RAC Concept

UM
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
(Section – C REFRIGERATION & AIR-CONDITIONING)
CONTENTS
CHAPTER TOPIC PAGE No.
1.
OR
Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 2
2. Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle 7
3. Refrigerant 13
4. Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System 15
5. Gas cycle Refrigeration / Reversed Brayton

SF
Cycle / Bell Coleman Cycle 17
6. Properties of Moist Air (Psychrometrics) 19
7. Psychrometry of Air Conditioning Processes 25

IE
For ‘IES FORUM’ Students Only
This book contains copyright subject matter to IES FORUM, ALLAHABAD. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means. Violators are liable to be legally prosecuted
IES FORUM MANAGING DIRECTOR : A.K. PANDEY (Ex. IES) Mob. : 8953479954 1
REFRIGERATION & AIR-CONDITIONING
1
UM
Refrigeration is the process in which heat is removed from a body (enclosed space) so that its temperature is reduced and
then maintained at the temperature below the surrounding temperature.
The working substance which is used to produce refrigeration is known as refrigerant.
Heat Engine : A heat engine is work producing device. Heat engine produces work when an amount of heat is supplied. In
actual, it does not convert total heat into work, some amount of heat is rejected.
Work output
Efficiency of an engine =
Heat supplied
W
ηHE =
Q1
ηHE =
OR
Q1 = W + Q2
W = Q1 – Q2
Q1 − Q2
Q1
= 1−
For carnot Heat Engine η = 1 –

Q2
T1
T2
T1
Q2 T2
as for Carnot Heat engine =
Q1 T1
Heat Pump : This machine is used to remove heat from a body at lower temperature and transfer this heat to a body
having high temperature on the expense of external work supplied
SF
High Temperature Room Conditional space
Lower Temperature Surrounding

IE
Desired effect
Coefficient of Performance =
Work input
Q1
COP =
W
As per first law Q1 = W + Q2
W = Q1 – Q2
Q1
UM
COP =
Q1 − Q2
T1
For Carnot Heat Pump COP =
T1 − T2
Q2 T2
as for Carnot Cycle =
Q1 T1
OR
Difference between Heat Pump / Refrigerator : Same machine can be used either for cooling or for heating. When used
for cooling, it is called Refrigerating mfc and when used for heating. It is called heat pump.
The main difference between the two is in their operating temperatures. A refrigerant machine operates between Ambient
Temperature and Low Temeprature.
A heat pump operates between ambient temperature and high temperature.
Another essential difference is in their useful function, in a refrigerating machine, the heat exchanger that absorbs heat
(evaporator) is connected to conditioned space.
In a heat pump, instead the heat exchanger that rejects heat is connected to the conditioned space. Thus if a refrigerating
machine that is used for cooling in summer is used as a heat pump for heating in winter, it will be necessary to
(i) To rotate the machine by 180° to interchange the positions of two heat exchangers between the space and surrounding.
(ii) To exchange the functions of two heat exchangers by operation of valves e.g. four way valve in window type air
conditioner.
SF
Units of Refrigeration : 1 TR (One ton of Refrigeration) means capacity of freeze one ton of water from and at 0°C in 24
hour.
1 TR = 211 kJ / min
1 TR = 3.517 kW
Heat Pump Vs. Electric Resistance Heater :
Q2 Q2 1
(COP)R = EC = = =
W Q1 − Q2 Q1 − 1
Q2
Idea about approximate magnitude of numerical values of these coefficients.
The thermal efficiency of heat engines is of order of 30 percent (say) so
Q2 Q2 7
η=1– = 0.3 ⇒ = 1 – 0.3 = 0.7 =
IE
Q1 Q1 10
Q1 10
=
Q2 7
1 1 7
(COP)R = = = = 2.33
10 3 3
−1
7 7
(COP)HP = 3.33
The value of COP for air conditioner is order of Z.
Q1
( C O P )
HP
=
W
UM
Q1 = (COP)HP × W
Q1 = [1 + (COP)R] × W
Q1 = 3 W
Then the heat pumped is 3W while power consumption is only W.
In case of electric resistance heater, if W is the energy consumption of Electric Resistance heater, the heat released to space
will be W only.
While in case of heat pump, while the power consumption is only W, heat pumped is 3 W.
Hence heat pump is definite advancement over simple electric resistance heater. Only the cost of heat pump (which is a
refrigerating machine) is prohibitive. But when an airconditioned plant is already installed for cooling in summer, it would
always be prudent to use it for heating as well in winter, operating at a heat pump.
Reversed Carnot Cycle :
Carnot Cycle :
OR
Q1 = T1 ∆S
Q 2 = T2 ∆S
Q1 T1
= η = 1−
Q2
Q2 T2
SF
Q1
Q1 − Q2
Process 1 – 2 → Isothermal heat addition =
Q1
T2
Process 2 – 3 → Adiabatic expansion η = 1−
T1
Process 3 – 4 → Isothermal heat rejection
Process 4 – 1 → Adiabatic compression
Reversed Carnot Cycle :
IE
Process 1 – 2 → Adiabatic expansion Q1 = T1 ∆S
Process 2 – 3 → Isothermal heat addition Q2 = T2 ∆S
Q2
Process 3 – 4 → Adiabatic compression
UM
(COP)R =
Q1 − Q2
T2
Process 4 – 1 → Isothermal heat rejection =
T1 − T2
Selection of Operating Temperature (T1 and T2) : The selection of temperature (T2) depends upon particular application
of refrigeration.
e.g. Summer air conditioner, room is maintained temperature equal to 25°C. To offset the heat entering the room, air must be
supplied at temperature lower than 25°C at equal to 15°C. The air conditioner will therefore cool the air from 25°C to 15°C.
OR
Accordingly, the refrigerant temperature (to) should be less than 15°C to absorb heat from air conditioner maintaining finite
∆t across the heat exchanger.
SF
(If we want ∆t to be zero, area requirement of heat exchanger will be infinitely).

