(Postulates just don’t magically appear!

)
∎ People observed how the quantum system works and then looked for postulates that lead to
mathematical theories that match what we observe. (We only accept that postulates that work and
reject all others). The mathematical results that follow from these postulates accurately describe the
world around us.
NOTE: There is not a consensus of how many axioms one needs to describe the machinery of Quantum
Mechanics.
∎ No consensus on the number, orders and the wordings of the postulates. Griffiths even does not
mention them. Principle or axioms or postulate:
Roughly 5 postulates: A truth which does not need any
∎ We will write incomplete and inaccurate version of each postulate. further proof because it is
∎ Warning: Initially you’ll not fully understand them. obvious by itself.

✓ POSTULATE 1:
“The configuration or state of a quantum object is completely specified by a
Wave function denoted by Ψ(𝒙)”.

Background of postulate 1:
Question: What specifies the configuration or state (two words for the same thing) of a system in
CLASSICAL MECHANICS (CM).
Answer: Position(𝑥) and momentum (𝑝). In CM, if you have 𝑥 and 𝑝, you know everything (you want to
𝑝2
measure). For example, energy is function of position and momentum (𝐸 = + 𝑉(𝑥)), angular
2𝑚
momentum (𝑳 = 𝒓 × 𝒑).
[NOTE: By knowing state (𝑥 and 𝑝), only those questions can be answered that can be meaningfully
turned into an experiment. For example, if you specify 𝑥 and 𝑝 of a person, you cannot answer following
question. IS THE PERSON IN GOOD MOOD? AND ARE THERE OTHER PEOPLE BEHIND HIM? Etc.]

Question: Can we specify position and momentum of a system in QM simultaneously?

ℏ
Answer: No! Uncertainty principle dictates that (∆𝑥∆𝑝𝑥 ≥ 2
) i.e. one can’t be arbitrarily confident of
the position and momentum simultaneously.
[NOTE: Specifying 𝑥 and 𝑝 simultaneously is a good approximation in CM but in QM one cannot specify
position and momentum simultaneously. It means state of a system in QM can’t be (𝑥, 𝑝)!]

Question: If we can’t specify state by (𝑥, 𝑝) in QM, how can we specify it (state) in QM?
Answer: It is a postulate of QM that state of a system is specified by a Wave function. Ψ is
complex in nature.

Question: If Ψ is complex, what is its meaning?

Answer: It is given in postulate 2.
Examples of Wave function: (We will plot only real part for complex wave function)

1)

Re Ψ Ψ1(𝑥) is peaked at 𝑥1 ; i.e. Ψ(𝑥) ∝ 𝛿(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ).

(Well – localized) (Im Ψ = 0)

X1

2)

Re Ψ Ψ2(𝑥) is peaked at 𝑥2 ; i.e. Ψ(𝑥) ∝ 𝛿(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ).

x2 x

3)

Re Ψ Ψ3(𝑥) is sinusoidal; Ψ(x) = Aeik'x

x

4)
Re Ψ Ψ4(𝑥) is also sinusoidal; Ψ(x) = Aeik''x
x (k’’>k’) i.e. wavelength is greater.

5)

Ψ5(𝑥) is not an acceptable function because it is multi-valued.

Ψ1 Ψ2 Ψ3 Ψ4 are all reasonable functions.

✓ POSTULATE 2:
(Meaning of wave function. Born’s statistical interpretation of wave function; Born suggested in
1927)
“The product of ΨΨ*dx gives the probability that the particle in state Ψ will be
found between position x and x+dx”.

i.e. Probability = |Ψ|2 𝑑𝑥 = |Ψ(x)|2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = Probability of finding a particle between 𝑥 and 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 .
where,
𝑝(𝑥) = Probability density = ΨΨ* = |Ψ|2
NOTE: Even though Ψ is complex; probability density ΨΨ^* = |Ψ|2 is always a real number (positive or
zero) so it has a physical meaning.

