gL1(⋆) and Some of Its Algebraic Properties

Jonathan David Evenboer

Various Oregon Wilderness Areas/Stony Brook University

13 September, 2022

1 Introduction

The majority of this paper serves as a survey of the algebraic properties of the so-
called geometric lens gL1 (⋆) defined in [(1)-(8)] with an eye on progressing the theory
of gL1 (⋆), as well as proving a few claims from previous papers that were stated in
an overly hand-wavy fashion.
In this paper, we explore algebraic settings in which gL1 (⋆) can and cannot exist.
The hope is to compile facts that are relevant, and add depth and breadth, to the
geometric (both classical and differential) foundations of gL1 (⋆) while also expanding
the scope to geometric-adjacent fields such as group theory, representation theory,
algebraic geometry, and so on.
Section 1 will be concerned with re-stating some of the main results from previous
papers to give insight into gL1 (⋆) for those unfamiliar with the structure as the
authour has defined it.

1
Section 2 will be concerned with stating some basic algebraic properties of gL1 (⋆).
Section 3 is concerned specifically with group theoretical properties of gL1 (⋆).
Section 4 is concerned with ring theoretical properties of gL1 (⋆).
Section 5 is concerned specifically with the roots of gL1 (⋆). Here, we will give the only
original result that will appear in the paper: showing that As1 (⋆) is the hyperbolic
element of gL1 (⋆).
As the super-script 1 implies, we will be solely focused on the case of the union of
the 1-manifolds that creates gL1 (⋆). Higher dimensional cases will be comiled at a
later date, as the need (and desire) arises.

2 Section 1: Basic Definitions for gL1(⋆) and Its

component 1-Manifolds

. We offer, in this section, some basic definitions of structures we will be working

with through out this paper.
Def. 1: ⋆
⋆ is a variable set acting as the domain for an implicit expression of an n-manifold
X n (⋆). Here, ⋆ will be either C or R and n = 1.
It’s worth noting that t will always be considered a real-valued variable, unless it is
explicitly declared to not be real-valued.

Def. 2: Sq ′1 (⋆)
Sq ′1 (C) = | cos(θ)| + i| sin(θ)| is the expression for the unit 1-octahedron in its com-

2
plex form. In its exponential form, we have Sq ′1 (C) = ei|t| .
Sq ′1 (R) is the same as the above expressions, only omitting the imaginary unit i
from the equation.

Def. 3: Ci1 (⋆)

Ci1 (C) = cos(t) + i sin(t) is the implicit expression for the unit 1-sphere. In its
exponential form, Ci1 (C) = eit . Ci1 (R) is the same as the above expressions, only
√
omitting the imaginary unit i = −1 from the equations.

Def. 4: As1 (⋆)

As1 (C) = cos3 (t) + i sin3 (t) is the unit 1-hyperbolic octahedron (also called the aster
2
or asteroid). Its exponential form is As1 (C) = ei 3 t . As1 (R) is the same as the above
expressions, only omitting the imaginary unit i from the equations.

Def. 5: gL1 (⋆)

The so-called 1-geometric lens is defined as gL1 (⋆) = Ci1 (⋆) ∪ Sq ′1 (⋆) ∪ As1 (⋆). If
gL1 (⋆) is given for ⋆ = C, the component 1-manifolds also act on ⋆ = C. If gL1 (⋆)
is given for ⋆ = R, the component 1-manifolds also act on ⋆ = R.

For other relevant definitions, and notation conventions, consult [(1)-(8)].