In similar manner, approximate refrigerant temperature we requirement can be found out for various application :
Air Conditioning in summer 0 – 10
cold storage – 10 – 2
Domestic refrigerator – 25
Frozen food – 35
The selection of T1 depends upon the surrounding medium used for heat rejection. There are two possible media – water and
air (water cooled condenser / air cooled condenser).
Consider air cooled unit. Let surrounding temperature be 45°C. Let rise in temeprature of air after absorbing heat be 10°C.
Hence the temperature of heat rejection has to be greater than 55°C say 65°C so that
IE
Air is used widely as cooling medium in small refrigerating machine such as refrigerator, window type air conditioner and
small packaging unit.
Water as a cooline medium is preferable to air as it affords lower value of T1 because of following reasons :
(i) It is available at temperature lower than air. Its temperature approaches the wet bulb temperature of surrounding air.
UM
(ii) The specific heat of water is about four times that of air. Thus for same heat rejection and same machine flow, ∆t of water
1
is of air, hence T1 is lower..
4
(iii) Water has higher heat transfer coefficient than air say 5000 W/m2K against 100 in forced cocnvection and 10 in free
convection of air.
For same example :
Let dry bulb temperature be 45°C, wet bulb temperature be 28°C. Then temperature of water from Cooling Tower may be
10
taken as 30°C. With same mass flow temperature rise of water may be taken as = 2.5°C only (say 5°C for design)
4
Thus use of water result in lower T1, higher COP and lower
OR •••
Power consumption.
SF
IE
2
UM
VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
In an actual vapour refrigeration cycle, an expansion engine is not used since pours recovery is small and does not justify the
cost of Engine. A Throttling volve or capillary tube is used for expansion in reducing the pressure from p1 to p2.
∫
The expression for work − vdp .
For some pressure difference, the work depends upon volume v of working substance. In the expander, refrigerant is in the
liquid state, whereas in the compressor, it is in the gaseous state. The volume of vapour is very large compared to volume
of liquid (vg >>> vf) [500 – 1000 times]. Hence positive work of isentropic expansion is seldom large enough to justify the
cost of an expander.
The basic operations are :
OR
SF
The operations represented are as follows for an idealized plant.

1. Compression : A reversible adiabatic process 1-2 or 1′2′ either starting with wet vapour (state 1′) called wet compression.
Indry compression, there is danger of liquid refrigerant being trapped in cylinder head damaging valves of cylinder head.
IE
Further, the droplets of liquid refrigerant may wash away the lube oil from walls of cylinder, thus accelerating wear.
2. Cooling and Condensation : A reversible constant pressure process 2-3, first desperheated and condensed, ending with
saturated liquid.
3. Expansion : An adiabatic throatling process 3-4 for which enthalpy remains unchanged. It is irreversible process and it can
not be shown on property diagrams. States 3 and 4 have simply been joined by dotted line.
4. Evaporation : A consant pressure reversible process 4-1.
Heat flows from surrounding (enclosed space) to refrigerant which then evaporates, absorbing the heat of evaporation. The
evaporator thus produces the cooling effect or refrigerating effect, absorbing heat from the surrounding by evaporation.
UM
It is worth noting that two of the processes of vapour compression cycle are constant pressure and one is at constant
enthalpy, so it is convenient to represent the vapour compression cycle on pressure enthalpy diagram.
Calculations : Heat taken by refrigerant q2 = h1 – h4 (refrigeration effect)
Heat rejected q 1 = q2 + w = h2 – h3
COP for cooling =

q2 h1 − h4
=
w h2 − h1
[w = −∫ vdp = −∫ dh]
COP for heating

OR =
q1 h2 − h3
=
w h2 − h1
dh = TdS – vdp
as ds = 0
dh = – vdp
Refrigeration capacity
Refrigerant circulation rate m = Refrigeration effect per unit mass
Q
m =
q2
SF
 (h2 – h1)
Power consumption = m
 (h2 – h3)
Heat rejected in condenser = m
( h2 − h1 )
Power consumption per ton of refrigeration = 3.51
( h1 − h4 )
3.516
Mass flow rate per ton of refrigeration =
( h1 − h4 )
Effect of operating conditions : For the purpose of comparison, a case is made for the use of standard operating conditions.
According to current practice in USA, Germany and India, the testing of single stage from compressor for air conditioning
IE
application is carried out at t2 = 5°C and t1 = 40°C and suction temperature of 20°C.
Effect of Evaporator Pressure (Temperature) :
UM
It is observed that decrease in evaporator temperature (pressure) results in :
(a) Decrease in refrigerating effect from (h1 – h4) to (h11 − h41 )
(b) Increase in specific volume of suction vapour from V1 to V11

(c) Decrease in volumetric efficiency due to increase in pressure ratio.
(d) Increase in compression work from (h2 – h1) to (h21 − h11 ) .

OR
Effect of Condenser Pressure (Temperature) :
An increase in condenser pressure (saturation temperatures similarly results in

SF
(a) Decrease in refrigerating effect from (h1 – h4) to ( h1 − h41 ) .

(b) Increase in Power consumption
1/ 2
 p2  Vc
(c) Decrease in volumetric efficience due to increased pressure ratio [η = 1 + c – c   c= V
 p1  p
It may however may be noted that effect of increase in condenser pressure is not as severe as that of decrease in evaporator
pressure.
Q' h1 − h4'  v '

= ×
Q h1 − h4  v
IE
W ' h2 ' − h1 h1 − h4
= ×
W h1 − h4 ' h2 − h1
Effect of suction vapour superheat :
UM
Effect of superheating of suction vapour
(a) Increase in specific volume from v1 to v1′.
(b) Increase in refrigerator effect from (h1 – h4) to ( h11 − h4 )
(c) Increase in specific work from (h2 – h1) to ( h21 − h11 )
Q' h1' − h4 v1 W ' h2 ' − h1' h1 − h4

= × = ×
OR
Q h1 − h4 v1 ' W h1' − h4 h2 − h1
An increase in specific volume decreases capacity. On the contrary, an increase in refrigerating effect will increase the
capacity. The net effect of suction vapour super heat is to theoritically reduce the capacity in ammonia system and to
increase in Freon-12 system.
Similarly for work done per unit for refrigeration, then one-two influences – increase in refrigeration effect means decrease
in mass flow requirement and hence work and increase in specific work itself.
Effect of Liquid Subcooling :
SF
(a) Liquid subcooling reduces flashing of liquid during expansion.

