Antiplasmodial and Toxicological Properties of Cnidoscolus aconitifolius, Pentaclethra

macrophylla and Semicarbazone (imine derivative)

Olasehinde G.I., Oluseye O.R., Chileke A.T., Obuekwe E., Onileere O., Openibo J., Diji-
geske R.I., Oniha M.I., Bello A. and Ajayi A.A.

ABSTRACT

The persistence of drug resistant strains of the malaria parasites to the currently used antimalarial
drugs necessitates the development of alternatives with minimal toxicity, low cost, high
efficiency, standard and safety. In this study, the toxicological and in vivo antimalarial properties
of Cnidoscolus aconitifolius, Pentaclethra macrophylla and semicarbazone (imine derivative)
were assessed using swiss albino mice models, Mus musculus. LD50 of each plant extract was
determined using Lorke’s method for acute toxicity, while chemosuppressive activities were
carried out using Peter’s 4 day test on early infection at concentrations of 100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg
and 500mg/kg for Semicarbazone and 25 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg and 100mg/kg for plant extracts. The
animals showed no sign of toxicity for the highest doses. For the in vivo suppressive assay,
percentage parasite inhibition ranged from 86.36% – 89.41% and 47.72% - 94.09% in groups
that received semicarbazone and plant extract respectively. The highest inhibition was observed
for C. aconitifolius which showed a 94.09% reduction in parasitaemia at 1000mg/kg, while the
lowest reduction of 47.72% as observed for P. macrophylla at 25mg/kg. all plants and compound
assayed showed a dose-dependent spectrum of activities. The antiplasmodial activities observed
justifies the use of the plants as local remedies for treating febrile conditions, and also identified
semicarbazone as a potential antimalarial drug candidate.

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 1. INTRODUCTION

Malaria remains one of the most significant life-threatening infectious diseases in the world
affecting over 300 million people yearly (WHO, 2015a). Further compounding the issue is the
emergence of drug resistant malaria parasite species to the potent artemisinin derivatives hence
the need for the discovery and development of alternative therapies (WHO, 2015b).

The African oil bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla) is a tropical tree crop found mostly in the
Southern and Middle Belt Regions of Nigeria and in other coastal parts of West and Central
Africa. It belongs to the Leguminosae family and the sub-family of Mimosoideae (Keay, 1989)
with no known varietal characterization. P. macrophylla Benth has continued to be the major
source of raw materials for nutrition and pharmaceutical industries. The seed has been
shown to have activity against a wide range of infectious agents with minimal toxicity (Okorie et
al., 2006)

Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (Tree spinach), is used traditionally for a number of ailments which
includes diabetes, obesity, kidney stones, hemorrhoids, acne, and eye problems (Diaz-Bolio,
1975). The shoots and leaves are taken as a laxative, diuretic, circulation stimulant, to improve
digestion, to stimulate lactation, and to harden the fingernails (Rates, 2001).

Semicarbazone is a derivative of imines formed by a condensation reaction between a ketone or

aldehyde and semicarbazide.

Fig. 1: The chemical structure of Semicarbazone

The aim of this study was to determine the Lethal Dose (LD50) and antiplasmodial activities of
semicarbazone and the crude extracts of Pentaclethra macrophylla seeds and, leaves of
Cnidoscolus aconitifolius
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 2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Plants collection and authentication - The seeds of Pentaclethra macrophylla and
leaves of Cnidoscolus aconitifolius plants were collected from Covenant University Ota,
Ogun state.
2.1.1. Plant extraction - The seeds were first de-shelled, cut into smaller pieces and blended.
Soxhlet extraction method and subsequent evaporation in rotary evaporator was used to
prepare the ethanol extracts of the plants’ parts.
2.2. Experimental animals - Swiss albino mice, Mus musculus of either sex weighing
between 18-25g were obtained from the Nigerian Institute of Medical Research (NIMR).
They were fed on a standard diet and water according to the NRC Guide for the care of
laboratory. The mice were observed and maintained under standard conditions of humidity
and temperature. The animals were housed in standard cages at room temperature and
moisture, under the naturally illuminated conditions. They were allowed to acclimatize for
five days before the commencement of the study.

