Landscape and Land Use in Postglacial Greece - (3. Local Vegetation and Charcoal Analysis An Example From Two Late Neo... )

3
Local Vegetation and Charcoal Analysis: An

Example from Two Late Neolithic Sites in
Northern Greece
Maria Ntinou and Ernestina Badal
Introduction ment, then deposited in the archaeological

layers, is the basis for palaeoecological inter-
The study of past vegetation records is a pri- pretation (Stieber 1967; Vernet 1973). Charcoal
mary concern of palaeoecology, as a means of retains the anatomical structure of wood.
reconstructing prevailing biological and cli- Charcoal structures are compared to those
matic conditions and of investigating changes described in the atlases of wood anatomy
in the environment caused by natural factors (Jacquiot 1955; Jacquiot et al. 1973; Greguss
or anthropogenic activities. 1955, 1959; Schweingruber 1978, 1990), thus
The pollen record of Greece includes long permitting identification to family, genus or
sequences and detailed information for the species level. In charcoal diagrams, compari-
Late Quaternary. The Early Holocene natural son of the quantitative and qualitative compo-
environment was the setting for the establish- sition of consecutive spectra reflects local veg-
ment of Neolithic farming communities, when etation and human influence thereon and, in
changes in human activity initiated modifica- long sequences, changes caused by natural
tion of the landscape and vegetation. This factors or anthropogenic activity (Badal 1992;
subject has been explored by various authors Heinz 1991; Chabal 1988,1997).
and has triggered discussion of criteria for the The results of charcoal analysis at two Late
Copyright © 2000. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. All rights reserved.
identification of human impact on vegetation, Neolithic sites in northern Greece, Makri in

its timing and intensity. Pollen investigation Thrace and Dispilio in West Macedonia, are
in Greece offers a clear framework in this presented here and compared to the pollen
respect. Neolithic environments, vegetation record of the same period. The way in which
and climate have been reconstructed in detail the complementary results of these two disci-
through pollen sequences in lakes and marsh- plines can be combined in palaeoecological
es, especially in the most humid areas of north interpretation is discussed in the context of
and north-west Greece. these two sites. Charcoal analysis may shed
A complementary source of information on light on local conditions and on human per-
vegetation and natural environments is the ception of vegetation. It may reveal how nat-
analysis of charcoal from archaeological sites. ural vegetation was managed, which (at least
Charcoal is the result of daily, or periodic, for the Neolithic) may have involved other
domestic activities. Wood gathered for fuel processes than just clearance, deforestation and
and burned during the occupation of a settle- degradation. Besides their ecological value,
Landscape and Land Use in Postglacial Greece, edited by Paul Halstead, and Charles Frederick, Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2000. ProQuest Ebook
Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/rug/detail.action?docID=472757.
Created from rug on 2021-10-21 20:08:26.
Local Vegetation and Charcoal Analysis 39
such results enrich our knowledge of multi- able than in the south of the country to the
dimensional prehistoric subsistence strategies. preservation of sediments for palynological
investigation. The following brief summary is
based on the pollen diagrams from Tenaghi
The Holocene Pollen Record in North and Phillipon (Wijimstra 1969), loannina, Edessa,
North-West Greece Khimaditis, Kastoria, Giannitsa (Bottema
1974), Gramousti, Rezina (Willis 1992a-c),
The pollen record of the Holocene in Greece Tseravinas and Ziros (Turner and Sanchez-
has been investigated most intensively in Goni 1997) (Fig. 3.1) and on a synthesis of the
north and north-west Greece, in part because vegetation history of the Balkans by Willis
wetter climatic conditions are more favour- (1994a).
Figure 3.1 Map of Greece showing the location of pollen coring sites and Late Neolithic settlements mentioned
in the text.
40 Maria Ntinou and Ernestina Badal
The expansion of oak and the simultaneous show the first signs of anthropogenic distur-
appearance of other species mark the Late bance, manifested by reduction in the diversi-
Glacial-Holocene transition at the majority of ty and density of the forest. After 4000 bp, this
sites. There is no evidence of the time-trans- is accompanied by an increase in open ground
gressive appearance of taxa that would indi- herbaceous types and the establishment of
cate differential migration rates. The pollen tree taxa directly or indirectly related to
record points, therefore, to the existence of human intervention, such as Olea, Fagus,
mid-altitude vegetation refugia during the Juglans, Castanea and Platanus.
last glacial in the Greek mountains, from
which tree taxa expanded rapidly following
the amelioration of climatic conditions (Ben- The Neolithic Site of Makri
nett et al 1991; Bottema 1974; Willis 1994a).
The Holocene vegetation in all coring sites Regional and Cultural Setting
from north, north-west and eastern Greece
has some common characteristics: the estab- The Neolithic site of Makri lies 10 km west of
lishment of open oak woodland and the modern Alexandropoulis in Thrace, north-
increase in the frequencies of other deciduous east Greece (Fig. 3.1). It is located on top of a
species. Differences in establishment rates cliff at 40 m asl, overlooking the Aegean sea to
between sites are due to altitudinal and latitu- the south. To the east and west extends the
dinal variation (Willis 1994b). Thracian plain. To the north the landscape
After this first stage of more or less open oak rises in altitude to the peaks of the Rhodopi
formations, evidenced by the increase of mountain range (1000 m), that forms the nat-
Pistacia between 9000 and 8000 bp, this sun- ural border between Greece and Bulgaria.
loving species declines sharply, denoting the The cliff on which the Neolithic site is situ-
closing up of the canopy (Bottema 1974; ated corresponds to the distal end of a broad,
Turner and Sanchez-Goni 1997; Wijmstra slightly concave platform of stepped waterfall
1969; Willis 1994a). Up to 7500 bp, other tem- travertine deposits (Efstratiou et al. 1998);
perate deciduous taxa proliferate in the pollen locally, the different growth phases of traver-
diagrams at the expense of oaks, reflecting tine usually favour swamp formation (Efstra-
changes in the diversity and density of vege- tiou et al 1998).
tation. At higher altitudes, conifers (Abies, The climate and vegetation of the region are
Pinus) expand, as evidenced by the Rezina, influenced by the sea to the south and the
Edessa and Khimaditis sequences (Bottema Rhodopi mountains to the north. The climate
1974; Willis 1992b; 1994b). Local climatic dif- and precipitation regime is Mediterranean,
ferences, maturation of soils and differing though continental influences become stronger
establishment time for different taxa were with increasing distance from the coast. From
responsible for these changes in the composi- sea level to an altitude of 500 m, the biocli-
tion of vegetation (Willis 1994a). From 7500 to matic conditions in the region are of the
5000 bp mixed deciduous oak forests pre- mesomediterranean type—dry, with mean
vailed in most sites, with increasing frequen- annual precipitation under 500 mm. Winters
cies of Carpinus orientalis/ Ostrya; at higher are cold (average January temperature 0-5 °C)
elevations, conifers maintained their position and summers relatively hot (average July tem-
(Bottema 1974). perature 20-25 °C) (Forest Service 1989;
Between 5000 and 4500 bp all sequences Polunin 1980). The fertile plain is intensively
used for agriculture, mainly cotton, tobacco, Charcoal Analysis at Makri