(b) Refrigeration effect is increased.
Use of Liquid Vapour Regenerative Heat Exchanger :
IE
UM
W11 h21 − h11 h1 − h4
Power Consumption per ton of refrigeration ⇒ = ×
W1 h11 − h41 h2 − h1
Q ' h1 − h4 ' v1
Refrigeration capacity = ×
Q h1 − h4 v1 '
OR
Actual Vapour Compression Cycle :
SF
1. Superheating in evaporator (1d – 1c)

2. Superheating / heat gain in suction line (1c – 1b)
3. Pressure drop in suction line (1b – 1a)
4. Pressure drop in compression suction valve (1a – 1)
5. Polytropic compression (with friction / heat transfer to surrounding) (1 – 2)
6. Pressure drop at compressor discharge valve (2 – 2a)
IE
7. Pressure drop in delivery line (2 – 2b)

8. Heat loss / desuperheating in delivery line (2b – 2c)
9. Condensation (2c – 3)
10. Subcooling in condenser / subcooler (3 – 3a)
11. Heat gain in liquid line (3a – 3b)
12. Expansion (3b – 4)
13. Evaporation (4 – 1d)
Comparison of vapour compression cycle with reversed Carnot Cycle :
UM
1. In vapour compression cycle, desuperheating between C and C′ is at constant pressure rather than constant temperature.
Therefore more work has to be supplied to the compressor. There is an equivalent amount of increase in magnitude of heat
rejected.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
OR
In vapour compression cycle, there is loss of refrigeration effect equivalent of area PQAT.
The effect of all these deviations is to increase the compression work required or decrease the refrigeration effect. Therefore
COP of Vapour Compression Cycle will be less then Reversed Carnot Cycle.
Required Properties of Ideal Refrigerant :
The Refrigerant should have low boiling point and low freezing point.
It must have low specific heat and high latent heat.
The pressures required to be maintained in evaporation and condenser should be low enough to reduce the material cost.
4. It should have low specific volume to reduce the size of the compressor.
5. It should have high thermal conductivity to reduce the area of heat transfer in evaporator / condenser.
6. It should be non-flammable, non-explosive, non-toxic and non-corrosive.
7. It should give high COP in working temperature range.
Important Refrigerant (Properties at – 15°C)
SF
NH3 (R – 717) CCl2F2 (R – 12) CHClF2 (R – 22)
Latent heat (kJ / kg) 1312.75 162 131
3
Specific volume (h1 / kg) 0.509 0.093 0.15
•••
IE
REFRIGERANT 3
UM
Type of Refrigerants
Primary Refrigerant : Primary refrigerants are those refrigerant which absorb heat directly from storage space by under-
going in a cycle. It absorbs latent heat e.g. NH3, R – 11, R – 12, R – 22.
Secondary Refrigerant : These refrigerant is first cooled by primary refrigerant and then used for cooling at the required
place. Secondary refrigerant does not undergo in a cycle and it absorbs sensible heat.
Common Refrigerants
Inorganic Refrigerant
Ammonia (NH3) Used with reciprocating and screw compressors in cold storage, Ice plant etc.
Water (H2O) Used in water Lithium bromide absorption system and steam ejector system.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Used as solid Carbondioxide (dry ice) in transpart refrigeration.
R – 11 (CCl3F)
R – 12 (CCl2F2)
R – 22 (CHClF2)
OR
Organic Refrigerants (Chloro-Fluorocarbon CFC)
Used with centrifual compressors in large capacity central air conditioning plant.
Used with reciprocating compressor in small units like domestic refrigerator, water cooler.
Used with reciprocating compressor in window type air conditioning and large units such as
package units and central AC plants.
Designation of Refrigerant :
Case A : Refrigerant is saturated hydrocarbon (R – 11, R – 12, R – 22, R – 134)
Chemical Formula CmHnFpClq
where n + p + q = 2m + 2
The complete designation of refrigerant is :
R (m – 1) (n + 1) p
Refrigerant Test of saturated hydrocarbon Designation
SF
C Cl3 F m = 1, n = 0, p = 1 q = 3 R (1 – 1) (0 + 1) 1
n + p + q = 2m + 2 R 011
0+1+3=2×1+2 R 11
4=4
C Cl2 F2 m = 1, n = 0, p = 2, q = 2 R (1 – 1) (0 + 1) 2
n + p + q = 2m + 2 R 012
0+2+2=2×1+2 R 22
4=4
CHClF2 m = 1, n = 1, p = 2, q = 1 R (1 – 1) (1 + 1) 2
n + p + q = 2m + 2 R 022
1+2+1=2×1+2 R 22
IE
4=4
C2Cl3 F3 m = 2, n = 0, p = 3, q = 3 R (2 – 1) (0 + 1) 3
n + p + q = 2m + 2 R 113
0+3+3=2×2+2
6=6
CH4 m = 1, n = 4, p = 0, q = 0 R (1 – 1) (4 + 1) 0
n + p + q = 2m + 2 R 050
4+0+0=2×1+2 R 50
4=4
UM
Case B : Unsaturated hydrocarbon chemical formulae CmHnFpClq
In this case n + p + q = 2m
These refrigerants are designated as R – 1 (m – 1) (n + 1) p
e.g.
Refrigeration Test for saturated / Unsaturated hydrocarbon Designation
C2H4 m = 2, n = 4, p = 0, q = 0 R – 1(2 – 1) (4 + 1) 0
n + p + q = 2m R 1150
2
4 = 2x
4=4
Case C : Refrigerant is inorganic compound (NH3, H2O, CO2) then such refrigerants are designated as –
R – (700 + Molecular weight)
e.g.
1.
Refrigerant
NH3
Water (H2O)
CO2
Selection of Refrigerant
Thermodynamic Properties :
17
18
44
OR
Molecular weight Designation
R – 717
R – 718
R – 744
Critical temperature should be high (To ensure reasonable refrigerating effect which becomes very small if state of liquid
before expansion is near the critical point)
2. Critical pressure should be low (To result in low condensing pressure)
3. Freezing point should be low (as refrigerant must operate in cycle above its freezing point)
4. Specific volume of suction vapour should be low (It is an indication of size of compressor)
5. Latent heat of vapourisation should be high (To ensure large refrigerating effect)
SF
6. Heat conductivity should be high
Chemical Properties :
1. It should be non-toxic and non-flammable.
2. Refrigerant should not be miscible with oil.
3. It should not attack material of construction of equipment.
Physical Properties :
1. It’s velocity should be low
2. There is no look tendency
•••
IE
VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 4
UM
In the Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System, the function of compressor is accomplished in three step process by use of
absorber, pump and generator as follows :
1. Absorber : Absorption of the refrigerant vapour in suitable absorbent, forming a rich solution of refrigerant in absorbent.
2. Pump : Pumping of the rich solution raising its pressure to condenser pressure.
3. Generator : Distillation of vapour from rich solution leaving poor solution for recycling.
∫
The pump work QP = − vdp is very small compared to compressor work in vapour compression system as specific
volume (v) of liquid is extremely small compared to vapour (vf << vg). The energy consumption of system is mainly in
generator in form of heat supplied. e.g. Simple acqua (water) ammonia absorption system, (ammonia is refrigerant and
water is absorbent).
In the basic absorption system, the compressor in the vapour compression cycle is replaced by absorber generator
OR
assembly involving less mechanical work.
Acqua Ammonia Absorption system : In acqua ammonia absorption system, ammonia is the refrigerant and water is the
absorbent. Ammonia vapour is vigorously absorbed in water. So when low pressure ammonia vapour comes in contact in
the absorber with weak solution coming from generator (in which concentration of ammonia in water is low), it is readily
absorbed releasing the heat of solution (QA). Absorber is cooled by circulating water to maintain constant temperature.
Strong solution (rich in ammonia) is pumped to generator where heat (QG) is supplied from external source (steam,
electricity, gas flame etc.) Since the boiling point of ammonia is less than that of water, ammonia vapour is released from
strong solution and weak solution returns to absorber through pressure reducing value.
The heat exchanger preheats the strong solution and precools the weak solution reducing both QG and QA.
The ammonia vapour then condenses in condenser, is throttled by expansion value, then evaporates, absorbing the heat of
evaporation from surrounding or brine to be chilled.
SF
IE
Theoretical cop of Vapour Absorption System
UM
First law → QE + QG = QA + QC
dQ
Claussius equality → ∫ T
=0
QG QE Q A QC
+ = +
TG TE TO TO
QG QE QE + QG QE QG
Q A + QC
TO
OR
+ = = +
TG TE TO TO TO
Divide by QG →
QE 1 QE  1  QE 1 1
+   =   +
TG QG  TE
COP =
SF
QG  QG  T0  T0
QE  1 1  1 1 TG − T0
 −  = − =
QG  TE T0  T0 TG T0 TG
 TE   TG − TO  QE  TO − TE   TG − TO 
(COP)max =   ×     −  
 TO − TE   TG  QG  TE TO   TO TG 
 TE   TG − TO 
(COP)max =   ×  
 TO − TE   TG 
IE
= [Ideal COP of Ref working between T0 and TE] × [Ideal efficiency of engine working between
T0 and TG].
•••
GAS CYCLE REFRIGERATION / REVERSED BRAYTON
CYCLE / BELL COLEMAN CYCLE 5
UM
Refrigeration can also be accomplished by means of gas cycle. In gas cycle, expander replaces the throttle valve of vapour
compression system. Work output obtained from expander is used as aid in compression.
The Ideal gas refrigeration cycle is Reversed Brayton Cycle.
Process 1 – 2 Isentropic compression

