember the spinal cord has a cervical and a lumbar bone. Collect CSF for analysis and then inject the contrast
enlargement that are normal, Look for any deviations in the medium. Never aspirate CSF so the spinal cord is not "sucked"
-=-· ~· .. contrast lines, therefore, in the cord. A break or thinning in the into the needle or change pressure in the subarachnoid space
.........•.~
·,·.··~
resulting in herniation of the brain stem .
. .... .. ~ subarachnoid space that looks as if it is pushed outward indicates
~.~
·.· ,
..
613
•
.
THORACIC RADIOLOGY ...
5. Tracheal carina
g; Aorta
4. Trachea
d. Diaphragm
h, Cranial vena cava
'. :.
7. Pulmonary vessel .,
2. Heart c. Sternum
Fig. R-16 - Dog- Lat. view of thorax
placement system that works for you. Then always fallow it for
standard views to eliminate an unnecessary variable. The lst rule gravitational and projection differences in the two views.)
of thoracic radiography is to have all of the thorax in the film,
including pan of the neck. pan of the abdomen, the vertebral Lateral views: place on the viewer S<? that the cranial side of the
bodies and the sternum. Thoracic films are shot at the peak of full animal is to the left. (Minority opinion: Some radiologists prefer
inspiration. The cavity is bigger during inspiration, resulting in Lo place the images on the viewer in the manner they were
less contact between the diaphragm and the heart. In expiratory obtained. A left lateral would be viewed with the head to the
films the lungs are deflated, thus, more opaque and easy to viewer's right. a right lateral. with the head to the viewer's left.
confuse with pathologic change. Among the problems requiring This encourages the viewer to consider gravitational effects.) ·
thoracic radiographs are a cough, heart problems, dyspnea, and
abnormal lung sounds. "R" or "L" marker: on a lateral film of the trunk indicates the
side the animal was lying on when the film was taken (right or left
VD and DV (as the beam sees it): place the film so that the right lateral recumbency). In VD/DV films. these markers orient the
side of the animal is to your left for both VD and DV views. right and left sides of the animal. A quick check of the markers is
(Minority opinion: Some radiologists place the images in Lhe the apex of the heart, located to the left in the VD or DY views.
position they were taken so the VD has the patient's right to the
viewer's left [face-to-face] and the DV has the patient's right to Cat thorax: similar to the dog, but more triangular and more
the viewer's right This forces the viewer to remember the lucent than the dog's. The heart is also a bit more upright on the
lateral view.
,:; JA
ti ..·-->
TH«:>RACIC RADIOLOGY
'.
\ ;
.Thoracic
: . spine
1
8. Mcdiastinum
•,
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j
l
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i
Fig. R-17. Cat· Lat. view {'
of thorax I
lI
a. Chest wall
I
!
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i
II
9. Lungs !
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!!
I
I
II
l
I
Fig. R-18 -ca- DV or VD f. Caudal vena cava

d. Diaphragm
'Fig. R· 19 • Dog - VD view of thorax

II
~1ew of thorax
. ~. Heart: shape, size, position and opacity.

Evaluating and read~,ng thoracic films: can be done by an area, 3. Great vessels: shape, size, position and opacity.
organ or a combination of the two. The area approach can be done • f. Caudal vena cava
diagonally from the upper caudal to lower cranial or starting at the • g. Aorta
center and moving outward. or from the outside to the inside. The • h. Cranial vena cava
organ approach looks at Individual organs and organ systems 4. Trachea: for position and diameter.
systematically .• \ list of the organs looked at and a brief hint of for 5. Tracheal carina
what follows: 6. Bronchial tree
7. Pulmonary vessel: shape, size, position and opacity.
l. Borders of thorax: 8. Mediastinum: for shifts, width and any abnonnal density or
• a. Chest wall masses.
Thoracic spine
.. ~• b.
c, S.temum
9. Lungs: for increased or decreased opacities.
10. Pleural cavities: for fluid or air.
· · • d. Diaphragm
~ • e. Any of the thoracic limbs in the film.
' 6 J. ::<~
••
DIAPHRAGM • MEDIASTINUM
DIAPHRAGM: divides the thoracic and abdominal cavities. -&ophogram: barium study of the esophagus and phruynx to
The cranial surface of the diaphragm (water density) is easily evaluate anatomy or disease. Contrast medium is given by mouth'·
visualized by its contrast to the adjacent air density of the lungs.
The liver and stomach project cranially against the dome of the
and radiographs are immediately taken .. The radiograpm will
delineate longitudinal folds of the mucous membrane in the dog. ·,~
t
diaphragm. Being water dense, they are hard to distinguish from In the cat the proximal 3/4 of the esophagus has longitudinal folds
the diaphragm. The right and left crura are the dorsal muscular and the last I/4th has oblique mucosa) folds, giving a "herring
parts of the diaphragm attaching to the ribs and ventral bodies of bone" pattern.
the lumbar vertebrae.
-,
Crura
Middle pan
Fig. R-20 • Diaphragm, lat. view, to different Fig. R-21 • Divisions of the mediastinum. lat. view
appearances of the crura
Diaphragmatic hernia: a severe problem with a 50% fatality

rate. The hernia may allow the liver, stomach and/or small bowel - Esophageal and pharyngeal foreign bodies: lodge in four
to enter the thorax. The herniated organs often are strangulated common sites due IO constriction of surrounding structures: J. ss:
and release a large volume of fluid. the pharyngeal side of the esophageal opening, 2. Cran~\ to the
thoracic inlet, 3. Cranial to the base of the heart, am 4. Atcardia
MEDIASTINUM: the space ( or imaginary wall) formed be- of the stomach.
tween the serosal layers of the two pleural cavities. The space is . . .. •
' I• .·'·t '
filled by all the organs of the thorax, except the lungs. The - Persistent right aortic arch: ~nge.ect·iri the devel-
mediastinum divides the thoracic cavity into right and left halves. opment of the aortic arches. This results Iii ~esophagus passing
Unlike the pleural cavities, it is not a closed cavity, .but is to the left of the aorta instead of the right, The esophagus is thus
continuous with the fascial planes of the neck cranially and into ringed by the aorta, ligamenturn arteriiosum, pulmonary trunk and
the retroperitoneal space caudally. Therefore. air in the mediasti- the base of the hean. This constncuon stops food and causes the
num can travel up the neck or into the retroperitoneal space. The esophagus to balloon cranial-to me base of the heart (or the ring).
dorsal mediastinum between the lungs is straight The ventral
mediastinum is very irregular in contour, due to the thymus, heart, -Megaesophagus: acquired or congenital dilatation of caudal
and vena cavae. The mediastinum is divided into parts: cervical and thoracic esophagus. This results in ventral displace-
ment of the trachea and heart.
1. Cranial part of the mediastinum: the portion in front of the
heart. It is contains the esophagus, trachea, thymus (if present), - Traeheal-esopb.ageal stripe: a line caused by the air in a
vessels in front of the heart, etc. megaesophagus arid air in the trachea contrasting the adjacent
walls of the two ~uctures.
• Esophagus: usually not visible on a radiograph unless it con-
tains swallowed air (aerophagia). because it is surrounded by the - Esophageal cone: the VD appearance of a megaesophagus
similar water densities of the mediastinurn. Air around it, as in as it passes caudally to the diaphragm.
pneumomcdiastinum, will make it visible. Chest survey films of
the esophagus should include the cervical and thoracic portions, • Sail sign: an.oblique soft tissue opacity due IO the thymus in the
including the caudal pharynx and cranial abdomen. ventral part cf 9t~ cranial mediastinum seen in VD or DV views.
,....
~
616
MEDIASTlt-JUM
...---·-·--·~------------··------------------------
- . },.,.
Cran. mcdiastinuim
Fig. R-22 - Mediastinum, VD view (schematic) . ..
, ..
. .. .
Sail sign
) ,
I
Aorta
Heart Tracheal carina

Trachea
Caud. Mediastinum
Caud. vena cava I
Prenicopericardiac lig.
~\.
-
;.
..
·:,
Cran. vena cava
Fig. R-23 - Mediastinum, lat view (schematic)
Prenicostemal lig.
A sail sign is a normal finding in cats and young dogs. by the trachea and the esophagus.
• Mediastinal lymph node: located in ihe cranial mediastinum Visible structures or the mediastinum: most structures are not
dorsal to stemebrae two. These are not seen unless enlarged (e.g., seen, except the air-filled trachea and tracheal bifurcation. the
lymphosarcoma, common in cats). heart and the aorta .
.
2. Middle part of the mediastinum: the portion containing the Pneumomediastinum: air in the mediastinum. This causes an
heart and its pericardial sac, esophagus, bifurcation of the tra- increased radiolucency of the mediastinum contrasting the water
chea, etc. densities (esophagus and vessels), making them visible. This air
can pass up lhe fascial planes of the neck or into the retroperito-
3. Caudal part of the mediastinum: the portion cardal to the neal space.
heart; containing the aorta, esophagus. caudal vena cava, and
vagal trunks. Medi~tinalshift: moving of the mediastinum to the right or left.
Know the normal position of the mediastinum in the VD or DV
• Phrenicopericai:diac ligament: seen on the left side extending view so shifts can be detected (i.e. unilateral pneumothorax,
from the apex of the heart to the diaphragm. It forms the left side pleural effusion. diaphragmatic hernia).
of the caudal mediastinum.
. Mediastinal masses: change the shape and density of the medi-
?} . 4, 5. Dorsal and ventral portions of the mediastinum: divided astinum.
~r~: -,
.
·,
617
••
...
TRACHEA· BRONCHI
TB.Carina
Trachea
Main stem bronchi
Rt and It lobar bronchi
Fig. R-24 • Trachea and bronchi, lat. view

Fig. R-25 • Trachea and bronchi, VD view
Trachea: an air tilled tube within the cranial mediastinum, Pulmonary triad: a lobar bronchus with its associated lobar
appearing as a dark line (air). It terminates over the base of the pulmonary artery and vein. Radiographically, the vessels appear
bean at the tracheal bifurcation. In a DV view the trachea should as a pair of water lines separated by an air line (bronchus).
be superimposed over the thoracic spine. The tracheal angle Normally the vessels will be about the same size. Pulmonary
nonnally is 15° to the vertebral column in the lateral view. Dorsal arteries come from the cranially located right ventricle. The
deviation of the trachea can be due to a cranial mediastinal mass, artery to the cranial lung lobe is located dorsal (and cranial) to the
excess fat, right heart enlargement oran expiratory film (artifact). vein in the lateral view. The pulmonary veins flow into the
caudally-located leftatrium, thus, are more ventral (lateral view)
TB, Tracheal bifurcation or carina: appears as a black, circular and central (VD view). These positions allow a straight shot to
density above the base of the heart. It appears darker than the rest their respective heart compartments without crossing each other.
of the trachea because of its greater cross sectional area. (This is In the D V or VD views the pulmonary arteries are at the 4 and 8
Incorrectly referred to as the carina by radiologists. The carina is o'clock positions.
actually a ridge at the base of the tracheal bifurcation.)
Mainstem bronchi or primary bronchi: the two continuations Lobar bronchi

of the trachea into the lungs. Only the air in the major bronchi Fig. R-26 - Trachea and bronchi,
normally show up. Due to the thickness of the caudal lobe (more VD view
tissue density), the air in the caudal bronchi shows better than the
cranial ones. The right middle bronchus is the most ventral
(dependent) of the bronchi, thus, the right middle lung lobe is the
primary sire for aspiration pneumonia. The second most common
sire is the cranial right lung lobe. A light, inhaled foreign body
(grass awn). which moves by air flow and not gravity, will tend
LO take.a straight shot to the right caudal lobe.
"Cowboy legs": bowing of the principal bronchi due to enlarge-

ment of the leftatria or the tracheobronchial lymph nodes in a DVI
VD view.
ulmonary vein
Separation or principal bronchi in the lateral view: due to an
enlargement of the left atrium. This causes the left principal
bronchus to be elevated and both bronchi to be seen as a "V" on
its side, extending caudally from the tracheal bifurcation in a Lobar bronchi Fig. R-27 • Trachea and
lateral view. Normally they are superimposed.
bronchi, VD view
Bronchogram: air in bronchi showing up because of fluid in the
lung tissue causing a contrast between the tissue and bronchi. Memory Aid: Pulmonary veins are always ventral and central
They will appear as a black tubes (air) in white ( water) surround- (medial).
ings.
TRACHEA· BRONCHI
Pleural effusions: fluid in the pleural space (i.e .• water,
[hydrothoraxl. air [pneumothorax], chyle [chylothorax] and pus
[pyothorax}).
Scalloped appearance or leafing: to lhe lung borders due U>

Pleural cupula pleural effusions pushing the lungs away from the body wall and
filling the lung fissures. Fluid lines will be seen in the fissures
between the lobes orpseudolobes of the lungs. There will be loss
of detail, obscuring the heart and diaphragm ·
Pneumotborax: air in the pleural space.

RM
Skin folds: may be mistaken for fluid lines. They usually can be
Fig. R-28 • Right lung lobes, VD view traced past the boundaries of the thorax. Skin folds can also be
mistaken for the borders of the lungs, causing a false diagnosis of
pneumothorax.
LCa
LCr.
Lung fissures
Fig. R-29 • Left lung lobes, VD view
LUNGS: should not be seen on radiographs because they are air RCa
densities (black). The left lung anatomically has two lung lobes
- cranial and caudal. The cranial lobe, divided into cranial and
caudal parts, is considered one lobe by anatomists. Radiologists
often speak of 3 left lung lobes (cranial, middle and caudal), the
caudal part of the cranial lobe being the radiologist's middle lobe.
The right lung has 4 lung lobes -cranial, middle, caudal and Fig. R-30 • Ventral part of Lung lobes, and fisures,
accessory both anatomically and radiographicaUy. The cranial VD view.
1~ of the right lung is seen in front of the cranial lobe of the left
lung in a lateral view. This shows up as a separate, round, air filled
structure that can be confusing. (Note: the Radiologist's scheme Lung fissures
of 7 lung lobes holds in all species, where in the horse the
anatomist's nomenclature must consider only 2 lobes to exist)
.. .
Lobular pattern of lungs and the lung fissures: normally don't
appear unless there is fluid or air in the pleural cavity (as opposed
to fluid in the lungs), a collapsed lung or pleural thickenings.
PLEURAL CAVITIES: potential not real spaces, because se- "

I \
I \
rous tension holds the visceral pleura of the lungs to the parietal
pleura of the thoracic wall. Thus, they are normally not visible RCa LA\
radiographically. Fluid (pleural effusion) or air (pneumothorax)
in the pleural space causes the lungs to separate from the chest
wall.
Fig. R-31 • Dorsal part of lung lobes and lung
Cupula of pleurah:avity: the cranial extent of the pleural cavity, visures, VD view
R.{~ normally extending past the first rib.
:..; ;
;.: ,B.:
.. ;,:J;·
619
•
LUNG FIELDS
Basically, lungs ate evaluated for fluid and air, Radiographically,
air is black, A normal lung field has a black background with fluid • Bronchiolar pattern: enlarged or increased density of
bronchiolar walls. .
(soft tissue) structures (vessels) passing through it. Evaluate
lungs for an· increase (more radiopaque) or decrease (more
radiolucent) in density of their parenchyma. These changes can - Peribronchiolar cuffing or infiltration: thickening of the (
bronchiolar wall and space around it, End on, such bronchi look
be generalized or localized, solitary or multiple. Compare the two
sides of the thorax in the D V view. They should both be equalof like "donuts". In sagittal section they looks like ''tram lines"
(train or tram tracts). The normal arborization pattern to the
opacity.
' normal bronchi appears like a tree with branches that taper. In a
bronchiolar pattern the limbs may appear to be pruned.
If an animal is dyspneic (difficult or labored breathing) do not
compromise it by taking a VD view, instead take a DY.
• Vascular pattern: the fourth pattern; the vessels are either
normal, increased or decreased. In a hypervascular pauern lhe
lnterstitium or parenchyina: the framework of the lungs,
vessels are larger than normal. They may become tortuous. Think
consisting of muscle tissue, cells making up the alveolar spaces,
of heartworm disease when large tenuous arteries are seen.
lymphatics, connective tissue, vessels and nerves. Nonnally this
When the veins are larger than the arteries, think of the left heart
isa very dark air-filled network because the fine structures do not failing to deal with its preload.
show up on the radiograph. Disease processes can cause them to
enlarge and show up, making the interstitium more opaque.
Pulmonary edema: fluid in the lungs resulting in increased
. . radiographic opacity of alveolar pattern.
Hyperlucent chest: increased radiolucency to the lung field
which can be due to emphysema, hyperventilation,
undercirculation or overexposure (artifact). SUMMARY - LUNG PATIERNS
Interstitial pattern:
Lung patterns with increased radio-opacities: the different
- slightly denser lung field
appearance of the lung field with different disease patterns. There (variable)
are four basic Jung patterns: interstitial, alveolar, bronchiolar and
• Air evident in lung
vascular. Usually more than one pattern and often all four will be
• Vessels fuzzy, but evident
present on the same radiograph, The goal is to determine which
is the most predominant lung pattern or patterns. The distribution
of the lung panemscan be lobar, isolated to one lobe; diffuse, over
whole lung or hilar, around the hilus.
Alveolar pattern: ........
• Interstitial pattern: some disease processes cause the intersti-
- Opaque lung field
tial tissue to become more opaque due to the alveolar: interstitial
- No air in the lung
ratio shifting toward the interstitial. As this continues the vessels
- No vasculature
become harder to see- "fuzzy". In the normal lung, the pulmonary
· Air bronchogram (black
vessels can be seen to the third order branches. Air can still be
worm holes in white apple)
seen in th~ lung field because the alveoli are still filled with air.
•
The number one cause of an interstitial pattern on a radiograph is Air bronchiogram
an incorrectly taken film during expiration (expiratory film). This
causes ili~alveoli to be compressed and thus, the interstiuum is
a target~component of the Jung volume (artifact). Pathologic Bronchiolar pattern:
causes of this pattern are· interstitial fibrosis, interstitial (viral)
- Peribronchiolar cuffing
pneumoma, atelectasis, allergic conditions, lung worms. A nodu-
Donuts
lar interstitial pattern has masses differentiated by their size and
dispersion and usually means neoplasia Tram lines
"Tram Jines"
~ Alveolar pattern: results from the alveoli filling with fluid. The
vessels. disappear because the soft tissue around them is filled
with fluid. There is no air seen in the lung (alveoli) resulting in the Vascular pattern
air in the bronchi being highlighted, called an air bronchogram.
• Enlarged vessels
Causes of alveolar pattern are • pneumonia, pulmonary edema,
hemorrhage (contusion). (hypervascularity)
• Smaller vessels
(hypovascular)
-Air bronchiogram: the visualizationof the air of the bronchi
- Normal vessels
due to the lung being filled with fluid. The vessels disapear
because the surrounding lung is filled with fluid. - Loss of symmetry in size
of arteries versus veins
620
HEART
12 o'clock
I
\
\ LA
RA
\
11 o'clock 1 o'clock
Aortic arch
' \
LV
\ I
RV MPA
.\
2o'clock
\ RA ~
Lt aurticle
,,..,,.,.-
I
/ "\ )
- 3o'clock
Fig. R·32 • Lat. view - clock faced analogy

\
5 o'clock
\ /
/
RV LV
m-
·....-: ...i:x··\ .
. ..
Fig. R-33 • VD view - clock faced analogy I \