3
3 Section 2: Some Preliminary Algebraic Proper-

ties of gL1(⋆)

We will begin by giving the following classical result as a definition:

Def. 6: Ci1 (C) ∼

= R⧸Z
Letting Ci1 (C) = e2πin , with n ∈ Z and with i as the imaginary unit (hence-
forth, i will solely refer to the imaginary unit, unless otherwise noted), we have
that Ci1 (C) ∼
= R⧸Z, since e2πin mod n ≡ 0 for all n ∈ Z.
Here, it is worth observing that for homogeneous equations, we have
Ci1 (C) = e2πin − 1 = 0 ∀n ∈ Z
4
As1 (C) = e 3 πin − 1 = 0 ∀n ∈ Z
Sq ′1 (C) = e2πin − 1 = 0 ∀n ∈ Z
implying that Sq ′1 (C) ∼
= R⧸Z and, similarly, Sq ′1 (C) ∼
= R⧸Z and As1 (C) ∼
= R⧸Z.
Other interesting properties of the roots of the components of gL1 (⋆) will be dis-
cussed in Section 5. For now, we are content with the fact that the above shows
that all of the components of gL1 (C) are isomorphic to R⧸Z under mod n. This
is sufficient to prove the following:

Claim: gL1 (C) ∼

= R⧸Z
Proof:

4
By definition, X ∪ X ∪ .... ∪ X = X.

Observe that, by invoking def. 5, we have

gl1 (C) = Ci1 (C) ∪ As1 (C) ∪ Sq ′1 (C)

∼
= (R⧸Z) ∪ (R⧸Z) ∪ (R⧸Z)
(1)
∼
= R⧸Z
∼
= Ci1 (C)

proving our claim that gL1 (C) ∼

= R⧸Z, and explicitly stating the implied isomor-
phism between gL1 (C) and Ci1 (C)■.
This will be important later on, both here and in later work.
The implication that gL1 (C) ∼
= R⧸Z in the above claim and its proof means that we
can restrict our focus to the algebraic properties of Ci1 (C) = T, where T is the circle
group, without any loss of generality. This obviously simplifies our endeavours signif-
icantly, as properties of the circle group are well known for all standard/elementary
fields F.
In subsequent sections, we will alternately refer to the geometric lens by gL1 (C),
Ci1 (C), and R⧸Z, noting the isomorphism between the objects allows us to do so.

5
4 Section 3: gL1(⋆) From a Group Theoretical Per-

spective

In this section, we look to explore the nature of, and compile some facts about,
gL1 (⋆) as a group. While most of our exploration and fact compiling will be done
with an eye towards the ⋆ = C case, we will also note some differences that arise
when we choose ⋆ = R.
It makes sense to first consider group isomorphisms between gL1 (⋆) and other groups.
Since we have already shown that gL1 (C) ∼
= Ci1 (C), we get for free all of the groups
isomorphic to Ci1 (C). With an eye towards the past work with gLn (⋆) as a geometric
object, we note that gL1 (C) ∼
= SO(2, R) ⊆ O(2). Note that SO(2, R) is a Lie Group.
More specifically, a Matrix Lie Group, since SO(2, R) ⊆ O(2) ⊆ GL(2, R) (where
GL(2, R) is the general linear group consisting of 2X2 matrices over the reals 1 ).
Also, again with consideration to the geometric origins of gLn (⋆), we note that
gL1 (C) ∼
= SO(2,
R) is actually a diffeomorphism,
 where
(  )
cos(2πt) − sin(2πt) 

SO(2, R) :=   t ∈ R⧸Z .
sin(2πt) cos(2πt) 
In this particular group, we define multiplication by ti + tj . This implies that
t−1
i = −ti , and so ti + t−1
i = ti − ti = 0 = id for all i ∈ N, and where id is the
additive (and thus multiplicative) identity for this group.
Here, we make the extra observation that for all n ∈ Z ⊂ R, we have
1
Now the reason for choosing the little ”g” for ”gL” is revealed. Even with the distinction, I
still felt the need to use the mathfrak command to further protect against any confusion.

