CARPENTRY / WOODWORKING Competencies to be tested Theories related to construction materials Basics of wood technology. Different kinds of wood joints Principles of measurement and layout Correct technique in using tools for carpentry Proper procedure in constructing woodwork. CARPENTRY Itis the art of cutting, framing, and joining timber or wood. It is generally known as woodworking. Carpenter (builder) - is a skilled Scalineijag who performs carpentry. Carpenters work with wood to construct, install and maintain buildings, furniture, and other objects. Types and Occupations Finish Carpenter is one who does fini ; that is, cabinetry, furniture making, fine woodworking, model building, instrument making, Parquetry, joinery, or other carpentry where exact joints and minimal margins of error are important. Some large-scale construction may be of an exactitude and artistry that it is classed as finish carpentry. Trim Carpenter - specializes in , such as door and window casings, mantels, baseboard, and other types of ornamental work. Cabinet _ installers are also referred to as trim carpenters. Cabinetmaker - is a carpenter who does fine and detailed work, specializing in the making of cabinets made from wood, wardrobes, dressers, storage chests, and other furniture designed for storage. Ship's Carpenter - specializes in shipbuilding, peamae. and repair and is; usually the term refers to a carpenter , and the theater builds and dismantles Scenic Carpenter temporary scenery and sets.Framer -is a carpenter that builds the skeletal structure or framework of ; Techniques include platform framing, balloon framing, or timber ngs (which may be post-and-beam or mortise-and-tenon framing). ming Formwork Carpenter - creates the shuttering and false work used in cor construction. Ncrete BASIC KNOWLEDGE ABOUT WOOD Structure of Wood: Bark side face BP ey: # But ond Annual cing Figure 1: Structure of Wood Wood is consisting of small cells. Cambium layers that extend concentrically near the bark divide into wood in inner part and into bark on the outer surface. Wood creates a large amount of big and thin-wall cells during the wet and warm spring-summer season, and small and thick-wall cells during the fall. The former cells form light colored wood called early wood, while the latter forms SOaaags wood called ‘he fama! The combination of early wood and late wood is called annual ring in the case that growth cycle is one year. The part is lightcolored and ae Hing ie Toe and appeat 2 th 1 former is called wood that contains starch and ma! substances, therefore i is calle Heartwood consists of the substances that is to the s, therefore has high level of dural . The lat bility.A board cut from a tree trunk by tangential section, with a section line i f ings, has flat grain, while a rd cut by fadial’sectionwith a section line ‘unning in a direction that crosses as edge grain. As wood grows, the areas usually the base of branches remains like knots. These kind of defective parts are not usually used due to their irregular layout of fibers that might cause troubles when or after making a wooden product. Softwood and Hardwood Most woods have either needle-shape leaves or broad leaves. The former yields softwoodand thelatter yields hardwood. The number of species of hardwood isfarlarger than that of softwood. In many cases, softwoodis used for the structural - materials of architectures, while hardwood is used for furniture or interior material. Physical Property of Wood Dimensional Changes of wood Wood shrinks when it discharges water and dries, or swells when it absorbs water. This property relates to the amountofwater contained inside the cell-wall ofthe wood, in other words, the moisture content. The shrinkage ratio varies according to different directions and the ratio between tangential: radial: fiber direction is 10:5:0.5- 1. Wood changes its shape in the drying process according to place of origin and the shape of the wood. For this reason, wood needs to be dried to the appropriate level. In order to avoid troubles, hardwood for home furniture should be dried until the water content becomes less than 6 ~ 12 %, softwood for architecture process should be dried until the water content contents becomes less than 20%. ‘Shrinkage of wood inthe drying process Alotonship between inte ond ‘moisture contenHest .d tissues, it has a property of 7 sists of tube-shaped tis ee ©f poor h Sen tt is often used as heat insulator in floor or wall Materials of © conduction. 