5 o'clock
Apex
Heart: fills about 75o/o of the thorax in a lateral view and two thirds in a VD/ Heart • clock face analogy:
DV view. Minimal heart enlargement will be hard to determine. The heart VD view:
appears as a solid disk because it is muscle filled with blood (both water
densities). Therefore, you will evaluate the borders or silhouette of the heart, 11-1: Aortic arch
D.Qlits cavities. (The heart should be less than 1/2 the width of the VD thorax 1·2 o'clock: pulmonary trunk (MPA)
at the level of the 9th rib.) 2-3 o'clock: left atria appendage (auricle)
2-6 o'clock: left ventricle
CHAMBERS OF THE HEART S o'clock: apex
6-9 o'clock: right ventricle
Chambers of the heart can be imagined on a lateral view by drawing two 9-11 o• clock: right atria
crossing perpendicular lines. The first one follows the axis of the heart and Lateral view:
passes through the apex. This gives a rough estimate of the location of the
chambers. Another learning aid is the clock-faced analogy. "Be very careful 1-2 and 9 o'clock: waist of heart
of this approach", it is not good when trying to figure out the chambers in 11-12 o'clock: aortic arch
bean enlargement. This is because the right ventricle wraps almost com- 1-2 o'clock: left atrium
pletely around the left ventricle, except for the caudal side. In right heart 2-6 o'clock: left ventricle
enlargement it can even projectcaude! to the left ventricle. In spite of this, the S o'clock: apex
analogy can still aid the student in a three dimensional interpretation of the 6-9 o'clock: Right ventricle
radiographs of a normal heart. Of special value is the location of the 9-11 o •clock: right atrium
pulmonary trunk, aortic arch, apex and left auricle.
621
HEART
LA 1'ERAL VIEW
and the diaphragm on the right side.
1. C.anial vena cava: located cranial to the heart. usually its
3. Right atria: on the cranial side of the heart.
ventral edge is atl that can be seen.
4. Right ventricle: makes up the cardiac silhouette from the apex
2. Caudal vena cava: seen caudaUy between the hean and the along the right side.
diaphragm.
Rigt1t side heart: cranial part of the heart. S. Pulmonary trunk (called the main pulmonary artery [MPA]
' by radiologists): arises on the left cranial side of the heart at the
1 - 2 o'clock position.
Jt Right atria: upper
. .
part o( the c~anial heart,
. .
6. Left atrium: summated over the caudal heart directly above

3'. Right auricular appendage: wraps around the front of the
outflow tract. the left ventricle. It is located just caudal to the tracheal bifurca-
tion.
4. Right ventricle: lower part of the cranial hean.
6'. Left auricle: superimposed over the middle of the heart so it
is not visualized-unless it is enlarged, and then it projects out at
S. Pulmonary tru~k or lhain pulmonary artery (MPA): can 't 2 to 3 o'clock position.
be seen on a lateral projection because it is superimposed.
7. Left ventricle: makes up the caudal half of the left silhouette
LEFf HEART: makes up the caudal aspect of the heart .. · of the bean.
6. Left atrium: located on the upper pan of the caudal aspect of 7'. Apex: part of the left ventricle at the 5 ·o· clock position. It
the heart. points to the left in the DV ND view.
6'. Left auricle: superimposed over the middle of the heart so it
is not visualized in the lateral or VD views. 8. Aortic arch: not visible in the DV view because it is sum mated
over the cranial mediastinum. It is located at the 11 - 1 o'clock
position.
7. Left ventricle: makes up the ventral part of the caudal aspect
of the heart and the apex.
10. Descending aorta: a line representing the left edge of the
8. Aortic arch: comes out of the base of the heart. aorta is all that is seen due to overlapping densities. This edge r:<-.!'!-
\- ,,:;.
should be seen in a good radiograph. ~
9. Brachiocephalic trunk and left subclavian artery: come off
11. Phrenicopericardiac ligament: makes up the left margin of
the arch of the aorta and travel cranially. These can't be seen, the mediastinum.
unless there is air in the mediastinum (pneumomediastinum).
Contrast studies of the heart (angiocardiography): radio-
10. Descending aorta: travels caudally high in the thorax against
graphs of the heart ta.ken while a radiopaque contrast medium
the vertebral bodies to the abdomen. It is easily seen.
circulates through it. Insert a canula into the external jugular vein
and into the right atrium with the aid of a fluoroscope. Inject the
11. Cranial waist located at the junction between the cranial
contrast medium quickly as a bolus and take a film. This lights
vena cava and the right atriwn. In this area there is the arch of the
up the right side of the heart, The right ventricJecovers the cranial
aorta, right auricular appendage and pulmonary trunk. Enlarge-
part of the cardiac silhouette. It actually covers most of the
mentof any of these structures could cause a bulge and loss of the
cranial cardiac waist. silhouette, except the caudal part. The pulmonic valve shows up
as little black indentations in the beginning of the pulmonary
trunk (MPA). The pulmonary arteries are seen extending away
1.2. Caudal waist: the coronary (atrioventricular) groove be- into the lung fields.
tween the left atrium and left ventricle.
Left side of the heart: cannulate the common carotid in the dog,
13. Sternopericardiac ligament: connects the ventral pericar-
dium to the sternal floor of the thorax. Thread the catheter into the aorta and into the left ventricle.
DV/VDVIEW: 6. Aortic sinus: (Sinus of Val Salva) the pockets in the base of the
aorta behind the aortic semilunar valve leaflets. The coronary
arteries arise form the aortic sinuses as the first branches of the
1. Cranial vena cava: doesn't show up because of all the 'other
structures in the cranial mediastinum. ascending aorta. Toe· brachiocephalic trunk is the first branch of
the aortic arch. The left subclavian artery is the second branch of
the aortic arch.
2. Caudal vena cava: extends between the right side of the heart . . .·.~··..
:
;.
622
HEART
.. ,• -
8. Aortic arch
2. Caudal vcna cava
\
\ 6. Lt. atrium
Fig. R- 34 - Heart, lat. view 3. Rt. atria \ __.,,,.
5. (MPA)
,,,,,_. _,, _,. _,,,,,-
_,,,,,, _,_, \
_.,,,. 7. Lt. ventricle
2. Caudal vena cava 4. Rt. ventricle \
' .
\
\
7'. Apex
8. Aortic arch,
5. Pulmonary trunk (MPA)
'··
0. Descending aorta
6. Lt. atrium
/
/ --
/ 6. Lt. atriu )
4. Rt ventricle.
~
.
'--"' - ./
/
Fig. R· 35 • Heart, VD view
11. Phrenicopericardiac ligament I

l
:2. Caudal vena cava
7'. Apex
.
EVALUATING HEART RADIOGRAPHS
215-315 rule: Draw·a line from the "cariaa" of the trachea to the la1eral view which eliminates thecandal waist The caudal borda'
apex of the heart in a lateral view. Approximately 2/5th of the of the heart is normally sttaighterand more vertical. The apex will
bulk of the heart should be in back of the line and 3/5th should be also enlarge, elevating the heart, which in tum will elevate the ~.
in front of the line. More than 2/5th behind the line infers left heart trachea. On a VD view, it will bulge caudally and to the left, ~
enlargement. More than 3/5th in front of the line infers right heart moving the apex to the right. This is common in mitral valve
· enlargement. insufficiency.
• Lateral projection:
Sternal contact: there should be three sternebrae contacted by - loss of caudal waist
the cardiac silhouette. More.. than this infers right heart enlarge- - Caudal bulging to the caudal border of the heart
ment This is not as reliable as the 2/5th-3/5th rule. • DV projection:
- rounding of left ventricle border (3 - 5 o'clock)
Signs or enlargement of the diff'erent chambers of the heart. - apex shifted ~ right
lhe left ventricle is likened to a cylindrical pump and the right to
a bellows. The right ventricle responds by dilatation quite readily. • Mitral valve insufficiency: will result in left ventricle enlarge-
The left ventricle usually responds initially with concentric ment
hypertrophy which may not be noticed without contrast studies.
The thin-walled atria respond readily by dilatation.
Signs or heart chamber enlargement - indicate:
Right atrial enlargement - Lateral view: elevation of the
Lateral view
trachea and loss of the cranial waist. DV projection: enlargement
of the 9 to 11 o • clock silhouette of the heart. Apex off the sternum: right ventricle
Right ventricular enlargement: seen as a cranial bulging on the Elevation of the trachea: right or left atria, left or right
lateral view with more sternal contact. In a VD view, it will bulge ventricle
cranially and to lhe right (backwards or reverse "D"). Right Separation of the main stem bronchi: left atrial
ventricularenlargerncnt causes fluid to back up into the abdomen
and extremities. Pulmonic stenosis or heartwonn disease can Loss of caudal cardiac waist left atria
cause right ventricular enlargement.
• Lateral projection Bowing out of caudal border - left ventricle
- increased sternal contact DV view
· - elevation of the trachea
- elevation of the caudal vena cava Backwards D,, - right ventricle
0
~ :' .,.,:
- elevation of the apex off the sternum .
• DV projection: "Cowboy legs" - left atria
• rounded right cardiac border
• inverted "D" sign with marked enlargement
- apex more to the left VESSEL EVALUATION of CARDIAC DISEASE: Cardiac
. disease is basically a pump failure.To avoid overinterpration of
• Heart worms: located in the pulmonary arteries and right the cardiac bulges, look for signs of hydrolic failure. If the right
ventricle. This will cause enlargement of the right ventricle and heart fails, the preload (systemic venous return) will overload.
enlarged. tortuous pulmonary arteries in reactions to heart worms. Signs are enlarged caudal vena (post) cava (should be the same
size as the aorta), effusion in the peritoneal and/or pleural spaces.
Left atrial enlargement: will cause tracheal and left mainstem Left heart failure will result in back up of blood into the preload
bronchi elevation in the lateral view. These are not very notice- - pulmonary venous drainage. Therefore, you should see the
able in the cat. In the DV view the auricle will project beyond the pulmonary veins larger than the corresponding arteries, enlarge-
normal cardiac border between the 2-3 o'clock position. Enlarge- ment of the left atria and eventually pulmonary edema. If you see
ment can cause the mainstem bronchi to spread out ("cowboy none of these signs, then there may be cardiac lesions. but the
legs..) (VD).
heart is still in compensation.
• Lateral projection:
- elevated trachea and carina ...
- separation of mainstem bronchi (left dorsal to right) VESSELS - CARDIAC DISEASE
- enlarged atrium and straight border ·
• DV projection: Right heart f aliure - Enlarged caudal vena cava
- auricle projects at 2-3 o'clock position Pleural or peritoneal effusions
- increased density of the left atrium
- "cowboy legs" (mainstern bronchi) Left heart failure - Enlarged pulmonary veins
Left ventricular enlargement: seen as a caudal bulging on the Enlarged left atria
Eventually pulmonary edema
..
· ..
·~.
ABDOMINAL RADIOGRAPHS
Abdominal radiographs: taken during the pause after expira- air in the abdomen. The animal is placed in left lateral recwn-
tion. Positioning is very important and there should be no motion. bency (right side up). A small amount of gas present will be
~!-. Use the right or left lateral projection consistently to eliminate detected between the right Jobes of the liver and the diaphragm.
~~~-this as a variable. High latitude films are taken to see subtle shades
· r between diaphragm an ver
of gray for the different water densities. This also burns through
the distracting ribs in the cranial abdomen; Standard views of the
abdomen are the lataal and VD/DV views. Standing lateral •
views use a horizontal beam direction through a standing animal
to detect fluid levels in bowel or abdomen. Special lateral
recumbency views direct the beam horizontally through a later-
- ally recumbent animal in the VD direction. These are used to
detect small amounts of air in the abdomen. Oblique views are
shot through the aninw placed in DV or VD position and rotated
15 to 300. These are used to get a more complete examination of
the esophagus, stomach,
' .. colon and urinary bladder by moving
them away from the"spinal column.
Fig. R-35 - Lat
Peritoneal detail: depends on serosal fat surrounding the surface view
of the organs. Fat is radiographically less dense than water
{appears darker), thus, contrasts the water densities. Fat is depos- . POSITIONING: The right lateral view (left lateral recumbency)
ited in the omentum, the falcif orrn ligament and in the retroperi- is pref erred to the left lateral view (right side up) to avoid gas in
toneal space. the fundus •. which confuses what is· seen. This view puts the
fundus down so that gas will collect in the smaller pylorus
• Loss of serosal detail: happens · when fat is absent from the (located on the right, thus. independent in this view).
abdomen in neonatal or emaciated animals and when there is fluid
in the abdomen. This causes.the abdomen to have an overall gray Positioning of film:
appearance like "ground glass". The difference between absence • Center the umbilicus in the center of the film
of fat and extra fluid is assessed by the shape of the abdomen.
., A • Include the entire abdomen from the pelvic inlet to the dia-
thin dog will be gaunt or "tucked up". A dog with a lot of phragm
peritoneal fluid will have a full, rotund or pendulous abdomen. • Put the thickest end towards the cathode because of the heel
Young dogs have poor sercssl detail because they don 't have the effect
right type of fat This is normal in dogs under 4 months of age.
CONTRAST STUDIES: use of opaque media (positivecontrasl
• Ground glass appearance: classical description of an over- agents) or gas (negative contrast agent) to delineate portions of
all gray abdomen due to loss of serosal detail. This can be the GI tract. Survey radiographs must always precede any con-
overcome by adding contrast material in the abdomen. trast studies.
• Focal loss of detail: small areas where serosaJ detail is .,_:rir Negative contrast agents: usually C02 or air, are used to see.
while the rest of the abdomen has good detail. An example would where organs are, such as the stomach. Blow air into the stomach
be pancreatitis with focal peritonitis. This causes loss of detail in or give the animal a carbonated beverage.
the right cranial quadrant of the abdomen where the pancreas
resides. Positive coctrast agents: mineral densities that appear very
white on radiographs. They are used to detect or confirm gaslric
Gas: within the organs allows differentiation between the inside or small bowel disease ind to outline size. shape, and position of
-of the organs and helps to identify them (e.g., stomach). segments of the GI tract. .6arium Sulfate is a positive contrast
agent It is inert in the lungs but causes granulomatous responses
Hydroabdomen(ascites): fluid in the abdomen due to in the peritoneal cavity. Avoid it it t.'!P,re is a possibility of
hypoproteinemia, liver failure, heart failure, renal failure, portal perforation of the GI tract Use barium in ~ stomach in case of
hypertension. aspiration into the lungs. Iodine is also a second po:itivecontrast
substance that is extremely hyperosmotic and can cause pulmo-
Kidneys can become invisible if there is surrounding fluid in the nary edema but has little effect on the peritoneum. Because c,f its
retroperitoneal space (ruptured ureter, abscesses). hyperosmolarity it dilutes itself decreasing its radio-opacity. It
gives poor mucosal detail compared to barium. It is indicated if
Air in the abdomen: will go to the independent site. Air first there is suspected perforation of the stomach.
appears against the diaphragm. Usually only the lung side of the
diaphragm is seen because the abdominal side is summated with COMPRESSION STUDIES: squeeze the contents of theabdo-.
the liver tissue. If both sides can be seen there is air in the men with a wooden spoon or piece of Plexiglass to separate ·
tx.:·:~, abdomen. Horizontal views are used to detect a small amount of different structures • while taking radiographs .
625
,•
. .. .
..
ABDOMENAL RADIOGRAPHS ,
4. Right kidney . 8. Descending colon (

spinal column 2. Stomach . ' 5. Left kidney
l\ I\ /)
10. Urinary bladder
9. Spleen rectus abdorninis muscle
7. Transverse colon
Fig. R-36 - Lat. veiw of abdomen
Viewing abdominal films: just as in the thorax, viewing needs Lateral view of abdomen:
to be systematic and consistent (done the same way ever time).
Frame of the picture first, look at the diaphragm, spine, muses- 1. Liver abuts.the diaphragm cranially.
lature of sublurnbar soft tissue, part of the pelvis in film, vcnnal 2. Stomach is caudal to the liver.
body wall, falciform fat area and the caudal thorax. Look at the 3. Spleen: its distal part is seen on end as a triangle in the ventral
location of organs normally not seen on radiosraphs. If seen, abdominal wall just. caudal to the liver.
something is amiss. Therefore, it is important io know anatomi- 4. Rigbtkidney: 'seerl.high in the abdominal cavity. Its cranial pole
cally where organs are located. Mobile structures of the abdo- is embedded in thecaudate process of the liver, thus, not visual-
men, such as the small and large iatesunes, can be displaced. A ized.·' · ·
displaced organ may be nonnaJ with an invisible, abnormal 5. Left kidney: 1/2 kidney length caudal to the right kidney and
structure displacing it (indirect evidence).
usually canoe completely visualized: It is also usually somewhat
ventral to the right kidney.
BOUNDARIES OF ABDOMEN:
7. Transverse colon: crosses the abdomen caudal to the stomach
and is seen end on if it contains any gas. ,
• Cranial - diaphragm
• Caudal- pelvic inlet 8. Descending colon: continues from the transverse colon cau-
dally to the pelvis where it becomes the rectum.
• Dorsal - spinal column
9. Spleen: in ventral alx:lomen caudal to the liver.
• Lateral and ventral- abdominal muscles 10. Urinary bladder: caudoventral abdomen.
• Ventral - rectns abdominis muscle
Abnormal mass: may be caused by enlargement of any structure
QUADRANTS: draw two imaginary lines on the DV abdominal present in the area.
view. The first, down the midline and one perpendicular to it
through the umbilicus; This divides the abdomen into -four
quadrants. Knowing what is in each quadrant helps viewing
radiographs.The greatest number of individual structures are
located in the cranial quadrants.
,.
\ ..,,,
626
ABDOMINAL RADIOGRAPHS
A. Diaphragm
C. Fundus of stomach
-I IB:
O Liver I~ :
E. Pylorus
\;\
.- '""
F. Duodenum --+--4-
_...........___ L. Spleen
Right kidney -· J. Transverse colon
I. Ascending colon Left kidney
k. Descending colon
H. Cecum
abdominal muscles
G. Small intestines
spinal column
Fig. R-37 - VD/DV veiw of abdomen
DV/VD view:
Quadrants • organs
A. Diaphragm Len cranial quadrant
Right cranial quadrant
B. Liver: between stomach and diaphragm Pylorus Fundus of stomach
C. Fundus of stomach: located on the left side of the abdomen. Pancreas Spleen
D. Body of the stomach: crosses the midline. Duodenum Left kidney
E. Pylorus; located on right side of the abdomen in dogs; on Right lobes of liver
Gall bladder
midline in cats. Ascending-colon
F. Duodenum: passes down the right side of the abdomen. Right kidney
G. Small intestines: hard to follow.
H. Cecum: located on the right side. Right caudal quadrant Left caudal quadrant
I. Ascending colon: located on the right side. Cecwn Descending colon.
Small intestine Left ovary
J. Transverse colon: crosses midline from right to left Right OVBJ)' Left uterine horn
K. Descending colon: travels down the left side. Right uterine horn
.: L. Spleen: located caudal to the stomach on the left side.
'I-
..
627
•'
ABDOMEN • RADIOGRAPH
Stom~b: its radiographic appearance varies with the position of they indicate trouble.
the patient and amount of filling. Air will move upward, while
fluid is gravity dependent Do not confuse fluid in the stomach
• Intraluminal foreign bodies: in the small intestine will be
with amass (ball). The unfilled stomach is normally within the rib noticed by finding a gas filled loop that ends abruptly.
cage (doesn't project past the last rib). A foreign body can act as
aballvalveinthepylorusandcanseprojectilevomiting.Thecat's • Linear foreign bodies in the small in~: items, such as
stomach is J-shaped. The cat's pyloric anttum is to the left of string, will cause the bowel to bunch up on the string due to
midline. The peristaltic rate of the stomach is 2 to 4 a minute. peristalsis. This is very apparent with a contrast study. Do not pull
During fluoroscopy. look for emptying, contraction and function. on a string sticking out of the mouth or anus or it can saw through
A thumb print pattern is depressions in the wall of the stomach the bunched up bowel (peritonitis). Remove surgically.
indicating an infdtrative process. Stomach rugae are visible with
contrast studies. Gastric dist.enlion can be extremely large, caus- • lieus: multiple loops of gas-distended bowel.
ing great pain and possibly a rupture of the stomach.
LARGE INTESTINE: usually contains more gas than the.small
• Right lateral recumbency (left side up)· air in fundic region intestine. Food and gas make the large intestine much easier to see
located in the dorsal abdomen on the left side. and follow.
• Left lateral recumbency (right side up): air in pyloric region Cecum: in the dog appears as a corkscrew shape on the right side
located in the ventral, right side of the abdomen. of the abdomen at the level of L3• It can be seen on survey films
if it contains some intraluminal gas. In the cat the cecum is a small
• DV projection (dorsal side up}: gas in fundic region. cone-shaped structure. It is not visible on survey films.
'
• VD (ventral side up}: gas will be in pyloric antrum and body, Ascending colon: extends for a short distance from the cecum up
which are in the ventral pan of the· abdomen. the right side of the abdomen to be continued as the transverse
colon.
Stomach axis: can be seen if there is gas in the stomach.
Clinically the axis of the stomach is used to evaluate the size of • Right colic or hepatic flexure: the point at which the ascending
the liver. In the lateral projection the normal position of the colon becomes the transverse colon.
stomach axis is between a line drawn vertical to the spine and a
line parallel to the ribs. The pylorus is superimposed over the Transverse colon: crosses the abdomen from right to left and
body or slightly cranial to it(JO-llth ribs). In the VD or DV view continues as the descending colon. .
the axis of the stomach is perpendicular lo the spine. '•
·,.
• Left colic or splenic flexure: where the transverse colon be-
Double contrast studies: use of air and contrast material in an comes the descending colon.
organ. Barium is a good coating material providing good mucosa)
detail. The rugae of the stomach should be about the size of the Descending colon:on the left side. Fecal material can usually be
valleys between them. ..-.- . . seen in it
DESCENDING DUODENUM: Iocated on the right side of the Rectum: in the pelvic cavity.
abdomen. It is classically larger than the rest of the small
intestines. Multiple views must be seen on contrast studies to The colon often provides clues to what is going on around iL It
make a diagnosis of duodenal problems. is filled with either radiopaque feca1 material or gas, making it
generally quite visible. The colon is relatively mobile because of
• Lymphatic craters: nounal depressions in the wall of the its relatively long mesentery. If it is focally displaced, look for
duodenum that are seen in contrast studies. They are of ten what is displacing it. An enlarged left kidney may displace the left
mistaken for ulcers, and have been called pseudo-ulcers . colic flexure. The pancreas and right kidney may displace the
right colic flexure.
SMALL INTESTINE: train yourself to routinely look for indi-
vidual loops. The serosal surface of small intestines is smooth. Medial iliac lymph nodes: located at the termination of the
The thickness of the bowel wall is 1/9 to l/8th the width of the abdominal aorta and usually not seen radiographically.
distended lumen. Mucosa] detail can only be evaluated with
contrast material or in air-filled segments. LIVER: The largest organ in the abdomen, it is located in the
cranial quadrants behind the diaphragm and in front of the
• Rule or thumb for intestinal size: equals the height of a lumbar stomach. Normally the edges are sharp. In adult dogs the liver
vertebral body or two rib widths. Small intestines wider than 2 doesn't extend past the last rib. It is relatively larger in the young
1/2 rib widths may be abnormal.
animal. The liver is contrasted cranially by air filled lungs and
caudally by gas in the stomach.
• Sentinel loops: large distended loops of bowel named because ,•
l
628
ABDOMEN - RADIOGRAPH
Gallb~ad~-:;, · :'.l);..::ar-shaped ~tr...:.;t:.i.f.-; lying between the quadrate size is va, '· .epcnding on the amount of engorgement. S,,,:..
,.-.....
lobe and we right medial lobe. It is normally not visible unless it biturates cause normal physiological enlargement of the spleen.
contains stones or gas. Disease processes can cause the spleen to be enlarged normal..
,:._
·-::
·, L
.. shaped spleen. Splcnic tumors can be found in many places in Hie:
Renal impression: cups the cranial pole of the right kidney. It is abdomen because the spleen is very mobile.
pan of the caudate process of the caudate lobe.
• Lateral projection of the spleen: appears as a soft tissue triangle
Clinically the axis of the stomach i~ used to evaluate the size of in the middle of the ventral abdomen just behind the liver.
the liver. Assess stomach fullness. A full stomach can fool you. 1
Fig. R-38 • Spleen, DV view 1
• Enlarged liver: indicated if the stomach extends back and '
exceeds the angle parallel to the ribs.
. .
I
i
• Small liver: indicaled if the axis of the stomach inclines cranially i
in front of the line perpendicular to the spine. Small liver size can
be due to. chronic liver disease or a portal-caval shunt .
'
• Try to 3-dimensionally visualize the size of the liver from the

lateral and the VD view, using the stomach axis.
A crisp, triangular caudal margin of the liver in a left projection

indicates normal liver. A blunt and rounded caudal liver margin
infers liver enlargement.
Fig. R-39 - Spleen, lat. view
Paradoxical liver: when the stomach slants cranially, indicating
a small liver, but the caudal end of the liver extends past the costal .
arch indicating a large liver. It has a crisp triangular caudal • VP. projection: the head of the spleen appears as a triangular
margin inferring a nonnal liver. This is a normal occurrence in shape-adjacent and caudal to the stomach. Occasionally it may be
older dogs due to gravity causing slumping of the liver seen superimposed over the caudal portion of the right kidney.
(splanchnoptosis). The liver is of normal size.
MESENTERIC LYMPH NODES: enlarged lymph nodes lo-
Liver enlargement: can
be diffuse or focal. Enlargement of the cated in the root of the mesentery. Enlarged mesenteric lymph
right liver lobe will extend past the costal arch in the lateral nodes can give a radiographic enlargement in the middle of the
projection. It will appear as a large area opacification in the right abdomen.
cranial quadrant. This can be confused with splenic enlargement.
Masses in the center of the liver can distort the shape of the • Root of the mesentery is at about the level of L2•
stomach.
KIDNEYS: located in the dorsal cranial part of the abdomen. .
PANCREAS: a soft tissue density normally not visible radio- Nonnally both are smooth and of equal size and shape. Visuali-
graphically because of its small size and its similar density to the zation of the renal borders is dependent on theamountofperirenal
surrounding structures, Cranial displacement of the duodenum or fat present Cat's and obese dog's kidneys are easier to see than
pylorus may indicate pancreatitis. Pancreatic masses of the body young and emaciated dogs. Compare the kidneys for size. Check
andrightlimbof' thepancreas will bein the right cranial quadrant. that tbere are two, especially if you are removing one.
I The mass may not be seen due to focal loss of serosal detail
because of surrounding inflammation and a small amount of LOCATION
fluid. Contrast studies may show displacement of the pylorus and • Left kidney • Right kidney
the descending duodenum by a pancreatic mass. Left limb pan-
creatic disease is also possible and is located in the left side of the Dog: L2-L4 Dog: TD-L3
abdomen. Cat: L2 • L, Cat: L1 - L4
SPLEEN: a tongue-shaped organ loosely attached to the greater
curvature of the stomach in the left cranial abdomen. The tail of SIZE
the spleen extends caudally; ventral and medial to the stomach.
The head of the normal spleen is attached loosely to the stomach Dog: 2.5 - 3.5 times the length of lumbar vertebrae 4on
by the gastrosplenlc ligament. The head is normally tucked over VD view.
in the left cranial quadrant of the abdomen with the kidney right
behind it in the DV view. Splenic enlargement assessment is Cat: 2.5 - 3 times the length of L2•
~i completely subjective. and depends on experience. The spleen's
~J
._ -=·
.
629
'
GENITALIA - RADIOGRAPH
URETERS: not visible on survey films because of their density disease process will also look like this. Prior to radiography lhe
and small size. patient should have nothing per os from 12 to 24 hours and be
given cleansing enemas to remove mateljal from the descending ,f
ADRENAL GLANDS: not visible on survey films. colon. Food, relatively radiopaque, will mask anything that is in ~~
the same plane.
URINARY IJLADDER: has a vertex, body and neck. Normally
it is an oval shape in the dog and elliptical in the cat. It is located • Urinary bladder: can fill up to one third of the abdomen
in the caudal ventral abdomea.justcranial to the pubis and ventral pushingeverythingcranially. Wallcthedogandallowittourinate
to the rectum and colon. before radiography. ·
URETHRA: not seen. on normal survey

..
radiographs. • Uterus: A gravid uterus can occupy up to half the abdomen .
FEMAL GENITAL TRACT:
• Ovaries: small. thus, not usually seen on radiographs. If

enlarged a mass may be apparent caudal to the kidney on the DV
view or in the center of the abdomen on the lateral projection. If .. .,,-.
they become very enlarged, they may stretch their ligamentous
attachment and migrate mo~ ventrally.
• Uterus: if nongravid, can't be seen on survey films. In obese

,,J...
dogs and cats the uterine body can be seen between the rectum and
the bladder. The uterus is often radiographed to determine preg-
....~
:
nancy and number of fetuses by visualizing and counting fetal

skulls.
MALE GENITAL TRACT: the internal genitalia are not seen

on survey films. The penis .and testicles can be seen on the
.;
abdominal wall, but they are best assessed by physical examina-
tion.
• Os penis: in close association with the penile urethra.
• Scrotum: contains the testicles, the epididymis, and ductus

deferens. ·
• Prostate gland: normally located in the pelvic cavity, around

the neck or t~:e bladder, ventral to L'1e rectum and dorsal to the
pubis. It is spherical to oval. Its position is influenced by age. It
should notextend past the pelvic inlet A prostate can be mistaken
fora bladder. It is hard to seeprostatic enlargement on a VD view
because it is summated with the rectum, which is often filled with
f sees. The lateral view is better. Dorsal displacement of the colon
t !1'1 Indicaic pr~s~!.ic enlzrgemmt, The bladder will not displace
.,-,,. t:u
,n'c"
~ ... h.., .....
SUBLUM:3A~ L ~ll\-!r;:, NC;)E: lccated at the termination of

the aorta in l}1e ':.'.ln({;1d.0rsal e':,c'.3:nen. Enlargement of these
lymph nodes ,vi!! result in vcrursl displacement of the colon.
. .
v
OUGANOtiiEGALY: u~~re are three organs in the abdomen
that normally enlarge.
• Stomseh: can distend a tremendous amount due to the amount

of food in it. It can take up 1/3 to 1/2 of the abdomen making it
ht:rrl to interpret th!! o!..~:;r structures. This causes displacement of
~~~ GI tract and ~JC s~lee:1 caudally. Gastric dila:£'.tion c..ic to a
-.--
EQUINE LIMB RADIOGRAPHS
..
DP DMPLo··
DLPMO •
LM ·..... • #
. . r, •.
...
..~.... .,
•• •
.. . . •.. 1 • I .-
"
I
~-
~JiRules for reading equine limb radlographs; referring to bone preps essential.
t. Distance: view radiographs first from a distance to get the Carpal radiograph views: Localizing a lesion in the carpus or
overall picture, Then move closer. tarsus requires four standard views because the carpus and tarsus
are so large. Some problems require even more views from
. 2. A minimum of two views: required to make three dimensional different angles. The four standard views are - DP, LM, DLPMO
'- sense of a two dimensional image (radiograph). and DMPLO. The different views (projections) are named for the
entrance and exit points of the beam. Although the DMPLO is
3. Silhouette: when radiographing a lesion try to silhouette the actually shot from the lateral side. and logically should be called
lesion (place iton an edge) where there is greater contrast between a PLDMO. it is not. The obliques usually aren'ta114S0 off of0°
the lesion and lhe surrounding structures. · or 90°. because different problems require. different angles to
silhouette them. ..
4. Shoot enough films when you travel in the field to avoid second
trip.. . . . 't • ... • • .
• DP (dorsopalmar view) or AP (anterior/posterior): 00 - 180°

