How to cite this document

Bista, K., & Gaulee U. (2018). Re-envisioning community colleges in Nepal: Preparing all students for
success. In R. L. Raby, & E. J. Valeau (eds.), Handbook of comparative studies on community colleges
and global counterparts (pp. 161-176). New York, NY: Springer.

Reenvisioning Community Colleges in

Nepal: Preparing All Students for Success 11
Krishna Bista and Uttam Gaulee

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Higher Educational Reform Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
History of Postsecondary Education in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Current Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Student Enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Funding and Oversight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Need to Create a Vision for a New Nepalese Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Challenges for a New Nepalese Community College Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Abstract
This chapter presents an overview of Nepalese higher education and envisions an
integrated system that mirrors the framework and mission of US style community
colleges. It also highlights a policy discussion with higher education leaders from
Nepal regarding the creation of alternative models of higher education that can be
based on existing community-based colleges. The discussion illustrates how the
rapid expansions in higher education in Nepal is demanding the creation of new

K. Bista (*)
School of Education and Urban Studies, Morgan State University, Baltimore, MD, USA
e-mail: krishna.bista@morgan.edu
U. Gaulee
Community College Leadership Doctoral Program at Morgan State University, Morgan State
University, Baltimore, MD, USA
e-mail: uttam.gaulee@morgan.edu

# Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 161

R. L. Raby, E. J. Valeau (eds.), Handbook of Comparative Studies on Community
Colleges and Global Counterparts, Springer International Handbooks of Education,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50911-2_46
162 K. Bista and U. Gaulee

policies and the possibility of even creating a new system that can accommodate
the increasing number of students wanting access to higher education every year.

Keywords
Community college · Higher education · Nepal · Student success

Introduction

In recent years, the government of Nepal has been working on refining the higher
education policy to guide the strategic planning of the higher education system.
These discussions are being made in order to address the need for economic and
workforce development, college effectiveness, governance, and leadership roles and
introducing college credit transfer and semester system. In November, 2011, a
conference was held in Kathmandu in which the National Planning Commission
and University Grants Commission collaborated with the United Nations Educa-
tional, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the World Bank to
design a policy framework in order to capitalize on Nepal’s achievements within
the nation’s short history of higher education (first University opened in 1959). The
framework emphasized that the war-torn country’s higher education policies have
not been brought up to date due to long-standing political deadlocks that have led to
extreme complexities and fluidity in the political system. Finally, the framework
acknowledged that the rapid expansions in higher education urgently demanded new
policies and the possibility of even creating a new system that can accommodate the
increasing number of students wanting access to higher education every year.

Higher Educational Reform Policies

Reform of higher education has been a high priority for Nepal to help expand access
and to enhance the quality of higher education. The World Bank is playing a major
role in assisting Nepal to reform higher education. First, the World Bank’s Country
Assistance Strategy (2004–2007) supported Nepal’s poverty reduction strategy. This
strategy was based on four pillars: broad-based economic growth, social sector
development, social inclusion, and good governance. The higher education sector
played a critical role in supporting the first two pillars, of broad-based economic
growth and social sector development. One result was implementation of the first
Higher Education Project (HEP) which decentralized campuses in Tribhuvan Uni-
versity (TU). These actions improved financial sustainability and quality through the
Engineering Education Project. The World Bank’s Second Higher Education Project
(SHEP) had several aims to improve Higher Education. These goals were to enhance
access of higher education for marginalized populations, to enhance the quality and
relevance of higher education, to develop new research through a set of incentives
for promoting effective management, and to gain financial sustainability of academic
institutions (The World Bank 2014).
11 Reenvisioning Community Colleges in Nepal: Preparing All Students for. . . 163

Currently, the Higher Education Reform Project (HERP) is being implemented

through the University Grants Commission, which acts as the higher education
regulatory body of the country. HERP has similar goals to those of SHEP. The
HERP projects’ intent is to aid in “improving quality, relevance, and efficiency of
higher education and supporting underprivileged students for equitable access; and
promoting research, innovation and academic excellence” (UGC 2015, p. 2). The
HERP has two major components, (a) implementation of reforms and (b) capacity
building and project management. The first component, implementation of reforms,
has seven target areas.