cereals and occasionally olive trees in the
warmest niches. Near the coast, the vegetation Charcoal analysis covers only part of the
forms a tall maquis dominated by evergreens, sequence at Neolithic Makri. For the earlier
Phillyrea media, Quercus ilex, Arbutus unedo and period Makri I, scattered remains of firewood
so on. Deciduous vegetation grows as well, were collected from all layers in one trench.
represented by Pistacia terebinthus, Fraxinus For the later Makri II period, only two layers
ornus, and Pyrus amygdaliformis. Less frequent beneath the second habitation phase were
are Arbutus andrachne and Carpinus orientalis. sampled.
From 500 m upwards, the bioclimatic sequence The analysis of 1939 charcoal fragments led
follows the supramediterranean vegetation of to the identification of 20 plant taxa and one
subhumid to humid type, characterized by that remained indeterminate. The plant list
deciduous oak woodlands with hornbeam, from Makri, in alphabetic order, consists of:
ash, maple and so on. Oromediterranean Acer sp. (maple), conifer, Cornus sp. (Corne-
beech forests cover the peaks of the Rhodopi lian cherry), Ficus carica (fig) (Fig. 3.2 [4]),
mountains (Forest Service 1989). Fmxinus sp. (ash) (Fig. 3.2 [5]), Juglans regia
The excavation of Neolithic deposits at the (walnut), Juniperus sp. (juniper), Legumino-
mound of Makri revealed a four-metre deep sae, Maloideae, Paliurus spina-christi (Christ's
stratigraphic sequence that is characterized by thorn), Phillyrea-Rhamnus (buckthorn), Pistacia
two distinct depositional units. These corre- terebinthus (terebinth), Prunus sp., Rosaceae,
spond to two different cultural periods, a Quercus deciduous (deciduous oak), Salix-
short early Makri I and a longer late Makri II, Populus, Taxus baccata (yew), Tilia sp. (lime),
separated by a 'destruction layer'. The pottery Ulmus sp. (elm) and Vitis vinifera var. sylvestris
study confirms this division into two periods (grape vine) (Fig. 3.2 [6]). In the case of Prunus
through changes in the shape and decoration sp., we have included a few charcoal fragments
repertory Each of these two periods includes attributable to Prunus amygdalus (almond).
several habitation-architectural phases (Efstra- The lignifying angiosperms are represented
tiou et al 1998). by 15 plant families including various genera,
The site is ascribed to the Middle and Late all deciduous except for Phillyrea-Rhamnus.
Neolithic horizons of the southern Balkans. Anatomical differentiation between the latter
The three available radiocarbon dates confirm is not possible, so it must be noted that
this. One dates the deeper layers of the Phillyrea genus, Rhamnus alaternus and R.
sequence (Makri I) to 5540 BC (GrN-20475: lycioides are Mediterranean evergreens while
6640±50 bp), and the other two indicate a date Rhamnus alpinus and R. sibthorpianus are
of 5500 BC (GrN-21266: 6580±40 bp; GrN- deciduous mountain species. Conifers are
21267: 6560±30 bp) for the transitional generally scarce, including only Juniperus sp.
destruction layer. The ceramic traits relate the and Taxus baccata.
Makri II cultural period with the phases Because of the scarcity of charcoal, the data
Sitagroi I-II and Paradimi I-II in Greece, have necessarily been analysed independent-
Karanovo III in Bulgaria, early Hoga-(^esme in ly of the thickness of the archaeological layers.
European Turkey and Ilipinar IV in Anatolia Some layers did not contain sufficient char-
(Efstratiou et al 1998). coal fragments for analysis and, for this rea-
son, samples had to be amalgamated in order
to assess the representation of the taxa. Layer
1. Quercus deciduous, transverse section, x60 2. Pinus cf. nigra, transverse section, x50
3. Pinus cf. nigra, longitudinal radial section, x790 4. Ficus carica, transverse section, x!70
5. Fraxinus sp., transverse section, x40 6. Vitis vinifera var. sylvestris, transverse section, x50
Figure 3.2 SEM images of archaeological charcoal from Late Neolithic Dispilio (1-3) and Makri (4-6).
29 of Makri I and layers 1 and 2 of Makri II 1. Parts of the deciduous oakwoods were
were relatively rich in charcoal. Charcoal from managed in a way that did not alter the
layer 29 has been dated to 5540 BC. oak forest, as implied by the stable Quercus
The charcoal diagram for Makri (Fig. 3.3) deciduous percentages, but opened up the
consists of six spectra, four from the earlier canopy, so favouring the growth and pro-
Makri I period and two from the later Makri liferation of the heliophilous manna ash.
II. Although the floristic composition of these 2. Swamps near the site, as indicated by
spectra is quite similar, there are variations in travertine formations, were rich in ash and
the frequency of taxa. In all Makri I spectra, other resources and so were frequented by
the dominant taxon is Quercus deciduous (c. humans as complementary sources to the
30%), except in layer 29 where Ficus carica is oakwood.
more abundant. In the Makri II spectra, the