degrees. the beam passes through the dorsal side ~d out the
5. Bone preps: when reading films use articulated bone prepara- palmar side. ·
tions to tine up the different views correctly. '1 • ••
• Lateral or LM (lateral-medial view): 90° - 270°, the beam

Bone preps: radiologists use articulated bone preparations to line passes through the lateral side and __ out the medial .~i~e.;
up different views exactly. This allows them to check the exact
part of each bone in question. This is especially true of the hock • DLPMO (dorsolateral-palmaromedial oblique) or medial ob-
and the carpus. Radiographs of the carpus-and tarsus have a lot of lique: 45° angle (45° - 235°); shot from the dorsolateral to the
confusing Jines. Use an articulated specimen to determine if they palmaromedial side.
are nonnal. The different overlapping lines are caused by the
bones not being level, so the same joint may have different • DMPLO (Dorsomedial palmarolateral oblique) or lateral ob-
~ re~resentative lines on the radiographs. ~e complicat~ configu- lique: 135°- 314°; shot from the palmarolateral to the dorsome-
~} ;·,rallons of the hock and carpus and possible subtle lesions make dial side.
~,...
..
631
.·
.. ' ..
.... .,-···
.... .. .... . ..;;· ..

EQUINE LIMB RADIOGRAPHS
Supplemental views: If the accessory carpal bone is completely overlapped, your
drawing should look like this and is a DMPLO.
• Flexed lateral view: usually added to the four standard views. ,,.,... ,::
D .....
(''
;.,·,
Skyline or tangential view: dorsoproximal views of which there
may be at least three.
L
It is common lo deal with at least ten films of the carpus or tarsus. .M
To learn the different views of the carpus, drawa schematic of the .

carpus as two ellipses, as shown below. The smaller ellipse
represents the accessory carpal bone, which is on the lateral and p
palmar side of the carpus. Using the accessory carpal bone, label
the sides of the joint and the degree they correspond to as follows:
dorsal surface corresponds to 0°, palmar - 180°, lateral - 90° and
the medial - 270°. If the accessory carpal is completely silhouetted then your draw-
ing should look like the one below and is a DLPMO.
D
L M
L
M .
. ,·
To understand which sides of the carpus are silhouetted, draw the .,
p beam passing through the carpus and then box the sides .of the
carpus paral lei to the beam. Read the sides of the carpus on either
end of your box for the obliques and the side your box is on for the
DP and lateral. These will be the sides silhouetted for each ·view.
Another way to remember which side each oblique view silhou-
ettes is to take the name of the view and switch the combination
of the entrance and exit points, the DLPMO, dorsolateral-
The configuration of the accessory carpal bone and the amount it palmaromedial oblique silhouettes the dorsomedial and
overlaps the other carpal bones differs in each view. These facts palmarolateraJ sides. The dorsomedial-palmarolateral oblique·
can be used to identify the different views. silhouettes the dorsolateral and palmaromedial sides.
DP (Dorsopalmar) view: the accessory carpal is narrow and

completely overlapped by the rest of the carpus.
LM (iateromedial) view: the accessory carpal is as large as

possible and slightly overlapped.
DLPMO: the accessory carpal is completely silhouetted.
DMPLO: the accessory carpal is completely overlapped
Identifying the DP and LM views is easy with a little practice.

Students have the most problem with the oblique views. From the
configuration and amount of overlap, draw the direction of the
beam through your drawing (do both entering the dorsal surface).
Then read the labelled surface on either side of your entrance and •
I exit points to name the oblique views.
DMPLO - Silhoueues DM & PL sides ,::....
l ..
\" -, ;
.... ""'
632'
CARPUS
· lstcarpal bone: may or may not appear, the 5th is rarely (never say eu~. The palmarolateral and the dorsomedial edges of tbecarpm
never) seen. are silhouetted. The commonly fractured radius, radial and 3rd
~-
.... t;'l
~ !,.;:.">J;,: carpal bones are silhouetted on the dorsomedial surface. making
:?."'> Use the laterally-located accessory carpal bone to identify the this the best view to evaluate them.
other carpal bones. A carpal bone on the same side as the
accessory carpal bone is on the latetal side; if it is on the opposite DMPLO (palmarolaleral-dorsomedial oblique) or lateral ob-
side it is medial. lique: the accessory carpal bone is completely overlapped. The
. dorsolateral and mJmarpmedjaJ surfaces are silboueu.cd. The
, Carpal chips: running causes hyperextension of the carpus and secondcarpalboneonthe2ndsplintbone~notoverlapped. This
may lead to chip fractures. The most common sites. in· cxder of is ~ common site· of splints, thus. the best view to visualize
occuneece, are in the areas where the following bones come splints in &he forelimb. In the hindlimb a OLPMO is the view for
together: splints between the 3rd and 4th metatarsal bones.
• the radius and the radial carpal bone Skyline view: The carpus is flexed maximally and shot~ the
• the radial carpa) bone and the third carpal bone dorsal surface of the bones. These highlight slab fraclllreS so you
• lhe intennediate carpal bone and the radius can see straight through their radiolucent line. There are three
different skyline views: distal radial skyline, proximal carpal
Chip fracturesare seen when the beam passes through the fracture skyline,anddistalcarpalskyline. Thesebighlightstructuresofthe
line. thus. the need for multiple views. They usually are not seen same name. These will highlight very small chip fracmres or slab
.on DP view. The lalera1 view may show them and the flexed 1ateral fractures. To interpret skyline views the exact angle used when
even better. The oblique views show them best Skyline views taking the film must be Jcnown.
may also show them to advantage.
Evaluating joints of the carpus: look at the edges and see if they
are sharp (clean). Exostosis is bone growth that makes the edges
. fuz.zy. Lipping is buildup of exostosis on the contours of bones. . ·.'":t. . •·•·•.
':
DP view: silhouettes structures on the lateral and medial sides of

the carpus. The accessory carpal bone is shot on end so it appears
~-. flatand very dense. This is a good view for evaluating whether the .. ..
·: J :.'jointspaceshavenarrowed.Eachoneofthecarpalbonesisclearly
· : .. · . .: seen in this view.
:'. ~
• Radial and second (first if present) • medial side.

• Ulnar, accessory & fourth - lat,eral side.
• Intermediate - center (between the radial and ulnar)
', Third carpal bone: has a palmar projection that can appear like a
different bone in the DP view.
Lateral view:. the accesoory carpal bone located on the palrnar

side is very round and not very dense. ll has very liUleoverlap with
the other bones. Surfaces on the dorsal and palrnar sides are
silhouetted.
Flexed lateral view: opens up the joints. The antebrachial

carpal joint opens wide, the ~iddle carpal joint about 50% as
much, and the carpometacarpal joint very little. This view re·
moves the contacts between the rows of carpal bones, thus, places
them in silhouette. The intermediate carpal rises and the radial
drops in a flexed view. This·will help decide which bone has the
chip seen in a nonnal lateral view.
Oblique views: somewhere between the DP and the lateral

views.
,!'?'~. '. DLPMO (dorsolateral-palmaromedial oblique) or medial ob-

. ·),J"lique: 45° - 225°, the accessory carpal bone is maximally silhou-
it...V . .
633
"
TARSUS
Draw a schematic view of the dorsal surface of the tarsus to learn
the bones. Label the bones and the joint spaces. The configuration of the calcanean tuberosity and the amount of
• Calcaneus is lateral its overlap with the other tarsal bones differs in each view. .
• Talus is medial
• 4th tarsal bone is a two story bone on lateral side. DP (Dorsoplantar) view: the calcanean tuberosity is narrow and ~
• Central is on medial side overlapped by the rest of the carpus.
• The distal intertarsal joint doesn't span the tarsus
because of the·4th tarsal bone. LM (lateromedial) view: the calcanean tubcrosity is as large as
possible.
DLPMO: the calcanean tuberosity is completely silhouetted.
DMPLO: the calcanean tuberosity is overlapped.
Identifying the DP and LM are obvious. As in the carpus the

Calcaneus oblique views give the student the most problems. From the
configuration and amount of overlap of the calcanean tuberosity
draw the direction of the beam through your drawing (do both
entering the dorsal surface). Then read the labelled surface on
Talus either side of your entrance point and exit point to name the
oblique view.
If the calcanean tuberosuy is completely silhouetted. your draw-

ing should look like this and is a DMPLO.
IV
I+ II
M
MtIII -+-- Mtll ..