2 architectures. Sound : ifying small sounds, itis used in wood has a property of ampl L in musica a ahs it has also another property of absorbing sounds, it is useq in interior materials of theaters as well for acoustics. Mechanical Property of wood Strength Wood needs to have strength to the extent that it can endure the weight of itself as well as wind and snow. Strength posed on wood is received by its cells. Thickness of cell wall varies from species, ant the e pecific I Ss Therefore, wood with higher . This is why high-specific- as this kind of furniture gravity wood needs to be used fo requires both strength and hardness. The level of strength is significantly different within the same wood, depending on the direction of the cell layout. It maybe described as the relationshi between strength and fiber direction. aches to the ghost. when a load is applied in a directior ; however, the strength is significantly edagee as the angle of load direction agian” ‘menelngetiggypecomes larger. Therefore, you need to take fiber direction into considers en designing a product. Distortion “lignin aye wood is treated with heat by applying hot steam, substances called fat adhere each wood cell get softened and create gap between cells. te d. If the wood is cooled and dried after id cannot be reversed itis distorted, the distortion is fixed or ape original state. This Property is ORM Tip ereroeunpredueteBending process and bentwood chair Preparation of Wood 4, Logging 2. Lumbering 3. Sawing Methods and or manner of log sawing: a, Plain or bastard sawing — cutting the logs entirely through the diameter with b. The quarter or rift sawing ~ |S divided into four methods; ‘" | tangential method, quarter tangential, oo Seasoning of lumber: 4 , dopte Natural or Air Seasoning ~ is considered 25 one ot te aa in seasoning lumber although the period involved 1s longer seasoning method. Artificial Seasoning - method adopted tor quick arying ofthe wood E Forced Air drying - Kiln drying — DAT ap wt Radio frequency dielectric dryingTwo types of lumber: 4. Soft wood — usually used in ordinary woodwork such as pine, laua, : lauan, 2. Hard wood — usually used in cabinet or furniture making such be aS narra, molave, yakal, etc. Lumber and Related Products: 4. Veneer and plywood — are made of laid one upon the other with the grain of each at right ang! eet nid sheets above or below it.. They are il te resins. Plywood thickness varies from 3.2 mm (1/8 inch), 4.7 mm (3/16), a mm (1/2), 20 mm (3/4) with a width of 4 feet and length of 1.80 m (6 feet) or 2.40 m (8 feet). a. Soft Plywood — most common for structural use. b. Hardwood plywood — used for paneling and finishing where usually _ only one face is with hardwood finish. c. Exterior or marine plywood — is made for extemal use. Rotary cutting veneer sheet Fiber direction Plywood Manufacturing Process 2. Hardboard / Pressed wood or Fiber Board - is made from ar. are (Defibration) with high pressure steam. The are applied with adhesive, processed into a mattress and undergoWaste wood : Particleboard y 2 =e iS} 195, 2 Hot pressing \ ~~ a a Def ibration Fiberboard Hot pressing Manufacturing Process of Particle Board and Fiber Board 3. Particle Boards - manufactured a strands, shavings slivers, etc. which are to sheets and other molded shapes. pres 4, Laminated Wood — Logs are processed b) ling and drying, knots anc and the pieces are in fiber |. Laminated wood can be cut ir preferred width or length according to its purpose. Laminated wood Circular saw Column or. 4 bean Renoving kno! Finger joint and checks relay’ wise, ever iaid caluan Laminated Wood Manufacturing ProcessDefects of wood: Knot - is = anshgliaaisultar that has been exposed as the log is cut into lumber. Check — is a/lengthwise separation of the wood like a small crack or split. Split - is a lengthwise break or big crack in the board. Decay is the rotting of wood. Stain - is a discoloration of the wood surface. Wane - is a lack of wood on the face of the piece. Warp — is any variation from a tree or plane surface. It includes| crack, bow, cup, wind (twist) or any combination of these. Joint Joint — means the union of two or more smooth or even surfaces, admitting two or more pieces of timber to a close fitting or junction. Joinery — is the art of joint making. It may include fastening and or shaping the pieces of wood so they fit together neatly and securely. Common Tools used in constructing wood joints: 1. Asaw with fairly fine teeth usually abacksaw |!°°'" Avariety of chisel. Brace and bit. Miter box Woodworker's bench hook 2. 3. 4. 5.six Groups of Joints 4. T joints - One piece joinediat'right angles to the face or edge of another forming a T-shape, 2. L joints - Two pieces joined to form a corner 3. X joints — The pieces crossed over or fixed into each other to form a cross. 4, Edge (-to-edge ) joints — Edges that are joined to produce wide surfaces. It is used for top of tables, chairs, desks and other furniture needing large surface. 