2.3 Toxicity test – LD50 of test compounds was determined according to Lorke’s method
The mice were observed for signs of toxicity and mortality at regular intervals of 24 hours, 48
hours and 72 hours respectively. The animals were observed after the treatment for the first 30
minutes, then periodically during the first 24 hours, with special attention given during the first 4
hours, and daily thereafter for a total of 72 hours for any sign of toxicity such as discomfort,
morbidity, changes in the skin and fur, eyes, somatomotor activity, coma, sleep, salivation,
diarrhea, convulsion and behavioural pattern (Tepongning et al., 2013). LD50 values were
calculated using the formula:

LD50 = √maximum dose for all survival x minimum dose for all death

2.4 Parasites – Chloroquine-sensitive Plasmodium berghei berghei NK65 was obtained in mice
from National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), Lagos, Nigeria and maintained in mice by
serial passage. Parasitized red blood cells were obtained from infected mouse by snipping the
tail.

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2.5 In vivo Schizontocidal activity – Red blood cells of P.berghei berghei were
intraperitoneally inoculated into test mice. The chemo-suppressive activity of the ethanolic
extract of the plant material and synthesized compound were assessed by the 4-day suppressive
test of acute infection developed by Peters (1965). Pre-infected Adult albino mice of both sexes
as described above were used. The animals were randomly divided into 3 groups of 5 mice per
group for both drug materials and treated for 4 consecutive days (D0-D3): The three groups to
be dosed with the chemical compound were given 100, 200 and 500mg extract/kg body weight
respectively via oral route (p/o) daily and 25 ml, 50ml and 100ml extract per kg of the plant
extracts to the other three groups. The last two groups constituted of the positive (10mg
Chloroquine) and negative (0.5ml of normal saline) controls. The procedure was repeated for
four consecutive days (D0-D3). Blood samples were collected daily from the tail snips of each
mouse for microscopic examination. Percentage parasitaemia was calculated for each dose
level by comparing the parasitaemia in infected control groups with those of treated mice and
the results multiplied by 100. Percentage chemo-suppression is the rate of inhibition of parasite
replication by the extract and compound compared to the control (in percentage).

Percentage Chemo-suppression = (A-B)/A×100

Where; A= Average parasitaemia in the negative control group

B= Average parasitaemia in the test group

That is (Control mean-Dose mean) (Control mean) × 100

The means were calculated as Mean ± Standard Error of Mean

Results

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 25

20
Mean Parasitaemia

15

10

0
100mg/kg 200mg/kg 500mg/kg Chloroquine Normal Saline
Mean Parasitaemia Pre-treatment Mean Parasitaemia D0
Drug Dosage
Mean Parasitaemia D1 Mean Parasitaemia D2
Mean Parasitaemia D3

Figure 1: Mean daily parasitaemia at various concentrations of Semicarbazone

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 Table 1: Percentage chemosuppression of the Semicarbazone

Drug Dose Percentage chemo-

suppression (%)

Physiological saline 0.5ml -

Semicarbazone 100mg/kg 86.36

200mg/kg 87.86

500mg/kg 89.41

Chloroquine Phosphate 10mg/kg 95.45

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 25

20
Mean Parasitaemai

15

10

0
25ml/kg 50ml/kg 100ml/kg Chloroquine Normal saline
(10mg/kg) (0.9%w/v)

Drug Dosage

Mean Parasitaemia Pre-treatment Mean Parasitaemia D0

Mean Parasitaemia D1 Mean parasitaemia D2
Mean Parasitaemia D3

Figure 2: Mean daily parasitaemia at various concentrations of ethanolic extract of Penthaclethra

macrophylla

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Table 2: Percentage Chemo-suppression of the ethanolic extract of P.macrophylla seed

Drug Dose Percentage chemo-

suppression (%)

Physiological saline 0.5ml 0

P. macrophylla 25ml/kg 84.09

50ml/kg 88.63

100ml/kg 90.90

Chloroquine Phosphate 10mg/kg 95.45

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Table 3: Percentage Chemo-suppression of the Ethanolic Extract C. aconitifolius leaf

Drug Dose Percentage chemo-

suppression (%)

Physiological saline 0.5ml 0

C. aconitifolius 25ml/kg 85.0

50ml/kg 79.09

100ml/kg 94.09

Chloroquine Phosphate 10mg/kg 95.45

DISCUSSION

Acute toxicity and antiplasmodial studies were carried out on the synthesized compound

(Semicarbazone) and the ethanolic extracts of P. macrophylla seeds and C. aconitifolius leaves.

The in vivo antiplasmodial activities of both drug materials were investigated by evaluating the

chemo-suppressive effects during early infection using standard animal models.