MtIV
• L
To learn the different views of the tarsus, as you did for the carpus,
draw a schematic of the tarsus as two ellipses. Mark one ellipse
"C" for the calcaneus, The calcaneus is located on the lateral and If the calcanean tuberosity is completely overlapped then your
plantar side of the tarsus. Label the sides of the joint and the drawing should.look like the one below and is a DLPMO.
corresponding degrees. The dorsal surface of the tarsus corre-
sponds to 0°. the plantar to 180°, the lateral to 90° and the medial
to 270°.
L
L M
To understand which sides of the tarsus are silhouetted in each

c view, draw the beam passing through the carpus and then box the
sides of the tarsus parallel to the beam .. Then read the sides of the
!arSus;on either end of your box for the obliques and the side your
box is on for the straight views. and you have the sides silhouetted.
p Lateral view. LM: the beam is shot from lateral to medial. 90° to
2700. The dorsal and plantar sides of the tarsus are silhoueu.e.d. ,,;; ~ I
(,;.
·~·~r,-: '
-, "':1
~;>
I
.634
FOOT FILMS
The calcaneus isas large as possible and the front of the 3rd tarsal
~A bone is flat. bodies(nailsand wires).etc. With a soft tissue technique, you may
';~,~
' A•
even see wood splinters. Contrast medium can be placed into
t-. .:..: gravel b'actS to highlight lhem.
~-· Dorsoplantar,DP: shot90°offt.helatera1 view.frornOOto 180°.
It is actually shot from plantar to dorsal. It silhouettes the medial
DP.view:donotplacethefootdirectlyonthecassette.Mounttwo
and Ja~ral surfaces of the tarsus. The calcaneus is completely sides of a 1 inch thick piece of plexiglass on two wood blocks.
overlapped by the rest of lhe hock. The ridges of the talus are as
far apart as pos.ttl>le. Stand the horse on lheplexiglass standand slide thecasse.ue under
the plexiglass.
With only two views. the d<nal, plantar, latelal and medial edges Things seen on a DP view are the parietal notch, solar groove and
of lhe tarsus will be insilboueue. This eliminates about SO% of the solar foramina, parietal sulcus, areas for attachment of the supei--
joint. To silhouette the rest. two more views are ..needed. the
oblique views. ficial digi181 flcxoron lhedistal end of Pl and the proximal end of
P2. the navicular ("boat") bone, and the extensor process of P3.
> •
Dorsola&eral·plantaromedial oblique, DLPMO: shot between

Rotational Lamini&: the dorsal smface of the hoof wall and lhe
the lateral and dorsal views (in theory 45°). Incases of spavin the dorsal smfaceof thedistal phalanx should be parallel. In laminitis,
area to be silhouetted is more dorsal. so it is usually shot between P3 separates from the hoof wall to varying degrees. This is due to
()()0 to 7'1' (D70L-PM). The lateroplantar and dorsomedial ser-
uncoupling of the laminar epidermis and laminar corium. The
face.saresilhouetted. The dorsal surface of the 3td tarsal bone has angle between the dorsal surfaces has prognostic value. Less than
a bump on it. The vascular canal is large. The distal end of the 5°, the prognosis of returning to soundness and former athletic
calcaneus is in silhoueue. This is the view for spavin problems performance is good. 11 ° - a good chance of remrning' to sound-
(dorsomediaJ surface). It aim sho~ the -4th tarsal on the 4th ness. but not to former athletic perfonnance. Greater than 11° has
metatarsal so is also the view for splints in the hindlimb. a poor prognosis of returning to soundness. Gas may be pulled out ·
of the blood due to the pressure caused by separation (negative
Dorsomedial-plantar9'ateral oblique, DMPLO: shot at about pressure) of the lamina in the closed state.
115° (Dl 15°M-PL). It is named as if the beam entered the
<lorsomedial surface even though it is usually taken through the Navicular films: Five views for navicular films:
plantmolateraJ $ide. ftsilhoueues the dorsolateral and medioplantar • Standard DP
surfaces. The vascular canal is not seen. There is more overlap of • Standard lateral
~ the caJcaneus.
·J~. • Shallow DP
:"~.;
~ . •Steep DP
: · · These four views silhouette most of the hock. Most of the time the • Skyline view
lateral, DP and DLPMO are evaluate. This is because the most
common initial place for osteoarthritis of the hock occurs between Skyline view: silhouettes navicular disease. This is a tough view
the central and 3rd tarsal bone, or the 3rd tarsal bone and the 3rd to achieve. Stand lhe horse on the cassette. walk it over a little
metatarsal bone on lhe dorsomedial aspect of the hock.The (make it plant its foot and move its shoulder forward) then shoot
DLPMO silhouettes this aspect of the hock. from behind. This view aJJows analyzing-the vascular channels
and sets off osteophytes.
FOOT FILMS: NavicuJar bone: Situated behind the coffin joint it bas articular
surfaces articulating wilh the middle and distal phalanges. The
To take foot films it is desirable to remove the shoes. This won't navicuJar bone nonnally has tiny little triangular shaped radiolu-
be possible (e.g .• horse is jumping that afternoon). Clean the foot cent areas along its borders. These are the vascular channels
to remove rocks and gra~~I fro!Jl the commissures and frog io coming into the navicular bone. Avascular necrosis erodes the
eliminate anifacrs. Pack the ground surface with play dough to channels around the vessels. causing what radiologists call "lol-
eliminates air artif acts,
lipops". The erosion can erode centrally and result in large cystic
radiolucent lesions. If the disease issevere. exostoses will appear
Lateral view: you need to get all of the phalanges including the on the edges of the bone or the vascular channels will appear in
hoof. so the foot must be elevated off the ground. A 2 by 6 with abnonnal areas. A significant percentage of affected horses don't
a groove that holds the cassette works nicely. The foot is placed show any signs at all. Therefore, negative signs on radiogiaphsdo
on the board.
not rule out navicular disease.
A lateral view may show bone cysts, chips, avulsion fractures, Lollipops on the distal border of the navicular bone are one
fractured sesamoids, articular lesions, chronic degenerative joint indication of navicular disease. ·
~. osseiee, high ring bone, low ring bone, pyramidal dis-
ease, and pedal osteitis. Radiolucent nail lines are seen in shod
~ horses. Also seen islherelative position of the navicuJar bone, the
;· deep pal~ processes of the coffin bone, sidebones, foreign
635
. i ·.
OX .. EXPLORATORY RIGHT PARALUMBAR LAPAROTOMY

. .
Right flank (paralumbar) ·,1:,iparotomy: a good approach for
10. Pylorus: can be found by following the descending duodenum
exploring Lhe abdomen of ruminants. Standing flank faparotomy
cranially. It normally contains dry firm digesta, Exteriorize the
is possible for simple exploration and many surgical procedures pylorus for examination if the abomasum is not too full. (
(repositioning, .. untwisting, or deflating a structure). A lateral
recumbency fJ~nk laparotomy is indicated if the animal may falJ Cranial duodenum: feel the direct continuation of the pylorus as
or for extended surgeries '(e.g'. ·intestina1 resection). Calves, bean S-shaped loop next to the liver.
cause of their small size, are best done in latera1 recumbency.
Exploratory surgery should be systematic. Try to develop a 1. Descending duodenum: travels down the right side of body
mental picture of how the viscera are positioned in the abdomen. attached to the mesoduodenum and the greater omentum,
A rif,ht paralumbar incisionis placed in different positions within
the paraJumbar fossa depending on what structure you want 'to ..
11. Right kidney: located dorsal to the descending duodenum,
reach: sma11 intestines, in the center of the paralumbar fossa; the between the mesoduodenum and the abdominal wall.
cecum and proximal colon- in the cranial part of the fossa caudal
and parallel to the last rib. The following is a systematic palpation Right ureters: extend caudally from the kidney, retroperito-
of the abdomen: neally.
STRUCTURES SEEN through a RIGHT PARALUMBAR
INCISION: STRUCTURES BEHIND the OMENTAL CURTAIN (in the
supraomental recess): Grasp the caudal edge of the. omental
curtain and move it cranially like a shower curtain. This exposes
1. Descending duodenum: crosses the dorsal end of the incision. the supraomental recess and the viscera within it.
2, 3. "Omental curtain": the superficial and deep leaves of the 12. Left kidney: located high in the supraomental recess on the
greater ornentum attached to the duodenum and extending ven- left side of the root of the mesentery and to the right of the rumen.
trally along the abdominal wall to reach the rumen. Palpate its ureter.
4. Mesoduodenurn: attaches the duodenum to the dorsal abdomi- 13. Cecum: the blind-ended viscus located in the supraomental
na1 wall.
recess. It may extend out the caudal end of the recess. To identify
the other intestinal structures, first find the easily identified
The bulk of the viscera is behind the curtain formed by tjle greater cecum.
omen tum, duodenum, and mesoduodenum. . ..
..r,.t;
,'.~<..'·
14. Ileum. located by following the cecum cranially to where the ! :.:.~ ':
STRUCTURES PALPATED BETWEEN the OMENTAL sma1ler ilium enters the junction between the cecum and the ••~- f ;...
CURTAIN and the RIGHT ABDOMINAL WALL: Run your ascending colon. ·
hand cranially between the wall and the greater omentum. Iden-
tify the following structures:
15. "Flange": the section of the intestine with the longest mesen-
tery. It consists of the distal part of the jejunum and the proximal
5. Liver: located on the right side due to the rumen. Its edges part of the ileum. It is found by exteriorizing the intestine and
shouldbe sharp. Feel for abscesses, enlargement or irregularities. following the ileum proximally.
The right lobe is dorsal and the left lobe is ventral.
16. Jejunum: located running proximally (orad) from the end of
6. Gall bladder: hangs down from the center of the caudoventra1 the "flange". Replace the flange and palpate the jejunum to the
. edge of the liver. duodenojejunal flexure.
Diaphragm: palpate it lateral to the liver and cranial to the 17. Great mesentery: suspends the ilium and jejunum from the
reticulum. · dorsal abdominal wall.
Reticulum: against the diaphragm. Feel for adhesions, internal 18. Root of the mesentery: follow the great mesentery to the
foreign bodies or magnet. dorsal abdomen.
7. Omasum: felt as a firm (but not hard), round structure through Return to the cecum and follow it cranially to the ileocecocoJic
the lesser omentum. junction:
8. Lesser omen tum: extends between the lesser curvature of the 19. lleocecocolic junction: where the ileum joins the cecum and
abomasum and the liver. It covers the omasum. proximal loop of the ascending colon. Move the omental curtain
as far cranially as possible to see this junction.
9. Abomasum: felt ventral to the omasum as it lies on the floor of
the abdomen. The fundus and body are filled with fluid digesta. 20. Proximal loop of ascending colon: located as the continua- .:·· ·· ·.
tion of the cecum cranial to the Ileocecocolic junction. Exteriorize : . · · .
v, ::.:~.,
636
OX - EXPLORATORY RIGHT PAAALUMBAR LAPARO'fOMY
..
, ~
····'~:X
. .. :....:-:.,,.
r ..~ ....
J
. :··
-....
., .
. ...
~a.
·~... Fig. Ox·I • Intestines, right lat view
,~· ...•
·..· (Add your own labels)
the cecum and the proximal loop. Note the proximal loop turns 25. Descending colon: its proximal part can't be palpated because
caudally on itself on the right side of the mesentery. Follow it until of the "conjoined mesenteries", Its distal part runs in the dorsal
it again turns, this tirnecranially, on the other side (left) of the root abdomen on the left side of the mesentery and to the right of the
,
of the mesentery. · rumen and can be palpated .
••
21. "Conjoined meseuterles": the short, fused mesenteries of STRUCTURES LOCATED in the CAUDAL ABDOMEN:
the third pan of the proximal loop, transverse colon, ascending
duodenum, distal loop and first part of.the descending colon. This Uterus and ovaries: note that the ovaries are located near the
makes a mass of the structures in the dorsal abdomen. It is pelvic inlet. In the pregnant state the uterus will usually expand
impossible to distinguish each of these by palpation. into the supraomental recess and make exploration difficult
22. Spiral loop: reflect the "flange" of the intestine cranially to Urinary bladder: located over the brim of the pelvis below the
locate the disc-like spiral loop attached to its mesentery's left side. uterus. ·
Note the inward spiraling centripetal coils, the outward spiraling
centrifugal coils and the central flexure between the two. In the STRUCTURES LOCATED in the LEFT SIDE of the ABDO·
sheep and goat, follow the last centrifugal coil as it swings wide MEN
to pass just inside the jejunum. In the ox, the last coil does not
stray. 26. Rumen: fills the left half of the abdomen. Palpate it. Pass your
hand caudally and dorsally around the caudal end of the rumen to
23. Distal loop: can't be readily found because of the "conjoined palpate the left side of the
. .rumen,
mesenteries". Ithas a descending part on the left of the mesentery
and an ascending part on the right side. Spleen: palpated cranially on the left side of the rumen.
. .
~·-.. 24. Transverse colon: can't be located because of the "conjoined Left displaced abomasum: would be located between the rumen
• r)Jf.} mesenteries". It is situated cranial to the root of the mesentery. and the left body wall.,
Jo.• •
· ... ~··: 'l,,- "·
., I
. 637
OX - EXPLORATORY RIGHT PARALUMBAR ,
LAPAROTOMY
'·
26
1. Desceading duodenum
•
Space between omental cur·

tain & rt. abdominal wall
.- .
..
20"
20' ·-
Supraomental recess
...
'
.-· ..
•:
. .
·-· J
\ .
2, 3. Omental curtain
Fig. Ox-2 - Cross section of

abdomen, caud. view
2. Supf. leaf of greater
omentum 3. Deep leaf of greater omentum
Structures seen through a rt. • Diaphragm • 15. "Flange" (Fig. Ox-1) • 24. Transverse oolon (Fig. Ox-1)
paralumbar Incision: • Reticulum • 16. Jejunum • 25. Descending colon
• l. Descending duodenum • 7. Omasum (under lesser omenturn) • 17. Great mesentery 25'. Sigmoid loop (Fig. Ox-1)
• 1". Ascending duodenum • 8. Lesser omen tum • 18 .. Root of the mesentery Structures In caud. abdomen:
• 2, 3. "Omerual curtain" . • 9. Abomasum • 19. Ileocecocolic junction (Fig. Ox-1) • Uterus and ovaries
2.Superficialleafoflhegreater • 10. Pylorus • 20. Prox. loop of ascending colon • Urinary bladder
omentum • Cranial duodenum 20'. First part Structures located In It. side or
3. Deep leaf of the greater • 1. Descending duodenum 20". Second part abdomen:
omentum • 11. Right kidney 20'". Third part • 26. Rumen
• 4. Mesoduodenum • Right ureters • 21. "Conjoined mesenteries" • Spleen
•
Structures between omental Structures in supraomental recess: • 22. Spiral loop • Left displaced abomasum
curtain & rt. abdominal wall: • 12. Left kidney • 23. Distal loop
• 5. Liver • 13. Cecum 23' Descending part . ,
• 6. Gall bladder • 14. Ileum (Fig. Ox-1) 23". Ascending part ; ..
638
OX - EXPLORATORY RIGHT PARALUMBAR LAPAROTOMV
! · 1. Descending duodenum
,·
26
20 .
.
...
13.Cecum
I
I
I
I
6
I
•
i
I
I I
3 I
' . 7
Supraomental recess
(
16
l ..
I
8. Lesser omentum
;
. 'i
J::1
,. .
,: .·. 2, 3. "Omental curtain"
I \_
.. . 2 10
:... ~
.
.... . Fig. Ox-3 - Abdomenai contents, right caudolateral
view
.... STRUCTURES • EXTERIORIZED - PALPABLE or IM- JEJUNUM, ILEUM·iµtd "FLANGE":·can be easily exterior-
:; PALPABLE: ized, except the proxi~ 3-4.,rn of ~e jejunum ."
' " , •I
?i r: Exteriorization of structures is limited by the length of their CECUM: easily exteriorized.

. .
mesenteries and their attachments. Many of those that can't be
exteriorized can still be palpated. · Proximal loop of 'the ascending colon: easily exteriorized,
Rumen. reticulum, omasum, and fundus and body of the. abo- Distal loop: can't be .extenoril&d or palpated because of.die
masum: can't be exteriorizedbecause of their auachment to.each "conjoined mesen.tery"· of the ~tures in the dorsal abdomen.
other and their position .. they can be palpated.
Tran~~~rse colon and proximal part of the-descending•=
PYLORUS:.usually can beexteriorized if the abomasum is not to· can't be palpated or exteriQrized because of the "conjoiJ\e4-me-
.. ,.-.
full of digesta. senteries" Jn the dorsal abdomen. ' · ·
• ti •
'
!
,• I
.,- • I
... . ....
• t ....
S-loop of cranial duodenum, liver, gall bladder. and pancreas: SIGMOIO LOOtortbe DESCENDING COLON: Justcaudal
can't be exteriorized, but can be palpated. · to theduodenec:0lic·ligament. it has a long mesentel)' and may be
. . • I pulled:to the incision site .
•.. DESCENDING DUODENUM: easily exteriorized with attached ... , . t- '
,"". I• • 1::•
mesoduodenwn and greater omentnm, Remaining caudal part of the descending colon and
• • •t
intraperitoneaf,.part.of the rectum: can be palpated, but not
. ~ending duodenum: can't be exteriorized or palpatedbecause exteriomeit:· ..: ~ -,. . . .--~: . . .. , _.
,., ..... n~ ~-~-.:....... . .
of its close association with the descending colon and the "con-
joined mesenteries" ·in the dorsal abdomen. Ad.~lrom Bown, 1111atiNJl Surgery, D. F. Smith, DVM, ~c,#,(~ N~.
1··· · , .t,,, • .:,or.i .; ,
1984 ... -.,~ ;, · · . .
~,, ,. . :·. . :· ··.. · --:.:
. ~ ... . . . , r ~ ..•
'639
.-
. ..
FL.ANK ANESTHESIA . . .•..

Standing flank surgery in the ox: opening the paralumbar fossa to off the caudal "?<>rder of L2• for L2• Locating the transverse process
~rf~,nn surgery on such problemsas "hardwaredisease", dystocia,. ofT13 can ~difficult because it is in the angle between the lastrib .
displaced abomasum, etc. The first three or four ventral lumbar· and the spinal column. Locate the easily palpated transverse P.,::
nerves and the last thoracic nerve are anesthetized in flank surgery processes of L2 and L.. Measure the distance between them and ~:l}
of the ox and horse. .,: ·
use this distance to estimate ~ow far in .front ofL2, T13is. Signs of ·-
successful block are analgesia to the skin of the area and scoliosis
Local anesthesia for a Oank surgery: concerned with i13; L1 and toward the block~ side because of paralysis of the epaxial
L2 nerves and can be done in a number of ways. m~les. Analgesia usually begins in 10 minutes and last 90
minutes.
• Liae block: infiltration of the in~nded incision line. • Advantages: small amount of anesthetic needed, good analgesia
and no anesthetic near wound site.
• Inverted "_l-" block: injectionsaredq.ne in the abdominal wall, • Disadvanta~es: difficulty of technique. possibility of hitting
from the suocutaneous area to the peritoneum, in the pattern large abdominal vessels, paresis of hind limb.
shown.
Distal P~rav~~tebral analgesia, Magda technique: desensiuzes
O
Para vertebral block: blocks all branches of the spinal nerves. (blocks) ~-<Jorsal and ventral branches of spinal nerves T L
and L2 at '4~,~ta!
end of the transverse processes (L1, L2 and3 L..)~
• Distal paralumbar analgesia or Magda block: blocks only the I~sen a n~e (3 18-gauge) under the venual tiP.~(the respec-::'
ventral and lateral dorsal branches of the spinal nerves. uve ~v~rse processes (L1, L2 and L). Inject 10 to 20 ml of
anesthetic m a fan-shaped pattern, Withdraw the needle and re-
Line block: infiltration of the intended incision line. This is i~sert. it do~l to the transverse process in a slightly caudal
proba~I~ th~ most ~ommonly used technique. Multiple subcuta- direction, Inject 5 ml of anesthetic around the dorsal branches of
neous mjecuons (1 20-gauge needle) are made in the skin. Then T13, L1 and L2•
~ ~edJe (3" 18 gauge) is inserted through the desensitized skin to • Advantages over the proximal paravertebral analgesia: no
1nftlti:ate the muscles and peritoneum (10- 100 ml). Allow 10 to scoliosis because not all branches of the dorsal branches are
15 minutes for the anesthetic to take effect. blocked. There is also minimum pelvic limb paresis, no danger of <
•
• Advantages: easy. · hitting abdominal vessels and uses standard needle sizes.
• Disadvantages: edema in the incision site and possible interf er- • Disadvantages: more anesthetic needed, effectiveness can vary.
ence with healing. especially if the nerves vary.
Inverted ''L" or "7" block: the line infiltration of anesthetic Segmental dorsolu~ba.r epidural analgesia, Arthur block: ;.:~ ......
cranial and dorsal to the intended incision site, taking advantage desensitization of the nerve roots as they leave the spinal cord by l ...4
';, .. <; .\
of the_caudoventral course of the nerves of the region. Two lines injecting into the epidural space through the dorsal space, be- ..,, .. · ..
\"
~:
are laid down, one caudaJ to the last rib and one ventral to the tween first and second lumbar vertebrae. Thorough restraint is
. transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. Up to 1 oo ml of necessary. Locate the space between the spinous process of L and
anesthetic is injected. Allow IO to 15 minutes for analgesic to take L2 by palpating the transverse processes of~· Inject 2 to ml 4
effect. ... su!>cutane~us at this site. Insert a 1/2" 14 gauge needle through the
• Advantages: easy and is away froni incision site. skin as a canula. Insert a 4 1/2" 18-gauge needle through the
• Disadvantages: amount of anesthetic required. canula. The needle· is 'directed ventrally at an angle of 10 to 15°
·to the vertical for 3 to 4 inches. Direct the needle through ·the
Pro~i!°.al paravertebral analgesia, Farquharson technique: de- interarcuate ligament into the epidural space. Inject anesthetic
sensmzmg the dorsal ilru1 ventral nerve branches T 13' L I and LZ into the epidural space. The amount of anesthetic depends on the
.
spinal nerves as they emerge from the· intervertebral foramina. size of the animal and the nerves that you want to block. To block
The injection sites are from I to 2 inches lateral to the dorsal T13, L1 and L2of al lOOpoundcow, 8 ml of anesthetic is injected.
midline over the cranial edge of transverse process of L and the Resistance will be feltas the needle passes through the interspinous
caudal _e:<fge of th~ transverse processes of L1 and L2• Prep and ligament and the interarcuate ligament. If the needle hits the arch
desensitize the skin over these areas with 3 .ml of anesthetic of a vertebrae then withdraw it and redirect it. Oncetheinterarcuate
subcutaneously. Push a 1(2. inch 14-gauge needle through the skin ligament is penetrated you are in the epidural space. Do not go any
as a cannula. Pass a?. to 6 .. , 18-gauge spinal needle through the 14 further and remove the needle immediately after injection. Aspi-
~~.u:;: needle. To desensitize T13, .P~s.the needle ventrally to ration of CSF indicates the needle has crossed the epidural space,
con~ct the transverse process of L1• Walk .the needle off the through the dura mater and arachnoid and into the subarachnoid
~ran1al edge of the transverse process and through the space. ..., .
1ntertr~sverse fascia 1(2 inch (1 cm) below the transverse proc-
ess. In.iect5 to 10 ml of anesthetic to desensitize the ventral branch O
Advantages over proximal and distal paravertebral analgesia:
· of T13• Withdraw the needle l(l to 1 inch. above the transverse only one injection, small amount of anesthetic, and unifonn ·.·
analgesia. ·..
process and inject 5 ml of anesthetic to block the dorsal branch of
T13• Desensitization of L I and L 2 are done at similar levels with • Disadvantages: difficult technique.jnotor loss to hind limbs,
the same amounts of anesthetic as for T13• The only difference is possibility of damage to spinal cord and venous sinuses.
the transverse process and direction you walk off it. Walk the
_needle off the caudal border of the transverse process of L1, for L1;
640
FLANK ANESTHESIA
Ox _ Lumbar vertebrae
•
dors, view .. .. ...
··~-:
.....
-:·-.-.
Ox - lat. view
'·
••••••
c,
•
. .
•
... : . Fig. X-74 - Ox· Flank