OR
Process 2 – 3 Constant Pressure heat rejection
Process 3 – 4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4 – 1 Constant pressure heat absorption
Since, there is no phase chane, the condenser and evaporator in vapour compression system are called here the cooler and
refrigerator respectively.
SF
Q2 h1 − h4
COP = =
Wnet (h2 − h1 ) − (h3 − h4 )
(T1 − T4 )
COP =
 Te  T 
T1  − 1 − T4  3 − 1
 T1   T4 
IE
 −1
T2  p2   T3
=  =
T1  p1  T4
(T1 − T4 ) T4
COP = =
T  T3 − T4
(T1 − T4 )  3 − 1
 T4 
1 1
COP = =
(r )
 −1  −1
 p2    −1
  −1
p
 p1 
UM
p2
p1 = rp = Compression ratio
Application of Aircraft Refrigeration : The gas cycle is extremely used in aircrafts. It is more appropriate to call it air
cycle refrigeration since only air has found application as working substance in this cycle.
The coefficient of performance of this cycle is lower than that of vapour compression cycle. Never the less aircycle
continues to be favoured for aircraft refrigeration because of its many advantages like :
(i) Bulk the weight advantage due to no heat exchanger at cold end and common turbo compressor for both engine and
refrigeration unit.
(ii) Cabin pressurization and air-conditioning can be combined into one operation.
(iii) Small amount of leakage are tolerable with air as refrigerant.
(iv) Initial compression of air is obtained by Ram Effect viz. Conversion of high kinetic energy of ambient air relative to aircraft
into enthalpy and hence pressure rise.
OR
Closed Air Cycle System / Open Air Cycle System : The air cycle can work as an open cycle or closed cycle system. The
closed air cycle has few advantages. It can work at suction pressure higher than atmosphere. This reduces volume handled
by compressor and expander. Also operating pressure ratio can be reduced, resulting in higher cop.
In Open Air Cycle System, air after expansion is directly lad to conditioned space. It does not require heat exchanger for
refrigeration process. This saves the weight and cost of equipment.
Simple Aircraft Refrigeration Cycle with Ram Compression :
c2
h2 = h1 +
2
C is velocity of air craft
c2
CpT2 = CpT1 +
2
SF
c2
T2 = T1 + 2C
p
T2 c2
= 1+
T1 2C pT1
T2 c2
= 1+
T1  R 
2 T1
  −1 
  −1  c
2
T2
= 1+   2
IE
Refrigeration effect = Cp (Ti – Ts)