• National accreditation system established and functioning

• Performance-based financing extended to higher education
• Autonomy extended to additional campuses/schools (known as community
campuses)
• Examination reforms implemented and academic calendar enforced in TU
• Academic reforms introduced
• Poverty targeted financial support for underprivileged students
• Academic excellence and research

The HERP framework has laid out institutional arrangements for the project
implementation by applying key performance indicators to measure success. The
faculty and students of the universities, as well as the affiliated community cam-
puses, are among the beneficiaries of the project (UGC 2015).
Nepal’s current, postconflict emphasis is on poverty alleviation, creation of jobs,
and strengthening the newly achieved democracy through social harmony. Although
significant progress has been made toward providing basic education, higher edu-
cation is still a distant dream for a staggering majority of qualified youth. Nepalese
higher education gross enrolment ratio of 17.11% is one of the lowest in South Asia
(The World Bank 2014). At the thirteenth South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC) Summit held in Dhaka in November 2005, the leaders of
these South Asian nations noted the achievements of the Member States during
recent years in primary education and stressed in order to meet the challenges of all
seven member countries, they must make important strides in the areas of science,
technology, and higher education. As described in the World Bank’s 2000 report
“Higher Education in Developing Countries: Peril and Promise,” Nepal is no
exception to many other developing countries, with a dual challenge of expanding
their higher education system and improving quality, all within continuing budgetary
constraints.
According to the World Bank (2015), there are over 28.51 million people living in
Nepal, with a 65.9% literacy rate, and classified by gender literacy rates are male
75.1% and female 57.4%. Nepalese higher education system, based on British
educational system, is highly traditional, without much focus on workforce market
or the empowerment of the disadvantaged and the underprivileged people. Tradi-
tional college degrees are either a three-year bachelor’s degree or a 4-year degree, in
all disciplines. Current Nepalese education has failed to offer appropriate content
164 K. Bista and U. Gaulee

knowledge, skills, hands-on training for employment in partnership with local

industry and community programs. A large number of college graduates from liberal
arts, education, and sciences are unemployed, and many of them have gone to India
and Middle-East countries for labor. Over 300,000 people leave Nepal each year to
find work, much of it backbreaking labor in Kuwait, Malaysia, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
South Korea, and India (Harris 2014).
An alternative system of higher education in Nepal is needed to overcome high
unemployment rate, illiteracy, social-cultural discrimination, gender discrimination,
and underprepared manpower in the country. There are limited vocational or com-
munity-based colleges that promote job oriented, work related skills for adult
students in Nepal. We, therefore, strongly propose the concept of the community
college system as one of the effective educational models to address these major
issues of Nepal. In this chapter, we share how the US community college model as a
potential framework for Nepalese postsecondary education.

History of Postsecondary Education in Nepal

The establishment of Tri-Chandra College in 1918 marked the beginning of modern

higher education in Nepal. Since Nepal did not have a university of its own, Tri-
Chandra College was affiliated to Calcutta University in India. The Himalayan
Nation was under the autocratic rule of Rana family, who were against educating
people. “With the opening of this college, I have hacked my own leg,” Chandra
Shamsher, then Rana Prime Minister of Nepal, reportedly made this remark at the
1918 inauguration of Nepal’s first institution of Tri-Chandra College, whose name,
ironically, combines the first name of Shamsher himself with an abbreviated form of
the then King Tribhuvan’s. Tri-Chandra College was not accessible to the general
public, as this college served only elites, mainly to produce bureaucrats for the
government or to prepare some for advanced studies in India. Shamsher, as a
member of the autocratic ruling family of the time, was opposed to higher education
for the masses because he saw it as a threat to himself and the other rulers of that
time. In fact, his fear was warranted because a small number of educated people in
Nepal did join hands with the other educated in India to topple the 104-year-old
Nepalese aristocracy in 1951 (Gaulee 2014).
The first university in Nepal, Tribhuvan University (TU), was established in
1959. A few years before, in 1951, the first public colleges and the first community
colleges were opened. In Nepal, a public college, is usually funded by the commu-
nity (e.g., from local taxes) and a community college is one that is funded privately.
Unlike a community college in the US or Canada, a typical Nepali public college and
a typical community college are satellite campuses of a larger university. Neither the
public college nor the community college has an independent curriculum or degree-
granting authority. Students enroll based on the university enrollment exam and
receive a university degree if they pass the nationally administered examinations
11 Reenvisioning Community Colleges in Nepal: Preparing All Students for. . . 165