•• 1 - lat. view
l
I
@I
Ventr. br:.
Spinal o.
1. Inverted "L" block
2. Paravertebral block
a. Ma&da block
· Ox - 1st lumbar
vertebra - cross section
, -
. :'
J
. .
641
. '
,,
.
Anatomy of the
Domestic Animals
Chris Pasquini, DVM
Tom Spurgeon , PhD
., ·;,
~ ,• i:
".. . . .":
~ .... i
The Anatomy of Domestic Animals makes .learning anat-

omy more pleasant and longer lasting for animal science
majors, wildlife majors, zoology majors, veterinary techni-
cian. students and veterinary students. · ·
This systems-oriented book is a heavily illustrated sum-
mary of essential anatomical facts in a comparative format,
making the information readily accessible.
Over 700 clear, concise drawings lend excellent visual
representation to the text. Most figures are conveniently
grouped with the supporting text, which gives the essentials
of each structure in outline form. Differences between spe-
cies follow in the text. Clinical applications relating to each
group of structures arealso presented to stimulate interest.
The essential structures on each illustration are labeled by
numbers and names. Less important structures are labeled
with letters. This keeps the illustrations uncluttered with-
out compromising completeness. Some of the common views
of the different species are numbered for self testing.
Though written for the student, veterinarians and other
animal professionals w.ill find this text a valuable reference.
,. .
~,: .. · ~
ARTERY ARTERY ARTERY
r,
Inf'raorbital a., 41 I, 412u palm. proper digital aa., vaginal a., 428
,'4~
~r.:t,. int. carotid a., 411, 413 416t · · vcntr. intcrcostal a., 414
" ":'-· ..~··:.. int. iliac a., 428 palmar arches, 416 ventr. spinal a., 476c
'. :· •. palpcbral a., 412n vertebral a., 410d
int. pudcndal a., 428
: . int. thoracic a., 408p, 4 IOi, pancrcaticoduodcnal a .• Articular process, 36g
414 · 42Sd Articular process, 106
f
...-·• intertobar a .• 335 pa raconal intervcntricular Articular surface, 22
·, interlobular a., 335 br., 406 of ilium, 69a
intcrosscous aa., 4161,n1 pa rotid a., 411 of lumbar vertebrae, 67b,c
in terspi nous br., 4 I 5s perforating br., 415· of pa tclla, 96f
jejunal a., 427b phrcnic br., 41 Sw Articulation (see joint)
labial aa .• 412g,h plantar aa., 433h,i Atrial septum def cct, 392
laryngeal a .• 411 plantar arch, 433j Arthroccntcsis, 124
• Arthroidal joint, 108
lat. plantar a., 433h poplitcal a .• 432
lingual a., 411, 412c -, proper digital a., 417 Atlanto-axial joint, 128
linguofacial a., 412d proper hepatic aa., 296 Atlanto-axal joint, 128
malar a., 4 I 2s prostatic a .• 428 Atlas, 62
maxillary a., 411, 413 pudcndocpigastr ic Atrium, 384, 394 · ·.
med. circumflex femoral a., trunk, 428 It. atrium, 401
433c pulmonary a., 384 rt. atrium, 398
med. plantar a., 433i pulmonary trunk, 384 Auditory ossicle, 552
median a., 416 radial a., 416,o Auditory tube, SS2
mental a .• 411, 412p rccra I a., 427 j Auricle, 401
mesenter ic a., 422, 42<, renal a., 329c, 422 Auricular cartilage, 106
metacarpal aa., 417 reticular a., 425j Auscultation, 404
metatarsal aa., 433k rostr. cerebellar a., 4 l 3C Autonomic nervous system,
.. :
middle cerebral a., .4 l 3G rostr. cerebral a., 413F (ANS), 445, 522
.. !.
middle colic a., 427d rurninal a., 425i,k Autonomic reflex arc, S22
..·.:.... .'·
. :4,... middle meningeal a., 412b sacral a .• 437a Axial skeleton, 26
'-{~ Axis. 63
. ..~- middle sacral a .• 437a saphcnous a., 432
,f . musculophrenic a., 415j sphcnopalatinc a., 412v Axon, 446
nasal a., 4 I 2j spinal a., 41 Jc, 4 I 3A Axon collateral br., 447e
· ... .•,
occipital a.; 41 I, 4·12a .. ' Axon hillock, 447d
splcnic a., 425f
of abdomen. 423 sternal br., 415i
of body, 382 subclavian a., 408, 410 BBBBBBBBB
of fetus, 386, 387 sublingual a .• 4 I 2f
of head, 412, 413 subscapular a •• 416c Ball & socket joint,108
of neck, 411 subsinuosal intcrvcntr icular "Balling up", 369
of pelvic limb br. 406 Bands, 276, 278
dog, 432-433, 436-437 supf. brachial aa., 4l6w Bars, 536
horse, 434 supf. caud. epigastric a., 428 Base
ox,435 supf. cervical a .• 408c, 4 lOj, of heart, 394 ..
of pelvis, 428 · 411 h of cecum, 278
of rumen, 425 supf. palm. arch, 416p of patella, 96f
of simple stomach, 424, 425 supf. temporal a., 411, 4121 "Bean", 372
of thoracic Iimb supreme intcrcostal a., 4 lOh Biceps brachii m., 152
dog, 416, 417 testicular a., 362 Biceps f emoris m., 176
horse, 418, 420, 4il thoracic aorta, 409, 41 I Bicipital a., 416h
ox, 419 . thoracic vertebral a., 41 Oh Bile, 296
of thorax, 414, 415 thoracodorsal a., 416c. Bile canalicull, 296
ophthalmic a., 411,. 4. l 2r thyroid a., 4~1 Bishoping, 247
. . ovarian a., 350G tibial a., 43~ Blind spavin, 124
palatine a., 411, 412w transverse cubital a., 4J6j Blood spavin, 125
... palm. common digital transverse facial a., 4 l 2m Blood vascular system, 383
:""It' ••
:";.; l ·.\
: ~ .. ii
aa., 417 umbilical a. 386 Body
:...;;,;_,,,.
... ·.,I palm. metacarpal a., 416r uterine a., 428 of f cmur, 96b
BOD\' BONE
BONE
of f ibula, 99g metacarpal b., 84, 85
of humerus, 78 tympanohyoid b .• 58
metaphysis, 22
or ilium, 95d ulna, 80
mctctarsai b., 102
of radius, 80h vcntr. nasal concha, 32
middle phalanx, 86
· of tibia, 99h vertebrae, 60
nasal b., 32
of ulna, 80i vomer, 32
navicular b., 88
Bog spavin, 124 zygomatic b., 32
occipital b., 32
Bone, 21-102. Bone spavin, 124
of body, 26
a nt iclinal vertebra, 64 Bony labyrinth, 554, 555
of head (see skull), 32-44 Bots, 269
articular surface, 22 of cranium, 32
atlas, 62 Bowed tendon, 164
of face, 32
auditory ossiclcs, 552 Bowman's capsule, 336
of pelvic limb, 90-102 Brachia! a., 416
axis, 63 of skuil
basih ycid b., 58f Brachialis m., 150
cat, 53
calca neus (fibular Brachioccphalic trunk, 408,410
dog, 32
tarsal b.), 100 Brachioccphalicus m., 146
goat, 54 Brachium, 26
cannon b., 85 horse, 34
ca rpa I b., 82 Brachydont, 238
pig, 52
centroquartel b., 101 Brachygnathia, 239
ox, 35 Brain, 452
ceratohyoid b., 58d sheep, SS
conchae, 32 Breastbone, 7 I
of thoracic limb, 72-89 Bristles, 531
clavicle, 76 dog, 72
eoff in b., 87, 88 Brittle feet, 541
horse, 73 Broad Iig., 348 ·.'
coxal b., 94 ox, 74
.'
diaphysis, 22 Broken foot, 541 I
pig, 75 Broken penis, 368
dist. phalanx, 86 of vertebral column, 60-69 Bronchi, 321
dist. sesamoid b.• 88 occipital b. 32 Bronchial vessels, 325 .,
>
dors. sesamoid b., 86, 87g palatine b., 32 . .,
endosteum, 22 Bronchioles, 321
palm. sesamoid b., 86 Bronchus, 321 ....
ep ihyoid b., 58c parietal b., 32 Buccal n., 463v , .·'. ,
epiphysis, 22 pastern, 87 ........~·
ethmoid b., 32, 42 Buccal vestibule, 234b
patella, 96 Buccinator m.204j
fabcllae, 97 pelvis, 94
femur, 96 Bucked shin, 85
per iosteurn, 22 Bulb, 537
fibula, 98 prox. phalanx, 86
fibular tarsal b., 100 Bulbourcthral gland, 364
pterygoid b., 32 : Bulbospongiosus m., 374
flat b., 22
hamulus of, 41 f Bulla, tympanic, 40
frontal b., 32 pubis, 95
humerus, 78 Bursa, 106
radius, 80
hyoid b., 58 inter tubercular, 1 IOe ·
rostral b., 52 infraspinatus, I I Of
ilium, 94 sacrum, 68
incisive b., 32 olecranon, 111 f
scapula, 76 orncntal, 286
incus, 48h, 52 sesamoid bb., 86·, 22
interparietal b., 32, 34a ovarian, 348 I
short b., 22 synovial, 106 ,/
irregular b.• 22 short pastern, 87
ischium, 95 Burstis, 106 _
small metacarpal b., 85 Buttress foot, 88,54
lacrimal b., 32 sphenoid b., 32
large metatarsal ·b., 85
long b., 22
splint b., 85
stapes, 48g, 552
ccccccccc
long pastern b., 87, 88 stylohyoid b., 58b
malar b., 32 Calca neus, 100
talus (tibial tarsal b.), 100 ...
ma Ile us b., 48f, 552 Calyx, 331, 332f .. ,
•; J.
tarsal b., 100 Cana), 24

manubrium, 71 temporal b., 32
mandible, 32, 44, 45 cervical. 342
thyrohyoid b., 58e f emoraJ, 225
maxillary b. (maxilla), 32 tibia, 98
medullary cavity, 22 for transverse sinus, 46h ,·
tibial tarsal b., 100 ·· for trigeminal n., 46g
CANAL CA UDA EQUINA CIRCULATION
hyoglossal, 41 a, 42b. 46 Ca uda cquina, 470 Circulation

-r-, infraorbital, 5Gd Caudal (caud.), 16 adult, 384
I' . /~
•• ,,1
inguinal, 225 narcs, 40 f cta l, 386 ·
lacr irna l, 36, 558 Cavernous body, 370 PU l mon ic, 384
metacarpal, 85h,i Cavity systcruic, 384
metatarsal, J02c,d abdominal, 224 Circulatory system, 382
optic, 40, 46(2), 4.8 amniotic, 352 Circumduction, 108
pter ygoid, 41 e coty loid, 24 Cistcr na chyli, 440
semicircular. 557 cranial, 42 Clavicular intersection, 146,
streak, 533 glenoid, 25, 76 147b
teat, 533 nasal, 42,304 Claw, 544
transverse, 42b oral, 234 Clavicle, 76
vertebral, 60 pelvic, 225 Clinical
Canines, 240 pericardial, 318,383 anal sacs, 276.
Cap,247 peritoneal, 282 arthroccntcsis, 124
Capillary, 383 pleural, 318 auditory tubes, 552
Capped elbow, 81 pulp, 239 auscultation - heart, 404
Capped hock, 100 thoracic, 224,318 "balling-up", 369
Capitulum, 78e tyrnpa n ic, 552 "bean" 372
Card ia, 268 , Cccocol ic orifice, 276, 278 '
bishoping, 245
Cardiac loop, 390 Cecum, 276 blind spavin, 123,124
Cardiogcnic tissue, 388 horse, 278 blood spavin, 125
Cardiogenic tubes, 388 ox, 280 blister, 530
Carotid sheath, 212f pig, 281 bog spavin, 123
Car nassial teeth, 240 Cementum, 238 bone spavin, 123
Carnassial tooth abccss, 241 Central nervous system (CSN), bots, 269 brittle f ect, 541
Carpal joint, 72,75 445 broken foot, 541
Carpal pad, 544 Centrifugal turns, 280a, 281 a broken penis, 368
.,. Carpus, 26, 82
·~
;, Centripetal turns, 280b, 281 b bucked shins, 85
Cartilage Cerebellar cortex, 457 burs it is, 106
alar, 303h Cerebellar pcduncles,-457 buttress foot, 88,541
accessory nasal, 303f,g Cerebellum, 456 capped elbow, 81
anular, 55li Cerebral aqueduct, 456, 473 capped hock, 100
· arytenoid, 308 Cerebral cortex, 452 carnassial tooth abccss, 241
auricular, 551 Cerebral hemispheres, 452 castration, 358-360
costal, 71 Cercbrospinal fluid, 473 ca ta ra ct, 548
cricoid, 308 Cerebrum, 452 cerurnen, 551
epglottic, 308 Cerurncn, 551 cesarian section, 345
interar ytenoid., 309k Cervix, 342 clostrurn, 535
of larynx, 308 · Cesarean section. 345 club foot, 541
of third eyeJid,_.~49· .· · Cisterna magna, 475 common fibular n. damage,
nasal, 303 · Cheeks, 235 500 -
scapular, 77 Check teeth, 240 con tractcd heels, 541
scutif orm, 206a,208c Chestnut, 544 contracted tendons, 164
sesamoid, 3091 Choanae, 40,48, 263 coon foot. 54.J
thyroid, 308 Choncha, 42 corn, 541 ·
tracheal, 321 dors. nasal, 42 "cow-hocked", 125
tympaniohyoid, 58a vcntr. nasal, 42 cryptorchidism, 360, 361
ungual, 88 Cholinergic fibers, 522 cuncan tcnotorny, 125
xiphoid, 71 Chordae tendincae, 401 curb, ·124
Cartilaginous joint,104 Chor ioallantois, 352 dislocation, 106 .
Car uncles, 343, ·353 Chorion, 352 displaced abomasurn, 271
1 Castration,
,. 358-360 Choroid, 546 "downer cow", .500 .
closed, 358 Choroid plexus, 473 ' . .
drawer sign, I 21
.. -.:.~ ...
'-.;:'
opened, 358 Ciliary body, 462, 546 drooped foot, 541
Cataract, 548 Ciliary process, 546 epistaxis, 553
.-
CL INC AL CLINICAL CLITORIS
ext. hydrocephalus, 475 paralysis of penis, 369
false joint. 106 Clitoris, 346
paravcrtcbr~l block, 499 Clostrum, 535
f cmoral canal, 225 patellar lux a tion, 121
f cmoral n. deficiency. 500 Club foot, 541
PDA, 404
.f ibrotic myopathies, 182 Cochlea, 555
pedal ostcitis, 88 Cochlear duct, SSS
fibular n. damage, 500 pericardia! ta mponade, 3 I 8
flank surgery, 464, 465 Cochlear window, 48e, 552
peritonitis, 282 Coffin b., 87, 8.8
flat f oat, 541 PMI, 404
"floating", 241 Collecting duct, 336
pregnancy diagnosis, 345
foot rot, 542 Colliculum seminatis, 378a
pregnancy grooves, 545 Colliculus, 4S6n,o
founder, 541 quarter crack, 541
..fractured splint", SS Colon, 276
quitter, 88, 541 ascending, 276
glaucoma, 548 radial paralysis, 480
gravel. 541 descending, 276
rectal prolapse, 276 horse, 278
guttural pouch, 553 ring block, 497
.. · drainage. 553 ox,280
'*ridglings",360 pig, 281
infections. ~53 "rigs", 360
hardware disease, 271 tra nsvcrse, 276
ringbone, 8 Commissure
heart auscultation, 369, 370 "roarer", 313
heart murmur, 369, 370 habenular, 456c
rotation of coffin b., 88 ventral, 343c, 344c
heart worms, 370 rumen palpation, 27 J
heel crack, 54 I, 542 Common digital extensor m.,
rupture of intcrvcrtcbral 158
hepatitis, 295 disc, 131
"hgh flanker", 360 Common fibular n. damage,
seedy toe. 541 500
"hgh spavin", J 24 "siklc·hockcd", 125
hoof bound, 541 Common integument, 530
"sidcbone'', 88 Compound joint., 104
hydrocephalus, 575 spavin, 124
hydrops per icardii, 318 Concha
spavin test, 125 dors. nasal, 304a
impaction, 278 splcncctomics,
inguinal hernias, 35$ ethmoid, 304
"splints", 85 nasal, 304
int. hydrocephalus, 475 standing flank surgery, 499
interdigital dermatitis, 542 vcntr. nasal, 304
stomach tube, 271, 305 Condyle, 24
interdigital fibroma, 542 "stringhalt", 182
intervenous technique, 497 occipital, 36
strongulus vulgaris, 426 of femur, 96
intubation. 313 supf'. lymph nodes, 441
intussusception, 275 of humerus, 78
"sweency", 480
inverted "L" block, 499 of metacarpal bb., 84
tarsal conformation, 125 of metatarsal bb., l02f
"jack spavin", 124 "teaser" bull, 369
"L" block, 499 of tibia, 98
temperature regulation, 455 Cones, 547.
.laminitis~ 541 tibial n. damage, 500
luxation, 106 . Conjunctiva, 549
thrush, 541 bulbar, 549
Magda block, 499 toe crack, 54 l
masritls, 535 palpcbral, 549
medial n. damage, 480
.torslon of intestine, 275 Contact surface, 240c.
tracheostomy., 321 Contracted heels, 541
"milking out", S3S trephination, 57
mucocele, 261 Contracted tendons, 164
trocharization, 271 Conus, 394
murmurs, 369,370 "tubing", 263
navicular disease, 88 Conus mcdullaris, 470.
upward fixation of patella, Convolutions, 452
"needle teeth", 241 121
nephritis, 328 Coon foot, 541
urethral calculi, 368 Corium, SJO, 538
neuritis, 446 uterine prolapse, 345
"nerve", 495 Corn, 541
vaginal smears, 347 Cornea, 546
nerve block, 495, 497 volvulus, 275
occult spavin, 124 Corniculate process, 38
white line, 540 Cornu, 309c,e
omentum, 291 whorlbone disease, 176
palpation or
ovaries, 341 "windsuckers'\ 347
Cornual process, 38
CornuaJ rings, S4S
CORONARY BORDER ' CUNEIFORT\I PROCESS DISC
Coronary border, 89c Cuneiform process, 309j, 3l0j Disc, Intcrverrebrat, 60