T1  2 a
Ti is room temperature inside cabin a = RT1 acoustic velocity
T2   −1  2
and Ts is temperature after expansion = 1+  M
T1  2 
M is Mach No. of flight
•••
PROPERTIES OF MOIST AIR (PSYCHROMETRICS)
6
UM
Working substance in air conditoning is moist air which comprises of dry air and water vapour.
One might ask whether moist air can be considered as pure substance. But a pure substance is homogenous and invariable
in chemical composition. Thus, a homogenous mixture of gases is pure substance until its components do not change in
phase. Dry air is good example. Water vapour is also pure substance.
But moist air is not pure substance in any process in which condensation or evaporation of moisture occurs. In such case,
there is need of regular charts to describe the thermodynamic properties of mixture under different conditions and
compositions.
Thus, moist air consists of two parts – One comprising dry air considered as fixed part and other solely of water vapour.
Considered as variable part. Both dry air and water vapour can be considered as perfect gases since both exist in atmosphere
at low pressure. Hence perfect gas laws can be applied to them individually.
Dalton Law of Partial Pressure : For a mixture of ideal gases, the total pressure is equal to sum of the partial pressure.
OR p = p1 + p2 + p3 + .... + pn
Partial pressure is defined as pressure exterted by individual gas assuming each gas is existing separately at volume V and
temperature T of the mixture.
Gibb’s Theorem : Gibb’s theorem enunciates that internal energy of mixture is equal to sum of internal energies of individual
component, taken each at the temperature and volume of the mixture.
U = U1 + U2 + ...... + Un
(mu) = m1u1 + m2u2 + ...... + mnun
Similarly H = H1 + H2 + ...... + Hn
enthalpy mh = m1h1 + m2h2 + ..... + mnhn
Specific heat C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ..... + Cn
mc = m1c1 + m2c2 + m3c3 + ..... + mncn
Psychrometric Properties : Moist air is mixture of Dry air and water vapour. A mixture of two substances requires three
SF
properties to completely define its thermodynamic state, unlike a pure substances which require only two. One of the three
properties is composition of mixture.
The properties of moist air are called psychrometric properties and the subject which deals with behaviour of moist air is
known as Psychrometry.
Specific humidity (w) : Specific humidity (or humidity ratio or moisture content or absolute humidity) is defined as ratio of
mass of water vapour (mv) to mass of dry air (ma) in a given volume of mixture.
v
mass of water vapour mv p mv vv va
= = 0.622 v = =
w= ma v vv
mass of dry air ma pa
va
IE
R
where pv is partial pressure of water vapour p a V = ma =T
Ma
R
pa is partial pressure of dry air p v V = mv =T
Mv
mv M v pv
p = pv + pa ⇒ =
ma M a p a
⇒ pa = p – pv Mv = 18.016 Ma = 28.966
 pv 
so W = 0.622  
 p − pv 
UM
Specific humidity is function of partial pressure of water vapour only.
Concept of Saturation of air and dew point temperature :
is considered as unsaturated air.

OR
State 1 depicts the normal thermodynamic state of water vapour in moist air. The water vapour existing at temperature T of
the mixture and partial pressure pv of the vapour in mixture is in superheated state. Moist air containing moisture in such state
If this air is cooled at constant pressure, the mixture will reach eventually at the saturated temperature (td) of water vapour
corresponding to its partial pressure. At this state, first drop of dew will be formed, i.e. water vapour in the mixture will start
condensing. This temperature is called Dew Point Temperature (DPT). There is a unique dew point temperature for a
particular partial pressure (pv) / specific humidity (w).
Dew point temperature can be found by knowing from the steam table, the saturation temperature (td) for given partial
pressure (pv) of water vapour.
Concept of Degree of Saturation ()
SF
IE
Control Volume : Let us consider, water vapour existing at temperature T of mixture and partial pressure pv. Consider now,
that more water vapour is added in this control volume V at temperature T itself. The partial pressure (specific humidity) will
go on increasing with addition of water vapour until it reaches value ps at state 2, after which it cannot increase further as ps
is saturation pressure of water at temperature T. The air containing moisture in such a state is called saturated air. In this
UM
state, air is holding the maximum amount of water vapour (ws).
There is unique value of saturation pressure (or specific humidity) for moist air at a given temperature.
ps
The maximum possible specific humidity (ws) at temperature T is ws = 0.622
p − ps .
The ratio of actual specific humidity to specific humidity of saturated air at temperature (ws) is termed as degree of saturation.
w
mµ =
ws
pv ps
w = 0.622 ws = 0.622
p − pv p − ps
OR w pv  p − ps 
 