externally controlled by the affiliated university (in most cases Tribhuvan Univer-
sity). In addition, the terms colleges and campuses are synonymous in Nepal because
all colleges are affiliated with a university for examination and degree granting
purpose and while they are all satellite campuses, some like to call themselves
colleges. Due to lack of an accreditation system, an independent degree-granting
“college” did not exist.
By 1965, there were five public colleges with a total enrolment of 5,000 and 51
community colleges with a total enrolment of 10,000 students. In 1971, all commu-
nity colleges were nationalized and became part of Tribhuvan University (TU).
During the 2014/2015 academic year, there were over 384,499 students enrolled in
Tribhuvan University academic programs; one third of the total students were from
60 constituent campuses and central departments, the other two third were from 1063
affiliated public colleges and/or community colleges (Tribhuvan University 2016). A
constituent campus is one owned by the university itself while public or community
colleges are considered to be affiliated in that they pay an affiliation fee to the
university (somehow like a franchise). Currently, there are nine universities that offer
a wide range of programs in natural sciences, social sciences, medical sciences,
business and computer sciences, education, and other technical fields. The funding to
all universities is channeled through the University Grants Commission (UGC) with
the exception of B. P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, which receives grants
from the Ministry of Health. It is important to note that the Nepal community
colleges are not an integral part of the university, but nonetheless must follow the
university syllabus, examination, and degree programs.

Current Structure

The Nepal higher education system includes four institutional forms. There are
nine universities. Only one university, Kathmandu University, is private. How-
ever, it is important to note that no university is 100% public or private. Some
public universities rely on varying degrees of private funds whereas the private
university also receives government grants. The constituent campuses are an
integral part of their respective universities. As noted previously, these institu-
tions can be called: campuses or colleges. Constituent campuses are large centers
and are located in main cities of the country. All institutions that are non-
constituent campuses are called affiliated campuses. Affiliated campuses are
located throughout the country and are all affiliated with a specific university.
The affiliated campus follows the same admission requirement, curriculum, and
examination as the university to which they are affiliated to. There are two types
of nonaffiliated colleges: (a) Public colleges: These are community funded and,
therefore, are sometimes referred to as community colleges; (b) Private colleges,
although are privately funded, otherwise operate in the same ways as do com-
munity colleges. In addition, there are also International Colleges in Nepal.
166 K. Bista and U. Gaulee

International Colleges are located usually in the capital and are a branch of an
international university. They are funded from the international university and
use their enrollment, curriculum, and examination structure. Finally, there are
institutions that offer Technical Education and Vocational Training (TEVT) at the
high school and posthigh school level. Most of the TEVT institutions are not
considered to be part of the higher education system.
According to the Ministry of Education (2015), there were 1,369 higher educa-
tion campuses in Nepal. Out of these campuses, 98 (7.2%) are constituent campuses
of universities, 839 (61.3%) are private, and 432 (31.5%) are community college
campuses. In recent years, many private campuses have been established with
foreign university affiliations. Tribhuvan University still has the largest share
(83.8%) of the total higher education enrollment. The share of remaining universities
and medical academies is less than 15% and below 1%, respectively. The enrolment
proportion in terms of field of study is very high in the general programs (86.33% of
the total) and low in technical programs (13.66%). Table 1 illustrates the status of
higher education institutions.