5, Lengthening joints - Two pieces joined end to end. 6. Three-way joints —Three pieces of wood joined; e.g. a chair leg and rails. BUTT JOINT - the end of one piece is fastened to the surface or edge of the other. Itis used to make a simple box or to fasten two pieces at right angles. The butt joint is popular in house building. Corner joints may be held together with nails, screws, glue, dowels, special fasteners or I-shaped mending plates. Using Braces and Fasteners . You find it on frames, This is stronger than butt joint because ws x, SLAP JOINT —is made when 0 table's legs, and some other kinds of chairs. both pieces of eee he a? & || &RABBET JOINT - the first niece fdgipevchannshent across the end o ei the second piece. Itis found in simple furniture and in some box constructioe® of DADO JOINT — is good for shelves, steps, bookcases, book racks, chests ang other types of cabinets. MITER JOINT — AGO the comers are cut at an angle usually 45 degrees. When the two pieces are joined, they will form a right angle. The joint is secured with nails, screws, glue, dowels, special fasteners, or L-shaped mending plates. CComugatd Meta Fastener oi woo sPuce rH owMORTISE AND TENON JOINT — is one of the strongest joint. It is found on better squnippabaies tables and benches. The mortiseis a hole made partway through the side of one piece of wood while the tenon is tongue-shaped to fit the mortise at the end of another piece. Ce LAP (OR MALP BLD cy BUND miTERvee EDGE-TO-EDGE JOINT — is used when it is necessary : lumber for table tops or for wide shelving. There are three methods of Makin them: Gluing, Doweling, and loose-tongue or spline joining. 1g SPLICING OR LENGTHENING JOINT — is the process of joini timber in their longitudinal direction in order to transmit stresses from one member to the other. There are three different ways: Lapping — simply joining one member to the other. Fishing — joining two ends with the use of two side hich is sometimes called splice pads. some | Scarfing — is cutting away the opposite sides of two aS z | members then lap-joining to obtain a continuous ————. piece of uniform thickness. Coanclw ih) MEASUREMENTS Presently, there are two major systems of measurement used in the world. The inch system, often called the Eoalilieaysiem of measurement and the Metric system of measurement. The English system originated in England and the Metric system originated in France or also called System International (SI). Almost over 90% of the world’s population uses some form of metric measurement; hence, the need for universal adoption of metric measurement is evident. The Inch System or the English System The unit of length in the English system is the “inch”, which maybe divided into fractional or decimal fraction divisions. The fractional system is based on the binary system, or base 2. The binary fractions commonly used in this system are %, %, 1/8, 1/16, 1/32, and 1/64. The decimal-fraction system has base 10, so any number may be written as a product of 10 and/or a fraction of 10. Basically, in the English system, the INCH is divided into 16 graduations and the smallest graduation is read 1/16, Bien to isin BleTo read m2easurement exceeding 1 inch say 2” itis read and written as: 2 4/16 or 2%. and 4 smaller graduations, 4 foot + 2 inches + 3 smaller graduations; it is read and written as 14 3/16 inches. The Metric System Linear metric dimensions are expressed in multiples and submultiples of the meter. The millimeter is used to express most metric dimensions. Fractions of the millimeter are expressed in decimals and large dimensions are given in meters (m) and millimeters (mm). In the Metric or SI measurement, the centimeter is divided into 10 millimeters as shown below: 678 1 Linear units in the metric system ae COMMON INCH / METRIC CONVERSION Inch Size | Millimeter (mm) ae Decimeter (dm) | Meter (m) tin. 25.4 2.54 0.254 0.0254 1ft 304.8 30.48 3.048 0.3048 tyd 914.4 914.4 9.144 0.9144Measuring / dimension of wood: Lumbers are sold according to their dimensions where thickn width are measured in inches and the length is measured in feet. oT xW xL where: T - Thickness raph W- Width ee L- Length SS ang , Prices of lumber sold are based on a unit called BOARD FOOT which means a piece of wood 12 inches long, 12 inches wide and 1 inch thick. (12” x 12” x 4») To compute the total board feet in a piece of lumber use the formula: ae ay Where: T” = thickness in inch Qn W" = width in inch L’= length in feet 12 = constant :xample: Find the total board foot of 5 pieces of 2” x 6" x 14’ lumber. Solution: Bd.ft. = S pcs. x2x6 x 14 ag App 2 KBRL upes D¥8ab b 12 78 = 70 bd.ft. = toy wit Lumbers maybe sold also in metric dimensions. To compute the total Board meters in a piece of lumber, use the following formula: oS BdMt= Tema Wem x tm Where: Tem hickness in centimeter Wem = Width in centimeters \ Lm = Length in meters : yp bd 100 = Constant Lumber is sold either rough or surfaced.En ee pieces of wood unsurfaced or unplaned usually passes exact dimen be $urfaced lumber — are lumber Planed usually lessened in actual size by about 3/8 of an inch. $2s - lumber that are planed or smooth on two sides. $4s — lumber that are planed or smooth on four sides Prices of lumber ranges according to the following: 4. types of wood 2. Dimensions 3. Grades of lumber — either sun dried, air dried, or kiln dried. WOODWORKING METHODS 1, Planning — careful planning can prevent mistake and save time, money, materials and effort. a. Drawing and designing the project. b. Identify bill of materials. c. List the procedures. d. List tools and machines needed. 