ps  p − pv 
µ= =
ws
Concept of Relative Humidity : Relative humidity (denoted by symbol φ or RH) is defined as ratio of mass of water vapour
in certain volume of moist air at given temperature to the mass of water vapour (mvs) in same volume of saturated air at same
temperature.
Mv
φ=
M vs
R
as pv V = mv T
Mv
SF
R
ps V = mvs T
Mv
pv mv
so =
ps mvs
mv pv
⇒ φ= =
mvs ps
Thus relative humidity turns out to be ratio of partial pressure of water vapour in a certain unsaturated moist air at given
temperature T to saturation pressure of water vapour at same temperature T.
It is usually measured in percentage
IE
pv
when pv = ps ⇒ φ = =1
ps
RH = 100% (Air is saturated)
Relation between degree of saturation () and Relative humidity () :
w pv  p − p s 
=  
ws ps  p − pv 
µ=
pv
φ=
ps
 p − ps 
UM
⇒ µ = φ  
 p − pv 
Enthalpy of Moist Air : From Gibbs Law H = Ha + Hv
H = ma h a + mv h v
mv
Enthalpy per kg of dry air h = ha +
ma hv
h = ha + w hv
h = Cpata + W [hfgo + Cpvt]
h = ha + w h v
OR As at low pressure, enthalpy is function of temperature only
hv = hA = hB
hB = (hg)0°C + CPV (t – 0)
h = Cpata + w [2500 + 1.88 t] hv = hA = hB = 2500 + 1.88t
h = 1.005t + w [2500 + 1.88 t]
Concept of Wet Bulb Temperature : The dry bulb temperature is directly exposed to Air and measure the actual
temperature of air. The bulb of wet bulb thermometer is covered by a wick thoroughly wetted by water. The temperature
SF
which is measured by wick covered bulb of such a thermometer indicates the temperature of liquid water in wick and is
called wet bulb temperature. Let it be devoted by t′.
IE
There is only one possible equilibrium wet bulb temperature for a given initial state A of moist air.
When unsaturated moist an at A flows over water in wick at f, the partial pressure in water vapour (pv) is low compared to
liquid water which is exerting vapour pressure ps. As result, liquid evaporates into air increasing vapour pressure of water
vapour to pv1 and decreasing vapour pressure of liquid water to ps1. The enthalpy of vapourisation is derived from liquid water
as well as air.
Accordingly, the state of water drops to f1, its vapour pressure to ps1 and state of leaving water vapour moves to 1.
The process is repeated until the equilibrium temperature t′ is reached in wick when water is wick is at f ′ and water vapour
in air leaving the bulb is saturated at g′.
UM
The wet bulb temperature is essentially not a thermodynamic property. It is the temperature of equilibrium reached by heat
transfer from air to water in wick due to temperature difference (t – t′) causing evaporation of water and consequent
diffusion of water vapour into air due to partial pressure difference (pv1 – pv) where pv1 is saturation water vapour pressure
at temperature t′.
OR
Energy balance equation fgA (t – t′) = mv hfg′ = KdA (pv1 – pv) hfg′
fg → heat transfer coefficient of air film around wetted surface
A → Area of wetted surface Mv → Rate of evaporation of water vapour
h′fg → Enthalpy of vapourization Kd → Mass transfer coefficient of water vapour
Kd '
t′ = t – h fg ( pv' − pv )
fg
As specific humidity is only function of partial pressure, the ( pv' − pv ) can be replaced by (w′ – w) with mass transfer
coefficient Ka replaced by Kw based on Specific Humidity difference.
Kw '
h fg ( w' − w)
SF
So t′ = t –
fg
It is found that WBT depends upon initial state of Air and heat and mass transfer coefficient of air film around wetted
surface. The difference between dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature is called wet bulb depression (WBD)
WBD = t – t′
If the ambient air is saturated viz the RH is 100 percent, then WBT and DBT will be equal. The wet bulb depression will be
zero. Thus, WBT is an indirect measure of dryness of air.
Adiabatic Saturation of Air : (Temperature of Adiabatic Saturation / Thermodynamic Wet bulb temperature)
IE
For any state of unsaturated moist air, there exist a temperature t* at which air becomes adiabatically saturated by evapora-
tion of water into Air at exactly same temperature t*.
By energy Balance = h + (w* – w) hf = h* .......(i)
h – whf = h* – w*hf *
UM
→ h* = Cpa t* + w* hv*
h* = Cpa t* + w* (hf* + hfg*) .......(ii)
→ h = Cpa t* + w hv
hv = hv* + Cpv (t – t*)
hv = (hf* + hfg*) + Cpv (t – t*)
h = Cpat + w [hf* + hfg* + Cpv (t – t*)
h = Cpat + w [hf * + hfg* + Cpv (t – t*) .......(iii)
h fg
From (1), (2), (3) we get, t* = t – (w* – w)
Cp
There is only one solution for t* and it depends only on initial state of air.
Difference between t and t* :
kw
t′ = t – ' ( w'− w) h fg ⇒ t = t –
h fg
' *
h 'fg *
Cp OR
( w − w)
Fortunately/ Unfortunately for air and water vapour mixture at low pressure
Kw
'
h fg
= h 'fg ⇒ K w = 1
fg Cp
hence t′ = t*
Thus by an entirely fortunate / unfortunate coincidence, the measurable, wet bulb tempeature and thermodynamic wet bulb
temperature are same. There is no theoretical basis to assume that two tempeature are same. For any other kind of gas and
vapour mixture, these would be different.
SF
Psychrometric Chart :
The Psychrometric chart is a graphical plot with specific humidity (partial pressure)
of water vapour as ordinate and dry bulb temperature as abscissa.
Difference between Constant Enthalpy Line and Constant Thermodynamic WBT Line :
Energy balance equation of Adiabatic saturation.
IE
h + (w* – w) hf = h*
h – whf = h* – w* hf
This is known as Σ heat function. It is constant along WBT line.
h – h* = (w – w*) hf
This difference is known as enthalpy deviation (D). This difference is very small (hence h ≈ h*) so constant enthalpy and
Constant WBT line are same for all practical purpose.
•••
PSYCHROMETRY OFAIR CONDITIONING
7
UM
PROCESSES
Basic Processes in Conditioning of Air :
OR
These are four basic thermodynamic processes and four combination of processes by which the state of moist air can be
altered :
S. No. Process Psychrometric Process
1. OA Sensible heating
2. OB Sensible cooling
3. OC Humidification
4. OD Dehumidification
5. OE Heating and Humidification
SF
6. OF Cooling and Dehumidification