Student Enrollment

Even though private colleges (many of which are affiliated with international
universities) outnumber community colleges (i.e., satellite campuses of existing
Nepal universities), a majority of students still attend public or community colleges
and to constituent campuses. Enrollment wise, the share of community campuses is
32.8% while the share of constituent campuses is 31.4% and that of private cam-
puses is 35.8%. Looking at the level of degree enrolment distribution, the vast
number of students (82.52%) is at bachelor’s level followed by 17.4% at the
master’s level. These figures for M.Phil. and Ph.D. are less than 1%. Enrolments
in education, management, and humanities are 34%, 30.5%, and 20.02%, respec-
tively. For engineering, medicine, science, and technology, this value is 5%, 4.5%,
and 4.2%, respectively. The forestry, agriculture, Ayurveda, and Sanskrit faculties
have below 1% students in each (UGC 2012). Humanities and social sciences have
been the most popular programs in Nepal (Table 2).
However, management and education are growing fields. There could be many
reasons including accessibility and affordability, but obviously, humanities have low
job prospects. Hence, the number has continued to decline. Table 3 illustrates the
UGC-affiliated community colleges.
Students in public and community colleges, similar to the university, take college
courses during morning or evening shifts. Most Nepalese undergraduate students are
full-time students and may not work elsewhere while studying. As a cultural norm,
parents pay the cost of education for their children and follow the wishes of parents.
Sometimes college students have little motivation or no interest in pursuing a
traditional college degree because of the growing number of unemployed graduates
(Khaniya 2007). There are many cases where students have dropped the programs or
changed their majors frequently.
 11

Table 1 Status of higher education institutions in Nepal, 2015

Number of campuses Enrollment
University/Academy Constituent Community Private Total Constituent Community Private Total
University Tribhuvan University (TU), 1959 60 424 639 1123 126590 149044 108865 384499
Nepal Sanskrit University, 1986 14 2 2 18 3387 151 324 3862
Kathmandu University, 1991 6 0 15 21 5476 0 9074 14550
Purbanchal University, 1994 5 6 120 131 887 1149 22405 24441
Pokhara University, 1997 4 0 58 62 1782 0 23472 25254
Lumbini Bauddha University, 2005 1 0 5 6 112 0 129 241
Mid-western University, 2012 1 0 0 1 1944 0 0 1944
Agriculture and Forestry University, 2 0 0 2 446 0 0 446
2012
Far-western University, 2012 1 0 0 1 2461 0 0 2461
Deemed B.P. Koirala Institute of Health 1 0 0 1 443 0 0 443
University Sciences (Medical Academy), 1993
National Academy of Medical Sciences 1 0 0 1 245 0 0 245
(Medical Academy), 2002
Patan Academy of Health Sciences 1 0 0 1 235 0 0 235
(Medical Academy), 2009
Karnali Academy of Health Science 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
(Medical Academy), n/a
Reenvisioning Community Colleges in Nepal: Preparing All Students for. . .

Total 98 432 839 1369 144008 150344 164269 458621

Source: Ministry of Education (2015)
167
168 K. Bista and U. Gaulee

Table 2 Students enrollment in higher education (universities)

Faculty/Discipline 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15
Buddhist Studies 33 302 241
Ayurveda 104 86 N/A
Forestry 996 1122 597
Agriculture and Animal Sciences 1524 1444 1660
Sanskrit 1485 1151 3862
Law 4198 816 3832
Medicine 13782 18817 17857
Engineering 10998 12402 18216
Science and Technology 7127 21258 28296
Humanities and Social Sciences 178666 86580 57424
Management 107087 193716 168843
Education 97706 226390 157793
Total 423706 564084 458621
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics of Nepal (2016)

Table 3 UGC-affiliated community colleges in Nepal (2016)

Colleges and locations Degree programs
1. Balkumari College, Chitwan B.Ed., B.Sc., B.B.S, M.B.S, M.Ed.
2. Janapriya Multiple Campus, Pokhara B.Sc., B.B.A, M.B.A
3. Baneshwor Campus, Shantinagar, Kathmandu B.Ed., B.B.S., B.A., M.B.A.
4. Pashupati Multiple Campus, Kathmandu B.Ed., B.A., B.B.S., M.B.A., M.A.
5. Saptagandaki Multiple Campus, Chitwan B.Ed., B.A., B.B.S., M.A.
6. Makwanpur Multiple Campus, Hetauda B.Ed., B.A., B.B.S.
7. Lumbini Banijya Campus, Butwal B.B.M., B.B.S., M.B.S.
8. Kailali Multiple Campus, Dhangadi, Kailali B.Ed., B.A., B.B.S., M.A.
9. Damak Multiple Campus, Jhapa B.Ed., B.A., B.B.S., M.A., M.B.S.
10. Tikapur Multiple Campus, Kailali B.A., B.B.S., B.Ed., M.A., M.Ed., M.B.S.
11. Shaheed Smriti Multiple Campus, Chitwan B.A., B.Ed., B.B.M., B.B.S., M.Ed., M.A.
Note. Bachelor in Education (B.Ed.), Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), Bachelor in Science (B.Sc.),
Bachelor in Business Studies (B.B.S.), Bachelor’s in Business Management (B.B.M.), Master in
Business Studies (M.B.S.), Master in Education (M.Ed.), and Master of Arts (M.A.)