dominant taxon is Fraxinus sp., followed Cornus and Acer have low but steady fre-
closely by Quercus deciduous. quencies. Cornus sp. may have grown in the
The charcoal diagram seems to indicate the hedges of humid areas or in the oak wood-
presence of deciduous oak woodland, in lands. Acer has not been identified to species,
which oaks are accompanied by other decidu- but this genus is very common in oak forests,
ous taxa such as Fraxinus sp., Cornus, Acer, as are Taxus baccata and Tilia, which are both
Maloideae genera and Tilia. Fraxinus could very rare in the spectra. Maloideae genera are
belong to the oak woodland or grow in areas difficult to differentiate and so the subfamily
of greater soil humidity, like water courses or name is retained, but Crataegus and Pyrus-
travertine swampy formations. Its increasing Sorbus are probably represented in our sam-
frequency in the four lower spectra and pre- ples. Maloidae are more or less stable except
dominance in the upper two suggest two pos- for the upper spectrum.
sibilities, bearing in mind the limitations A distinctive feature of this deciduous oak
caused by the segmented sequence: woodland is the presence of the heliophilous
Figure 3.3 Charcoal diagram for Late Neolithic Makri: percentage frequencies of taxa in the charcoal assemblages
from successive layers.
components, Pistacia terebinthus, Prunus sp. are present in the archaeological levels of
and Prunus cf. amygdalus, Juniperus sp., Makri II (Efstratiou et al. 1998).
Paliurus spina-christi, and Pyrus from the Riverside vegetation is represented at Makri
Maloideae. These genera demand plenty of by Ulmus sp., Vitis vinifera, Salix-Populus and
light and do not strictly belong to the bushy Juglans regia.
formations that prosper under tree cover. In the charcoal diagram for Makri, a large
Such taxa indicate a plant cover rather open in part of the sequence is missing. Nevertheless,
places where sun-loving species could flour- the earliest occupation and part of the latest
ish. These formations could develop in a dry are represented, covering the period between
to subhumid pluviometric regime, a feature the middle of the sixth millennium BC and the
that differentiates these particular deciduous beginning of the fifth millennium BC. During
oak woods from their European equivalents that time, the surrounding vegetation was
needing higher precipitation. dominated by deciduous oak and in general
Pistacia terebinthus, although well represent- remained unaltered. This deciduous forma-
ed in Makri I, diminishes in the spectra of tion was probably the climax vegetation of the
Makri II. Ficus carica would likewise have area and developed under mesomediter-
been quite abundant in the environment ranean dry to subhumid climatic conditions.
according to its frequencies in the Makri I Although the climate was very similar to that
spectra, but is quite scarce in Makri II. The prevailing in the region today, the plant for-
wild form of the fig tree grows in the mations were drastically different. Nowadays,
Mediterranean region from sea level to 1000 in the environs of the site, only evergreen for-
m. This deciduous tree, which tolerates dry mations thrive and among these the bioindi-
summers and cold winters well, occupies rock cators of human activities are quite frequent.
crevices, gorges and stream sides. In the terri-
tory of Neolithic Makri, fig trees probably
grew on the steep slopes overlooking the sea. Dispilio Lakeside Settlement
The anatomical characteristics do not permit
distinction between the wild and domesticat- The Regional and Cultural Setting
ed forms. The fig tree was used for firewood
in prehistoric Makri, although it does not pro- The site of Dispilio, West Macedonia, is a lake-
vide good quality fuel unless dry. Ethno- side settlement, located at an elevation of
graphic studies in Morocco report the occa- 625 m, a few metres from the south shore of
sional use of fig wood for firing the base of Lake Kastoria (Fig. 3.1). The region is moun-
pottery kilns (Pena-Chocarro et al. 2000). In tainous, forming part of the North Pindos
prehistoric sites, specific uses of wood are dif- range that reaches 2128 m on the Vitsi peak to
ficult to define, but short-term or isolated the north-east, 2111 m on the Siniatsiko moun-
events may cause unexpectedly high frequen- tains to the south-east, and 2520 m on the
cies of taxa, the interpretation of which can Grammos to the far south-west on the border
only be speculative. The sampling gap with Albania. Rivers, some feeding the lake
between Makri I and II makes it difficult to and others receiving its outflow, dissect this
interpret the low Ficus carica frequencies in the mountainous landscape. The plain to the
upper layers. Some protection of these trees south of the lake is drained by the River
for their highly nutritious fruit is possible and Aliakmon and its tributaries and is surround-
fig seeds, as well as entire carbonized fruits, ed by hills.
The climate and precipitation regime of the Charcoal Analysis