Probability for finding the particle somewhere between – 𝐴 and 𝐴 is,

𝐴
(Total) Probability = ∫−𝐴|Ψ|2 𝑑𝑥 (in 1D)
Probability = ∭ |Ψ|2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (in 3D)
[Since total probability can’t exceed one, we say that Ψ is normalized]

Normalization:
By normalizing a wave function, we mean to make sure that total probability is one i.e.
∞
(in 1D) ∫−∞|Ψ|2 𝑑𝑥 = 1 1
∞
(in 3D) ∫−∞|Ψ|2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 1
Above condition is mathematical expression of the certainty that the particle is in the volume V
(in 3D) or somewhere between −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞ (in 1D)
NOTE: The interpretation of the wave function as a probability density suggests that the concept of
DIFINITE position of particle no longer applies.

Plot of probability density: dx

Wave function |Ψ|2 Probability |Ψ|2 dx

Probability density |Ψ|2

x x+dx

Question: Plot Probability density for Ψ in postulate 1. Uncertainty in measurement of x

1) Ψ(𝑥) ∝ 𝛿(x-x1).

Re Ψ |Ψ 2 | ∆𝑥 → 0 position is well

Specified (NO

X1 x X1 x Information about

2) Ψ(𝑥) ∝ 𝛿(x-x2). wavelength and

Re Ψ |Ψ 2 | hence momentum
∆𝑥 → 0 K ( ∆𝑘 → ∞ )
 3) Ψ(x) = Aeik'x ∆𝑥 → ∞
Re Ψ |Ψ 2 |

x x Position is
is ill-specified,
but k is well-
specified.

4) Ψ(x) = Aeik''x ∆𝑘 → 0

Re Ψ |Ψ 2 | ∆𝑥 → ∞

X X

EXAMPLE:
Normalize the wave function
−𝑟
𝜋𝑥
1) Ψ=𝑎 sin (particle in 1D box of length) 2) Ψ=C𝑒 𝑎 . (wave function for lowest
𝐿
. state of H atom)
𝜋𝑥 −𝑟
SOL 1) Ψ = 𝑎 sin = Ψ* Sol 2) Ψ=C𝑒 𝑎. (Ψ is 3 dimensional )
𝐿
−𝑟
+∞ 𝐿 πx
∫−∞ ΨΨ* dx = ∫0 a sin L dx = 1 Ψ=Ψ*=C𝑒 𝑎 . 𝑎 = Bohr radius
𝐿 πx ∞
a2 ∫0 sin2 L dx = 1 ∭−∞ ΨΨ* dx dy dz=1 𝑟 = distance of electron from proton
πx 𝜋 𝐿
Let 𝑦 = L ; 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑥 => 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 𝑑𝑦 In spherical coordinates C = constant to be determined

when , 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 d𝜑
𝑟 𝑟
∞ 𝜋 2𝜋 −
𝑥 = 0 ;𝑦 = 0 ∫𝑟=0 ∫𝜃=0 ∫𝜑=0 (C𝑒 𝑎 ) (C𝑒 −𝑎 ) 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑 = 1
2𝑟
∞ 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 = 𝐿; 𝑦 = 𝜋 𝐶 2 ∫𝑟=0 𝑟 2 𝑒− 𝑎 𝑑𝑟 ∫𝜑=0 𝑑𝜑 ∫𝜃=0 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 1
𝑟
∞
so, 𝐶 2 ∫𝑟=0 𝑟 2 𝑒−𝑎 𝑑𝑟(2𝜋)(2) = 1
2𝑟
𝐿 𝐿 ∞ ∞ 2
𝑎2 ∫0 sin2 𝑦( 𝜋 𝑑𝑦)= 1 4𝜋𝐶 2 ∫𝑟=0 𝑟2 𝑒 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑟 = 1 → ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 = 𝛼3
𝐿 𝐿 2
𝑎2 ( 𝜋 ) ∫0 sin2 y (dy)= 1 ∴ 4𝜋𝐶 2 ( 2 3) =1
⁄
( 𝑎)
𝐿 𝜋 2 1
𝑎2 ( ) (2 ) = 1 4𝜋𝐶 (8/𝑎3) = 1 => 𝐶 2 =
2
𝜋 𝜋𝑎3