6
      
(  )
cos(2πn) − sin(2πn) 1 0 0 ∓1 
A =   =  ,   det(A) = 1 , the set
     
sin(2πn) cos(2πn) 0 1 ±1 0 
of identity elements in matrix multiplication. We can also derive the multiplica-
tive identity for polynomials via det(A). From here, we can easily determine that
ker(Ci1 (C)) = ker(gL1 (C)) = Z. This implies that gL1 (C) is an infinitely generated
group. Both as a Lie Group and, mpre broadly, as an algebraic group, note that
dim(R⧸Z) = 1.
Recalling that R⧸Z is a 1-dimensional group variety, we can show that it is, in fact
an affine group variety by noting the following:
Claim: R⧸Z is an affine group variety
Proof:
Under the semidirect product ⋉,
 we have
 the following equivalence
1 0 
SO(2, R) ⋉ GL(SO(2, R)) = ±   = ±id.
0 1
 
1 0 
Since ±   ⊂ GL(2, R) and GL(2, R) is an affine group variety, and since
0 1
SO(2, R) ∼
= R⧸Z, we have that R⧸Z is also an affine group variety via the semidi-
rect product of the special orthogonal group and the general linear group acting on
the special orthogonal group. ■.
Recalling that R⧸Z ∼
= gL1 (C), we have that gL1 (C) is also an affine variety via the
above claim and its proof.
Before we close this section, we will briefly (and casually) note a few more group
theoretical properties of gL1 (⋆).

7
Via R⧸Z ∼
= gL1 (C) ∼
= Ci1 (C), we have that R⧸Q is the torsion subgroup of gL1 (C)
(noting this implies that it is also the torsion subgroup of gL1 (R)).
It is also worth noting that this group is non-cyclic.
As stated earlier, the group theoretical properties of gL1 (⋆) are the same as those
of Ci1 (⋆), and are thus well known. The small sample of properties listed here are
mainly compiled for their usefulness to past and near-future work with gL1 (⋆). Prop-
erties for gLn (⋆)|n > 1 will be compiled for future work when the need arises.

5 Section 4: Ring Theoretical Properties of gL1(⋆)

This section is devoted to exploring a selection of ring theoretical properties of

gL1 (⋆). As it was in the previous section regarding group theoretical properties
of gL1 (C), we can restrict our exploration to the R⧸Z case via the isomorphism
gL1 (C) ∼
= Ci1 (C) ∼
= R⧸Z, which evidently holds in the Ring Theoretical setting.
We also note that, as a ring, gL1 (C) is still infinitely generated. Being an infinitely
generated ring, we get for free that gL1 (C) must be non-Noetherian.
gL1 (C) is an affine variety by Hartshorne’s definition of an Affine Variety [pg 3, (9)].
It is interesting to note that R⧸Z (and thus gL1 (C)) exists as a Group Ring, a Ma-
trix Ring, and a Polynomial Ring. In all of these settings, gL1 (C) remains infinitely
generated.
It’s important to note that, as polynomial rings, gL1 (R) is an integral domain, while
gL1 (C) is a unique factorization domain.

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6 Section 5: Properties of the Roots of gL1(⋆) and

Its Component 1-Manifolds

In this section we explore properties of the roots of gL1 (⋆) via its component 1-
manifolds (Ci1 (⋆), Sq ′1 (⋆), and As1 (⋆)).
The main goal of this section is to give a more formal framework for the claim made
in previous papers that As1 (⋆) is the hyperbolic element of gL1 (⋆). In fact, we will
show this is only true for the case ⋆ = C.
This section will mainly be a list of roots, followed by a claim and its proof. There
will be some accompanying exposition.
For the rest of this section, we will assume n ∈ Z, and that we are working with
homogeneous forms of the polynomial representations of our 1-manifolds
(e.g.; Ci1 (C) = cos(t) + i sin(t) − 1 = 0).
Roots of Ci1 (R) and Ci1 (C)
The set of roots {RCi1 (⋆) } are the same for ⋆ = C and ⋆ = R.
{RCi1 (⋆) } = {t = 2πn|n ∈ Z}.
Roots of Sq ′1 (R) and Sq ′1 (C)
The set of roots {RSq′1 (⋆) } are the same for ⋆ = C and ⋆ = R.
{RSq′1 (⋆) } = {t = 2πn|n ∈ Z} = {RCi1 (⋆) }.