2, Cutting — cutting wood to the right size and shape can be done with a variety of hand tools and machines. 3. Assembling — Constructing the parts of the project based on the planned design. 4. S and Finishing - Sanding removes tool marks and make wood ishing. Sanding should not begin until the wood has been cut to its final size.Design a Product Designing Processes to follow: Clarify the purpose, condition and place of use. Draw a conceptual picture Decide what kinds of materials are required Decide what kind of tools and equipment is required for Processing Prepare technical drawings and parts drawings Make a prototype if possible OAPons Once the designing process is completed, draw layout lines on the material. During this process, make sure that the layout lines are 3 — 5 millimeters away from the cutting lines, shaving. Laying out woodworking products Sawing sais Different types of saws must be used when you mpislenotoesiicgcimecion ind when you cut across or perpendicular or at an an: I gle to the fiber direction of is peer Arip saw is used to cut along the fiber of the wood. It has typically a 26 Hy long creer ore eeeaiamablag vile a cross cut sawis used to cut across r perpendicular or at an angle to the fiber of the wood. It is usually slightly shorter than a rip saw with fine teeth — usually 8 - 12 per inch. Saw set is used to adjust the kerf or te i oe leeth of the saw in order to reduce friction between the saw blade and wood, and to discharge the saw dust easily.cums Ment ones 7 RIPPING. cRosscurrins Sawing angles: Ripping - When sawing along the cutting lines, make sure that your head is right above or on the extension line from the saw blade so that you can cut straight. with the top surface and cutting surface of the wood forms the right angle. When starting to Cut, guide the saw blade with your thumb and make a small chase. When finishing Cutting, move the saw slowly in the horizontal direction and support the removing piece of wood at the same time to avoid splitting Cutting Posture Posture in starting and ending the cut Asaw angle should be adjusted depending on the kind of wood. The recommended angle is 1530 degrees for softand thin wood and 30 - 45 degrees for hard and thick wood. You can cut wood joints with good precision by using a back saw that has thin saw blade with a large number of teeth (13 ~ 15 teeth per inch) and a steel supporter attached on the back of the blade.Hand Planing ji i d to be shaved After cutting wood by sawing, the surface need ti Orrmate smooth by a plane. Careful consideration needs to be given to the direction of ' plane shaving and fiber in order to get the surface smooth after planing. The 5 ‘Running direction of hand plane indicated by arrows Ports of @ Hand plane When planing along fiber direction, a plane should run parallel to fiber direction and straight and never curve. Make sure also that about one-third of the width of each planing stroke overlap each other. In order to get a good result, plane blade needs to be sharp. Ifit gets worn out it needs to be sharpened. STnallh [DIRS LENG Running direction of hand ploneAdhesion and Joint Adhesion Ww ‘When making a large and flat product like a table, ou need t than two. wooden boards side by side. is pa for this oe A clamp should be set on booth top and bottom of the boards ina balanced way. Use adhesive to attach wooden board together. There are mai ny kind: hence, you need to consider the material property. Ye ee Glue line Bar clamp oa TOW ‘Making o wide pane! WOES Keep the clamps tightened until adhesive becomes hardened in order to obtain strong adhesion result. For adhesives that harden in a short period of time, use a clamp that can easily be tightened and removed. Remove excess adhesives immediately for it will cause uneven coloring in the painting or finishing process after assembly. elationship between adhesive ond materilsConstruction Nails and screws are used when constructing components. When nailing , the nail should be 2.5 timed direction a longer than the thickness of the bocte it is in parallel with the fiber directio, longer than ire than 2.6 times the thickness of the board. Applying some adhesive the jomt surface adds strength to the product. Nailing sometimes spit the boarg tone the force of the nail. To prevent this problem, drill a pilot hole in the wood t be nailed, When a nail was bent and needs to be pulled out ysing a claw hammer make sure to insert a piece of scrap wood between the claw hammer and the material to protect its surface from being damaged. When you intend to disassemble the product later or need to obtain a strong joint, using a wood screw is recommended. tino of res Driving at parallel direction te sod Fiber | ' Nail length ia 2.5 Mail Jongth is Is, tines of t | nore than 2.5 i } | tines of t Relationship between matenial thickness, fiber direction and nail lengthDriving and Pulling Nails : There are two important things to consider in driving or pulling nails, one isto If, and two to drive and remove nails . This requires knowledge of some basic techniques and requires a lot of practice. 