LITERARY PERIODS AND MOVEMENTS

The Enlightenment (Neoclassical) Period (1660-1790 CE)

It can be divided as follows :-

Restoration Period (1660-1700)
The Augustan Age (1700-1750)
The Age of Johnson (1750-1790)

Introduction
The period from 1660 to 1700 is mentioned as the Restoration Age or the Age of Dryden
because the monarchy was restored in England. In the year of 1660, Charles II was brought to
the throne and the restoration of Charles II brought a new era both in life and in literature. The
restoration actually replaced the power of the monarchy and puritan ethos. It brought the power
of a Parliamentary system under the two parties – Whigs and Tories, and both parties encouraged
social stability. Thus, the period from 1660 to 1700 has the most importance and it is called the
Age of Restoration. W. J. Long remarks –

The inevitable effect of excess is disease, and for almost an entire generation following the
Restoration in 1660, England lay sick of a fever; its literature especially its drama, often seems
more likely the delirium of illn

Characteristics of the Age

1) Social and Political Conflicts

With the come – back of Charles II, England’s social, political and religious tenets have
transformed. The two devastating incidents – The great Plague of London and The Great Fire of
London did much more harm to English Social life. W. J. Long said –

Though the king and court and high society of this period arouse our disgust or pity, the private
life of England remained honest and pure even in the worst days of the Restoration.

Politically, the country was divided into two parties – The Whigs and The Tories. Both parties
were largely devoted to the Anglican Church. Later, both the parties joined together to put an end
to King James II who misrule for four years. After the bloodiness revolution of 1688, which
called William of Orange and Queen Mary to the throne, was simply the indication of England’s
healthy and sanity. According to W. J. Long,

Modern England was firmly established by the Revolution which was brought about by the
excesses of the Restoration.

2) Opening of the Theatres

All the institutions that were closed in the puritanical movement were opened during the
Restoration period. Political monarchy, Parliament Episcopacy and law were all restored. The
clubs and coffee houses were also established during the period. These houses become the
centers of political discussions and from here only, the periodical essays were originated.
3) Rise of Neo –
Classicism The Restoration marks a complete break with the past and the Elizabethan
Romanticism was almost over. With the end of the past, literature took a new spirit and outlook
and a different attitude in the subject and style. As Edward Albert says,

The Post – Restoration period is often setup as converge and anti – thesis of the previous
Elizabethan Age. It is called ‘Classical’ as opposed to the Elizabethan Romanticism.

Lacking of the genius in Elizabethans, the authors of the time turned to the great classical
writers, particularly Latin writers, for guidance and inspiration. This habit was hardened during
the Age which we called Neo – Classicism.

4) Imitation of the Ancients

The authors of the period were not endowed with exceptional talents. So, they turned to the
ancient writers for guidance and inspiration. They directed their attention to the slavish imitation
of rules and ignore the importance of the subject – matter. This habit was noticeable in the Age
of Dryden. And it was strengthened in the Age of Pope. That’s why Alexander Pope writes –

Learn hence for ancient rules a just esteem,

To copy nature is to copy them.

5) Realism
Restoration literature is realistic. It was concerned with the life and with the fashion and
manners. W. J. Long writes about the practice of realism of this period –
The early Restoration writers sought to paint realistic pictures of a corrupt court and society, and
emphasized vices rather than virtues, and gave us coarse, low plays without interest or moral
significance.
Later, this tendency of realism becomes more wholesome.

6) New Literary Forms

The writers of the age went against the Elizabethan romantic ideals and tried to give realistic
picture of the corrupt court and society. They exposed vices rather than virtues. The most
important literary forms expounded during this age are as under:

A. Satire
Restoration age was an age of political unrest, sharp wit and personal contention. For this reason,
satire got a new importance. Dryden’s Mac Flecknoe which was written in heroic couplet is
considered as the best satire respectively.

B. Poetry
The Restoration poets completely discarded the romanticism of Elizabethan poetry and also
rejected the morals of puritan poets. Poetry presented a realistic picture of the corrupt court,
society, men and manners; and its appeal was to intellect and reason.

C. Drama
The theatres which were closed in 1642 were opened during the Restoration. Consequently, the
plays were written for the play – houses. It gave rise to the development of the Comedy of
Manners, which portrayed the sophisticated life of the dominant class of society.
 D. Heroic Couplet
Restoration literature adopted the heroic – couplet as a poetic medium that is two iambic
pentameter lines which rhymed together. Waller, who began to use it in 1623, is generally
regarded as the father of the couplet. Later, Waller and Dryden made the couplet a literary
fashion.

Conclusion
In a conclusion, the Restoration period is to be seen as one of transition. The glorious Revolution
of 1688 also brought about a new change in social and political life. The Restoration literature
developed realism and so the whole literature was developed in a new style. American biologist
E. O. Wilson remarked –
There can be no purpose more inspiriting than to begin the age of restoration, reweaving the
wondrous diversity of life that still surrounds us.