region is transitional from Mediterranean to
continental. Rainfall is more or less evenly dis- At the lakeside settlement of Dispilio, the
tributed through the year, the dry period is entire stratigraphic sequence was sampled in
short and mean annual precipitation ranges various trenches. The charcoal diagram is
from 700 to 1000 mm. The annual temperature based, however, on samples from two trench-
amplitude is approximately 20 °C, while snow es which contained scattered charcoal, in con-
and frost are frequent in winter (Bottema trast to the other trenches where evident
1974; Ntafis et al 1997; Polunin 1980). remains of architectural timber complicated
The natural vegetation at lower elevations palaeoecological interpretation. Nonetheless,
and close to the lake has almost completely the nature of the waterlogged deposits, where
disappeared. The plain supports intensive differentiation between charcoal from archi-
arboriculture. Around the lake, Phragmites tectural remains and fuel is difficult, makes it
austmlis is dominant (Ntafis et al. 1997). Salix, necessary to consider the possibility that at
Populus and Ulmus are the most frequent trees least some of the samples analysed include
close to the lake, while Pyrus amygdaliformis, mixed material.
Paliurus spina-christi and Prunus spinosa thrive The analysis of 3743 charcoal fragments led
on the limestone hills to the south-west. To the to the identification of 21 plant taxa. The plant
south-east, the hills present a stage of regener- list of Dispilio, in alphabetical order, consists
ation where Juniper us oxycedrus is frequent, of: cf. Abies sp. (fir), Acer sp. (maple), Alnus
together with Carpinus orientalis, Fraxinus glutinosa (alder), Carpinus/Ostrya (horn-
ornus, Ostrya carpinifolia and some Quercus cer- beam/hop-hornbeam), Cornus sp. (Cornelian
ris. The potential vegetation under natural cir- cherry), Corylus sp. (hazel), Fraxinus sp. (ash),
cumstances would be a deciduous forest of Hedera helix (ivy), Juniperus sp. (juniper),
supramediterranean bioclimatic conditions Maloideae, Pinus cf. nigra (black pine) (Fig. 3.2
(Bottema 1974). The mountains are covered by [2-3]), Pistacia terebinthus (terebinth), Prunus
Pinus nigra forests with Abies borisii-regis and cf. amygdalus (almond), Prunus sp., Quercus
Fagus woods (Polunin 1980). deciduous (oak) (Figure 3.2 [1]), Rhus coriaria
The deposits excavated at the Dispilio lake- (sumach), Rosa sp. (rose), Rosaceae, Salix sp.
side settlement offered an approximately two- (willow), Tilia sp. (lime) and Ulmus sp. (elm).
metre stratigraphic sequence and plentiful This plant list almost certainly underestimates
information on various aspects of the prehis- the diversity of species exploited, given that
toric occupation of the site. The earlier occu- identifications to genus may include several
pation phases represent a settlement built over species, as for example in the case of Quercus
shallow water or swampy ground which dried deciduous. In this plant list, the majority of
up periodically. The later occupation phase the taxa identified (18) are deciduous angio-
was built on dry ground, though probably sperms. The remaining three taxa are conifers.
affected periodically by lake waters (Karkanas The charcoal diagram for Dispilio (Fig. 3.4)
in preparation). The Dispilio sequence can consists of 12 spectra, each corresponding to
largely be assigned to the Late Neolithic, but an approximately 10 cm excavation layer. The
the pottery study offers evidence for activity layers between 11 and 14 with timber remains
dating back to the Middle Neolithic and have been excluded. The dominant taxon in
extending down to the Early Chalcolithic all spectra is Quercus deciduous, which fluctu-
(Andreou et al. 1996; Hourmouziadis 1996). ates around 40-50%. Records of Quercus sp.
Figure 3.4 Charcoal diagram for Late Neolithic Dispilio: percentage frequencies of taxa in the charcoal assemblages
from successive layers.
also probably belong to deciduous oak, but Pistacia terebinthus is present in decreasing
are shown separately because the ring porous frequencies in the lower part of the sequence
zone was not clearly observable. and disappears from spectrum 9 onwards.
Other deciduous components of oakwoods, Rhus coriaria is present in the two lower spec-
like Fraxinus, Acer and Cornus, present low but tra. Both are sun-loving species growing in
steady frequencies. Tilia, Carpinus/ Ostrya and open woods and dry places. Prunus sp. is
Hedera helix are rather infrequent. Frequencies rather sparse. There are various Prunus
of Ulmus sp. are low but stable and this taxon species in northern Greece, the majority of
may have formed part of the riverside or lake- them growing in open, sunny and rocky
side woods. Corylus sp. would be a less fre- places. In our samples, Prunus amygdalus has
quent component of the forest undergrowth. been differentiated, on the basis of its distinc-