Coronary sinus, 394 · Cup, 246 Dislocation,· 106
····: ... , Coronet, 537 Cup gone, 250 ·Displaced abornasum, 271
\ :. Corpus cavernosurn, 370 Curb, 124 Distal (dist.), 17
·,
Corpus hemorrhagicum, 354 Cusps, 239 Diverticulum
•
C_orpus lutcum, 354 Cystcrna chyli, 440 cornual, 57
Corpus spongiosum, 370 nasal, 305
Corpuscle, renal, 336 DDDDDDDDD pharyngeal, 264
Cortex preputial, 367
of kidney, 330 Dartos, 376 suburcthral, 347
of uterus, 340 Dcciduatc placenta, 353 Dorsal (dors.), 17
Costal fovea, 64 Deciduous dentition, 240 Dorsal root, 523
Costochondral junction, 70c,
131 Deep, 17
.
Deferent duct, 357· · . · Dorsal. root ganglion, 523
Dorsurn sellae, 46e
.·. Cotyledon, 353 Deep digital flexor m., 21, 190 Downer cow, 500
Cotyledonary placenta, 353 Deep Iasciae, 221 Drawer sign, 121
Cotyloid cavity, 24 Deep inguinal ring, 202 Duct
"Cow-hocked", J 25 Deep leaf (of orncntum), 290 accessory pancreatic d .• 299
Coxal jt., 118 Deltoid m., 150 arterial d., 386
Coxof emora I jr., 118 Dendrites, 446 bile, 296
Cranial (cran.), 16 Dens, 63 collecting d., 336
Cranial cavity, 42 Dental aging cystic .d., 296
Cran. drawer sign, 121 dog, 245 def ercnt d., 357
I
I
Cran. dura mater, 474 horse, 246-253 cpididymal d., 356,
Cran. mcscnteric a. 422, 426 ox, 254:.257 hepatic d., 296 .
., Cranial nn., 460, 560 Dental formula, 242, 243 interlobular d:, 296
. ··.. 'Cranial outflow, 526 Dental pad, 235, 254 · · milk d., 533
Cran. tibial m., 188 Dental star, 246, 250 nasolacr imal d., 558
Cranium, 32 Dcnticulate Jig., 476 pancreatic d., 299
Crena, 89k Dentin, 238 papillary d., 336
•
Crest, 24 Dentition parotid e., 256
cpicondylar, 78c cat, 245 salivary d., 256
facial, 38d dog, 240, 242 semicircular d., 557
, intertrochanteric, "96i horse, 241, 243 sublingual d., 256
I
'.
median, cr icoid cart., 309h OX, 241, 243 thoracic d., 408h, 440
median sacral, 68 pig, 52, 244 venous d., 386
nuchal, 38 Dermatome, 477 Ductus arter iosus, 386
of ilium, 95a Dermis, 530, 538 Ductus def'erens, 357
petrosal, 46f coronary, 539 Ductus venosus, 386 :
renal, 330 laminar, 539 Duodenojejunal flexure, 274d
sacral, 68, 69b of the frog, 539 Duodenum, 274
sagittal, 38b ... of the sole, 539 Dura mater, 474
ungual, 544a perlople, 538 ·-
urethral, 379f Descending aorta, 409 EEEEEEEEE
Cribrif-orm plate, 42, 46(1) Descent of testicles, 358
Cribrif orm f oramina, 50 Development of heart, 388 Ear, SSl
Cricoid cartilage, 308 Dew claw, 84, 86, 87i, S44 c Ear drum, 552
Crista, 557 Diaphragm, 224 Ectopic cordis, 392
Crown, 238 Diaphragmatic flexure, 278 Eff crent ductules, 356
Crura of penis, 370 Diaphysis, 22 Elbow jt., 72, 7S, 111
Crus, 26, 98 Dia rthrosis, 104, I 06 Ellipsoid jt., I 08
Cr yptorchid, 360 Diastole, 404 Eminence
Cr yptorch id ism, 360-361 Dicncepha lon, 454 itcopubic, 95f
Cubital jt., 111 Diffuse placenta, 353 intercondylar, 99a
Cunean tenotorny, 125 Digital cushion, 537m, 540 Enamel, 238
Cuneate nucleus, 456g Digital pad, 544 Enamel spot, 246, 250
r
ENDOCARDAL CUSHIONS f FFFFFFFF FOOT
Eridocard ial cushions, 341 Fabclla, 97 Foot rot, 542

Endocardium, 383 Facet, 24 forameri, 24
Endolymph, 55-t Facial crest, 38d alar, 48a, 62a
Endcneur ium, 472 Fallopian tube, 340 caval, 225
Endostcum, 1~ False jt., 106 cpiploic for .• 288, 290
Endothetiochorial placenta, Faix cerebr i, 475 r oramcn I, 391
3.33 Fascia, 221 r orarncn II, 391
Endothelium, 352, 353 deep, 221 foramcn magnum, 40, 46, 48
Epicard ium, 383 spcr mat ic, 362 greater sciatic (ischatic)
Et; icondylar crest, 78c subserous, 221 f'or., 118
Epicondylc, 24 79, 96d,e supf., 221 infraorbital for., 36, 50
Epider mls, 533, 539 visceral, 221 intcrventricular f'or., 391
coronary, 539 Fascicle, 472 inter vertebral for., 60
frog, 540 Fasciculus cuneatus, 456h jugular for., 42d, 46(8). 48,
laminar, 540 Femoral a., 432 50 .
pcr iopl ic, 539 Femoral canal, 225 Inccrum, 4 Id, 46(6), 48, 50 ,
sole, 540 Femoral n. deficiency, 590 lat. vertebral for., 62d, 65b ,·
")
Epididymal duct, 356 Femur, 96, 97 lesser sciatic (ischiatic) for.,

Epididymis, 356 Fetlock jt., 114 118
body,357b Fi brocart ilagcnous jt., I 04 major palatine for., 4lg, 48b )
head, 357a Fibroclasric penis, 366 mandibular for., 42i, 50
tail, 357c Fibrous capsule, kdncy, 328 ma x i llar y f'or., 50
Epidural space, 474 Fibrous capsule, synovia l jt., mental for., 44, 50
Epiglotric cartilage, 308 106 nutrient for., of scapula,
Epiglottis, 300 Fibrous pericardium, 383 77h
Epineur ium, 472 Fibrotic myopathics, 182 obturatcr I'or., 95
Epiphysis, 22 Fibula, 98 orncntal -f'or., 286, 290
Epiploic f oramen, 288, 290 Fibular tarsal b., 100 optic for., 462
Epistaxis, 553 Filiform papillae, 236j ova le, 48, SO, 386
Epithel iochor ial placenta, 353 Filum terminate, 470, 476 round I'or., 46(4), 50 .. ._,,..
.
Epithelium, chorionic, 353 Fimbrae, 340 sacral for., 68
Ergot, 54~ fissure, 24, 4S2 solar for., 89h, 5371
Eruption time, 250 median, 470 stylomastoid I or., .41, 48, 50
horse, 250 lateral, 453h supracondylar for .• 79
ox, 254 longitudinal, 452 supratrochlear for., 79
sheep & goat, 254 orbital, 41 i, 46(3), 48 (8), SO supr aorbita l for., 38e
Esophageal hiatus, 225 palatine, 46a transverse f'or., 62
Esophagus,263 · transverse, 452 vcntr. sacral f'or., 68
Eustachian auditory tube, 552 tympano-occipital fissure, 50 vertebral f'or., 60
Extraembryonic membrane, Flank surgery, 499 Fornix, vaginal, 344p, 347
352 .' Flat foot, 541 Fossa, 24
Ext. ear, 551 Flex ion, 108, 140 acctabular, 95
Ext. abdominal oblique m., 200 Flexure cl itor idis, 343d, 344d
Ext. acoustic meatus, 36 diaphragmatic, 278 condyloid, 4ln
Ext. occipital duodenojcjunal, 274d extensor, 96t
protruberance, 36k pelvic .. 278 for lacr imal sac, 50
Ext. iliac a., 428 sigmoid, 280 hypophyseal, 42
Ext. intercostal m., 216 sternal, 278 inf'raspinous, 76
Ext. pudendal a., 428 "Floating", 24 i intercondyloid, 96m
Ex tension, 108, 140 Fold mandibular, 40
Extensor carpi radialis m., 158 alar, 304f masseteric, 44i
Extensor carpi ulnaris m., 158 basal, 304g pararectal, 282
Extensor f'ossa, 96e straight, ~04e ovulation, 341
Extensor process, 87e. 89f Follicle, 354 of glans penis, 372
--·. ;-
Eye, 546 Foot, 536 olccranon, 79 (· . :
Eyelid, 549 Foot axis, 540 radial, 79 <::»
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.. supraspi nous, 76 ccruminous gt., 532 of metacarpal bone, 85
temporal, 38 7. -· chin gt., -532 · · '··· of metatarsal bone, 102
tonsil a r, 236 circumanal gl., 532 "milk", 273
trochanter ic, 96j :· ·· cir curnora l gl., 532 muscular (extensor sulcus),
. Founder, 541 Cowper's gl., 364 99d
Fovea, 25 f undic gl. region, 268f ornasal, 2721
costal, 64'· · horn gl., 532 of lat. malleclus, 9.9i
of femoral head, 9~h lacrimal gl., 5S8 on radius, 81
Fractured splint; 85 mammary gl., 533 paraconal interventricular,
Freely movable jt., 104 mandibular gl., 258, 259 394
Frontal bone, 32 . mental gl., 532 parapedal, 543f
Frontal plane,·18 · monostomatic part, 259 per ioplic, 543a
Frontal sinus; 42, 56 of infraorbital sinus, 532 reticular, 272j
Frontomaxillary opening, 56 of inguinal sinus, 532 solar, 89y
Frog, 537 · · of intcrdigital sinus, 532 subsinuosal gr., 394
Functional blood, 296 of nasal skin, 532 Glcnoid cavity, 76
Functional classification of parotid gl., 258 Glomerular capsule, 336
[ts., 104 pcrioral gl., 258 Glomerulus, 33.7 ·
Funicular part of nuchal lig., polystomatic part, is9, 258c Gluteal surface, 95h
129a prcputial gl., 532 . Guard hair, 532
. ;_ . prostate gl., 364 .. Gums, 235
G-G G G G G G G G pyloric gl. region, 268g_ Guttural pouch, 553
salivary gl., 258 Gyr i, 452
Gallbladder, 297 . sebaceous gl., 530
Galvayne's groove, 248a· subcaudal gl., 259 HHHHHHH-HH
Ganglia ( -on), .450, 461,J-v subl ingual gl., 259
cardiac, 525d sweat gl., 530 Hair, 530 ..
caud. mesenteric, 525g vesicular gl., 364 Hair cells, 557
celiac, 525f · zygornatic gl., 259 Hard palate, 40
', ·. cervicothoracic, 524 Glans, 366 Hardware disease, 27 J
ciliary, 527A Glaucoma, 548 Head. 25
., collateral, 524 . Glenohumcral jt., 110 of humerus .. 78 .
, .. cran, cervical, 524 Glenoid cavity, 25, 76 of metacarpal- b., 84
cran. mesenteric, 525c Glottic cleft, 312, 316 of radius. 80
dorsal root, 523 Glottis, 3 J 7b of rib, 70 ·.· .
mandibular, 527C Gomphosis, 104 Heart, 384·403
pterygopalatine, 527B Granula iridica, 549, 550b auscultation, 404
stellate, 524 Gravel, 541 . . murmurs, 404
sublingual, 5270 Gray matter, 450, 470 · worms, 404 ·
trunk, 524 . Greater curvature of stomach, sounds, 404
Gastric groove, 268, 273 268 Heel, 536.
Geniculate body, 456c,f Greater omentum,286, 288, 290 Heel crack, 54 I .
Genital fold, 364a Groove, 25, 452 Helix, 551a·
Ginglymus, l 08 abomasal, 273e Hepatic cells, 296
Girdle bicipital (in terven tricula r ), Hepatic vv., 296
pelvic, 26 394 Hepatitis, 295
thoracic, 26 brachial, 78 "High flanker", 360
Gland coronary, 394, 537j, 543c High-crowned teeth, 238
accessory sex, 364 extensor, 80, 81, 98 Hilus, renal, 331
adrenal gl., 328 Galvayne's, 248a Hinge jt., 108
anal (sacs), 276, 532 gastric, 268, 273 Hip jt., 118
buccal gl., 261 f intermamrnary, 534c Histology of liver, .. 296
bulbourethral gl., 364 intertubercular (bicipital), Hock, 100 ,·
cardiac gl. region, 268e 78 Hoof. 536
. ;.' It ..
' . . .
HOOF INTERTROC·HLEAR
, JOINT
horse, 536-541 Intertrochlear incisure, 8Sks
ox,542 functional classification,
102f 104
Hoof-bound, 541 Intcrtubercular groove, 78
Hoof-cracks, 541-542 gcnual jt.; 120
Intervcnous techniques, 497 gingtymus jt., 108
Horn, 545 Intcrv~ntricular f oramina, 473 g1cnohumcral. Jr., 110
Horny claw, 86, 87h Intcrventricular septa I def cct,
Humeral condyle, 78 gomphosis, 104
392 hinge jt., 108
Humerus, 78 Intcrvcntricular septum, 391,
Hydrocephalus, 475 hip jt., 118
401
Hymen, 344g humcroradioulnar jt., 72-75
Intcrvertebrat disc, 60 immovable jt., 104 ·
Hyoid apparatus, 26 Intracapsular Iigg., 106
Hypodermis, 530 intcrcarpal jt., 112
Intubation, 313
Hypophyseal fossa, 42 intcrphalangcal jt., 114
Intussusccption, 275 intcr tarsat jt., 123
Hypophysis, 455 Inverted "L" block, 499
Hypothalamus, 454 distal, 123
Iris, 547
Hypsodont·teeth, 238 proximal, 123
Ischiattc "knee" 112
arch, 95m '
n1ctacarpophala ngeal
I I I I I I I I I table, 951 jt .• -114
spine, 95j
Ileocecal fold, 276, 285 metatarsophatangeat jt., 125
Ischium, 95
Ileocolic .orifice, 276 of auditory ossicles, 127
Isthmus f'aucium, 263 of hyoid apparatus, 127
Ileum, 274
Ilium, 94 of pelvic limb, 118-126
J J J J J J J J J of thoracic limb, 72-75,
Il iopubic eminence, 95f
Immovable jt., I 04 110°1]8
Jack spavin, 124 of vertebral column,
Impaction, 278 Jejunum, 274
In wear, 246, 250 128-131
Joint pastern jt .• 114
Incisors, 240 amphiarthrosis, 104
Incus, 48, 552 pelvic symphysis, 118
Infraglenoid tubercle, 77f
arthroidal ir., I 08 pha larigeal jt., 114 .~
./. .,.
f :. ~=
a tlanto-ax ial jt., 128 pivot, 108 l ... , .
lnfraorbital f oramen, 36, 50 atlanto-occipital jt., 128
Infundibulum, 246, 340, 4SS plane, JO& "-
ball-and-socket jt., 108 prox. interphalangeal jt.,
Inguinal canal, 202 capsule, 106
Inguinal hernia, 358 72-75, 114
carpal jt., 72-75, 112 radiocarpal jt., 112
Inguinal lig., 302 carpometacarpal jt., 112
Inguinal ring, 202 sacroiliac jt., 118
cartilaginous jt., l 04 saddle jr., 108
Insufficiency of heart cavity, 106
valves, 404 scapulohumeral Jr., 110
coffin jt., 114 shoulder jt., 72-75, 110
Integument, 530 · compound jt., I 04
Interatrial septum, 398 simple jt., 104
condyloid jt., 108 slightly movable jt., 104
Intercondylar area, 99b costochondra I jt., 131
Intercondylar eminence, 99a spheroidal jt., 108
costovertebral Jr., 131 stcrnocostal jt., 131
Intercostal space, 70 coxal jt., 118
Interdental space, 234 stifle jt., 120
cox of emora 1 jt., 118 suture, 104, 127
Interdigital dermatitis, 542 cubital (elbow) jt., 111
Interdigital f ibroma, 542 syrnphysis, 104
diarthrosis, 104, 106 syn1physis of mandible, 127
Intermammary groove, 534e dist. interphalangeal jt .• 114
Intermediate tubercle, 79 synarthrosis jt., 104
elbow jt., 72-75, 111 synchondrosis, 104
Internal hydrocephalus, 475 ellipsoid jt., I 08
Internal iliac a., 428 syndesmosis, I 04
f alse jt., I 06 synov ia l jt., 106
Interparietal b., 32 fen1oropate1Jar jt .• 120
Interstitial fluid, 383 . tarsal jt., 123
f emorotibial jt., 120 ta rsorneta ta rsa I jt.; 123
lnterthalamic adhesion, 4$..4, fetlock jt.s 114
45Sc temporomandibular jt., 127
fibrocartilagenous jt., 104 tibiof ibular jt., 123
Intertrochanteric crest, fibrous jt., 104
96i tibiotarsat jt., 123
freely movable Jr., 101 Jugular f oramen, 42b, 48 '.'"4
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1.•e,., _._,i;,, of :!. ·u-.:..ry bladder, lo2
r'~;:.. K K K K K K K K K ca ud. cruciatc l ig., 120 ovarian l ig., 348
check I i g. palm. a nular Jig., 11 Sa
... Kidney, 328 of pelvic l imb, 198 patellar l ig., 182·
.lobate d, 331 of thoracic l i mb, 196 patellar ligg., 120, 182
sm·ooth, 331 collateral lig. (sec involved proper lig. of ovary, 348
'.'Knee", 1_12 : joints) : proper. lig. of testicle, 357
.' colla.tcral sesarno id I ig., I l 5c · prox. digital anular Ji·g.,
l. l. l. 'l. I. I. I. l. l. coronary Iig, of liver, 294 114
cosrotra nsvcrsc l ig., 131a pubic iig .• l l 9d
"L" block, 499 cra n. cr uciatc lig., 120 pullmonary lig., 318
Labia, 346 er an. pubic lig., 119 · . radiate l ig., 130b
Laccrtus f ibr osus, 493t dcnticulatc Iigg., ·476 rt. triangular lig., 294
Lacr irna l apparatus, 558 d ig ita I a nular ligg., .l lSb,c round Iig. of femur, 118
Lacr imal e., 32 dist. digital annular lig., round lig. of liver, 294
Lacr ima l canal (cana l icu li), 36, I I 5c round lig. of uterus, 348
558 dors. elastic Jg., I 14g sacroiliac Iig., l I 9a,o
Lacr irnal car uncle, 549 dors. longitudinal l ig., 130 sacrotu berous l ig., 118
Lacr imal gland, 558 dist. scsa mo idea n 1 igg., · scrotal Iig., 357
Lacr irnal puncta , 549, 558 I I 5g-i sesamoidean ligg., I 14, 196
. Lacrimal sac, 558 duodcnocolic lig:, 284 splenophrenic lig., 295j'
·· Lamellar part of nucha l l ig., extracapsular l ig., 106 straight sesmoidean l ig.,
.,.
,. 129b extensor br., 115k l l 5g
J, ,, •
'-f' Laminae, falcif orm Iig., 282, 286H, supraspinous lig., 28f
of udder, 534 294 . . suspensory lig., 164~ 190,
· of vertebra. 60d funicular part of nuchal 196
primary, 534, 538d lig., 129 of eye, 547
_,. secondary, 534, 538c impar lig., 1150 of ovary, 349
·"'
. ...
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Laminiris, 541 inguinal lig., 202, 361,o navicular lig., I 15p
~
Lanolin, 540 interca rpa l lig., l J2i transverse Iig., l 20e
Large colon (great), 276 intcrcapitate l ig., 131c transverse acetabular lig.,
Large intestine, 276-281 intercornual lig. 344, 350(8) · l l 9n
Laryngeal herniplcg ia, 313 interdigital crucatc ligg .., triangular Iigg., 294
Laryngeal opening, 263 I 15r ,s ventr. longitudinal lig., 130
Larynx, 300 interscsamoidcan lig., 114 Ligamentum arteriosum, 386
Laryngopharynx. 262 interspinous lig., 129 Limb
Lateral (lat.), 17 intertarsal ligg. J 25a pelvic. 26, 90-102
Lat. masses, 457 intertransverse Iig., 13lk thoracic, 26, 72-89
Lens, ·547 intracapsular ligg., 114 Limbic system, 459
Leptornen inges, 474 lat. patellar lig., 120j·· Line, 25
Level, teeth, 246 ligamcntum artcriosum, 394 Lingual process, 58
Lesser curvature of stomach, longitudinal Jig. 129 Lingual surface, 240a
268 long plantar lig., l24 Lips, 234, 235
Lesser omentum, 286, 290 medial patellar I ig., J 20h Liver, _292-297
Ligament, 106, 282 median lig., 338, 282 Liver attachments, 294
3CCe$SOry Iig. of deep menisca l ligg., 120 Liver sinusoids, 296
digital flexor mm., 196 mcniscof emoral Iig., 120 Lobe
accessory lig. of femur, 119 middle patellar lig., 120i kidney, J30
accessory lig. of supf. navicular lig., 1150 liver, 293
digital flexor mm., 196 nuchal lig., 128, 129 Jung, 323
ace tabular lig. l I 9n oblique sesmoidean Jig., of brain, 452 ·
arterial Iig., 386 I I Sh frontal, 452
\broad Iig. of uterus, 338, · of femoral head, 118 occipital, 452
348 of liver, 282 parietal, 452
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LOBE I\IEDULLA ~IUSCLE
temporal, 452 of brain, 458 · cervicoauricularis m.,