Funding and Oversight

In Nepalese postsecondary education, the University Grants Commission oversees

the funding and monitoring of all educational programs that includes bachelors,
masters, and doctoral degrees. Universities in Nepal enjoy significant autonomy. The
duration of a bachelor’s degree is 3–5 years and a master’s degree is 2 years.
Nepalese doctoral degrees are research-based degrees, and are rigorously evaluated
by a team of experts, usually consisting of at least one renowned scholar from an
external university. Constituent campuses or colleges receive public funding and
universities oversee their academic, administrative, and financial management.
11 Reenvisioning Community Colleges in Nepal: Preparing All Students for. . . 169

Affiliated campuses do not receive public funding, but universities are still respon-
sible for supervision of their academic programs and examinations. In addition to
public and private, there are some campuses which are funded and managed by the
communities. Community colleges receive very small amount of financial support
for capital costs from the government through the University Grants Commission.
Since there is no accrediting body so far, degree-granting power only emanates from
the government – the legislature to be precise. Each of universities in Nepal is
established by an act passed from the national legislature. This makes colleges
follow the “academic” subjects prescribed by the university that they are affiliated
with. As a result, colleges lack engagement with community or industry.

Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) in Nepal

The Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT) constituted
in 1989 is an autonomous body of technical and vocational education and training in
Nepal. It is mainly involved in policy formulation, quality control, and preparation of
competency-based curriculum, developing skill standards of various occupations,
conducting research studies, and training assessment. CTEVT offers proficiency
(high school equivalent) and short-cycle diploma level (posthigh school degrees),
technical school certificates, and short-term vocational and skill training. CTEVT
programs range from 39 h to 1500 h. Students with high school certificate (grade 10)
can complete the technical education degree in 15 months and those who come
without high school diploma can take a minimum of 29 months.
CTEVT courses are offered in the field of agriculture, engineering, health, office
management, social mobilization, and tourism. Table 4 shows some of the courses
offered. CTEVT’s higher level courses, also known as Certificate/Diploma, require
at least 3 years to complete, after posthigh school degree. Most of the students find
jobs or can generate income by working on their own because these programs are
designed to address community need. However, a direct business partnership model
with the educational institution does not exist.
While CTEVT is an extended part of the secondary construct, because it has a
resemblance with the vocational and technical mission of US or Canada community
college, it may be considered to have similarities to a community college global
counterpart (CETVT 2016), especially as many are being upgraded to serve the
postsecondary market.

Need to Create a Vision for a New Nepalese Community College

As per the University Grants Commission, there are 343 community colleges
(38.2%) of all higher education campuses in the country (UGC 2012). As previously
mentioned, community colleges are affiliated with existing universities and all of
them offer bachelors and master degrees conferred by that university. Most of these
community colleges tend to operate like “ivory towers” in which the central
170 K. Bista and U. Gaulee

Table 4 Selected CTEVT vocational and technical courses/programs

Vocational programs (2 years or less)
Animal/Agricultural Science
✓ Dairy Product/Sweets Makers
✓ Community Livestock Assistant
✓ Tea Plantation and Management
✓ Assistant Florist/Garden Designer
✓ Beekeeper
Computer/Electronics/Mechanical/
Medical
✓ Computer Service Technician
✓ Telecom Technician
✓ Building Electrician
✓ Motorbike Mechanic
✓ Refrigerator and Air Conditioner
✓ Assistant Welder
✓ Lab Assistant
Source: CTEVT (2016)
Technical programs (3 years or more)
Animal/Agriculture
✓ Junior Technical Assistant (Plant/Animal
Science)
✓ Diploma in Food and Dairy Technology
Computer/Electronics/ Engineering/Medical
✓ Diploma in Civil Engineering
✓ Diploma in Computer Engineering
✓ Sub-Overseer in Automobile/Civil
✓ Diploma in Electrical Engineering
✓ Diploma in Dental Science
✓ Diploma in Pharmacy
✓ Certificate in Ayurvedic Science