Maloideae is a big subfamily of the Ros- tive anatomy (Bazile-Robert 1980; Schwein-
aceae; anatomical differentiation between gruber 1990).
genera is difficult, so the generic term has Lakeside vegetation is evidenced by Salix
been retained. Various members of the Mal- sp. and Alnus glutinosa. Salix reaches its maxi-
oideae, such as Sorbus, Mains and some mum (16.5%) at the bottom of the sequence
Crataegus and Pyrus species, are components and from then on is rare or absent. Alnus is
of deciduous woods. The frequency of Mal- rather infrequent.
oideae increases in the lower part of the Conifers are represented by Pinus cf. nigra,
sequence, reaching a maximum in spectrum Juniperus sp. and sparsely by Abies sp. Pinus
lib, but thereafter clearly declines. cf. nigra is the next most important taxon after
Quercus deciduous. The percentages in spec- (wood gathering would certainly be more effi-
tra 9, 7, and 4 may be rather exaggerated, cient in oak forests than in restricted gallery-
probably as a result of the admixture of char- forests along the lake).
coal from construction timber, but its frequen- Oak forests were probably the climax for-
cies increase steadily from c. 10% in the lower mation for the latitude (40°30'N, 21°18/E) and
to c. 20% in the upper part of the diagram. altitude (625 m) of the site of Dispilio, while
Juniperus sp. occurs throughout the sequence black pine forests would cover the surround-
with variable frequency ing mountains not far from the site. The pre-
The charcoal diagram points to the existence vailing climatic conditions would be similar
of two dominant formations, a deciduous oak to the present, though the vegetation around
woodland and a coniferous forest. Deciduous the site has changed considerably
oak woodland is the prevalent formation
throughout the sequence and, judging from
the frequencies of taxa, it was of stable com- Discussion
position.
Black pine forests were the other dominant The Late Neolithic sequences of Dispilio and
formation in the region. The increasing fre- Makri cover part of the sixth millennium and
quencies of Pinus nigra are interpreted in at least the beginning of the fifth millennium
terms of an intensification in human exploita- BC, corresponding to the period from 6500 to
tion of the pine forest rather than a change in 6000 bp (Demoule and Perles 1993: 366, fig. 2).
vegetation cover, since there is no evidence for The charcoal data from these sites are consis-
alterations to the predominant oak woodland. tent with the pollen record for the same peri-
Juniperus thickets would border the oak od, when deciduous oakwoods are prevalent,
woods or grow in the less dense parts of the though altitudinal variation is evident in the
deciduous formations. presence, distribution and abundance of
Bushy, sun-loving, open formations repre- mountain conifers and Mediterranean or tem-
sented by Pistacia terebinthus, Rhus coriaria, perate taxa at different locations.
Prunus sp. and probably some Maloideae, The Late Neolithic vegetation sequence at
such as Pyrus amygdaliformis, are less well rep- Dispilio presents similarities to the pollen
resented in the upper part of the sequence. record of this region in the Atlantic period
The same occurs with lakeside vegetation. In (Bottema 1974). Zone Y in the Khimaditis and
our view, these formations would be the clos- Kastoria pollen diagrams points to the occur-
est to the site and, during the initial stage of rence, at medium elevations, of a dense decid-
occupation, were probably the most affected uous oak forest mixed with Ulmus, Fmxinus,
by clearance for housing and other subsis- Tilia, Carpinus and Corylus. Pine forests with
tence activities. If the charcoal record shows some fir would cover the mountain zone.
the vegetation used by prehistoric people dur- The pollen diagram from Tenaghi Phillipon
ing the time of occupation of the site (Badal et indicates the gradual expansion of forests in
al. 1994), then these two formations were not the Holocene (zone Z). The oak is attributed to
extensive in the first place and, once cleared evergreen oak and there is reference to the
(and the wood used), either did not regenerate existence of a Fmxinus zone (Wijmstra 1969).
because their niche was occupied by humans The Tenaghi Phillipon coring site is the closest
(open places, fields?) or were ignored because to Makri and there is agreement between the
other formations were more convenient pollen and charcoal records as regards the
forested nature of the landscape and the rela- and deforestation, accompanied by evidence
tive importance of ash and other heliophilous for agriculture and grazing, post-dates the
species. Neolithic and the charcoal results from the
Charcoal analysis at the two Neolithic sites two Neolithic sites provide corroborative evi-