1. To make sure that the hammer strikes the nail — not your fingers — and that the hammer's blow will drive the nail squarely into the work, grasp .. Keep your eye on the ail as you swing the hammer downward and let the weight of the hammer’s head do the driving. If you must drive a nail near the end ofa material (especially lumber), blu The blunted point will punch rough the wood fibers and thereby reduce the chance of splitting the material. 2. The last blow from the hammer should push the head of most nails flush with the surface of the wood. If you want to’ drive the nails below the surface of the material, use a nail set. 3. With some materials especially hardwood and moldings, you'll have efore driving the nail jake the pilot holes sli an the diameter of the nails. 4. When removing or "pling deformed or bent nails = z arring the C ba fith long nails, you may ave substitute a thicker piece of the scrap once you get the nail part way out.Miscellaneous Hardware Most of them are necessary 1. Miscellaneous hardware mi era tet Shelf Supports - These are hardware usually needed to hang or suspend shelves on walls. It includes the following: a) Alurninum shelf standard and brackets; b) Bent metal Z- bracket; c) Utility brackets; and Folding Steel brackets. Metal Plates and Framing Fasteners — These metal plates and fasteners are used to strengthen weal .. Mending plates are used to reinforce end-to-end butt joints; T plates handle end-to-end joints, Flat corner irons strengthen comer joints by attaching to the face of the material; and Comer braces do the same thing but attach to end surface. (DISC [ool Door and Cabinet Hardware — These hardware are typically used i It also include s and and sulle cruwn Wood Coating or Finishing Process Wood finishing is the process: of enhancing: the: appearance. ond GUrabiliyof _ projects made of wood th ugh the application of suitable fi materials and proper techniques. The purpose of wood coating or finishing istaypmieci iful finish of wood grain. By applying the coating wit jaterials are indispensable in carpentry a to make the job easy, sturdy, and neat looking, i sal . je same color as the ood grain or the color that is unique to the wood, joints and cracks of the material are patched ae a ooAllofwhich contributes to good sensuous effects such as clear wot P ‘olor, luster, smoothness, and fine hand touch, od aren viorent Wood finishing process includes a step called sanding that is to remove scratches _ and excess adhesive that remained on the surface by using sand paper of 180 to | 20 grt sae Dented part is filled with wood putty to make a flat surface. Then, wood stain together with paste wood filler is applied to the part. After sanding, apply wood sealer to stabilize the surface and polish again with t size sandpaper. Lastly apply top coat finish to complete the process. Wood Finishing Process Preparing the surface for finishing: 4. Cleaning- Be sure that the surface to be finished are (often left by some paint removers), or pitch (on pine and other coniferous wood). You can swab-and-dry the surface with turpentine or paint thinner, lacquer thinner and others. 2. Sanding - Always use a sanding block when a plane surface is involved. Use sandpaper curved in your fingers for curved surfaces. Start with medium sand paper. Do not sand across the grain. When the job is extra meticulous, use the grain raising trick, - After the final sanding with extra fine sand paper, dampen the surface thoroughly with water. Let it dry completely. This will raise little wood fibers, and when you give the surface a final sanding with extra fine sand papers, the result will be perfectly smooth. seo 78SANDING PROCESS Wood Finishing Materials: 41, Varnish — This is the tial. It is a solution of tough resins. In petroleum derivatives, the “vehicle” evaporates leaving a film on the wood. 2. Shellac - This isa 3. Penetrating Finish — This i: most common hazards, darkening its color ‘somewhat, yet finish. 4. Fillers - These are basically pastes which of the wood. With the pores filled, you are able to put on a perfectly smooth finish with no texture whatsoever. lerived from a lac bug. Protecting it from leaving only little 5. Lacquer — This material is qui ing, composed ksh a in 3. It intend: of all — and in some special formula leaves it unchanged, or even lighter than the natural color. 6. Bleaches — they take three forms: There are actual bleaches that li remove dyes from cloth. ighten the wood the same way bleach can There are stains that are effectively lighter in color than the wood. There are non-darkening prime hold the light color of the wood, 7. Opaque finishes - These are pail . and Jou use hem when you warts edoriniend of mood case es 8. Stains - Stains are necessary to give the wood its'accepted color. Coats which, although they do not bleach,