university controls the curriculum and examinations. Credentials are seen to be more
important than skills in these community-based colleges. As such, the framework
and curriculum of these programs are different from the US community colleges in
terms of structure, types of programs, entry requirements, community partnership,
and collaboration, and autonomy of the colleges.
There are currently no colleges in Nepal that offer a US 2 year of college degree
(Associate Degree) for students after completion of high school (grades 11 and 12).
There is also no structure in which a student can attend a college and then transfer
completed academic work to a university. Moreover, the existing Nepalese commu-
nity college programs and courses do not suggest there are community colleges that
help meet the workforce needs of the local communities. As such, the existing Nepal
community colleges cannot be considered to be a global counterpart as identified in
this book.
However, there are two characteristics of the community colleges in Nepal that
share characteristics with US community colleges. Noteworthy is that the University
Grants Commission of Nepal (2016) listed 11 institutions as community campuses
affiliated with Tribhuvan University as participating in the Secondary Higher Edu-
cation Project (SHEP). The SHEP project aims to (a) enhance quality and relevance
of higher education and research through a set of incentives for promoting effective
management and financial sustainability of academic institutions; and (b) improved
access for academically qualified underprivileged students, including girls, dalits,
and educationally disadvantaged janjatis to higher education through financial
assistance and enhanced capacity of higher secondary schools (World Bank 2014).
The nontraditional student outreach of existing community colleges of Nepal and the
location outside of major cities share commonalities with US community colleges.
There is also acknowledgement of the role that a US-style community college
could play in reforming Nepal higher education. Nagasundaram and Deosthale
11 Reenvisioning Community Colleges in Nepal: Preparing All Students for. . . 171

(2013) suggest that “the establishment of community colleges could provide an

opportunity for the youth to acquire tangible skills that are directly transferable to the
marketplace” (p. 24) as well successfully complete the degrees. It remains possible
that a new community college model, similar in style to the US or Canadian model,
could facilitate changes to help higher education transformational approach to
address unemployment and social and cultural disparities in Nepal.
US community colleges play a role in workforce training, open access, and
flexible pathways (Hartenstine 2013). The influence of US community colleges is
strong as Mellon and Heelan (2014) noted that "AMERICA as we know it today
would not exist without her community colleges. The inclusive, democratic, and
meritocratic impulses of the community colleges, and the transparent boundaries
between college, work, and social life, have kept alive a promise of advancement
and opportunity unlike any other institution in the United States” (p. xiii). Looking
at history of America’s higher education, it becomes clear that US adopted a policy
of democratizing education to propel the economy forward (Brown 2012). Mellow
and Heelan (2014) argued that community colleges focus on multiple constituen-
cies within the community, identify the community needs and provide increased
opportunities for education for larger numbers of both new, traditional-aged
students, and older incumbent workers. Hence, “. . .the community college model
may form a powerful example for developing countries ... which will need to
educate an increasing percentage of their populations” (Mellow and Heelan 2014,
p. 3). Refining this argument more contextually, Raby and Valeau (2009, 2012,
2016) observe that multiple systems of colleges around the world are conforming
to the globalized concept of a community college by offering flexible post-
secondary education to underserved students in a local context. US community
colleges are also known as learning-centered colleges as they put students’ learn-
ing first. The learning-centered college offers educational programs and experi-
ences available for learners based on individual needs. Whatever is done in the
learning college is done for learners (Bista 2011). This as well can benefit the
students and the emerging local Nepal economy.
A few aspects of the US community college can be applicable for a developing
country like Nepal to strengthen workforce education in Nepal. Traditional univer-
sities (Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu University, Mid-Western University, and
other affiliated campuses) do not have precise programs and resources to address the
workforce need of the entire country. Existing Nepalese college degrees also do not
support workforce development. Nepalese colleges offer numerous humanities
courses, which could be transformed into or supplemented with technical and
vocational types so that students can hit the ground running with such income
generating courses. Today, there is a dire need of technical, vocational, and work-
force suitable degrees in the Nepalese labor market.
A new version of Nepalese community-based colleges can offer more practical
job-oriented associate degrees and make a pathway to university education. In
collaboration with the university, CTEVT, and the US Agency for International
Development (USAID), Nepal has a high potential to develop strategy for career
suitable program, faculty recruitment, and professional development. Similar to
172 K. Bista and U. Gaulee