POETRY OF RESTORATION AGE The poetry of the Restoration period is formal,

intellectual and realistic.

(i) John Dryden (1631-1700). Dryden was the first of the new, as Milton was the last of the
former school of poetry. He was a versatile poet. Absalom and Achitophel is a fine, finished
satire on contemporary political situation. Medal is an attack on Shaftesbury. Mac Flecknoe is a
biting attack on a former friend, Thomas Shadwell. Religio Laici and The Hind and the Panther
are two doctrinal poems. Dryden appears as a great story teller in verse in The Fables. As a lyric
poet his fame rests on song for St. Cecilia’s Day and On Alexander’s Feast. Dryden is the
representative poet of his age. He began the neo-classical age in literature. It was his influence and
example which lifted the classic couplet for many years as the accepted measure of serious English
poetry.

(ii) Samuel Butler (1612-1680). Butler‘s Hudibras is a pointed satire on Puritans. It was
influenced by the satire Cervantes' Don Quixote. It has genuine flashes of comic insight. It is a
great piece of satirical poetry.

PROSE OF RESTORATION AGE The Restoration marks the beginning of modern prose.
Matthew Arnold remarks: ―the Restoration marks the birth of our modern English prose.

John Dryden (1631-1700) was one of the greatest prose writers of this period. His prefaces and
his famous Essay on Dramatic Poetry make him ―the leader of that modern prose in which the
style is easy, unaffected, moulded to the subject, and in which proper words are placed in their
proper places.

John Bunyan (1632-1704) wrote two prose allegories, Grace Abounding, The Pilgrim’s
Progress and The Life and Death of Mr. Badman. Bunyan is called a pioneer of English novel.
The Pilgrim’s Progress is remarkable for impressive characters, presentation of contemporary
life and dramatic interest. Bunyan‘s style is simple, clear, lucid, Biblical and colloquial.

The diaries of the period are important in terms of style and new form. There are two diary
writers who need to be introduced. The Diary of Sir Samuel Pepys (1633-1703) John Evelyn‘s
Diary was written with an eye on the public. It is a more finished production in the manner of
style. Other writers who deserve mention are Lord Halifax, Sir William Temple, Thomas
Hobbes, and Sir John Locke.

RESTORATION DRAMA The theatres which were closed in 1642 were opened during the
Restoration.
John Dryden was the principal writer of the Heroic tragedy. His famous tragedies are Tyrannic
Love, Conquest of Granada and All for Love.

Another playwright was Thomas Otway. He wrote Alcibiades, Don Carlos, The Orphan and
Venice Preserved.

Aphra Behn

Aphra Behn was one of the first female women writers of the restoration age. She was also a spy
who worked for the British Government. Behn was a Playwright, translator, poet and also a
fiction writer of the restoration period.

Behn was very prolific in adapting plays, writing poetry and fiction, and also translating works
from Latin and French. Her work mostly featured the homoerotic themes and same-sex love
between men.

One of her most praised work is the poem “The Disappointment” where she wrote about the
sexual encounter from women’s point of view about male impotence. Her other notable work
was a short novel “Oroonoko” that features slavery, gender and race. Some of her other works
are:
-The Rover
-The Fair Jilt
-On the Death of the Late Earl of Rochester

Restoration Comedy of Manners The Restoration comedy is also known as Comedy of

Manners.The Restoration comedy was shaped both by native and French influences. It drew its
inspiration from the native tradition which had flourished before the closing of theatres in
1642.Writers of Comedy of Manners

(i) William Congreve (1670-1729):

Congreve is the best and finest writer of the comedy of manners. His famous comedies are The
Old Bachelor, The Double Dealer, Love For Love and The Way of the World.

(ii) George Etherege (1635-91):

Etherege‘s three plays are The Comical Revenge, She Wou’d If She Cou’d, The Man of the
Mode or Sir Foppling Flutter. In these plays he painted a true picture of the graceful but
licentious upper classes. The prose dialogue is brilliant and natural.

(iii) Sir John Vanbrugh (1664-1726):

His best comedies are The Relapse, The Provok’d Wife, and Confederacy. The first two plays
employ the familiar devices of the Restoration Comedy. The Confederacy breaks new ground.
The dramatist deals with the middle classes in this play.
(iv) George Farquhar (1678-1707):
His famous comedies are Love and a Bottle, The Constant Couple, Sir Harry Wildhair, The
Inconstant, The Way to Win Him, The Recruiting Officer, and The Beaux’s Stratagem. He added
something new to the Restoration Comedy, in taking his material from a wider life than the
polite upper class depicted by Congreve, and his characters are more like ordinary people.

(v) William Wycherley specialization was in Comedy of Manners. His major work includes:-
The Country Wife
The Plain Dealer
Love in Wood
The Gentleman Dancing Master