7. OG Cooling and Humidification
8. OH Heating and Dehumidification
Sensible heating process / Sensible cooling process : (Sensible heat process)
IE
Sensible heat transfer

QS = ma (hB – hA)
= ma Cp (tB – tA)
Qs = ma [Cpa + wCpv] (tB – tA)
Qs = ma (1.005 + 1.88 w) (tB – tA)
Sensible heating of moist air can be done to any desired temperature, however cooling can be done only upto dew point
temperature.
Humidification or Dehumidification (Latent Heat Process) :
UM
In this process, moisture in the form of water vapour has to be transferred to change the humidity of air.
The transfer of moisture is given by, G = Ma (WC – WB).
Because of this change in specific humidity. There is also change in specific enthalpy. The change in enthalpy due to change
in moisture content is known as Latent Heat Transfer (QL), although it is misnomner.
QL = Ma (hC – hB)
OR
QL = Ma [(CPtC + WC hfg) – (CPtB + WB hB)]
QL = Ma hfg (WC – WB)
Total Heat Process (Heating and Humidification / Cooling and Humidification / Heating & Dehumidification /
Cooling and Dehumidification) :
SF
Let us take any process AC (cooling and dehumidification).

This involves both change in temperature as well as humidity ratio.
The change in temperature causes a sensible heat load given by :
QS = Ma (hB – hA)
QS = Ma (tC – tA)
The change in humidity ratio (moisture content) causes latent heat load given by :
QL = Ma (hC – hB)
IE
QL = Ma (hfg) (WC – WA)

Total heat load Q = QS + QL
Q = Ma [Cp (tC – tA) + hfg (WC – WA)
The Ratio of sensible heat transfer to total heat transfer is termed as sensible heat factor.
Qs Qs h − hA
SHF = = = B
Q Qs + Ql hC − hA
It may be noted that point B divides the total enthalpy change (hC – hA) in ratio of SHF and (1 – SHF)
QS = SHF × Q QS = SHF × (QS + QL)
QS = SHF × QS + SHF × QL
UM
QL = (1 – SHF) × Q
(1− SHF) Q = Q ⇒ Q = (1 – SHF) Q
S L L
SHF
Psychrometric Processes in Air-Conditioning Equipment : There are eight basic psychrometric processes as discussed
before. These processes will be achieved by using airconditioning equipments like heating coils, cooling coils, air washer,
water injection, steam injection etc.
Concept of By Pass Factor of Cooling Coil / Heating Coil : By pass factor is vital performance parameter of cooling
coil / Heating coil.
By fass factor =
OR
Lost cooling
Ideal cooling
t2 − ts
=
t1 − t s
w2 − ws
=
w1 − ws
h2 − hs
=
h1 − hs
SF
Actual cooling
Efficiency of coil =
Ideal cooling
IE
t1 − t 2 w1 − w2
ηcoil = =
t1 − ts w1 − ws
 t 2 − t s t1 − t 2   t1 − t s 
η + BPF =  +  =   = 1
 t1 − t s t1 − t s   t1 − t s 
Cooling and Dehumidifying Coils :
(Apparatus Dew Point ADP of coil)
UM
OR
Sensible cooling of air takes place when it flows over dry cooling coil whose surface temperature (ts) is lower than dry bulb
temperature of air. The leaving air state depends on by pass factor of coil.
There is minimum limit of coil temperature for simple cooling i.e. td which is equal to dew point temperature of entering air.
SF
IE
There is no method by which one can obtain simple dehumidification of air. Dehumidification process are accompanied with
either cooling or heating of air. Dehumidification will take place along with cooling if moist air flows over cooling coil whose
m e a n s u r f ats) is below than dewpoint temperature (td) of entering air. This temperature (ts) of the cold
c e t e m p e r a t u r e (
surface is known as Apparatus dew point (ADP) of coil. This is dew point of entering air w.r.t. cooling coil.
Between air and the surface, both sensible and latent heat transfer will take place. For sensible heat transfer, the driving
potential is (t – ts). For latent heat transfer, driving potential is partial pressure difference (pV – pVS) or corresponding humidity
difference (w – ws). The actual path followed by air will be curve 1-5 depending on heat and mass transfer co-efficient. The
leaving air state will be 2 as a result of by pass factor of coil.
Air Washer
UM
OR
It involves flow of air through spray of water. During the course of flow, the air may be cooled or heated, humidified
ordehumidified or simply adiabatically saturated depending upon mean surface temperature of water (ts).
SF
Process 1-2A Heating or humidification (when ts > t1)