Hartenstine’s (2013) recommendation, a government level policy and a strong

strategic plan would help in developing a meaningful outcome. As an example,
Panwar (2013) explained how Indira Gandhi National Open University established a
large Indian community college system (includes more than 540 colleges) in col-
laboration with National Knowledge Commission, Distance Education Council, and
other government parties.
Based on Alphonse (2013) suggestion to consider the need of the communities
and people, a new version of the Nepalese community college curricula can include
as many components as life coping skills, international relations, computer skills,
developmental English, work skills, internship, and preparation for employment.
These elements are important to make the system applicable to community people.
As seen in American community colleges, Nepalese community colleges can also
offer courses a wide range of associate degrees and certificates. Valeau (2013)
believed that the aim of these community colleges is to empower disadvantaged
groups through skills development leading to gainful employment. Bearing in mind,
Nepal has a growing agro-based economy, social stratification based on caste and
cultural variations, low literacy rate, and high unemployment, education received by
a US-style community college could provide a successful bridge between quality life
and social transformation. Based on our experience and teaching in both the US and
Nepal, we strongly believe that the US or Canadian model of the community college
could play a key role in reinforcing skills, knowledge, and workforce manpower of
the country.
Another application is increasing access. A new version of Nepalese community
colleges could be a global counterpart of community colleges had they not been parts
of comprehensive university. The missing part is community engagement in eco-
nomic sense. As mentioned above, these “community colleges” in Nepal are serving
as satellite campuses for universities to further education serving as instructional
centers. However, the decentralization of colleges is reducing the burden on Tri-
bhuvan University and independent-style community colleges could help in that
process.
The final application is to apply the US community college model characteristic
of flexibility to select the courses of their interests or individual needs. Currently,
students do not have an option to select the courses that suit individual needs in their
degree programs. However, adoption of the US or Canadian model community
college education would allow working individuals to take classes that coincide
with their schedules, and financially support themselves and their families. Since
there is no credit transfer system in any college degrees in Nepal, the new version
community college model could be a practical gateway to help students not only to
earn a college degree but also later transfer credit to another college or university in
Nepal or elsewhere. Having developed such credit transfer process, Nepalese stu-
dents coming from community college can pursue future education in the United
States, Canada, and elsewhere.
A new system of community colleges would be complimentary to what exists
because the existing universities operate without much community engagement or
industry partnership. While they behave like the “ivory towers,” they complain that
11 Reenvisioning Community Colleges in Nepal: Preparing All Students for. . . 173

they have to admit too many students. They cannot focus on quality education and
scholarship due to a growing pressure of higher education access. A new system of
community college could therefore address the issues of access, as well as employ-
ability while allowing the university system to be “selective” as they would like to be
and also focus their attention more on research. During one of the coauthor’s visit to
Nepal in the summer of 2015, numerous higher education leaders talked about new
options for higher education. A new community college model could support these
ideas.