pancreas, 298 of kidney? 330 206(16)
Long pastern, 87, 88 of uterus, 340 ciliary m., 547
Longitudinal fissure, 452 McduJla.oblongata, 458 clcidobrachiafis m., 146
Longitudinal section, 19 Mcdullary cavity. 22 cleidocephalicus m.,.146
Loop of Henle, 336 Medullary rays. 332c coccygeus m., 220, 222
· Low-crowned teeth, 238 Membranous Iabyr inth, 554, common digital extensor m.,
Lumbar cistern, 476c SSS, 557 158
Lumbosacral plexus, 477, 498 Meninges, 474 constrictor vulvae m., 343f,
Lung, 322 cranial, 474 344e.
Luxation, 106 spinal, 476 : constrictor vertibull m.,
Lymph node, 259, 440 Men isci (gel) ual joint), 106 343c,.
Lymphatic system, 440 Mental f oramcn, 44, SO 344f
Lymphatic vessels, 440 Mcscnterv, 284 coracobrachialis m., 152,
Lymphocenter, 440 Mcscnccphalon, 456 153 • •
Lymph vascular system, 440 Mcsial surface, 240 cran. tibial m., 188
Lyssa, 237 Mesocolon, 285 cremaster m., 359d
Mcsoduodcnum, 284 cricoarytenoldeus dorsalis
MMMMMMM Mcsoileum, 285 m., 312
Mcsojcjunum, 285 cricoarytencideus lateralis
Maculae, 557 Mcsorchium, 362,, 357e, 361 f m., 313e, 315t
Magda block, 499 Mcsometrium, 348 cricocsophageus m., 3 l 5p
Malar bone, 32 Mcsorectum, 285 cr icopharyngeus m., 205j,
Malleolus, 98 Mcsosalpinx, 348, 349 3 J 5,o
Malle us, 48f, SS2 Mesovar ium, 348 cricothyroideus m., 313
Mamma. 533 Mcsothclium, 282 cutaneous mm., 221
Mammary gtand, 533-535 Metacarpal e., 84, 85 deep digital flexor m., 164,
Mammary suspensory Metacarpal pad, 544 190
apparatus, 534 Metacarpus, 26, 84 deep gluteal m., 176
Marnmillary body, 455b Metaphysis, 22 deep pectoral m., 148
Manus, 26, 82 Metatarsal b., 102 deltoid m., 150
Mandibular In., 249 Metatarsus, 26, 102 descending pectoral m., 148
Mandibular salivary gt., 258 · Midbra in, 456 digastricus m., 205g
Mandibular syrnphysis, 440 Middle ear, 552. dors. cr icoarytenoideus m.,
Masticatory surface, 240 "Milk vein", 534 312
Mastitis, 535 Mouth,.234 epaxial mm., 2 J 8
Maxillary b., 32 Murmur, 404 extensor carpi radialis m.,
Maxillary recess, 42f Muscle 158
Maxillary sinus, 56, 57 abductor pollicus longus, extensor carpi ulnaris m.,
Meatus, 25 160 158
acoustic, 36. 50 arytenoideus transversus m., ext. abdominal oblique m.,
'
common nasal, 304d 313h 200
dors. nasal, 304b adductor m., 182 ext. anal sphincter, 2iO
ext. auditory, 551 ascending pectoral m., 148 ext. intercostal m., 216
internal, 42e auricular m., 206 ext. obturator m., 174
middle nasal, 304c biceps brachii m., 152 extrinsic mm., 146
nasal, 36, 304 biceps femoris m., 176 facial mm., 204
nasopharyngeal, 305 brachial is m., 150 f ibular is long us (long
ventr. nasal, 305 brachioccphalicus m., 146 fibular) m., 188
Medial (med.), 17 buccinator m .• 204j fibularis tertius m., 188
Median a., 416 bulbospongiosus m., 374 flexor carpi rad ia lis m., 162
Median plane, 18 can inus m., 205a flexor carpi ulnaris m., 162
Medial sacral crest, 68 capitis mm., 215 frontalis m., 205f
Mediastinum, 318 caud. crural abductor gastrocncmius m., 190
Mediastinum testis, 356 m., 178 genioglossal m. 205ml, 236h
Medulla ccratohyoldcus m., 315x geniohyoid m., 205n l
; .•:1·1:~· ... ~, .. ~' .. . . . . .. ·, .... \
..~·;1 \:.,/t.~;~ L...! ~;. .:·

..':... t'v .;.. ....., ........ ....__ l'··..: ·-·~~ ·c..... ::..: ;J!,
...L
l:i, .. ~,. ~:
;
mm., )'."}~
.1e , ,.,. of pharynx, 262 subcla v ius m., J 54
.... ;"
gluteobiceps m., 176 of thorax, 216 sublurnbar mm .• 167, 172,
gracilis m .• 180 of tongue, 205m 1-3 173
hyoepiglottic m., 313 of trunk, 216 subscapular is m., 152
hyoglossal m., 205m3, 236g omotransversarius m.• 146 supf. pectoral m., 148
hyopharyngeus m., 205j5 orbicular is oris, 205e supf. digital flexor m., 164,
iliacus, 172 orbicularis oculi, 204d 190
,. iliocostalis m., 218 palatopharyngeus m., 20Sj2 supf. gluteal m .• 176 i
iliopsoas m., 172 papillary mm .• 401 supinator m., 160
Inf'raspinatus m., 150 pectinate mm., 398 supraspinatus m., 150
int. abdominal oblique m., pectineus m., 180 ternporalis m., 205f i
200 pectoral mm., 148 tensor fasciae antebrachii ~·
int. intercostal m., 216 peroneus longus (long m., 1 5 2, 15 3 ·
int. obturator m., 174 fibular), 188 tensor fasciae latae m., 178
interosseous m., 164, 190, peroneus terrius m., 188 tensor veli palatini, 2051
196 popliteus m., · 190 teres major m., 152
interscutularis m., 206(12) pron a tor teres m., 162 teres minor m., 1 SO, 151
• ••
third fibular, 188
mtertransversaru mm., psoas major, 172, 173
21 lg, 218 psoas minor, 172, 173 thyroarytenoideus, 315q e;
ischiocavernosus m., 374 pterygoid mm., 20Sh,i thyropharyngeus m., 205j6

lat. .digital extensor m., 158 pterygopharyngeus m., trachcalis m.• 31Sw, 321
lat. digital flexor m., 158, 20Sjl transversus abdominis m.,
188 quadratus femoris m., 182 200
•
lat. ulnar m., 158 radial carpal extensor, 158 trapezius m., 146
,
?... Iatissimus dorsi m .• 146 radial carpal f'lexor, 162 triceps brachii m., 152
levator ani rn., 220 rectus abdominis m., 201 ulnar carpal flexor, 162
levator anguli oculi rectus capitis mm., ulnaris lateralis m., 158
medialis, 204e 215(13-16) urethral m.• 346
levator costarum m., 218k rectus fcmoris m., 182 vastus intermedius m., J 82
levator labii superioris, rectus thoracis, 2 l 6f vastus lateralis m .. , 182
t ' 205b retractor penis m., 374 vastus medialis m., 182
... leva tor nasola bia lis, 20Sc. rhomboidcus m., 148 ventricularis m., 3I 3f
levator veli palatini, 20Sk sartorius m., 180 vocal m., 313
long digit I abductor m., scalcnius m., 21 le zygomaticoauricularis m.,
160 scutuloauricularis m., 20b, 13
long digital extensor, 181 206(15·16) zygomaticus m. 2.04f
long fibular, 188 semimembranosus m., 182 Muscular process; 308
long pcroncal, 181 semispinalis capitls m., Musculocavernous penis. 367
longissimus m., 218 211-Jl, 218a · Myelin, 449
longissimus atlantis, 21 lj semitendinosus m., 178
longissimus capitis, 21 li serrates dorsalis mm., NNNNNNNNN
longus eapltls, 206(25), 21 ld 216b,d
.malaris m .• 206(8) scrratus ventralis m., 148, Nares, caud., 40, 263, 305
masscter m., 204 196 Narcs, ·rostr., 303
middle gluteal m., 176 soleus m., 190. 192g, 19Sg Nasal aperture, 38, 302
multifidus m., 2121, 218 sphincter m., 533 Nasal bone, 32
mylohyoideus m., 20Sn4 splenius m., 206(17), 21 lc Nasal cavity, 42, 304 .
oblique capitis m.• 213(5) stcrnoccphalicus m., 210 Nasal conchae, 304
oblique carpal extensor 160 stcrnohyoidcus m.• 204 Nasal divcrticulum, 303c 305
or
erus, 188 sternomandibularis m•• 210 Nasal meatus, 304
or
car, 204 sternomastoidcus m., 210 Nasal..planc, .. 303a
of eye, 550 stcrnooccipitalis m., 210 Nasolabial plane, 303b •
: of head, 204-209 styloglossal m., 20Sm2, 236f Nasolacrimal duct, 558
· · or hyoid apparatus; 205nl·S !tylohyoid, ·20Sn3 Nasopharyngcal mcatus, 305
. of neck, 210 stylopharyngeus mm., Nasopharynx, 262
-----
,·'i] of pel~ic limb, 167-195 20Sj3·4 Navicular bone, 88 .. • ..., J •):
Ji
• . .' . ,:..o., .·: .•......

. t ,,. -'::
NAVICULAR DISEASE NERVE NERVE
Navicular disease, 88 hypogastric n .• 524 ophthalmic division (V3),

N,eck ' hypoglossal n., 465, 478C 463
of humerus, 78f il iohypogastr ic n., 498 optic n., 462
of scapula, 77b ilioinguinal n., 498 palatine nn., 4631
of radius, 80b inf er ior alveolar n., 463x, pa lrnar br .• 482m,n
of femur, 96a 4691 pa lpcbral br., 464i, 469
Needle teeth, 241 inf'raorbital n., 463n, 469n parot id br. 463t
Nephric loop, 336 infratrochlear n., 463f pectoral n. 482b, ~86
Nephritis, 328 inrercostal n., 477 pelvic n., 520, 526
Nephron, 336 intercostobrachial n., 4791 pcr incal n .• 521
Nerve, 450 ischia tic n., 500, 504 pcroneal n., 500
abax ial digital nn., 487n,q, lacr imal n., 463a pharyngeal br. 465b,d
518e,f laryngeal br., 465f phrenic n., 477, 481 A
abducens n., 463 lat. cutan. brachia! n., 482d plantar n., 50 I h,i;-504,
accessory n.• 465, 478A lat. cu tan. femoral n., 50 lb 517b,d,i · ... ,
auricular n., 464g,j, 469h lat. cu tan. sural n., S0.4 · · ptcrygoid n., 463r · ·
aur iculopalpebrat br., 464n, lat. thoracic n., 479k, 480 pterygopalatine n., 463k
469a lingual n., 463w, 465c, 469m pudenda} n., 520 . i:
auriculoternporal br., 463s, long ciliary n., 463d radial n., 480, 482f .s. 486
469d long thoracic n., 419i, 480 rectal n., 504, 520 r;
axial nn., 487,o,r, 51_7b,g mandibular division (V3), saphenous n., 500, 504
axillary n., 480, 482d, 486 463 sciatic n., 500, 502
buccal n., 463v, 4641,rn, massetcric br., 468p · scrotal n., 521
467c,d, 469b,c,g maxillary division (V3),, 463 sensory n., ·460
caud. cutan. antebrachial n., med. cutan. antcbrachal n., spccia f sensory n., 460
482h, 488s 481e, 482e, 488b spinal nn., 472
caud. cu tan. femoral n., median n., 480, 486, 494, dors. branch, 472
50la, 504 496 organization, _472
caud. cutan. sural n., 50lc, mental n., 463z ventr. branch, 470
504 metacarpal n., 495b,g spinal plexuses, 477 ,
caud. nasal n., 463m metatarsal n., 50lf,g, 517a,c splanchnic nn .• 524
caud. rectal n., 520 f,g subscapular n., 480, 481C,
clunial n., 504, 505a,b,c mixed n., 460 482a,.486, 489(1>.-:·
common digital n., '487n,p musculocutaneous n., 480, suprascapular n., 486
common fibular n., 500, 504 482e, 487d supf. radial n., 4810, 488c,e
communicating .P.r: .• 484n, rnyohyoid n., 463y, 469k sympathetic trunk, 524
-4871, 496c' nasal br., 468,o tibial n., 500, 504 :
cornualbr., 463j, 469f nasocitiar y n., 463c thoracic n., 477, 482c
costoabdominal n., 479m, obturator n., SOO, 504 thoracodorsal n., 479j, 480, ·
498 oculomotor n., 462, 526 486
cranial n., 459, 460 of bovine pelvic limb, SOS, transverse fasial n.; 463u
deep temporal n., 463.q 512, 518 trigeminal n., 463
:
.
digastric br., 464k of bovine thoracic limb, trochlear n., 462 i
digital nn., 494, SOlk,l,n 487, _492, 496 ulnar n., 480, 482h,j,k, ·~
504, 50Sr .s.t : .. .. of canine pelvic limb, 502, 484, 486; 488f .s. 495
dors. digital n., 482i 506 vagal cardiac n., 527e .
esophageal br., 465e of canine thoracic limb, -_ vagosympathetic trunk,
ethmoidal n., 463e 481, 482, 488 465a ·
facial n.; 464, 526 of equine pelvic limb, 501, vagus n., 465-6, 526
femoral n., 500, 504 508, 516 vertebral n., 525c
fibular n., 504, SOJd,e of equine thoracic limb, vestlbulocochlear n., 464
f'rcntat-n., 462b · 484, 490, 494 zygomatic n .• 463g, 464h, ..
genitof emoral n., 498 . · .of pelvic limb, 500-519 469
,g)-9~sopharyngeal n., 465, of penis, 521 .. zygomaticof'acial n .• 463h ...
.:~
I 526 of thoracic limb, 480-497 zygoma ticotempora 1 n., ....
gluteal' n., SOO, S04 olfactory n., 460 463i, 469e
. .
"NERVE" OPENING PALATOPHARYNGEAL
"Nerve", 495 · cardiac. 272 arch. 234f .

i~, Nerve block, 494, 497 coronary sinus, 403b Patmar (palm.), 16
t·-·~:·; Nerve tracts of f'asclculi, 450 frontal maxillary, 56 .Palpation of ovaries, 354
< 1:-· Nervous system, 445 nasomaxillary, 56e• Palpebra conjunctiva, 549
~ .: autonomic, 445 pulmonary, 400 Pampiniform plexus, 362
·· central, 445 Optic canal, 40 Pancreas, 298, ·,199 . ·,· ,
Optic chlasm, 455a, 462 · Paplll. ~ .. .' . ..<)-?·-,
. •• .t ''"•'· ., '
t '\,;: • ~.. -
;~ : peripheral, 445
.1c~ - somatic, 445 Optic disc, 537 conical
1 • 236"I[•-- . ·' • . · . -r ', •·.•1 !;- ..
Neurofibril, 447b Optic tract, 456, 462 filif orm, 236J(·· .. f..- .• ~ ,-,,.,~-~ 1· :
Oral cavity, 234 · foliate, 236m ·. ·· . ·; ·:-.,,'t .i., .
Neuroglia, 449
Neuromuscular junction, 448 Orbit, 36 f ung1'f orm, 2361 · . ·- ·- :· ..·
•
;.•JT.-,
• I
..., ~
•c
'
Orbital fissure, 46, 48; 50 lenticular, 236,o

Neurons, 446, 450 .-:> ,· •
Orifice · · renal, 330 . ,, .

··.' 'aesociation, 446, 450
motor (efferent), 446, 450 ejaculatory, .379h vallate, 236a '
460, 522,560 urethral, 346 . Papillary duct. 336
postganglionic, 522 uterine. 343a,b Papillary mm., 401 · ._.-·:··:
1·
preganglionic, 522 "Originals", 360 Paraconal intervenrrlcular- .. ,;r. ( '. ..
sensory (afferent), 446, 450 Oropharynx, 262 Paraventricular ·· ~- .· · ··
• r ', ·, .
460, 522, 560 Os penis, 367 groove, 394 · . · ·

. r.
Nisslbody, 447a Ossa cordis, 403j Paralysis of penis, 369
Nodes of Ranvier, 447h, 449 Osteology Paranasal sinuses, 56, S7
Nodule, 403a · of hyoid apparatus, 58 Parasympathetic division, 526
Non-tubular horn, 538c of pelvic limb, 90 Parasympathetic nuclei, 52-7d
Norepinephrine, 522 of skull, 32 · Paravertebral block, 499
Nose, 292 of thoracic limb, 72 -Parietal bone. 32
· Notch, 25, 60a·,b of thorax, 70 Par ieta I su lcus, 89d
alar; 62a of vertebral column, 60 Parietal surface of coffin
intertragic, 551g Otolithic membrane, 557a bone, 89a
.,..
.. ·-.··4··,~.· ischiatic, 95i, k Otoliths, 557b . Parietal surf ace of stomach,
pretragic, 55le Oval foramen, 411, 46(5), 48, 268
popllteal, 99i so, 386 Parotid duct opening, 234e,
radial, 80g Oval window, 552 259. .
scapular, 77a Ovarian a., 350G Par.otid In., 249
·t trochlear (semilunar), 80 Ovarian bursa, 348 Parotid salivary gl., 258
ff' Parrot mouth, 247
·~ Nuchal crest, 38 Ovarian lig., 348
Nucleus, 450 Ovary, 340 Pastern, 114
Overshot, 239 Patella, 96
t ~u~e~ ~o~, ~60 0 0 Oviduct, 340
Ovulation depression, 354
Patellar ligg., 120, 182
Patellar lock mechanism, 1_98
Ovulation fossa, 341 Patellar luxation, 121
:1 I ,
Obturator foramen, 95
.. Occipital bone, 32 ppppppppp
Patellar surface, 96
PDA;.404- .
Occipital condyles, 36 Pectinate mm., 398
Occlusal surf ace, 240 Pachyrneninx, 474 Pedal ostetis, ~8
Occult spavin, 124 Pacemaker phenomena, Pedicle, 60c
Olecranon, 80 389 Pelvic cavity, 125 ·
Olecranon tuberosity, 80j Pad, 544 Pelvic diaphragm, 220
Omasal laminae, 272 cutaneous, 544 Pelvic flexure, 278
Omasum, 270, 272 dental, 235 Pelvic girdle, 26
Omental bursa, 286 Palate, 235 Pelvic limb, 26
Omental foramen, 286, 290 hard, 40, 235 Pelvic symphysis, 118
Omenta) vestibule, 288 soft, 235 Pelvis, 94
Omenturn, 286, 288, 290, 291 Palatine bone, 32 renal, .330
.... .
.. .Opening . Palatine ridges, 234d Penis, 366
~~,
... ,. aortic, 401 Palatine tonsil, 234i, 263 f ibroelastic, 366
'
.'i.~ ••
atrloventrlcular, 400 Palatopharyngeal glans, 366, 372 ,.·. . ... '"; : :'
-f,i~:.t1'
~-;;> . ! ~:
i
.;
. .. . .. ..
PENIS PLANE JOINT PROCESS
musculocavernous, 367 Plane jt., I 08
os;"367 citiary, 546
Planes, 18, 19 clinoid, 46c,d
Pcr icardiat cavity, 383 dorsal, ·1'8:
Per icard iat tymponade, 318,. condyle, 24
Frontal, ,fg condyloid process of
. 383 . r median;'J6
Pericardium, 383 mandible, 44
' midsagittal, 18 coronoid, 361,., 44 (
Peripheral, 17 •'.
(
paramcdian, 18
Pcrilymph, 554 , : · ·i,.' ·,-,.._ · . parasagittal, i8 corniculate, 309 ·
Perinea! body,C:220 cornuat, 38
• -t- sa-giual., 18 crest, 24
Perinea! heraia, 22(i' .. transverse, 18
Perinea! taceranon.rzzo cuneiform, 309j, 3l0j
.Plantar (ptant.), 17 epicondyte, 24, 96d,c, 179
Perineum, 2.2.@<. ,)::·,· ~-~· "' Pleura, 318
Per incurjum, 412": .' :.: -.'. extensor, 86, 87e, 89(
costal, 318 facet, 24
Periodontal membrane,-239· diaphragmatic, 318
Per iople, 5:37d · : f'Iexor, 86, 87f
pa rlerar, 318 frontal, 36b
Periosreum, 22, ·!, pericardi31, 318
Periphera I, 17 ' head, 24
pulmonary, 318 jugular, 36
Peripheral nervous system, 445 visceral, 318
Pcrirenal line, 24
,: . fat,
. ... 328"' Pleural cavity, 318 lingual, SS
Peritoneal cavity, 282 Plueral sacs, 318
pouches of, 282 mammillary, 65a, 67a
Plexus mastoid, 36h
Peritoneum : r autonomic, 524
connecting, 282 muscular, 308
brachia], 477 rnytinated, 449
parietal, 282 · cellac, 527h
visceral, 282 papiltary, 293
cervical, 477 rctrcarticutar, 4Jm
Pcr itonitrs, 282 coronary venous,
Permanent dcnt.ition, 240 spinous, 60
495m, 51iD sty lo id
Pes, 26, 102 inrcrmesenrer lc, 525h
Petiotus, 309a. 3 !0a ulnar, 81
int, vertebral venous. radial, 80d
Peyer's patches, 440 476d
Phalangcal jt., 114 spine, 24
tumbcsacrat, 477, 498 spinous, sacrum, 68
Phalanx, 86 spinal, 477
Pharyngeal diverticulum, 264 transverse, 60, 66
PMJ, 404 'trochanter, 24
Pharyngeal opening, 263 Point of maximum intcnsiry,
Pbarynx,262 trochlea, 24
404 tubercle, 24
Physiology Polled, 545
of dynamic equilibrium, ruberosiry, 24
Pons, 456 ungual, 86
SS? Popliteal notch, 99j
of static equilibrium, unmyelinated, 449
Poptitcal sesamoid b., 99k urethral, 372
557 Porta of the liver, 292
Pia mater, 474 vaginal, 349
Portal v., 296 vocal, 308
Pineal body, 4S6d Pouches of peritoneal cavity, x iphoid, 71
Pinna, 517 282
Piriform recess, 262 zygomacic, 36a, 38a
Premolars, 240 Prognathia, 239
Pituitary gland, 4SS Prepuce, 367
Pivot jt., J08 Promontory, 48c, 69c
ext. fold of, 378b Prostate, 364
Placenta, 3S2 int. fold of, 378c Prostatic a., 428
adcciduatc, 353 Preputial diver ticulum,
cotylcdonar y, 353 Proximal (prox.), 17
367 Prox. loop, 180
dc-:!,:t11atc, 353 Prepurial orifice, 378d
diffuse, 353 Pseudopapiltae, 332d,
Prcputial ring, 378e 335a
endotheliochoria l, 353 Process, 25
epitheliochorial, 353 ,. Ptcr ygoid bone, 32
anconeal, 81 Pubis, 95
partially deciduatc, 353 angular, 36i, 44g
zonary, 353 Pudcndoepigastric trunk, 428
articular, 36g, 44, 60 Pulmonary a., 384
?!accntome, 353 . ·.
: .·· caudate, 293 Pulmonary lig .• 318
,·
I ! i I\ ETR;,,?£!\ITONCAL SECTIO:SS
Pulmonary opening, Reti oµ ... r iecneal, '.;dl cross. 19