Toxicological tests usually are carried out prior to screening potential plants for therapeutic

activity. This is because acute toxicity could result from extremely concentrated doses or from

the state of conservation of plants and the form of use (Rates, 2001). For this cause, the acute

toxicity threshold i.e. the lethal dose (LD50) was determined in this study.

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All substances are hypothetically toxic depending on the quantity. Many therapeutic medications

can be acutely toxic, but are beneficial when used at the appropriate concentrations. Oral

administration is the most common form of acute toxicity testing (Tamba et al., 2013) and was

the preferred method in this study. Oral administration of Semicarbazone doses using the Lorke’s

method at concentrations of 100mg/kg, 200mg/kg and 500mg/kg attested to be safe in the acute

toxicity testing, no animal showed lethality at 24, 48 and 72 hours after dose administration. For

the ethanolic extract of P. macrophylla seed and C. aconitifolius leaves, oral acute toxicity

testing was also carried out at concentrations of 25, 50 and 100ml/kg. No lethality was recorded

across all concentrations and at 24, 48 and 72 hours. Upon physical examination, no convulsions,

salivation, diarrhoea, changes on skin, changes in eyes and mucus membranes, behavioural

patterns, trembling, diarrhoea, falling of the fur, sleep or coma were observed during the first 4h

until the end of 72h of observation.

The in vivo antimalarial studies of Semicarbazone, the ethanolic extract of Pentaclethra

macrophylla seed and C. aconitifolius leaves were carried out by evaluating the chemo-

suppressive activity using standard animal models. The in vivo animal models are used in

consideration of the possible pro-drug effect and a likely involvement of the immune system in

eradicating the parasites (Waako et al.,2005).

Antimalarials with good prophylactic activity when absorbed into the blood stream should avoid

the invasion of the liver by the sporozoites, while those with good chemo-suppressive activity

should suppress the advancement of the merozoites to schizonts in the liver and their release into

the blood stream as trophozoites. Those with good curative activity should destroy the

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trophozoites in the blood and/or prevent the formation of gametocytes, thereby preventing

reinfection of mosquito and man and animal (Bowman and Rand, 1980).

The chemically synthesized Semicarbazone at dosing concentrations of 100mg/kg, 200mg/kg

and 500mg/kg body weight of mice yielded 86.36, 87.86% and 89.41% inhibition respectively as

against 95.45% for the standard drug, chloroquine. Likewise, the ethanolic extracts of

P.macrophyllaseed at dosing concentrations of 25ml/kg, 50ml/kg and 100ml/kg body weight of

mice yielded 84.09%, 88.63% and 90.90% inhibition respectively as against 95.45% for the

standard drug, chloroquine. The antiplasmodial effect or the chemosuppressive activity

demonstrated by the chemically synthesized Semicarbazone confirms the previously evaluated

antimalarial activity of Semicarbazone with a percentage chemosuppression of 61% at 20mg/kg

(de Oliveira et al., 2008). Higher concentrations of 100, 200 and 500mg/kg was evaluated in this

research and higher chemosuppressive activities were also observed; 86.36% at 100mg/kg,

87.86% at 200mg/kg and 89.41% at 500mg/kg. For P.macrophylla, the leaves and stem barks

have been in use traditionally for febrile illnesses such as malaria and typhoid fever however,

high chemosuppressive percentages of 84.09% at 25ml/kg, 88.63% at 50ml/kg and 90.90% at

100ml/kg were recorded. The results of this study are comparable with earlier studies where the

percentage chemosuppression was above 50% for ethanolic and other extracts of indigenous

medicinal plants (Deharo et al., 2001; Okorie et al., 2006; Olasehinde et al., 2012, 2014). This

suggests that the in vivo antiplasmodial activity of both drug materials can be classified as very

good with a chemoseppression of above 50% at 100mg/kg according to Deharo et al. (2001).

While the standard drug chloroquine caused chemosuppressions of 95.45%. This was obviously

higher than the groups treated with the plant extracts. The observed higher efficacy of

Chloroquine may in part be due to non-selectivity of the extract or slow absorption and poor bio-
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availability of the extract. This is common with medicinal plant extracts (Adzu and Haruna,

2007)

The study showed that the synthesized compound, semicarbazone, the extracts of P. macrophylla

and C. aconitifolius possess potent antimalarial effect and as such may be good antimalarial

candidates. Further studies can be carried out with to determine drug mechanism.

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