Challenges for a New Nepalese Community College Model

Although some vocational and technical colleges (VET) offer a wide range of
programs to help students and communities in Nepal, there are some clear distinc-
tions that remove them from the university sector. First, Nepalese vocational and
technical colleges are structured in such a way that they do not give students a
pathway to university education. Secondly, existing curricula are different as the
Nepal CTVET is limited, less practical, and institutions have failed to offer skills and
knowledge to meet the knowledge economy demand of the Nepalese labor market.
There are also no bridge courses or 2-year associate degree programs for students to
ensure employability and competency of individual trained, life skills, and commu-
nication in English.
One of the major challenges in adopting the US Community college model
could be establishing a system of trust so that individual colleges receive autonomy
to conduct their own admissions, curriculum, examinations, issue certificates and
diplomas, partner with local communities, and recruit teachers and students. The
flexibility by becoming an autonomous entity could result in developing a stronger
collaboration between the government and the community. Valeau (2013) believed
that the community college model is “one of the most widely adopted forms of
education world-wide and portends to be one of the systems of choice for
reforming education” (p. 28). To maximize this potential opportunity, the existing
Nepalese higher education system can adopt such a shift to bring a reform in
academia. One option is to take the case of Indira Gandhi National Open Univer-
sity, on how a university established more than 540 community colleges in India,
loosely based on the US model. Since Nepal and India share similar social,
cultural, and educational characteristics, this could be an example of the emer-
gence of community college as a positive change agent for Nepal. However, as
Gross (2017a, b) noted, the concept of community college has yet to obtain full
recognition in the Indian higher education system and hence community colleges
are “in danger of falling victim to the fickle winds of political and economic
change” (para. 30). Tracing more than two decades of community college devel-
opment initiative in India, Gross (2017b) argued that the future of community
college would depend on the “collective action of many” (p. 14). Apparently,
Nepal would require strong political commitment backed up by a concerted effort
from the higher education leaders to transform the system.
174 K. Bista and U. Gaulee

Conclusion

Are there community colleges in Nepal? The answer is complicated. If we look at

Nepal’s existing system of colleges, there is neither community college nor an
institution that could be considered a global counterpart. The reason for this is that
existing community colleges all follow a curriculum prescribed by the university that
they are affiliated with. At the same time, the link to the local community, the access
to students who do not live in the capital cities, do have elements of an US
community college.
It can be argued that the establishment of a system of community college
education would be a promising road for Nepalese postsecondary education to
enhance economic, social, and cultural shifts. As seen in other emerging countries,
Nepalese community college could become a change agent to help promote labor
market with skills, technology, knowledge, and experience for youth. The US
community college model can be built in the existing vocational and technical
colleges as well as universities and their affiliated colleges. As an option, current
colleges and universities can partner with American community colleges. A new
model can be replicated and refined by its programs and courses depending on the
local needs, depending on the economy and infrastructures. Nepal can promote
social justice, support job market, and build mechanism to reduce poverty, unem-
ployment, and gender inequality by establishing and implementing a community
college education successfully. Such education system will not only allow Nepa-
lese students be productive contributors of local economy, it can also better equip
with the multitude of Nepalese youth seeking employment or further education
abroad. In order to have such reforms in existing education, Nepalese educators,
policy makers, and researchers should examine the best practices of community
colleges in the US and other countries. This will allow them an opportunity to
consider local resources, potential future collaboration, and restructuring current
programs in higher education. Based on our higher education experience and
expertise in the United States and Nepal, we strongly believe that community
college education system would be an effective educational transformation for
preparing all students for success.

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Krishna Bista is an Associate Professor in the Department of Advanced Studies,

Leadership and Policy at Morgan State University School of Education and Urban
176 K. Bista and U. Gaulee

Studies. His research focuses on college student experiences related to classroom

participation, perceptions of academic integrity, faculty-student relationships role of
advisors, and cross-cultural teaching and learning strategies in higher education.
Previously, Dr. Bista served as the director of Global Education at the University of
Louisiana at Monroe, where he was Chase Endowed Professor of Education in the
School of Education. Dr. Bista is founding editor of the Journal of International
Students, a quarterly publication in international higher education. He is also asso-
ciate editor of the Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education.

Uttam Gaulee is an Assistant Professor in the Community College Leadership

Doctoral Program at Morgan State University. He studies international higher
education at the intersection of public policy, globalization, and multiculturalism.
Previously serving as program director of the Community College Futures Assem-
bly, an independent policy think tank for community college leaders including
presidents, trustees, and administrators, he teamed up to collaborate with multiple
national commissions and councils to evaluate and promote best practices among
community colleges while hosting national policy summits on workforce develop-
ment, reverse transfer, and talent pipeline management. As an advocate of the idea of
community college as a vehicle for social progress and economic development in
and beyond the US, he is currently documenting the international adaptations of
community college in his book project Global Adaptations of Community College
Infrastructure.
Springer International Handbooks
of Education

Rosalind Latiner Raby

Edward J. Valeau Editors

Handbook of
Comparative Studies
on Community
Colleges and Global
Counterparts