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Roots of As1 (R) and As1 (C)
For As1 (⋆), we have two different sets of roots corresponding to ⋆ = R and ⋆ = C.
For As1 (R), we have
√
{RAs1 (R) } = {t = 2πn, t = 2πn − π2 , t = 2πn − tan−1 (1 ± i 2)}
For As1 (C), we have
√
{RAs1 (C) } = {t = 2πn, t = 2πn − 2i tanh−1 (1 ± i 2)}
. Choosing only the real-valued roots of As1 (⋆), we can derive that As1 (⋆) ∼
= R⧸Z.
This isomorphism can also be derived using [prop. 2, pg 8 of (8)] and replacing
{CPAs1 (⋆) } with {CPCi1 (⋆) } , without the mess of having to pick and choose which
subset of roots of As1 (⋆) we want to work with.
For both As1 (R) and As1 (C), we have complex roots. In the case of As1 (C), our
complex roots also have the quality of being hyperbolic points. This leads to the
following result.
Claim: As1 (C) is the hyperbolic element of gL1 (C)
Proof:
Using Proposition 2 from [(8)], we can express gL1 (C) as
gL1 (C) = Op(Ci1 (C)) ∪ Op(Sq ′1 (C)) ∪ Op(As1 (C)) ∪ {CPAs1 (C) }.
This lets us choose a setting in which gL1 (C) contains hyperbolic elements (namely,
the complex roots of As1 (C)).
Thus, since {CPAs1 (C) } ⊂ As1 (C) has hyperbolic elements, we can find a configura-
tion of gL1 (C) with hyperbolic elements, as desired. ■

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7 Conclusion

As stated in the introduction, this paper was mostly an expository exercise. The
main idea was to compile some necessary, if not elementary, algebraic properties of
gL1 (⋆) for future work.
There was still an effort in Sect. 5 to further explain a past claim in a more formal
manner. The isomorphism between gL1 (C) and R⧸Z was a serendipitous find.
The authour had intended to include algebraic properties of the tangent space of
gL1 (⋆) and its component 1-mmanifolds in this paper, but that subject will be cov-
ered in its own paper. Likewise, algebraic properties of gLn (⋆) for n > 1 will be
addressed in a later paper.
Work with roots, and the claim and its proof given in Sect. 5 (along with previous
work in [(7)]), serves to inform a formalization of one of the original ideas behind the
creation of gLn (⋆) : using gLn (⋆) as a space to compare hyperbolic, spherical, and
euclidean n-spaces. Formalization of that concept will also be the subject of future
work.

8 References

Unless otherwise noted, all references are by authour and self-published. Links to
individual papers, as well as errata, can be found at:
https://jonathandavidevenboer.weebly.com/cv.html.
All works used as a reference in the authour’s previous work is implied to be a ref-
erence here.

11
(1) The Gauss-Bonnet Formula: Topological Invariance (Fall 2013, revision 1)
(2) Geometric Analytical Methods In Regards to the Topology of 1-Manifolds of Con-
stant Curvature [Spring 2015]
(3) Investigations Into Laplacians and Laplace Transforms With Respect to the Cir-
cle, the Aster, and The Construction of an Analytic Geometric Lens [Winter 2016]
(4) Determinants and Applicable Methodology of Determinants with Respect to the
Building and Understanding of Geometric Lens Theory [August 2016]
(5) Concentrations of Positive Curvature on Manifolds with Euler Characteristic 2
for Real Dimensions 3 and Higher [July 2017]
(6)Aligning Normals In a Low Dimensional Geometric Lens Space (September 2018)
(7)A Composition of Functions With Respect to the Justification of the Claim that
As1 (⋆) is the Hyperbolic Element of gL1 (⋆) (Summer 2019)
(8)On An Application of the Geometric Lens gLn (⋆): A Conditional Solution to the
Sharp Corner Problem (Summer 2020)
(9)R. Hartshorne, Algebraic Geometry, Springer Graduate Text in Mathematics: 52,
1977
(10) Various other quasi-references were used (and checked against each other) to
confirm basic facts. Absract Algebra by Dummit & Foote was a primary resource.
Websites such as Wikipedia, Proof Wiki, MathWorld.Wolfram, and Math StackEx-
change/Overlow were also consulted, but not explicitly referenced.

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