also reflects the prevalent local vegetation for- dence of stability in local vegetation cover.
mations. At both sites, oak woodlands consti- In interpreting the charcoal data from the
tute the main vegetation cover, but the sec- Neolithic sites, some issues deserve further
ondary formations reflect regional differences consideration. First, since the charcoal spectra
in climate related to altitude and exposure to reflect local conditions, these are likely to be
the influence of the sea. In the case of Dispilio, influenced by the duration and intensity of
the coniferous forest, mainly of black pines occupation at the sites: occupation of shorter
with some fir, reflects the location of the site at or longer duration, with or without interrup-
625 m altitude in an inland basin, surrounded tion, would probably have different effects on
by high mountains. At Makri, by contrast, the local environment. The charcoal sequences
abundant sun-loving Mediterranean species are attributed to the Late Neolithic, but the
reflect the low elevation (40 m) and proximity existing evidence is insufficient for precise
to the sea. The deciduous oak woodland dating. At Makri, a very short duration is sug-
seems denser around Dispilio, where oak gested for the earliest Makri I period by the
makes up 40-50% throughout the sequence; radiocarbon dates (5540 BC for the bottom and
other components are sparse, including ash 5500 BC for the top of this part of the
that does not exceed 6%. At Makri, on the sequence), while the rest of the sequence
other hand, the oakwood would have been would correspond to some time at the begin-
less dense, with ash a well-represented com- ning of the fifth millennium BC. For Dispilio,
ponent and other Mediterranean species con- no radiocarbon dates are as yet available and
stantly present. the intensity of occupation is a subject still
Despite these differences resulting from under study; more archaeological information
location and altitude, both sequences are char- is needed. Assuming a 500-year occupation
acterized by the unaltered quantitative and span for these sites, however, which is consis-
qualitative composition of the principal decid- tent with existing information, the transfor-
uous oak formations. This implies minimal mation of the vegetation is minimal and the
human impact on the local environment. In pollen record points in the same direction. In
this respect, the pollen record too does not this respect, the climatic and geographical
detect anthropogenic disturbance and land characteristics of the two regions may play
degradation until after 5000-4500 bp (Bottema some role. Higher precipitation at inland
1974; Willis 1995). Even though the first Dispilio would favour regeneration of the
Neolithic farming communities were estab- vegetation, while the gentle topography at
lished a few thousand years earlier, their Makri would be less vulnerable to erosion. In
impact on the landscape seems to have been the pollen record, high-altitude sites in rough
negligible. Oakwoods were predominant and terrain show signs of degradation earlier than
changes in the composition of the woodland lowland sites (Willis 1995).
were principally caused by competition Secondly, anthropogenic factors should be
between species and changing climate rather considered: the nature of subsistence strate-
than anthropogenic intervention (Willis gies and techniques and the ways in which
1994a). In the pollen record, land degradation natural vegetal resources were exploited. The
stability of vegetation cover may indicate bal- 2. The results of on-site charcoal analysis are
anced exploitation of the natural vegetation. complementary to the broader off-site
Some kind of forest management may have pollen record for the Holocene in northern
been practised, which did not result in clear- Greece.
ance or deforestation but rather maintained 3. The evidence of pollen and charcoal points
the natural equilibrium; it seems that agricul- to minimal human influence on vegetation
ture and animal husbandry caused little mod- during the Late Neolithic.
ification. To what extent this is true, and 4. The unchanging nature of the vegetation
whether it reflects stable farming and grazing throughout the sequence at both sites may
methods or repeated use of the same pieces of reflect:
land and thus did not affect forest cover, is a • sustainable methods of forest manage-
matter for investigation in each individual ment;
case and by the relevant disciplines. Tech- • practices and techniques of farming and
niques of land use are another important fac- grazing that would not cause large-scale
tor and it is has been argued that, only during disturbance of vegetation cover;
the Bronze Age, did innovations in this area • the duration and intensity of occupation
become a serious agent of landscape change (issues requiring further investigation).