2 2 1 1/2
𝑎2 = ⇒ 𝑎 = √𝐿 ⇒ 𝐶 = (𝜋𝑎3 )
𝐿

2 πx 1 1/2 𝑟
so, Normalized Ψ(𝑥) = √ sin So, Normalized Ψ = (𝜋𝑎3 ) 𝑒 −𝑎
𝐿 L
∎ check that ∫ ΨΨ* dx =1
Question: What is meant by indeterminacy in QM?
Answer: It (indeterminacy) means even if you know everything that Quantum mechanics has to tell
about the particle, you cannot predict with certainty where this particle is going to be found by the
experiment.
Quantum mechanics provides statistical information about possible results.

|Ψ 2 |
In plot: Particle is likely to be found
in the vicinity of A and is unlikely
to be found in the vicinity of B.
A B C X

Question: Suppose we make a measurement and a particle at point (say C), where was the particle just
before the measurement?
Answer # 1: Realist position.
It was at C. That means QM in an incomplete theory. Why?
Well, the particle was at C but QM could not predict that it was there. (To the realist, indeterminacy
is not a fact of nature, but a reflection of our ignorance.)
If this is the case, Ψ does not give the whole story and we need additional information
(hidden variable) to provide complete description of the particle.
Answer # 2: The Orthodox position.
The Particle was not anywhere. It was an act of measurement that forced the particle to “take a
stand “. We still have no idea why it “decided“on point C.
NOTE: There is something strange about concept of measurement.
Answer # 3: The agnostic position.
Refuse to answer. Since the only way to know if you were right is to make a measurement,
you no longer get “before the measurement”. Therefore, it cannot be tested.
NOTE: In 1964, Bell showed that it makes an observable difference if the particle has a precise
(but unknown) position before
measurement, which rules out
answer # 3.
✓ POSTULATE 3: (Most important postulate of QM)
Strange result of two slit-experiment, the box experiment, all the strange and counter-
intuitive stuff of QM comes directly from this postulate.
We can say,”QM is all about this postulate!”
“Given Two possible states of a quantum system corresponding to two
wave functions Ψa and Ψb, the system could be in a superposition Ψ = 𝛼 Ψa + 𝛽 Ψb
Where 𝛼 and 𝛽 are arbitrary complex coefficients satisfying normalization.”

→ Explanation:
1) Quantum interference effects
Let Ψ1 be the wave function for an electron Ψ1
to go source through slit 1 and arrive at the source 1
point P on the screen and Ψ2 for electron Ψ2
through 2. 2

=> If no experiment is done to determine

which hole the electron went through then probability of finding electron at P on the
screen is
P = | 𝛼 Ψ1 + 𝛽 Ψ2 |2 = (𝛼 Ψ1 + 𝛽 Ψ2 )( 𝛼 Ψ1 + 𝛽 Ψ2 )*
p = | 𝛼 Ψ1 |2 + | 𝛽 Ψ2 |2 + 𝛼 𝛽* Ψ1 Ψ2* + 𝛼* 𝛽 Ψ1* Ψ2
P = P1 + P2 + interference terms
P ≠ P1 + P 2

=> If an experiment is performed to determine which hole the electron went through,
then probability of find the electron at the P on the screen is
P = P1 + P2 = | Ψ1|2 + | Ψ2|2
[ i.e. the act of measurement (to determine which hole electron passes) destroys the
interference pattern!]

2) Box Experiment:
If electrons can be hard or it can be soft then it can also be in an arbitrary
superposition of being hard and soft. Here hard corresponds to some particular wave
function Ψh and so does soft Ψs , and superposition corresponds to a different wave
function Ψ which is linear combination of them.
Ψ = 𝛼 Ψh + 𝛽 Ψs
 ✓ POSTULATE 4:
“Every quantity that we can measure (such as position, momentum, energy and
angular momentum) is associated with a corresponding linear operator.”
In Quantum mechanics, measurable quantities are called observable.
Observable Classical Symbol Quantum Operator Operation
Position 𝑟⃗ 𝑟̂ Multiply by 𝑟⃗