400 Rib, 70 longi,udin:M. 19
Pulmonary trunk. 384 angle of, 70f transverse, 19
Pulp, 239. false rib, 70b Seed)' toe. ~4 •
Pvlp cavity, 239 floating rib, 70c Scmilunar line.. 89i
Pulv in i, 344 true rib, 70a Scminifcrous tubule . 356
Pupil, 547 "Ridglings·, 360 Septum
Pylcuic opening. 268b "Rigs•, 360 intervenrr igular, 392, 401
Pylorus; 273 Rima glotr idis, 312 membranous pan. 392
Pyramids. 458 Ring block, 497 septum I, 390
Ringbone,88 septum 2. 391
' QQQQQQQQQ "Roarer", 313 spiral, 392
J'I• Rods, 547 Serosa, 318
" Quarter crack, 541·542 Root of mesentery, 284 Serous membranes, 282
; Quarters Rostral (rostr.), 16 Serous pericardium. 383
1,
of marnmary gl., 534 Rostral bone, 52 Sesamoid bone, 22
of horse hoof, 536 Rotation, 108, 141- Sesamoidean lig., 114, 196
Seven-year-hook, 248
.'
-; Quittor, 88, 541 Rotation of coffin bone, 88
Round (teeth), 250 Shear mouth, 247
. i
RRRRRRRRR Round window, 552 "Sickle-hocked", 12S
Ruggae, 268c "Sidcbone•, 88
p· .,_ ijj_ll R:1dial carpal b., 82 Rumen, 270, 272 Sigmoid flexure, 368, 280
i
f- Radial n., 480 Rumen palpation, 271 Simple stomach, 268
Radial pnralysis, 480 Ruminant stomach, 270 Slous
i: Radius, 80 Rupture of inter vertebral disc, aortic, 406
f-.. Ramus of mandible, 44 131 coronary, 394
" Ranula, 261 dors. conchal, 56.a
Receptor. 4 50 sssssssss dural, 475
i.
Recess, 43f
maxillary, S7
pelvic, 332e, 33Sb
Saccularions, 278
Saccule, 527
rental, 42, 56
milk, 533
maxillary, 56, 57
terminal, 331 Sacral crest, 68 palatine, 42g, 56f
I vaginal, 347 Sacral foramina, 68 paranasal, 56, 57
I
I
I Rectangular (teeth). 251 Sacral parasympathetic renal, 331
Rectogenital pouch, 282 outflow, 526 sphenoid, 42j, 56
I :
I '
Rectum, 276 Sacrum, 68 sphcnopalatine, 42h. 56c
r horse. 278 Saddle jt., 108 venosus, 389
ox, 280 Sagittal plane, 18 Sinusitis, 57
pig, 281 Sagittal ridge, 84f, 102e Skeleton
Reflex arc, 450, 522 Salivary glands, '253 appendicular, 26
Reflex centers, 458 Saphenous a., 432 axial, 26
Renal crest, 330 Scala tympani, SSS cat, 30
i _] Renal hilus, 331 Scala vestibuli, SSS dog, 27
Renal impression. 292 Supula, 76, 77 horse, 28
&~ Renal papilla, 330

Renal pelvis, 330
Renal sinus, 331
Reproducthe system, 339-380
angle, 77i,j
dorsal border, 77d
neck, 77b
Scapular cartilage, 77(7)
llama, 31
of heart, 403
ox, 29
pelvic limb
female, 339-355 Schwann cell, 447g, 449 of dog, 90
t1
·-'
J male, 356-380 Scissor mouth, 247 of horse, 91
Respiratory bronch.ioles, 321 Sciera, 546 of ox, 92
:: . { ,J._· Respiratory system, 301-325 Scrotum, 376 of pig, 93
'\' Rete testis, 356 Scutiform cartilage, 208c pig. 30
~
- J- ~
.. f (
4:
, Reticular formation, 459
Reticulum, 270, 272
i, '.
Retina, 547
Sebaceous gl., 530
Sebum, 530
Sections, 19
sheep, 31
thoracic I imb, 72
of dog, 72
'
"i:;-,:
f(~ .,
Sll'.ELETON STOMACH TUBE SYNOVIAL SAC
of horse, 7) Stomach tube, 271 tibiotarsal, l 25e
. pf ox, 74 Stratum· Synovial sheath, 106, 113.
Skin, 530 basale, 530 115,124.
Skull,. 32-57 -. · , coreum, 530 Systole, 404
cat, 53 granulosum, 530
dog, 33-48 lucidum, 530
goat, 54 spinosum, 530
horse, 34-51 Stria babcnularis thalami, . Tactile hair, 532
pig, 52 456b Tarsal bones, 100
ox, 35-51 "Str inghalt", 182 Tarsal jt., 123
sheep, SS Strongulus vulgarjs, 426 (J
Tarsus, 26, 100
Slightly movable jr., 104 Styloid b., S8 "Teaser bull", 369
Small colon, 278 Subarachnoid space, 474 Teat, 533
Small intestine, 274 Subcutis, 530, 540 Teat canal, 533
Soft palate, 262 Subdural space, 474 Teeth, 2:38-257
Solar·foramen, 89n Sublingual caruoclc, 258h carnassiat, 240
Solar groove, 89g Sublingual salivary gl., 259 canine, 240
Solar surface of Subsinuosal interventricular cheek, 240
coffin bone;'S96' · groove, 394 deciduous, 240
Sole, 537 Suburethral diverticulum, 347 formula, 242
Somatic nervous system, 445 Sulci, 452 horse teeth, 246-253
Sow mouth, 247 Sulcus molars, 240
Space chiasmatic, 46b ox teeth, 254-257
intercostal, 7l coronal, 453d premolars, :No
interosseous, Sin, 98 collateral, 53 7b sectoria I, 240
Spavin, 124 cruciare, 453a surfaces, 240
Sperrnatic cord, 362 ectosylvian, 453c "wolf", 241
Spermatic fascia, 362, 376 lat. rhinal, 453b Telodendrite, 447f
Sphenoid bone, 32 of frog, 537f Temperature regulation, 455
Spinal cord, 470 Superficial (supf.), 17 Temporal b., 32
Spinal meninges, 476 Supf. leaf (of omentum), 290 Tendon
Spinal nerves, 472, 523 Supf. lymph nodes, 441 accessory digit, 496r
Spine, 25 Supraglenoid tubercle, 77c bowed tendon, 164
ischiaric, 94 Supraomcnta I recess, 290 calcanean tendon. 190
of cat penis, 373b Suspensory Jig. of ovary, 349 contracted tendon, 164
of frog, 537k Sustentaculum tali, lOla cunean tendon, 188
of scapula, 76 Suture, 104, 127 patellar tendon, 182
of vertebrae, 60 f'rontonasal, 38f prepubic tendon, 201
Spiral loop, 280, 281 internasat, 38g symphyseal. tendon. 182
Spiro! septum, 392 nasomaxillar y, 38h Tendinous cords, 401
Spleen, 442 Sweeny, 480 Te nror ium ccrcbelli, 475
Solenectomy, 442 Sympathetic division, 522 Tentorium osseurn, 42a
Splint bone, 85 Sympathetic trunk, 524 Terminal recess, 331
Splints, 85 Symphysis, 104 Teslis, 356
Stapes, 48g, 518 mandibular, 44c, 127 descent, 358
Stay apparatus pelvic, 95, 118 Testicle, 356
pelvic Jimb,.198 Synapse, 448 Thalamus, 454
thoracic limb, 196 Syndesmosis, 104 Third eyelid, 549
Stenosis (heart valves), 404 Synovial fluid, 106 Third ventricle, 454
Step mouth, 247 Synovia! membrane, 106 Thoracic aorta, 409
Sternal flexure, 278 Synovlal sac Thoracic cavity, 224, 318
Sternum, 71 carpornetacarpa l, I 12f Thoracic duct, 405C, 408h, 440
Stifle, 120 intertarsal, 125f,g Thoracic girdle, 26
Stomach mddle carpal, I l 2g Thoracic limb, 26
ruminant, 270 radiocarpat, I 12f Thoracic opening, cran., 224j
simple, 268 tarsomctatarsal, 125h Thorax, 70- ·
THRUSH TUBERCLE UTERUS
Thrush, 541 supraglenoid, 77c Uterus, 342, 354

Thyroid car tilage, 308 trochlear, 97 Utricle, 5S7
Toe, 536 ventr ., of atlas, 62c Uvea, 546
Toe crack, 54-1 Tuberosity, 2S ·
Tongue, 236 calcanean, JOO vvvvvvvvv
Tonsilar fossa, 23.6i deltoid, 78
Tonsils, 263., 440 ischiatic, 95 Vp.gi-nl!, 346'
Torsion, 2 7 5 metacarpal, 8~,85 ~inaL11,, 328.
Torus linguae, 237 of scapula, 77 iY',asinal,cavity; 362
Torus pyloricus, 263, 267 olecranon, 81 Y.a8iT(al proccss,-349
Trabcculae, 371, 494 radial. 80e Vagiaat ring, 362 ·
Trachea, 32l npnu:ondybr, 96k Vag.ina.1:sJO"r, 347
Tracheal bronchus, 321 libiaJ,-,S V'acl••l.t!l•k. J6l, 376
Tracheostomy, 321 "T•bmg•, 263 .pa.-ictal, 361
Tragus, 551f Tvbu.br ho,-•, SJ&b visccra1;362
Transposition of great vessels, Twbu1e -:Valve
392 dist. coavolntcd. 336 of for,a men ovate, Jg6
Transverse fissure, 452 prrut. convolu.tcd, 33' of heaii;.403
Transverse plane, 18 seminifcrous, 356 . V.ein,:·383·
Transverse process, 60, 66 Tw•ic brachiecephalic v., 438 439
Transverse section, 19 V11gioal, ~2, )67 capsular v., 328
Trcphinement, 57 vascular, 546 cardiac v., 399 ·
Triangular (teeth), 250 visceral, 362 ·ca ud. mesenteric. v: 423g
I T ricipita l line, 78a

Trigonc, 379d
TrochaoCer 2S
white, 340, 356, 371
Tunica albuginea, 340, 356,
371
caud. vena cava, 384, 423.
cephalic v., 438
coronary, great, 369
~ greater (major), 96 Tusk, 52, 241 cran: mesenteric ·v.', 423j
i'. lesser (minor), 96 Tympanic bulla, 40 cran,._ vena ca va, 384, 386
'. third, 96 Tympanic cavity, 552 438 .
_:';· Trochar ization, 271 Tympanic membrane, 552 dlgiia'I vv., 517A,C,G.
_rfi. Trochlea, 25 Tympano-cccipital fissure, 50 ext Hiac v. 423e
I of digits, 87 ext. jugular v.; 438, 439
of eye, SSO
of femur, 96
uuuuuuuuu gastric v., 423i.
gonadal v., 423d
of humerus, 78d Udder, 534 great (cardiac) coronary v.;
of tibial tarsal b., 101 Ulna, 80 396
Trochlear notch, 81 Ulnar carpal bone, 82 hepatic vv., 423b
Trochlear tubercle, 97 Ulnar n., 480, 486 iliac vv.; 423e,f
Truncal ridges, 392 Undershot, 239 liver sinusoids, 423a
Truncus arter iosus, 389 U nguat ca rtilagc, 88 mesenreric vv ; 423g,j
Trunk ganglia, 524 Ungual crest, 87 'milk" 'II., 528C
Tuber, 2S U ngua I process, 86 · of pelvic limb, 438
calcanei, 100 Ureter, 338 of thoracic limb, 438
coxae, 95 Urethra plantar v., SJ.7J,'
facial, 38c female, 346 portal v ~ 423, 438
olecrani, 81 male, 365 renal v., 423c
sacrate, 95b Urethral calculi, 368 saphenous v ., 438
'.f'. spinal, 77
Tubercle, 25
Urethral process, 372
Urinary bladder, 338
splenic v., 438h
subclavian v., 438, 439
greater (major lat.), 78 Urinary space, 336 umbilical v., 386
¥} infraglenoid, 77f Urinary system, 327-338 Ventral (vcntr.), 16
~.. ~:... intermediate, 79 Uterine a., 428 Ven tr. _aortae, 390
lesser (minor rned.), 78 Uterine horns, 342 Ventral root, 524
of rib, 70 Uterine orifice, 343a,1:. Ventricle, 384, 394, 400', 452
major, 78 Uterine prolapse, 345 4S4, 473
'# pubic, 95g Uterine tube, 340 .fcln\lh, 458, 473
YENTRICLF. YVYYYYYVV
left, 401 zzzzzzzzz
right, ~00
third, 454, .. 7J Zygomatic arch, 36
Vcrmis. 457 Zygomatic gland, 259
Verre! , ~0-69 Zygomatic process, 36a
.· C3t. ·.~
CCI'\,, 02
C0C·CYS~31, 68
lumbar. 66
_ sacral, 68
thoracic, '4. 6S
verrcbrat canat, 60
Vertebral column, 26
Vertebral formula, 60
Vcsicogenital pouch, 282. 286m
vesicccubic pouch. 282, 286n
Vcsicu lo r gl., 264
Vcsribulnr bulb, 347
Vcsliocl;, fold. 313a
Yesti ,. · ... !i3. 3133
VcrriGt.-i~r :;urf:::.cc. 240\)
Vtsit~,·!:ir v. indow, SSl
Verrill, le. 3~6. 557
of l male. rt-productive
tr JC", :l.t6. 557
a: i3t)OX. >I 3k
of omen tum. 288
Vi!l<:erol effectors, 522
Vi,cer3l surf'ace of stomach,
26S .
Visceral vagi~al tunic. 357d,
362
Vitreous humor, 548
Vocal fig., 3 I 2b
Voca I process. 308
Volvulus, 275
Vulva, 346
wwwwwww
Woll (of hoof), 536
Water line, S37c
Wove mouth, 247
White line, 540
White matter, 450, 470
Whorlbone disease, 176
Windsucker, 347
Wing
of atlas, 62
of sacrum. 68
Wolf teeth, 240
xxxxxxxxx
X iplloid process, 71

Anatomy of Domestic Animals, Systemic and Regional Approach, 5th Edition (VetBooks - Ir)

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Arteries - Abdomen _ 422

Muscles • Perineum 220

Bones • Pelvic Limb 90

a. Crat or Uium I· Pubic tubercle

CHAPTER I. DESCRIPTIVE TERMS 15

Superficial Muscles of the Body 134

CHAPTER V. J>IG.ESTIVE SYSTEM 223

Body Cavities 224

CHAPTER VI. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM .- 301

CHAPTER VII. URINARY SYSTEM 327

CHAPTER VIII. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 339

CHAPTER IX. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 381

Arteries & Veins of the Body 382

CHAPTER X. NERVOUS SYSTEM 443

CHAPTER XI. COMMON INTEGUMENT - EYE - EAR : 529

APPENDIX -·-····---······--·---·-···-···-------------·-·-------·· ..··- 559

INDEX ·-·······---···-----·············-··-··---·········---··--· ...·····-····-··-···-··-·····-·-········· 643

Introduction to Fifth Edition

Phonetic spellings foll(?W commonly mispronounced words.

• Comparative systemic approach to the

~ send the book(s) I have checked:

l2.50 ShippDs & Hlndliag for linp cnScis

The plural of an abbreviation is indicated by the last

a. • artery It. • left

dist. • distal pl. slnaular plural

The most strongly accented syllable ls capitalized -um -a

Secondary acc:ents arc given a single quote mark -01 -ossa

ay as ill make I as in sip Sl111ular and plural are the same

point of origin of a limb, vessel, nerve or

12. Superficial (supf.): nearer the surface.

13. Deep: farther from the surface. (The

Peripheral (per-IF-er-al): distant from its

Axial and abuiat: indicaterelative position

• Axial: closer to the longitudinal axis. (The

• Abaxial: further from the longitudinal axis t--13. Deep

External (ext): closer to the outer surface of

Internal (int): closer to the center of astruc- "\.

• Anlerior: toward the front This corresponds

Fla. 11-2 - Flat bone

Fig. 11-1 - Short bone

Intramembranous ossification: fonns the flat

11. Compact bone: gross term for the part of

12-. Cancellous bone: gross term for bone

Haversian bone: histOlogical term for adult

'.>if.~~it ;iti gr.9)\iirigbonesis C3$il}fftaci;;;

1"!!~ i--- 12. Spine

Fl1. 11-7 • Os eexae, sacrum

6. Thoracic girdle or shoulder girdle: lhe two scapulae (6) in

7. Arm or brachium: the humerus (7).

8, 9. Forearm or antebrachium: the radius (8) and ulna (9).

10·13. Manus: the carpus, metacarpus and digits. In the cami-

10. Carpus: the carpal bones (10).

t 1. Metacarpus: the metacarpal bones (11).

12, 13. Digits: the phalanges( t 2) andassociatcdsesameid bones

15-21. 12, 13. PeJvif: Jimb ("hindlimb"): the os coxae, femur,

3. Vertebral 14. Sacrum (part of

10. Carpal bones 20. Tarsal bones ---

21. Metatarsal_ bones

11. Metacarpal bones