Process 1-2B Humidification (ts = t1)
Process 1-2C Cooling or humidification (t′1 < ts < t1)
Process 1-2D Adiabatic saturation (t′1 = ts)
Process 1-2E Cooling and humidification (td < ts < t′1)
Process 1-2F Cooling (ts = td )
Process 1-2G Cooling and dehumidification (ts < td )
It is thus seen that Air washer affords means for year round air-conditioning system
Calculation of State and Mass Rate of Supply Air for different Air-conditioning System :
Simple Air Conditioning System : The problem of airconditioning a space essentially reduces to calculation of state and
IE
mass flow rate of air to be supplied to pick up its sensible and latent heat loads.
Sensible heat balance RSH = Q S = M a Cp (ti – ts)
Latent heat balance RLH = Q L = M a hfg (wi – ws)
UM
We have two equations. There are three unknown variables e.g. ts, ws and M a . Hence one of three variables is to be known
in advance or fixed from experience. Generally, it is supply air flow rate. Hence, ts, ws can be calculated. If supply state is
fixed, then rate to be calculated.
 C MM 
Q S = M a Cp (ti – ts) =   ρ C (t – t ) Mass flow rate Volume flow rate
 60  p i s
Let ρ = 1.2 kg / m3 Cp = 1.02 kJ / kg M a = QV × ρ
(C MM ) × 1.2 × 1.02 (C MM ) kg da
then QS = (ti – ts) = 0.0204 (CMM) (ti – ts) = 
60 60 sec
QS = 0.0204 (CMM) (ti – ts)
Similarly,
QL = M a (wi – ws) hfg hfg = 2500 kJ/kg
QL = OR
(C MM )
60
× 1.2 × 2500
QL = 50 (CMM) (wi – ws)
SHF =
QS
=
0.0204 (C MM ) (ti − t s )
QS + QL 0.0204 (ti − t s ) + 50 ( wi − ws )
Hence, all supply air states lie on a line, the slope of which is governed by above equation.
This line is locus of all possible supply air states. Each will have different flow rates.
The state s will have minimum flow rate while state i will require infinite flow rate.
SF
RSH
(C MM ) min =
IE
0.0204 (ti − t s )
RLH
(C MM ) min =
50 ( wi − ws )
Summer Air Conditioning (with Ventilation Air)
Case A : Assuming Zero By Pass Factor of Cooling Coil :
In summer, outside air temperature and humidity are both high. The room therefore gains heat as well as moisture. It is this
UM
required to cool and dehumidify the recirculated room air in air conditioning apparatus either by use of cooling coil or by an
air washer in which chilled water is sprayed.
The introduction of fresh outside air (ventilation air) for ventilation of conditioned space is necessary to dilute the carbon
dioxide and odours and other air contaminates for maintaining the purity of room air.
Accordingly, simple air-conditioning system is modified, so that supply air to room comprises fresh air and recirculated
room air.
OR
Here O and i represent the outside and inside air states. 1 is the state of air after missing of recirculated room air with
ventilation air.
SF
The break up of the load on air-conditioning apparatus is as follows :

Room Load Psychrometry of Mixing Process
Sensible RSH = 0.0204 (CMM)S (ti – t2)
Latent RLH = 50 (CMM)S (wi – w2)
Total RTH = RSH + RLH
Ventilation (Outside Air) Load
IE
Sensible OASH = 0.0204 (CMM)0 (t0 – ti)

Latent OALH = 50 (CMM)0 (w0 – wi)
Total OATH = OASH + OALH
Air conditioning equipment load
Total sensible TSH = RSH + OASH
Total latent TLH = RLH + OALH
Grand Total GTH = TSH + TLH
Ma1w1 + Ma2 w2
= OATH + RTH w3 =
Ma3
Ma1h1 + Ma2 h2
UM
GSHF is defined as : h3 =
Ma3
TSH Ma1t1 + Ma2t 2

GSHF = t3 =
TSH + TLH Ma3
Case 8 : Assuming By Pass Factor X
OR
In case, when bypass factor of cooling and dehumidifying apparatus is not zero, it is evident from above figure that if
surface temperature is ts (equal to room ADP), the leaving air state 2 will not be at S, it will be on the line joining 1 to S. Hence
the supply air state will not lie on room sensible heat factor line which is essential to satisfy the room sensible and latent heat
load requirements. In such a case, it is necessary to lower the effective surface temperature of the air-conditioning apparatus
in such a way that leaving air state 2 lies on RSHF line i – s.
T h e n e w s u r ts′ on coil ADP is such that :
f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e
t 2 − t s ' w2 − ws ' h2 − hs '

X= = =
t1 − t s ' w1 − ws ' h1 − hs '
SF
Water Air Conditioning :
In general, the processes in the conditioning apparatus for winter air conditioning for comfort involves heating and
humidification.
Two of the Typical process combinations are :
(a) Preheating the air with steam or hot water in coil following by Adiabatic saturation and reheat.
(b) Heating and humidifying air in an air washer with pumped recirculation and external heating of water followed by reheat.
IE
•••

RAC Concept

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

RAC Concept

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UM

2. Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle 7

4. Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System 15

5. Gas cycle Refrigeration / Reversed Brayton

Cycle / Bell Coleman Cycle 17

6. Properties of Moist Air (Psychrometrics) 19

7. Psychrometry of Air Conditioning Processes 25

For ‘IES FORUM’ Students Only

For carnot Heat Engine η = 1 –

Lower Temperature Surrounding

(If we want ∆t to be zero, area requirement of heat exchanger will be infinitely).

The operations represented are as follows for an idealized plant.

COP for cooling =

COP for heating

(b) Increase in specific volume of suction vapour from V1 to V11

(d) Increase in compression work from (h2 – h1) to (h21 − h11 ) .

An increase in condenser pressure (saturation temperatures similarly results in

(a) Decrease in refrigerating effect from (h1 – h4) to ( h1 − h41 ) .

Q' h1 − h4'  v '

(c) Increase in specific work from (h2 – h1) to ( h21 − h11 )

Q' h1' − h4 v1 W ' h2 ' − h1' h1 − h4

(a) Liquid subcooling reduces flashing of liquid during expansion.

1. Superheating in evaporator (1d – 1c)

7. Pressure drop in delivery line (2 – 2b)

Process 1 – 2 Isentropic compression

Refrigeration effect = Cp (Ti – Ts)

Ti is room temperature inside cabin a = RT1 acoustic velocity

is considered as unsaturated air.

h = Cpata + W [hfgo + Cpvt]

h = Cpata + w [2500 + 1.88 t] hv = hA = hB = 2500 + 1.88t

h = 1.005t + w [2500 + 1.88 t]

6. OF Cooling and Dehumidification

Sensible heat transfer

Qs = ma (1.005 + 1.88 w) (tB – tA)

QL = Ma hfg (WC – WB)

Let us take any process AC (cooling and dehumidification).

QL = Ma (hfg) (WC – WA)

Process 1-2A Heating or humidification (when ts > t1)

Latent heat balance RLH = Q L = M a hfg (wi – ws)

QL = M a (wi – ws) hfg hfg = 2500 kJ/kg

QL = 50 (CMM) (wi – ws)

The break up of the load on air-conditioning apparatus is as follows :

Sensible OASH = 0.0204 (CMM)0 (t0 – ti)

TSH Ma1t1 + Ma2t 2

t 2 − t s ' w2 − ws ' h2 − hs '

You might also like