(Sherratt 1981). 5. It is necessary to broaden the charcoal
Clearly, there is an extensive pollen record record with results from other sites in the
for Greece but charcoal data from archaeolog- same and other regions, and in earlier and
ical sites are very restricted. As palaeoenvi- later periods, in order to achieve a more
ronmental studies on prehistoric sites become precise understanding of local vegetation
the norm, it would be worthwhile to conduct and of the impact on this of human activi-
charcoal analysis more widely, as it is comple- ties.
mentary to palynology and has the advantage
of reflecting local environments directly relat-
ed to human activities. Questions of vegeta- Bibliography
tion change, degradation and human impact
would be illuminated by systematic charcoal Andreou, S., M. Fotiadis and K. Kotsakis
analysis at sites over a broader temporal and 1996 Review of Aegean prehistory 5: the Neolithic
geographical range. and Bronze Age of northern Greece. A]A 100:
537-97.
Badal, E.
1992 L'anthracologie prehistorique: a propos de cer-
Conclusions tains problemes methodologiques. bulletin de la
Societe botanique de France 139: Actualites
1. Charcoal analysis at two Neolithic sites in botanic/ties 2-4:167-89.
northern Greece offers a picture of local Badal, E., J. Bernabeu and L. Vernet
1994 Vegetation changes and human action from the
vegetation at the time of occupation of the
Neolithic to the Bronze Age (7000-4000 bp) in
sites. Deciduous oak formations are pre- Alicante, Spain, based on charcoal analysis.
dominant at both, but secondary forma- Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 3: 155-66.
tions reflect the altitudinal, geographical Bazile-Robert, E.
and, consequently, climatic differences 1980 Les groupements a Amygdalus et Prunus de la
fin du Tardiglaciaire et du debut du Post-
between the two sites.
glaciaire en mediterranee occidentale. Geobios
13: 777-81.
Bennett, K.D., RC. Tzedakis and K.J. Willis Ntafis, S., E. Papastergiadou, K. Georgiou et al.
1991 Quaternary refugia of north European trees. 1997 Odigia 92/43/EOK. To Ergo Oikotopon stin Ellada:
Journal of Biogeography 18:103-105. Diktio FISI. EC contract no. B4-3200784/756.
Bottema, S. Athens: Mousio Goulandri Fisikis Istorias,
1974 Late Quaternary Vegetational History of Northwest Elliniko Kentro Viotopon Igrotopon.
Greece. Doctoral thesis, University of Gronin- Pena-Chocarro, L., L. Zapata Pena, J.E. Gonzalez Urquijo
gen. and J.J. Ibanez Estevez
Chabal, L. 2000 Agricultura, alimentacion y uso del com-
1988 Pourquoi et comment prelever les charbons de bustible: aplicacion de modelos etnograficos en
bois pour la periode antique: les methodes util- arqueobotanica. In Saguntum-Plau. III. Reunio
isees sur le site de Lattes (Herault). Lattara 1: sobre Sconomia en el Mon Iberic., 3:403-20.
187-222. Valencia: Department of Prehistory and Arch-
Chabal, L. aeology, University of Valencia.
1997 Forets et societes en Languedoc (Neolithique final Polunin, O.
Antiquite tardive). L'anthracologie, methode et 1980 Flowers of Greece and the Balkans: A Field Guide.
paleoecologie. Documents d'Archeologie Fran- Oxford: Oxford University Press.
c,aise 63. Paris: Editions de la Maison des sci- Schweingruber, F.H.
ences de Thomme. 1978 Mikroskopische Holzanatomie. Teufen: F. Fliick-
Demoule, J-P. and C. Perles Wirth.
1993 The Greek Neolithic: a new review. Journal of 1990 Anatomic Europaischer Holzer. Bern and Stuttgart:
World Prehistory 7: 355-416. Haupt.
Efstratiou, N., M.P. Fumanal, C. Ferrer et al. Sherratt, A.
1998 Excavations at the Neolithic settlement of 1981 Plough and pastoralism. In I. Hodder, G. Isaac
Makri, Thrace, Greece (1988-1996): a prelimi- and N. Hammond (eds.), Pattern of the Past:
nary report. Saguntum 31:11-62. Studies in Honour of David Clarke: 261-305.
Forest Service Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1989 Forest Maps of Greece, 1:200,000. Athens: Ministry Stieber J.
of Agriculture. 1967 A Magyarorszagi Felsopleisztocen vegetatio-
Greguss, P. tortenete az anthrakotomiai eredmenyek (1957
1955 Xylotomische Bestimmung der heute lebenden IG) Tiikreben. Foldtani Kozlony 97: 308-17.
Gymnospermen. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado. Turner, C. and M.-F. Sanchez-Goni
1959 Holzanatomie der Europai'schen Laubholzer und 1997 Late glacial landscape and vegetation in Epirus.
Straucher. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado. In G. Bailey (ed.), Klithi: Palaeolithic Settlement
Heinz, C. and Quaternary Landscapes in Northwest Greece. II.
1991 Upper Pleistocene and Holocene vegetation in Klithi in its Local and Regional Setting: 559-85.
the south of France and Andorra. Adaptations Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeolo-
and first ruptures: new charcoal analysis data. gical Research.
Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 69: 299- Vernet J.-L.