(Position in 𝑥 𝑥̂ Multiply by 𝑥
1D)
Momentum 𝑝⃗ 𝑝̂ 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
−𝑖ℏ(𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Momentum in 𝑝𝑥 𝑝̂𝑥 𝜕
−𝑖ℏ( )
1D 𝜕𝑥
Kinetic Energy 𝑝̂ 2 ℏ2 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
𝑇 𝑇̂ =(2𝑚) − 2𝑚 (𝜕𝑥 2 +𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 )
𝑝̂ 2 2
ℏ
Total Energy 𝐸̂ = 2𝑚 + 𝑉(𝑟⃗) = − 2𝑚
𝐸 𝐸̂ 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
(𝜕𝑥 2 +𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 ) + 𝑉(𝑟⃗)

𝐿x 𝜕 𝜕
−𝑖ℏ(𝑦 −𝑧 )
𝐿̂x 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
Angular 𝜕 𝜕
𝐿y −𝑖ℏ(𝑧 − 𝑥 )
momentum 𝐿̂y 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

𝐿z 𝜕 𝜕
−𝑖ℏ(𝑥 − 𝑦 )
𝐿̂z 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
 𝜕
Hint of why momentum operator is 𝑝̂𝑥 = −𝑖ℏ 𝜕𝑥
2𝜋
We know that a wave with, 𝑘 = is associated with a particle with momentum.
𝜆
ℎ ℎ 2𝜋
𝑝= =
𝜆 2𝜋 𝜆
𝑝 = ℏk
Neglecting normalization, the associated wave function is
Ψ = 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥
⟼ We want to find anything that when applied on
Ψ = 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 gives us ℏk
𝑑 −𝑖𝑘𝑥
𝑒 = 𝑖𝑘𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Now multiply by −𝑖ℏ
𝑑 −𝑖𝑘𝑥
−𝑖ℏ 𝑒 = −𝑖ℏ 𝑖𝑘𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 −𝑖𝑘𝑥
−𝑖ℏ 𝑒 = ℏ𝑘 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
−𝑖ℏ 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 = 𝑝𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 [ When Ψ function of x and t; Ψ(x,t)
𝑑 𝑑 ∂
That is −𝑖ℏ gives us 𝑝 = ℏ𝑘 we have −𝑖ℏ = −𝑖ℏ ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∂x
∂
But we declare that 𝑝̂ → −𝑖ℏ
∂x

✓ POSTULATE 5:
If a measurement of (C) position any
observable is made on a system, and
particular result (e.g. x) Is found, then the
wave function changes instantly,
discontinuously, to be a wave function
describing a particle with that definite value
(of x). (Formally, we say “the wave function
collapses to eigenfunction corresponding to
the eigenvalue x”).
 ⟼ Wave function Ψ(x,t) is continuous in space but can change discontinuously in time as a
result of measurement .
⟼ Results of rapidly repeated measurements are perfectly reproducible.
In general, if you make only one measurement as a system, you cannot predict the result with
certainty. But if you make two identical measurements, in rapid succession, the second
measurement will always confirm the first.

✓ POSTULATE 6:
How wave function of an isolated system evolves in time in the absence of any measurement
The wave function of an isolated system evolves in time according to the Schrödinger equation
2 2
𝜕Ψ ℏ 𝜕 Ψ
𝑖ℏ =− + 𝑉Ψ
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥2
where ,V=V(x)is the (Classical) P.E of the particle, which depends on the physical system
under discussion.

Features of Schrödinger equation

(i) It requires complex numbers (it is so, as Ψ is complex).

(ii) It is linear so it satisfies superposition. If Ψ1 , Ψ2 , … , Ψ𝑛 are solutions of Schrödinger
equation then their linear combination is also a solution i.e.

Ψ = ∑ 𝑐𝑛 Ψ𝑛
𝑛
Where 𝑐𝑛 are coefficients that need to be determined.
(iii) It is deterministic! It means if Ψ(𝑥, 0) is known then Schrödinger equation determines
Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) for all 𝑡.