324. 1973 Etude sur 1'histoire de la vegetation du Sud-Est
Hourmouziadis, G. de la France au Quaternaire d'apres Tetude des
1996 Dispilio (Kastoria), the Prehistoric Lakeside charbons de bois principalement. Paleobiologie
Settlement. Thessaloniki: Codex. continentale 4 (1): 1-90.
Jacquiot, C. Wijmstra, T.A.
1955 Atlas d'anatomie des bois de coniferes. Paris: Centre 1969 Palynology of the first 30 metres of a 120 m deep
technique du bois. section in northern Greece. Acta Botanica
Jacquiot, C., Y. Trenard and D. Dirol Neerlandica 18: 511-27.
1973 Atlas d'anatomie des bois des angiospermes. Paris: Willis, K.J.
Centre techniques du bois. 1992a The late Quaternary vegetational history of
Karkanas, P. northwest Greece. I. Lake Gramousti. New
Mikromorfologiki meleti anaskafis Dispilio. Phytologist 121:101-17.
Unpublished manuscript (in Greek), in prepara- 1992b The late Quaternary vegetational history of
tion. northwest Greece. II. Rezina Marsh. New
Phytologist 121:119-38.
1992c The late Quaternary vegetational history of 1995 Land degradation in the Balkans: variations in
northwest Greece. III. A comparative study of time and space. In L'homme et la degradation de
two contrasting sites. New Phytologist 121: 139- I'environnement. XVe recontres Internationales
55. d'archeologie et histoire d'Antibes: 161-74. Juan-les-
1994a The vegetational history of the Balkans. Quater- Pins: Editions APDCA.
nary Science Reviews 13: 769-88.
1994b Altitudinal variation in the late Quaternary veg-
etational history of northwest Greece. Historical
Biology 9: 103-16.

Landscape and Land Use in Postglacial Greece - (3. Local Vegetation and Charcoal Analysis An Example From Two Late Neo... )

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Landscape and Land Use in Postglacial Greece - (3. Local Vegetation and Charcoal Analysis An Example From Two Late Neo... )

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

3

Local Vegetation and Charcoal Analysis: An

Maria Ntinou and Ernestina Badal

Introduction ment, then deposited in the archaeological

identification of human impact on vegetation, Neolithic sites in northern Greece, Makri in

used for agriculture, mainly cotton, tobacco, Charcoal Analysis at Makri

The climate and precipitation regime of the Charcoal Analysis

Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 69: 299- Vernet J.-L.

You might also like